Archaeologists from Colorado State University have uncovered evidence that Native Americans were crafting dice and engaging in games of chance as far back as 12,000 years ago, predating similar practices believed to have originated solely in the Old World.
Prehistoric Native American dice from various locations: (a, d) Signal Butte, NE (mid-Holocene); (b) Agate Basin, WY (early Holocene); (c, f) Agate Basin, WY (Late Pleistocene); (e, g) Lindenmeyer, CO (Late Pleistocene); (h) Irvine, WY (Late Holocene). Image credit: Department of Anthropology, Smithsonian Institution, American Museum of Natural History/University of Wyoming.
“Historians often regarded dice and probability as innovations unique to the Old World,” explains Colorado State University’s Robert Madden, a doctoral student and author of the study.
“Our findings reveal that ancient Native American societies were deliberately producing objects designed for random outcomes, utilizing these results in organized games much earlier than previously believed.”
The earliest artifact identified by Madden originates from the Folsom site, dating between 12,800 and 12,200 years ago.
Unlike modern cubic dice, these were double-sided devices known as binary lots, crafted from bone, either flat or slightly rounded, and typically oval or rectangular in form, designed for easy handling and tossing onto a surface.
Each side of these binary lots was marked differently, distinguished by surface treatments, colors, or other visible alterations, similar to heads or tails on a coin, with one side designated for scoring.
When tossed, these dice would always land with one side facing up, yielding a binary (two-outcome) result.
Scores were determined by the numbers displayed when thrown together.
“These tools are simple yet purposeful. They are intentionally made for generating random outcomes, not mere leftovers from bone processing,” Madden stated.
This study also introduces a new morphological test for identifying North American dice in archaeological contexts, moving beyond subjective comparisons.
The test was developed through an analysis of 293 historical Native American dice sets cataloged by ethnologist Stewart Culin in his 1907 work, North American Indian Games.
The research reexamines previously collected artifacts, assessing whether they meet the new, objective criteria for dice, allowing for a systematic evaluation of the archaeological record.
Most of these artifacts had been excavated prior but lacked a clear standard for identification, which hampered their inclusion in broader analyses.
By applying this novel approach, Madden identified over 600 probable and diagnostic dice from sites that span significant periods in North American prehistory, from the late Pleistocene through to European contact and beyond.
“Most of these items had already been discovered and documented,” Madden noted.
“What was lacking was a standardized method to recognize these artifacts.”‘
“Our research does not claim that Ice Age hunter-gatherers practiced formal probability theory,” Madden clarified.
“However, they intentionally made, observed, and utilized random outcomes in repeatable, rule-based scenarios, tapping into probabilistic principles like the law of large numbers. This insight reshapes our understanding of the global evolution of probabilistic thought.”
The study further highlights the extensive range and sustainability of Native American dice games.
Dice artifacts were discovered at 57 sites across 12 regional areas, reflecting diverse cultures and survival strategies from Paleoindian to Archaic and late prehistoric periods.
“The versatility and endurance of these games underscore their cultural significance,” Madden stated.
“Games of chance provided structured, neutral environments for ancient Native Americans, facilitating interactions, trade, alliances, and the management of uncertainty. In this context, they served as essential social tools.”
The study has been published in Ancient History of America.
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Robert J. Madden. Pleistocene Probability: The Origins and Antiquity of Native American Dice, Games of Chance, and Gambling. Ancient History of America published online on April 2, 2026. doi: 10.1017/aaq.2025.10158
Source: www.sci.news
