Greenland Sharks’ Longevity: A Closer Look at Their Heart Health
Credit: Doug Perrine/naturepl.com
Greenland sharks are believed to live between 250 to 500 years. Remarkably, even at 150 years old, they show signs of severe age-related heart disease.
Interestingly, some body parts like their eyes seem resilient to aging and cancer, suggesting that not all organs in this ocean predator are equally affected by age. Despite this resilience, research has shown that Greenland sharks (Somniosus microcephalus) do have significant heart health issues, yet they show no obvious functional decline or reduced lifespan.
Alessandro Cellerino and his team at the École Normale Supérieure in Pisa, Italy, conducted a study on six Greenland sharks (four females and two males), each exceeding 3 meters in length, and found their results to be “truly surprising.”
The researchers estimate that all six specimens were between 100 and 150 years old. They employed various advanced microscopic techniques, including high-resolution fluorescence and electron microscopy, to investigate the animals’ heart tissues.
“The hearts of Greenland sharks exhibited significant fibrotic changes and an abundance of aging markers such as lipofuscin and nitrotyrosine,” stated Cellerino.
In humans, elevated fibrosis levels in heart tissues typically signal age-related heart problems and potential heart failure.
Nevertheless, Cellerino noted that the substantial accumulation of lipofuscin, associated with mitochondrial impairment, does not appear detrimental and “does not adversely affect the lifespan of Greenland sharks.”
The high levels of nitrotyrosine, another marker associated with heart inflammation and oxidative stress, suggest that Greenland sharks may have developed a unique evolutionary strategy for enduring chronic oxidative damage, as opposed to merely attempting to avoid it.
“Initially, I thought what I observed under the microscope was a technical artifact or an error in the experiment,” he remarked.
To compare, the researchers also examined another deep-sea fish, the velvet-bellied lantern shark (Etmopterus spinax), along with the turquoise killifish (Nosobranchius furzeri), a species noted for its fleeting lifespan of mere months, residing in seasonal pools across the African savannah.
Elena Chiavatti mentioned that while the Greenland shark’s heart is highly fibrotic, the other species showed no signs of such conditions, as indicated in the Scuola Normale Superiore paper.
“The accumulation of nitrotyrosine is significant in Greenland sharks, whereas lantern sharks show no accumulation,” Chiavatti commented.
Despite their brief lifespans, killifish share similar nitrotyrosine aging markers with Greenland sharks, she added.
Cellerino emphasized that Greenland sharks exhibit extraordinary resilience to aging, particularly in their hearts. “The existence of organisms like Greenland sharks that endure aging without any noticeable heart decline is remarkable,” he noted. “These findings underscore the exceptional heart resilience of Greenland sharks and suggest potential insights into healthy aging.”
João Pedro Magalhães from the University of Birmingham highlighted that the study underscores our limited understanding of the molecular and cellular aging mechanisms, including which changes are detrimental and which are advantageous.
Furthermore, Magalhães urged for a broader variety of animals in aging and lifespan research. “Most scientists, including myself, primarily use short-lived species like earthworms, mice, and rats, but remarkable long-lived species such as Greenland sharks and bowhead whales could hold the keys to longevity,” he urged.
The Navier-Stokes equations provide predictions for fluid flow
Liudmila Chernetska/Getty Images
Here’s an excerpt from the elusive newsletter of space-time. Each month, we let physicists and mathematicians take over your keyboard, sharing intriguing concepts from the universe’s vast expanse. You can Sign up for Losing Space and Time here.
The Navier-Stokes equations have approximately 200 years of history in modeling fluid dynamics, yet I still find them perplexing. It’s a strange feeling, especially given their significance in building rockets, creating medications, and addressing climate change. But it’s crucial to adopt a mathematical mindset.
The equations are effective. If they weren’t, we wouldn’t rely on them across such diverse applications. However, achieving results doesn’t guarantee comprehending them.
This situation parallels many machine learning algorithms. We can set them up, code for training, and observe outputs. Yet when we hit ‘GO’, they evolve, utilizing every step in their process to optimize outcomes. Thus, we often refer to them as “black boxes” for their obscure input-output mechanics.
The same uncertainty looms over the Navier-Stokes equations. While we possess a clearer understanding of the processes behind fluid dynamics compared to many machine learning methods—thanks to outstanding computational fluid dynamics solvers—these equations can still yield chaotic results. Identifying why this occurs is a significant problems in mathematics, linked to the Millennium Prize Problems, marking it as one of the seven most challenging unresolved questions. This makes deciphering the Navier-Stokes anomaly a million-dollar endeavor.
To grasp the challenge, let’s delve into the Navier-Stokes equation, particularly the adaptation for modeling “incompressible Newtonian fluids.” Think of it like water—conversely to air, it resists compression. (Though a more generalized version exists, I will focus on this variant, as it tied closely to my four-year doctoral thesis.)
These equations may seem daunting, but they stem from two well-established principles of the universe: mass conservation and Newton’s second law. For instance, the first equation describes the fluid parcel’s velocity, addressing how the fluid moves and alters shape without adding or removing mass.
The second equation is a complex representation of Newton’s famed equation, f = ma, applied to fluid parcels with density (ρ). It states that the momentum change rate of a fluid (left side) equals the applied force (right side). Simply put, the left side addresses mass acceleration; the right side deals with pressure (p), viscosity (μ), and exerted forces (f).
So far, so good. These equations derive from solid universal laws and function admirably—until they don’t.
2D liquid flows at right angles
NumberPhile
Consider a setup where a 2D fluid flows around a right angle. As the fluid approaches the corner, it is compelled to pivot along the channel. You could replicate this experiment in a laboratory setting, and many do around the globe. The fluid smoothly adapts its path, and life as we know it persists.
But what happens when you apply the Navier-Stokes equations to this scenario? These equations model fluid behavior and reveal how velocity, pressure, density, and related attributes progress over time. Yet, upon inputting this setup, the calculations suggest an infinite angular velocity. This isn’t just excessively large; it’s beyond comprehension—endless.
Model of 2D fluids’ flow at right angles using the Navier-Stokes equation
Keaton Burns, Dedalos
What’s happening? This result is absurd. I have conducted this experiment and observed that nothing unusual occurred. So, why did the equations fail? This is precisely where mathematicians get intrigued.
When I visit schools to discuss university applications, students invariably inquire about the admission processes at institutions like Oxford or Cambridge (I participate in selection interviews for both). I share my criteria for evaluating a strong applicant, emphasizing the importance of “thinking like a mathematician.” Breaking equations fascinates mathematicians for a reason.
It’s remarkably useful when a model operates successfully in 99.99% of cases, producing meaningful, viable results that tackle real-world problems. Despite its occasional failure, the Navier-Stokes equations remain indispensable for engineers, physicists, chemists, and biologists, aiding in solving intricate matters.
Designing a quicker Formula 1 car requires harnessing airflow dynamics. Developing a fast-acting drug necessitates understanding blood flow patterns. Predicting carbon dioxide’s effect on climate demands insights into atmospheric-oceanic interactions. Each of these scenarios pertains to fluid dynamics, making the Navier-Stokes equations critical across varied applications as they adapt to fill different mediums.
However, addressing a multitude of complex scenarios with unique dynamics necessitates elaborate equations. This complexity explains our limited understanding. Indeed, the Navier-Stokes equations are designated as Millennium Prize Problems. The Clay Mathematics Institute emphasizes the need for deeper insight as fundamental to resolving the million-dollar inquiry.
“Our vessel follows the waves as they ripple across the lake. Meanwhile, turbulent airflow continues to affect modern aircraft travel. Mathematicians and physicists feel that answers regarding turbulence and breezes lie in understanding the solutions to the Navier-Stokes equations. They seek to unveil the hidden secrets of these equations.”
How can we enhance our comprehension of equations? By experimenting until they break, something I often suggest to high school students. The cracks represent your gateway. Continue probing until the facade shatters, revealing the hidden treasures beneath.
Consider the historical context of solving quadratic equations, particularly in finding the value of x that satisfies the equation ax2 + bx + c = 0. Many will recognize this from their GCSE studies and understand that quadratic equations typically yield two roots.
This equation usually functions correctly, producing two solutions when substituting values for A, B, and C. However, certain conditions can render it ineffective, such as when b2 – 4AC <0, leading to non-existent square roots. I’ve identified circumstances where equations fail.
But how is this possible? Mathematicians from the 16th and 17th centuries proposed utilizing instances where quadratic equations seemed faulty to define “imaginary numbers,” stemming from negative square roots. This insight catalyzed the emergence of complex numbers and the rich mathematical frameworks that followed.
In essence, we often learn invaluable insights from failures more than from successful instances. For the Navier-Stokes equations, the rare occasions of malfunction occur when modeling infinite velocity in a right-angled fluid flow. Similar instances can arise when addressing vortex reconnection or soap membrane separation processes—real phenomena replicable in labs that produce infinite variable trends using Navier-Stokes.
Such apparent failures could uncover deeper truths about our mathematical models. Nevertheless, discussions remain open. It might indicate a level of detail issue in numerical simulations or faulty assumptions regarding individual liquid molecule behavior.
Conversely, these breakdowns may enlighten aspects of the Navier-Stokes equation’s inherent structure, bringing us a step closer to unlocking their mysteries.
The recently discovered structure predates the famous Inca citadel of Machu Picchu by approximately 3,500 years and was constructed long before the Inca Empire and its predecessors, as confirmed by a team of archaeologists. Ukupe Cultural Landscape Archaeological Project.
Newly discovered archaeological remains at La Otra Banda, Cerro las Animas, Peru, include carvings of mythical bird creatures. Image courtesy of Ukpe Cultural Landscape Archaeological Project.
“It was an amazing find. It speaks to the early origins of religion in Peru,” said Dr Muro Inoñan, an archaeologist at Peru’s National Archaeological Institute. The Field Museum.
“We still know very little about how and under what circumstances complex belief systems emerged in the Andes, but we now have evidence of some of the earliest religious spaces that people were creating in the region.”
“I don’t know what these people called themselves, or what other people called them.”
Dr. Inonhán and his team discovered a new archaeological site in La Otra Banda, Peru, in 2023.
They chose a section roughly 10 meters by 33 feet (10 meters by 33 feet) and began slowly removing sediment that had accumulated over thousands of years.
Just 1.8 metres (6 feet) deep, remnants of an ancient wall made of mud and clay were found.
“It was quite a surprise to see these very ancient structures so close to the modern surface,” Dr Inonyan said.
As archaeologists dug deeper, they found evidence that a temple once stood on the site.
“It appears that a huge temple was built on the slope of the mountain and parts of it have been discovered,” Dr Inonyan said.
“One of the most exciting things we found was a small theater with a backstage area and a staircase leading up to a stage-like platform.”
“It may have been used for a ritualistic performance before a selected audience.”
Archaeologists discovered an intricately carved clay slab depicting a bird-like creature next to the theater’s steps.
“It’s a very beautiful and at the same time an interesting design of a mythical creature – it looks like an anthropomorphic bird but also has reptilian features,” Dr Inonyan said.
“This figure stood out to us because it gives us important clues about when this temple was built and how this structure relates to other ancient temples built by earlier groups in the Andes.”
“Statues of mythical creatures similar to the one our team found have been found in Peru, where archaeologists have Initial PeriodThat’s about 4,000 years ago.”
“Despite the name, they were not the first people to inhabit this area. People have lived in Peru for 15,000 years.”
“Around 5000 to 3000 BCE, during a period known as the Pre-Pottery Period, people along the Peruvian coast began to develop societies and complex political systems.”
“Then came the Early Period, which began around 2000 BCE and lasted until 900 BCE.”
“The early stage is important because it’s when we first start to see evidence of institutionalized religion in Peru.”
“The bird creatures in this temple resemble figures known from the Chavin region from about 500 years later. This new site may help shed light on the origins of this religion.”
Researchers have used a 350-year-old mechanical theorem that is usually applied to tangible objects to uncover new insights into the properties of light. By interpreting light intensity as equivalent to physical mass, they mapped light into a system to which established mechanical equations could be applied. This approach reveals a direct correlation between the degree of non-quantum entanglement of light waves and the degree of polarization. These discoveries have the potential to simplify the understanding of complex optical and quantum properties through more direct light intensity measurements.
Researchers at Stevens Institute of Technology have applied a 350-year-old theorem originally used to describe the behavior of pendulums and planets to uncover new properties of light waves.
Ever since Isaac Newton and Christian Huygens debated the nature of light in the 17th century, the scientific community has grappled with the question: Is light a wave, a particle, or both at the same time at the quantum level? . Now, researchers at the Stevens Institute of Technology have used a 350-year-old mechanical theorem, typically used to describe the motion of large physical objects such as pendulums and planets, to A new relationship has been revealed. The most complex behavior of light waves.
Reveal relationships between light properties
The research, led by Xiaofeng Qian, an assistant professor of physics at Stevens College, and reported in the August 17 online issue of Physical Review Research, shows that the degree of non-quantum entanglement of light waves exists in a direct and complementary relationship. We proved for the first time that it does. It depends on the degree of polarization. As one increases, the other decreases, so the level of entanglement can be directly inferred from the level of polarization, and vice versa. This means that difficult-to-measure optical properties such as amplitude, phase, and correlation (and perhaps even properties of quantum wave systems) can be estimated from something much easier to measure: the intensity of light.
Physicists at Stevens Institute of Technology are using a 350-year-old theorem that explains how pendulums and planets work to uncover new properties of light waves. credit: Stevens Institute of Technology
“We’ve known for more than a century that light sometimes behaves like waves and sometimes like particles, but reconciling these two paradigms is extremely difficult. We know that,” Chen said. There is a deep connection between the concepts of waves and particles not only at the quantum level but also at the level of classical light waves and point-mass systems. ”
Applying Huygens’ mechanical theorem to light
Qian’s team used a mechanical theorem originally developed by Huygens in his 1673 book on pendulums. This theorem explains how the energy required to rotate an object varies depending on the object’s mass and its axis of rotation. “This is a well-established mechanical theorem that explains how physical systems like clocks and prosthetic limbs work,” Qian explained. “But we were able to show that it can also provide new insights into how light works.”
This 350-year-old theorem describes the relationship between a mass and its rotational momentum. So how does this apply to light, which has no mass to measure? Qian’s team interprets the intensity of light as equivalent to the mass of a physical object, which can be interpreted using Huygens’ mechanical theorem. We mapped those measurements into a coordinate system. “Essentially, we found a way to transform optical systems so that they can be visualized as mechanical systems and described using established physical equations,” he explained. .
Once the researchers visualized light waves as part of a mechanical system, new relationships between wave properties quickly became apparent, such as the fact that entanglement and polarization are clearly related to each other.
“This hasn’t been shown before, but when you map the properties of light onto a mechanical system, it becomes very clear,” Qian says. “What was once abstract becomes concrete. Using mechanical equations, you can literally measure the distance between the ‘center of mass’ and other mechanical points to determine how different properties of light interact with each other. We can show how they are related.”
Elucidating these relationships has important practical implications, as it may allow us to estimate subtle and difficult-to-measure properties of optical systems, and even quantum systems, from simpler and more reliable measurements of light intensity. Qian explained that there is a gender. More speculatively, the researchers’ findings suggest that mechanical systems could be used to simulate and better understand the strange and complex behavior of quantum wave systems.
“It’s still in front of us, but this first study clearly shows that by applying mechanical concepts, we can understand optical systems in entirely new ways,” Qian said. Ta. “Ultimately, this research will help simplify the way we understand the world by allowing us to recognize the essential underlying connections between seemingly unrelated physical laws.”
References: “Bridging coherence optics and classical mechanics: Complementarity of general light polarization entanglement” by Xiao-Feng Qian and Misag Izadi, August 17, 2023. physical review study. DOI: 10.1103/PhysRevResearch.5.033110
This website uses cookies so that we can provide you with the best user experience possible. Cookie information is stored in your browser and performs functions such as recognising you when you return to our website and helping our team to understand which sections of the website you find most interesting and useful.
Strictly Necessary Cookies
Strictly Necessary Cookie should be enabled at all times so that we can save your preferences for cookie settings.
