An unseen conflict unfolded earlier this month as missiles and drones flew through the night sky separating India and Pakistan.

Following the Indian government’s announcement of Operation Sindoah, rumors of Pakistan’s defeat rapidly circulated online, fueled by military strikes on Pakistan and extremist assaults in Kashmir, which prompted condemnation from Delhi towards Islamabad.

What initially started as a mere assertion on social media platforms like X quickly escalated into a cacophony boasting India’s military strength, labeled as “breaking news” and “exclusive” on one of the country’s leading news channels.

These posts and reports claimed that India had downed several Pakistani jets, captured pilots and Karachi ports, and taken control of Lahore. Additional unfounded claims suggested that the powerful chief of the Pakistani military had been arrested and a coup executed. A widely shared post stated, “We’ll be having breakfast in Rawalpindi tomorrow,” referencing the Pakistani city housing the military headquarters amidst the ongoing hostilities.

Many of these assertions included videos of explosions, collapsing buildings, and missiles being launched from the air. The issue was that none of these were factual.

“Global Trends in Hybrid Warfare”

The ceasefire on May 10th momentarily steered both nations away from the brink of full-scale war after an intense escalation in decades, triggered by extremists targeting tourist sites in Indian-controlled Kashmir—resulting in the deaths of 26 individuals, mostly tourists from India. India swiftly condemned Pakistan for the atrocities, while Islamabad denied involvement.

Even with the cessation of military hostilities, analysts, fact-checkers, and activists have meticulously tracked the surge of misinformation that proliferated online during this conflict.

In Pakistan, misinformation also spread widely. Just before the conflict erupted, the Pakistani government lifted a ban on X, which researchers later identified as a source of misinformation, albeit not at the same magnitude as in India.

Claims of military victories from Pakistan circulated heavily on social media, paralleling an uptick in recycled AI-generated footage that was amplified by mainstream media outlets, prominent journalists, and government officials, leading to false narratives about captured Indian pilots, military coups, and dismantling India’s defenses.

Additionally, fabricated reports circulated that claimed Pakistan’s cyber attacks had largely disabled India’s power infrastructure, and that Indian troops were surrendering by raising white flags. Particularly, video game simulations became a favored method of disseminating misinformation about Pakistan that portrayed India in a favorable light.

A recent report on social media conflicts surrounding the India-Pakistan situation, released last week by the civil society organization The London Story, elaborated on how platforms like X and Facebook have become fertile grounds for spreading wartime narratives, hate speech, and emotionally charged misinformation, leading to an environment rich in nationalist fervor on both sides.

In a written statement, a representative from Meta, the parent company of Facebook, claimed to have implemented “significant steps to combat misinformation,” including the removal and labeling of misleading content and limiting the reach of stories flagged by fact-checkers.

Joyojeet Pal, an associate professor at the University of Michigan’s Faculty of Information Studies, remarked that the magnitude of misinformation in India has “surpassed anything seen previously,” impacting both sides of the conflict.

PAL has noted that misinformation campaigns have outstripped the typical nationalist propaganda prevalent in both India and Pakistan.

Analysts argue this exemplifies the emerging digital battleground of warfare, where strategic misinformation is weaponized to manipulate narratives and heighten tensions. Fact-checkers point out that the proliferation of misinformation, such as old footage and misleading military victory claims, mirrors earlier patterns seen in Russia’s initial stages of its conflict.

The Hate Research Centre (CSOH) based in Washington, D.C., has tracked and recorded misinformation from both nations, cautioning that the manipulation of information in the recent India-Pakistan conflict is “not an isolated occurrence but part of a larger global trend in hybrid warfare.”

CSOH Executive Director Raqib Hameed Naik stated that some social media platforms experienced “significant failures” in managing and controlling the spread of disinformation generated from both India and Pakistan. Out of 427 key CSOH posts analyzed on X, many garnered nearly 10 million views, yet only 73 were flagged with warnings. X did not respond to inquiries for comment.

Initial fabricated reports from India predominantly circulated on X and Facebook, often shared by verified right-wing accounts. Numerous posts openly expressed support for the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) government, which is known for its Hindu nationalist stance. Some BJP politicians even shared this content.

Examples circulating included 2023 footage of Israeli airstrikes in Gaza incorrectly labeled as Indian strikes against Pakistan, and images from Indian naval drills misrepresented as proof of an assault on Karachi Port.

Images from video games falsely portrayed as real-life footage of the Indian Air Force defeating a Pakistani JF-17 fighter jet were circulated, alongside scenes from the Russian-Ukrainian conflict being claimed as “major airstrikes in Pakistan.” AI-generated visuals of purported victories for India were also disseminated, as well as manipulated videos of Turkish pilots presented in fabricated reports of captured Pakistani personnel. Additionally, doctored images were used in misleading reports about the assassination of Pakistan’s former Prime Minister Imran Khan.

Many of these posts, initially generated by Indian social media users, achieved millions of views, and such misinformation was later featured in some of India’s most prominent television news segments.

“The Fog of War Accepted as Reality”

The credibility of Indian mainstream media, already diminished by the government’s strong influence under Modi, now faces difficult scrutiny. Several prominent anchors have issued public apologies.

The Indian human rights organization Citizens for Citizens (CJP) lodged a formal complaint with the broadcasting authority, citing “serious ethical violations” in the coverage of Operation Sindoah across six major television networks.

CJP Secretary Teesta Setalvad stated that these channels have completely neglected their duty as impartial news sources, turning into “propaganda collaborators”.

Kanchan Gupta, a senior adviser to India’s Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, refuted claims of governmental involvement in the misinformation efforts. He asserted that the government is “very cautious” about misinformation and has provided clear guidelines for mainstream media reporting on the conflict.

“We established a surveillance center operating 24/7 to monitor any disinformation that could have a cascading effect, and a fact check was promptly issued. Social media platforms collaborated to eliminate a multitude of accounts promoting this misinformation.

Gupta noted “strong” notifications had been sent to several news channels for broadcasting rule violations. Nonetheless, he emphasized that the chaos of war is widely regarded as a tangible reality, wherein the nature of reporting—regardless of it being an overt or covert conflict—tends to escalate in intensity.