Bride, groom and wedding guests watching solar eclipse in Mexico
Martin Zetina/AP/Alamy
On April 8, 2024, a total solar eclipse will be visible in North America from a strip of land that begins in Mexico and ends in Canada, passing through 13 U.S. states.
A solar eclipse can be seen from many different locations, but it's important to know exactly where to look to get the full experience. The part of the Earth's surface where a total solar eclipse is visible is called the total path, and is only 185 kilometers wide. Viewers in other parts of North America will see a partial solar eclipse.You can check This NASA map confirm.
A solar eclipse occurs when the Earth, Moon, and Sun are aligned and the Moon blocks the sun's light. If aligned properly, it is large enough to cause a total solar eclipse. The moon orbits the Earth each month at a tilt of just over 5 degrees compared to the Earth's orbit around the sun. This means that it is not very often that the three line up perfectly.
All solar eclipses start out partial, with only part of the sun blocked out. However, a total solar eclipse has a special middle part called totality, where the moon blocks out all of the sun's light.
Never look directly at the sun during a partial solar eclipse. You can use eclipse glasses to view it, but not regular sunglasses. Observe the event indirectly by using eclipse filters for binoculars or telescopes designed for this purpose, or by creating an eclipse viewer using a pinhole camera that projects the eclipse. You can also. You can also use something like a colander with small holes in it.
A partial solar eclipse will last just under 3 hours. For those lucky enough to step onto the path to wholeness, the 2024 event will be special. Some total solar eclipses last longer than others because the moon's orbit moves it closer and further away from Earth at different times. This totality lasts more than four minutes. Totality is the only time you can see the sun directly without a solar filter.
A total solar eclipse is an amazing experience. Temperatures drop sharply, days become darker, and stars and planets become visible.Even before and after totality, strange shadows and so-called diamond ring – A bright flash of light that occurs when sunlight passes along the uneven surface of the moon.
NASA/JPL-California Institute of Technology/Gregory M. M. Weigand
NASA’s European Clipper mission will launch in October 2024 and head to Jupiter’s moon Europa, where it will search for signs that the icy moon may be suitable for life.
The spacecraft will not be orbiting Europa when it arrives in 2030, but will instead orbit Jupiter in a way that will allow it to repeatedly pass the moon at a distance of nearly 25 kilometers from the planet’s surface.
“We’re going to get a really comprehensive assessment of what Europa is like,” he says. jennifer scully at NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory in California.
Of the moon’s many mysteries, perhaps the most important are the structure of its internal oceans and whether it is habitable. The Clipper won’t be able to search for life itself, but it will set the stage for possible future missions.
After years of extremely precise experiments, a group of researchers at CERN finally succeeded in creating and carefully capturing a sample of antihydrogen (the antimatter version of hydrogen) in September of this year. The sample was held in magnetic confinement to prevent it from hitting the walls of the container and quickly disappearing. The ALPHA-g experiment aimed to answer how antimatter behaves and revealed that it actually falls the same way that regular matter does.
Antimatter is known for generating high-energy radiation when it encounters normal matter, but contrary to popular belief, it has been shown to be less extreme than expected. For example, positrons, known as antielectrons, are exactly the same as electrons but with opposite charges and “parity.” Physicists had not experimentally confirmed that antimatter behaves the same way as regular matter until the ALPHA-g experiment.
Despite its violent tendencies, antimatter’s nature has raised questions about the definition and properties of matter in physics. The debate revolves around the conception of matter, where rest mass is the simplest definition. Matter encompasses various substances, atoms, molecules, protons, neutrons, electrons, quarks, and neutrinos. However, what constitutes matter becomes blurry when considering massless elementary particles and the contribution of energy to the mass of an object.
Exotic materials, like dark matter and negative mass materials, add complexity to the matter debate. The fact that matter and antimatter exist in unequal amounts, although not fully explained, has led to the formation of stars, galaxies, and planets. Antimatter experiments like ALPHA-g offer insight into matter’s nature and the existence of the universe.
Ever wanted to visit another world? Mars, one of our closest celestial neighbors, is an astonishing 225 million kilometers from Earth, a distance that would take over 1,000 years to walk.
But guess what? Many things on Earth look exactly like Mars; that’s what this year’s winner of the Royal Society Publishing Photography Competition proved. Although this photo looks like a snapshot of an extraterrestrial plant, it actually shows a group of Smile mold growing in a lush garden in the UK.
But the other pictures in the collection are equally amazing. From a crystal forest to a temporary rift and jellyfish elevator, the images capture strange scientific phenomena.
Ecology Category Runner-Up – Postwar Chamois
The image shows an Alps chamois (Lupikapra Lupikapra) Licking the walls of a World War II air raid shelter in the mountains of Val Valaita in the Western Alps. Photo credit: Filippo Calgati
Micro-imaging category runner-up – Crystal lighthouse in the wild forest
The image shows microcrystals of beta-alanine and L-glutamine, showing the evolution of the crystal pattern during the crystallization process. Photo credit: Shyam Ulhas
Astronomy Category Winner – Western Veil Nebula
The Veil Nebula, a spectacular supernova remnant, discovered in the constellation Cygnus, about 10,000 to 20,000 years ago, has gained attention. The horn of the nebula in our sky is several times the size of the Moon. Photo provided by Imran Sultan
Overall Winner – Mars Landscape
The photo shows a specimen lamproderma scintillance, a microorganism that grows on the autumn leaves of Somerset, England. The slime mold exhibits a range of hues, from earthy browns to glossy bronzes to steel-blue iridescent hues of the surrounding deciduous trees. Photo credit: Irina Petrova Adamatsky
New research suggests that scientists may now be able to predict which organs will fail first, providing an opportunity for doctors to target aging organs earlier, before disease symptoms appear.
A study published in Nature found that one in five healthy adults over the age of 50 have at least one aging organ, increasing their risk of developing disease in that organ over the next 15 years. This discovery provides insight into the aging process of the body.
How does aging occur at different rates in the body?
We all have two ages: the chronological age that increases by one each year and the “biological age,” which is more flexible and changes based on health status. By studying biological signs within the body, scientists can determine a person’s biological age.
In a study of 5,678 people, researchers at Stanford Medicine determined the biological age of their organs by analyzing proteins in the blood, revealing that if a person’s organs are older than others of the same age, they are at a higher risk of disease.
Each organ in our body dies at a different rate, with certain proteins in the blood associated with specific organs. Scientists developed a machine learning algorithm using protein combinations to predict a person’s biological age and verified its accuracy on 4,000 people.
The study focused on the biological age of 11 important organs and revealed that people with rapidly aging organs are at a higher risk of disease and mortality. The research team hopes to replicate these findings in a larger group of people to detect which organs are aging at an accelerated rate, allowing for early treatment.
There are all sorts of fancy tools and expensive equipment that can dramatically improve the taste of your coffee, but now scientists have discovered a new trick that requires just a few drops of water.
When you grind coffee, the process creates friction, which causes some cracks in the beans. This generates electricity that causes the coffee particles to clump and stick to the grinder.
This moisture level is achieved by simply adding a small amount of water to the beans. in front Polishing them.
“Moisture determines the amount of charge formed during grinding, whether it’s residual moisture inside the roasted coffee or external moisture added during grinding,” says the senior author. Dr Christopher Hendona computational materials chemist at Orjon University.
“Water not only reduces static electricity and reduces mess during grinding, but it can also have a significant impact on the strength of the beverage and potentially its ability to obtain a higher concentration of desirable flavor.”
Coffee experts weren’t the only people involved in this study. In a strange turn of events, a volcanologist was brought in to better understand what happens when static electricity is generated when grinding coffee.
“During an eruption, magma breaks up into many small particles that come out of the volcano in a large plume. Throughout the process, those particles rub against each other and become electrically charged until lightning occurs.” he says.volcanologist joshua mendez harperauthor of the paper at Portland State University.
“Simplistically speaking, it’s like grinding coffee, grinding the beans into a fine powder.”
During the course of the study, the research team measured the amount of static electricity generated by grinding a variety of commercially and home-roasted coffee beans. These vary depending on factors such as country of origin, roast color, and moisture content.
Although there was no association between static electricity and the coffee’s country of origin or processing method (natural, washed, decaffeinated), the researchers found a link between static electricity and coffee content, roast color, and particle size. found that there is a correlation between
Less power was produced when the coffee had a higher internal moisture content and when the coffee was ground at a coarser setting. The research team also discovered differences in the static electricity generated between light and dark roasts.
When we compared espresso made with the same coffee beans ground with and without water, we found that grinding with water produced a stronger and longer extraction. Similarly, milling with water improves shot-to-shot consistency, overcoming a hurdle for baristas who want consistent results all day long.
“The main material benefit of adding water during grinding is that there is less agglomeration and the bed can be packed more densely,” says Hendon.
“Espresso is the worst culprit for this problem, but there are also benefits seen in brewing methods where you pour water over the coffee, like on the stovetop. Where you don’t see a benefit are methods like a French press, where you steep the coffee in water. .”
Although the research findings primarily focus on coffee, they have implications for other areas as well.
“It’s kind of the beginning of a joke: a volcanologist and a coffee expert walk into a bar and come out with a paper,” Harper says.
“But I think there are many more opportunities for this kind of collaboration. These investigations could help solve parallel problems in geophysics, such as landslides, volcanic eruptions, and how water infiltrates soil. .”
Our health care system has fundamental flaws that are negatively impacting women.
Systemic gaps and biases have led to women’s pain being less understood and therefore mistreated compared to men’s pain – a phenomenon known as the gender pain gap. This gender pain gap is only expanding, with 11% more women than men feeling their pain is ignored or dismissed compared to 7% in 2022, according to a recent report commissioned by Nurofen.
The report surveyed over 5,000 people, finding that women in the UK take longer than men to seek medical attention for the same type of pain. Additionally, less than half of the women surveyed were diagnosed within 11 months, compared with two-thirds of men. More women still had undiagnosed pain after 12 months or more. A third of women reported that their late diagnoses were due to medical professionals not listening, taking them seriously, or ignoring them.
Another study found that 50% of women feel their pain is ignored, particularly when it comes to menstrual health. Additionally, medical professionals often dismiss women’s symptoms as “normal” and attribute them to hormones and stress, leading to women’s pain being ignored and undermining their confidence and authority as patients.
These pain disparities contribute to a shorter healthy lifespan for women, given that they suffer from chronic conditions more than men.
Despite the complexity and multifactorial nature of the gender pain gap, women have historically been underrepresented in medical research and clinical trials, contributing to a lack of understanding of women’s healthcare needs and pain symptoms.
Women continue to struggle to have their pain taken seriously and treated appropriately, resulting in significant impacts on their lives and wellbeing.
About our expert Dr. Marike Bigg
Marike is a science writer with a PhD in Sociology from the University of Cambridge. She argues that medicine is not gender-neutral, from research to diagnosis to treatment in her book, This Doesn’t Hurt: How Women Fail With Medications.
As the busiest year in the history of artificial intelligence (AI) comes to a close, Professor Mike Wooldridge is preparing to deliver the Royal Institution’s first Christmas lecture on this topic. BBC Science Focus news editor Noah Leach spoke with him to get a preview of the demonstrations included in his talk and to get some insight into how he thinks AI will change children’s world.
Billionaire’s Christmas List
If we were all millionaires, Christmas would be very different. We want to buy our loved ones a diamond chess set or a trip to the moon, but we’ve set our sights on more modest gifts. But who said we can’t dream? So this year, we’ve selected some of our favorite “money doesn’t matter” gifts, as well as some more realistic alternatives.
Natural disaster: earthquake
Earth-shaking earthquake events can occur far from fault lines between plates. And there’s no easy way to predict when and where they’ll hit (unless you’re at a Taylor Swift concert).
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Science in 2023, summary: Science news is always breaking, whether it’s an unexpected discovery or an answer to a question you never knew would be asked. We’ve rounded up some of the most interesting science articles that made headlines over the past 12 months.
Planet Earth III: join the bbc Planet Earth III Join the film crew as they go behind the scenes at an urban farm that has turned fields into towers and is run almost entirely by robots.
The future of law enforcement: In some cases, witnesses may identify the wrong suspect and an innocent person may be convicted of a crime they did not commit. But new interactive images could help eyewitnesses recall memories more accurately, revolutionize policing and reduce the number of wrongful convictions.
Don’t forget that BBC Science Focus is also available on all major digital platforms. There is a version for android, Kindle Fire and Kindle e-readers, but also, iOS app for iPad and iPhone.
What is the strongest animal in the world? This is an important question, especially if you are moving and can’t afford to hire movers.
But suppose you have an animal that helps you get around. Which one should you choose? What is the strongest animal? Who can lift the most weight?
To answer this most important question, we have compiled a list of the strongest animals on Earth today. Get ready to journey through a world of brute force as you marvel at incredibly strong birds, muscular polar bears, and powerful punching cows.
10. Harpy Eagle – Can lift 18 kg (twice its own body weight)
A female harpy eagle (Harpia harpyja) carries prey such as a skinned and half-eaten coati (Nasua nasua) to her nest. Pousada Curpila Dalaras, southwestern Brazil.Photo credit: Alamy
Female harpy eagles are the strongest birds in the world. Females are stronger than males and can lift up to 18 kg, about twice their own body weight. This is useful when choosing prey and means a greater variety of animals are available for dinner.
They are apex predators at the top of the food chain. And when you see strength like this, you can see why.
9. Leopard – Can lift 125 kg (about twice its body weight).
A leopard (Panthera pardus) takes shelter in a tree at Sabi Sands Nature Reserve in Mpumalanga, South Africa.Photo credit: David Silverman/Getty Images
The average male leopard weighs between 30 kg and 70 kg, and the largest leopards can lift weights of 125 kg using strong jaw muscles and powerful legs and claws.
Leopards are not as strong as rivals like tigers and lions, so after hunting they need this strength to pull large prey up trees to protect them from rivals. This ability is also useful for storing food out of reach for later consumption.
Work-related stress can sometimes lead to a condition called burnout, resulting in noticeable symptoms and chronic exhaustion.
For help understanding burnout, listening to a podcast episode of instant genius or speaking with Dr. Sarah Boss, a psychotherapist and clinical director at The Balance, can provide valuable insights.
The conversation provided has been edited for length and clarity.
What Causes Burnout?
Burnout typically develops as a result of prolonged stress from work overload or excessive demands, leading to chronic symptoms.
Although often associated with work-related issues such as excessive pressure, no rewards, or monotonous tasks, burnout can also result from family, social, and caregiver stress.
Credit: Kathryn Ziegler
Brain and Body Effects of Burnout
Burnout impacts the body’s nervous system and stress response, hindering the ability to recover and triggering a continuous state of stress. Prolonged periods of stress ultimately lead to burnout.
Differentiating Burnout from Stress, Anxiety, and Depression
Burnout is characterized by difficulties in relaxing and unwinding, noticeable changes in behavior, and physical symptoms, distinguishing it from other mental health issues.
Prevalence of Burnout
Personality traits, family environment, and lack of self-awareness can contribute to an increased risk of burnout. Perfectionists and overachievers are particularly susceptible.
Burnout Prevalence Among Young People
Youth experiencing job uncertainty, rapidly changing environments, and social media influences are more prone to burnout. The digital age has also led to increased stress and uncertainty.
Managing Burnout
To address burnout effectively, it is crucial to understand its underlying causes and seek support from therapists, coaches, or medical professionals. Adopting self-care practices, maintaining a balanced lifestyle, and addressing any problematic coping mechanisms are essential steps in overcoming burnout.
About Dr. Sarah Boss
Dr. Sarah Boss, a psychiatrist and psychotherapist with expertise in addiction, currently serves as the clinical director of The Balance, a rehabilitation and mental health center.
In 1957, the first man-made object was successfully launched into space and into orbit around the Earth. This was Sputnik 1, a beautifully simple Soviet spherical satellite with only four antennae.
But this historic event also marked the beginning of another, more disturbing one. It means that humans left the first space debris in orbit around the Earth.
Part of the 267-ton, 30-meter-tall rocket that launched Sputnik also became stuck in orbit. Suddenly, the world was faced with a problem we didn’t know we needed to solve: outer space littering.
Thankfully, Sputnik and the rocket debris it left behind deorbited shortly after launch and burned up in the atmosphere. However, this was not always the case. Just 66 years of space exploration has left vast amounts of detritus in orbit around Earth.
Now, NASA and the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) are considering ideas to help solve this problem. The idea is to build a satellite out of wood, a widely available biodegradable material.
Space junk is currently a problem
The problems that government agencies are trying to address are big and complex, and they need to know how big the first phase of the project was. At least 130 million pieces of man-made debris are known to be orbiting the Earth, most of them flying at speeds of more than 7 kilometers per second. This is eight times faster than a normal bullet. But while this is a staggering number, some scientists believe it is a conservative estimate.
Most objects sent into space remain in space until either they deorbit and burn up on re-entry, or they are pulled away from Earth into graveyard orbits, where they orbit for hundreds of years. The majority of such objects are actually very small, less than 1 cm in diameter, from paint chips to small pieces of electronic equipment to pieces of insulation foam and aluminum.
Such tiny pieces cannot be seen from Earth, even with powerful telescopes. Therefore, we need to look for evidence left behind when it collides with other objects in space. This is no easy task.
Work to assess the scope of the problem began in earnest after five extraordinary objects, the NASA Space Shuttles, repeatedly orbited and returned. Since 1981, NASA has launched a total of 135 shuttle missions.
After each shuttle returned to Earth, it was evaluated using a fine-tooth comb to identify damage caused by orbital debris. This gives NASA a clearer picture of the problem of small pieces of dead satellites flying through space.
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NASA scientists have discovered exactly what they expected: small pieces of debris just a few millimeters in diameter can cause small but powerful impacts. NASA also produced the first estimates of how degraded the debris environment is.
Prior to 1978, NASA scientists Don Kessler and Barton Coolpare had proposed a scenario they named Kessler syndrome. The phenomenon they discussed is a catastrophic event in which when a satellite is shattered by space debris, the resulting debris destroys more satellites, creating even more debris, repeating an endless chain of events. It is a chain of
Obviously, this is a big problem. So how can we slow down the rate of debris formation or eliminate it altogether? Proposed solutions include using radiation hardening to reach space within five years of launch. It involves taking the ship out of orbit.
materials (designed to be less susceptible to damage from exposure to the high levels of radiation and extreme temperatures experienced in space) and launches on reusable rockets.
Incorporate the idea of a wooden satellite. LignoSat, the name of the NASA and JAXA project, is a coffee machine built using traditional Japanese joinery techniques that houses electronics and other materials needed for space missions, much like today's CubeSats. It is a cup-sized (approximately 10x10x10cm) wooden box.
Wood samples were tested for suitability over 290 days in 2022 on the International Space Station's Kibo Japanese Experiment Module.
Magnolia coped well and performed best when exposed to intense cosmic rays and extreme temperature changes in its harsh environment. It does not burn, rot, crack, or deform, and has the important property that upon re-entry into the atmosphere, it burns up to a fine ash, leaving behind small fragments.
Lignosat prototype.Photo provided by: Kyoto University
Another advantage of wooden satellites is their reflectivity, or rather their lack of reflectivity. Currently, reflections from aluminum satellites are so bright that they can be easily spotted from Earth with the naked eye. Importantly, this reflected light can reach sensitive areas and interfere with astronomical observations.
LignoSat test launch is currently scheduled for 2024. Success could pave the way for further missions.
So will all satellites be made of wood in the near future? Unfortunately, that is unlikely. On the plus side, projects like this encourage researchers to think outside the box and can have a greater impact in the future. If LignoSat is successful, more research groups may try to introduce biodegradable materials to reduce further debris generation.
But for now, I strongly support efforts to actively track as many objects in Earth orbit as possible to reduce future collisions with matter in space.
When you open a new website, do you choose to either accept or reject all cookies? New research suggests that choosing to reject cookies may actually reveal more information about yourself than if you simply “accept all cookies.”
In this digital age, cookies, which are pieces of data, are stored on our devices for various purposes such as remembering login information. However, cookies can also be used to track online behavior and tailor ads to individuals. This has led many people to refuse cookies in order to keep their personal information private and to prevent companies from using their data for marketing purposes.
Surprisingly, recent research presented at NeurIPS 2023 has shown that certain demographics are more likely to reject cookies, which could have implications for advertisers. Contrary to popular belief, rejecting cookies does not necessarily mean hiding one’s identity.
Results from the study showed that acceptance of cookies varies depending on the country and age of the individual. For example, individuals in the US over the age of 34 were more likely to refuse cookies, inadvertently sharing more of their data.
Advertisers could access five pieces of information from a person who accepts cookies, but only two pieces from a person who rejects them. In other words, declining cookies may not necessarily protect your identity. This demographic, which includes older adults, has been found to have less trust in tech companies and is more likely to reject cookies as a result.
It is important to note that the privacy laws in the United States are not as stringent as those in the EU, meaning that user data may not be as protected, especially for individuals who reject cookies.
Privacy is important to some people, but not to everyone
Researchers have found that older Americans are less likely to accept cookies, with only 28% of them choosing to do so. This compares to 40% of younger Americans who typically accept cookies. This indicates that the decision to reject cookies has a greater impact for younger Americans in protecting their identity.
The authors of the research are hopeful that their findings will help shape regulations for new technologies such as AI and inform policymakers. They emphasize that the decision to accept or reject cookies is not as simple as it may seem and may not always produce the intended effect.
So… does it make sense to refuse cookies?
Ultimately, the impact of privacy decisions is more complex than users may realize, and there are no definitive answers. Some recommendations include using more privacy-friendly browsers and supporting stronger privacy laws and regulations.
About our experts
Dr. Elizabeth Daly is a computer research scientist leading the Interactive AI Group at IBM Research in Dublin. She has published research in journals such as Frontiers of Artificial Intelligence and Artificial Intelligence Research Journal.
Dr. Eric Mealing is a researcher at IBM Research with publications in Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems, American Control Conference (ACC), and International Conference on Decision Making and Game Theory for Security.
Pigs are charismatic and intelligent animals, but this piglet prefers ginger biscuits. The red river hog, also known as the “dwarf pig”, is a wild swine native to western and central Africa.
Featuring a striking red coat, they are the most colorful of the pigs. Its bright fur is covered by a thin white mane that runs the length of its back, on stubby black legs and sturdy treadles.
Its face is part ALF (an alien life form from the 80's American sitcom) and part Dobby the house elf (from the movie). Harry potter story).
Whiskers protrude from the base of its long black nose, and its jet-black eyes are framed by bold white markings. Contrasting markings are a form of camouflage called disruptive coloration, which breaks up the animal's outline so that it blends into the background.
But those ears are the main event. The tapered triangle gives way to spectacular long tufts of hair that frame the face and add a touch of wizardly chic to this animal's unconventional beauty.
Red River Hog lives small group Approximately 4 to 20 animals called sounders. It is found in rainforests and adjacent savannahs, often near rivers and swamps. Each sounder is led by a boar and oversees a harem of females and their young.
Weighing between 50 and 100 kg (110 and 220 lb), they may be among the smaller pigs, but they are energetic. Males fend off rivals by head-butting, snouting, and whipping each other with their tails, and easily protect their families from leopards, spotted hyenas, and pythons.
Within groups, individuals communicate with an inventive repertoire of moans and shrieks. They take a nap and forage for food at night. Like all pigs, red river hogs are omnivorous and will eat anything they can find. Fruits, seeds, nuts, eggs, snails, carrion, and lizards are all prey, as are livestock and crops such as goats and cassava.
They use their teeth to dig for roots, bulbs, and insects, and swim to forage for aquatic plants. They also have a fondness for Boko tree seeds (Balanite Wilsoana), they find undigested material in elephant feces or by following chimpanzees in the hopes of finding fallen fruit.
Females give birth to up to six piglets between February at the end of the dry season and July in the middle of the rainy season. Mothers build temporary nests out of dead leaves and grass and take care of their children while being protected by wild boars.
Piglets initially develop dark brown fur with yellow stripes and spots, are weaned at four months of age, and grow ginger-like fur after two months. The black spots on the face fully mature after about two years.
Although the species is not currently endangered, there are concerns that local populations could decline as pigs continue to encroach on farmland and the bushmeat trade intensifies. It's time for people to come together and save this piggy bacon before things get worse.
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To submit a question, please email questions@sciencefocus.com (remember to include your name and location)
There is a small chance that Earth could come into contact with a stream of debris from Comet 46P/Wiltanen between December 10th and 12th, coinciding with the beginning of the Geminid meteor shower peak.
This means that we might see a brand new meteor shower in 2023. According to Dr. Darren Baskill, an astrophysicist at the University of Sussex, a new study suggests that Earth could pass through the dust trail left by the comet in 1974 on December 12, 2023.
Mysterious highly active alcohol comet
Comet 46P/Wiltanen is a short-period “Jupiter system” comet that takes only 5.4 years to orbit the Sun. This family of comets is named after Jupiter because its orbit is primarily determined by the gas giant’s gravitational influence. The comet’s small size combined with its activity makes it a “hyperactive” comet, emitting more light than expected. Observations suggest that 40% of the nuclear surface is active, and it has released an unusually large amount of alcohol as well.
The comet was initially the target of the ESA’s Rosetta spacecraft, but the mission was delayed, and a new target was set: 67P/Churimov-Gerasimenko. The next closest approach of Comet Wirtanen is in May 2024.
A new meteor shower from Comet Wirtanen?
In 1974 and 1980, Comet 46P/Wiltanen released a meteor stream that has never before intersected Earth’s orbit. Recent encounters were also observed in 2007 and 2018. Modeling predicts another meteor shower encounter in December when Earth will pass through a denser part of the meteor stream. However, it is important to note that no meteor showers have been confirmed so far.
How to identify simultaneous meteor showers
To distinguish these potential “new” meteor showers from the Geminid meteor shower, the observed meteor radiance and velocity can help. The radiant point of this new shower is near a faint constellation in the southern sky, and the meteors are much slower than the Geminid meteors.
Dr. Baskill shares some tips on how to differentiate the Geminid meteor shower from these potential “new” meteor showers. He explains that the Geminid meteor originates from the asteroid 3200 Phaethon and has larger dust particles.
The reliable Geminid meteor shower can help.
Dr. Baskill believes that the Geminid meteor shower is not likely to be overshadowed by this potential new meteor shower, as the number of meteors it will produce is highly uncertain. However, the Geminids will likely be the most abundant meteor shower this year.
Why now?
Dr. Baskill speculates that it is difficult to predict certain meteor showers due to factors such as the comet’s orbit changing over time and solar winds moving the dust streams.
About our expert Dr. Darren Baskill
Darren Baskill is an outreach officer and lecturer in the Department of Physics and Astronomy at the University of Sussex. He previously lectured at the Royal Observatory Greenwich and was the organizer of the annual Astronomical Photographer of the Year competition.
It’s that time again. The clocks have turned back and many of us are reaching for SAD lamps, vitamin D supplements, and carb-heavy one-pots to get us through the long, dark winter nights. But perhaps there is another way to welcome the change of seasons.
What happens if you embrace the darkness? Darkness at the right time and in the right amount helps our bodies rest and heal, optimizes cognition and mental health, and lowers the risk of various diseases.
That’s because our circadian rhythm, or internal body clock, is triggered not only by light, but also by the lack of light. “To optimize your sleep, you need to make it as dark as possible and have as few distractions as possible,” he says. Professor Victoria RevellHe researches circadian physiology at the Surrey Sleep Research Center.
“We know that constantly disrupted sleep impacts health. It’s associated with cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes, increased cancer risk, and more.”
In another study at Harvard University, blood sugar levels rise When exposed to light at night. Artificial sources of blue light, such as smartphones and similar devices, are thought to have the same stimulating effect on our bodies as sunlight.
Research on this is still inconclusive, but in one 2017 study, researchers at the University of Colorado Boulder took groups of volunteers away from city lights and camping without smartphones or flashlights. I went. The only additional lighting allowed was a campfire.
As a result of the research, Camping trip 'reset' volunteers' biological clocks, people sleep and wake up according to their circadian rhythms. Like many animals, humans' natural sleep-wake cycle evolved in sync with our day and night patterns.
And just as morning light stimulates alertness and supports immune function and mental health, your body also responds to darkness. (For example, melatonin, also known as the Dracula hormone) is produced by the pineal gland in direct response to darkness.
In a Colorado study, campers started producing melatonin two hours earlier. “Melatonin is involved in opening the 'sleep gate,'” Revell says. “It's the beginning of the process of relaxing and preparing for sleep.” It’s also the subject of research into a variety of health conditions.
Although the picture is incomplete, higher levels of melatonin are associated with a lower risk of heart disease and certain cancers. If you suffer from a lack of darkness, switching to permanent dark mode is also not a solution.
Studies have shown that night shift workers and people confined to darkness are at higher risk of diseases such as diabetes, heart disease and obesity. In other words, we need both light and darkness, and we need them at the right time.
Some researchers say the solution is a kind of “paleoillumination” – living like our ancestors by making the most of sunlight during the day and keeping it dark at night. suggests. As night approaches, how about a lightbulb moment?
Unlike last year, when a nearly full moon marred the meteor shower, tonight's Geminid meteor shower in 2023 will be spectacular. The Geminid meteor shower peaks at the new moon, so conditions are favorable, and you may benefit from this crisp, cool night. Sunny sky.
Make the most of it this year. That's because next year's 2024 Geminid meteor shower will peak during a full moon, so things won't be as good. The Geminid meteor shower is a great shower to get young astronomers involved in because the showers start relatively early (around 9 pm to 10 pm). and They are colorful!
So how can you find a Geminid? How can you tell them apart from sporadic or Andromedids? What causes the color difference in meteors? Where in the sky are you looking?
If you want to plan ahead for upcoming meteor showers in the UK, be sure to read more in our comprehensive meteor shower guide. If you're looking for more stargazing tips, check out our beginner's guide to astronomy.
When will the Geminid meteor shower occur in 2023?
The Geminid meteor shower will peak tonight, Wednesday, December 13th. This meteor shower will remain visible until December 20, 2023, when it overlaps with the Uruid meteor shower.
The Geminid meteor shower is of reasonable length and is one of the best and most reliable showers throughout the year. It is also one of the most active climates, with its peak extending over several nights from December 12th to 15th. This is helpful when dealing with ever-changing weather.
When is the best time to see the Geminid meteor shower?
Unlike other meteor showers, the Geminid meteor shower has a broad maximum when there is only a short period of time before there is a reliable “best time” for observing. This means you have a better chance of spotting a shooting star.
“The Geminid meteor shower is probably the best of the year, with a high peak of activity in mid-December and a wide range of duration,” says veteran astronomer Pete Lawrence.
“During 2023, the moon will not interfere at all, as it will be a new moon on December 12th. The night peaks will be on December 12/13, 13/14, and 14/15, if the sky is clear. , there can be up to 12 hours of darkness each night,” Lawrence explains.
Under perfect conditions, Gemind's Zenith Hour Rate (ZHR) would be 150. This means you could see up to 120 to 150 meteors per hour at its peak. However, even if there are favorable conditions like this year, the reality is that there is a high possibility that this will not be the case. Still, you can expect to see about 60 meteors per hour, or about 1 to 2 per minute, from around 10 p.m. until dawn.
“At its peak, the Geminid meteor shower's zenith time rate, or the number of meteors you would expect to see under perfect conditions, will be around 120 meteors per hour. In reality, the actual number is lower than this. is lower, but still enough to be impressive,” says Lawrence.
Compared to other meteor showers, the Geminid meteor shower has a relatively moderate speed of 126,000 km/h (78,000 mph), or 35 km/s (22 miles per second).
(The fastest meteors come from the Leonids in November, which is about twice as fast as the Geminids.)
When the Geminid meteor shower was first observed in the mid-1800s, the showers were not as impressive as they are today. There are only about 10 to 20 meteors per hour.. Since then, the number of meteors has increased to about 120 per hour and is still thought to be intensifying each year.
colorful meteor
The Geminid meteor shower is bright and can appear white, yellow, green, and sometimes red, orange, or blue. This is due to the presence of metals that make up the pieces, similar to how we design fireworks to look colorful when they explode.
The air a meteor travels through also affects the colors we see, but it's generally different chemical elements that produce the different colors of meteors. When a meteor enters Earth's atmosphere, these various chemicals ionize and emit light.
Most Geminid meteors appear yellow or white in color. High iron/magnesium ratioBut you might also be able to find purple meteors from calcium-rich debris, or a beautiful blue-green color from magnesium.
Geminid meteor colors and their meanings
yellow: iron, magnesium
Green/Blue: nickel, magnesium
purple: rich in calcium
Blue: Rich in magnesium including ionized calcium
Red and orange: sodium, potassium, nitrogen, oxygen
Where should you look in the sky to see the Geminid meteor shower?
Meteor showers are usually named after the constellation in which their radiant is located. The radiant of a meteor shower refers to the point in the sky where meteors appear to originate. In the case of the Geminid meteor shower, they appear to originate from the Geminid constellation, but this is not the actual “source,” just how we perceive it from Earth . “Perspective effects cause Geminid meteors to be ejected from a location close to the Gemini star Caster during peak activity,” Lawrence says. To find Gemini, look for Orion the Hunter (if you need a refresher, check out our Beginner's Guide to Astronomy). It is easily distinguished by the three bright stars that make up Orion's belt: Mintaka, Alnylam, and Alnitak. If you look up to your left from the constellation Orion, you'll see two bright stars high in the sky: Castor and Pollux. These two stars each represent the twins in the constellation Gemini. The Gemini radiant lies directly above Castor, which is the slightly fainter of her two stars (Pollocks is brighter and more yellow in color).
Pro tip: incorporate as much sky as possible
But for the best chance of seeing more meteors, try to take in as much of the sky as possible. Although the meteors appear to originate from the constellation Gemini, they appear all over the sky. Meteors farther away from the radiant appear to leave longer trails, while meteors closer to the radiant may appear shorter. This is because at the radiant point, the meteor is tilted toward us. Known as “shortening.” Therefore, for the best chance of seeing long-tailed meteors (the result of them traveling further from their source), it's best to look a little further away from the constellation.
How to increase your chances of spotting a Geminid meteor
To make the most of this amazing shower, find a dark spot away from street lights if possible to minimize light pollution. Look for a spot where you can see as much of the sky as possible. Patience is key, as your eyes may take some time to adjust to the darkness. If you plan to spend a long time in the cold night air, a comfortable reclining position and warm clothing are recommended. And, as Lawrence explains, you don't need any special equipment to observe the Geminid meteor shower. “Activities will take place from December 4th to 17th. All you need is your eyes to observe the shower. Wait 20 minutes in the dark before starting your watch. Dress warmly and sit on a sun lounger or Using the equivalent, you can lie down and look up at an altitude of about 60 degrees (two-thirds of the sky) and see large stars and planets to the south in all directions.” If you have a counting counter handy, it's a handy way to keep track of how many meteors you see, especially when there can be as many meteors as there are in the Geminid meteor shower.
Why is this year's Geminid meteor shower so successful?
The 2023 Geminid meteor shower is expected to be the best meteor shower of the year due to the large number of meteors expected and favorable conditions. Moonless nights coincide with the peak, providing optimal viewing conditions. The only thing we have to deal with is the weather. “Some years are good for meteor showers, and others are not so good. The visibility and potential sight of such events depends on the quality of the sky, the degree of light pollution, the presence of the moon, and the local weather. It’s decided,” Lawrence said. “Light pollution and potential weather can be managed by planning ahead and moving locations if conditions are not favorable. It's not so easy to deal with the moon and the sky When it’s big and bright, everything is drowned out by the brightest meteor trails,” he added. Therefore, it is very convenient that the moon does not disturb us this year.
Where did the Geminid meteor shower come from?
The Geminid meteor shower occurs when Earth passes through a stream of dust and debris left behind by comets and asteroids orbiting the sun. But unlike other meteor showers that favor comet debris, the Geminid meteor shower is a little different. “Geminid meteors have a strange origin and are associated with the asteroid 3200 Phaethon. Described as 'rocky comets,' these objects typically have sand grain-sized particles scattered around their orbits, which make up the Earth's surface. When it encounters the atmosphere, it evaporates and creates a meteor trail,” Lawrence said. When the Geminid meteor shower peaks between December 12 and 15, that's when we pass through the densest part of the stream. 3200 Phaethon is unique for more than just the fact that most meteor showers are caused by comet debris rather than asteroids. Its orbit brings it closer to the Sun than any other asteroid.
mystery to be solved
Technically, 3200 Phaethon is a near-Earth asteroidHowever, because it exhibits properties of both an asteroid and a comet, many refer to it as a “rocky comet” or even a “dead comet” in some cases. It takes just 1.4 years to go around the sun. a Recent research published in Planetary Science Journal This suggests that it has a tail made of sodium gas, rather than dust as previously thought. (For comparison, most asteroids are composed primarily of rock, so they don't form tails as they approach the Sun.) So if Phaethon has a sodium tail, how could the Geminid meteor shower form? Could it have released other substances? DESTINY+, Missions currently planned for 2025 The purpose is to know. The spacecraft, currently being developed by Japan's space agency JAXA, will perform a flyby of Phaethon and collect samples of dust streams. The mission will also demonstrate technologies that will enable future low-cost, high-frequency deep space exploration.
About our expert Pete Lawrence
Pete Lawrence is an experienced astronomer, astrophotographer and BBC presenter. night sky. You can watch him on BBC Four or catch up on demand on BBC iPlayer.
Humans in the future may choose to live extraterrestrial lives on the Moon, Mars, or even Venus. However, the question arises of how they will continue to reproduce and survive once they get there. What happens to their reproductive systems? Is it possible for babies to be born in space?
To find answers to these questions, we interviewed space gynecologist Dr. Varsha Jain. She has published a paper from the University of Edinburgh on women and reproductive health in space.
What Does It Mean to Be a Space Gynecologist?
A space gynecologist is someone who is interested in space medicine and is also a gynecologist. Dr. Varsha Jain, the first person to be awarded this title, began this work about 10 years ago. She focuses on women’s health related to the health of astronauts.
We’ve had some huge breakthroughs for women in space, and that history starts with some pretty amazing myths. Can you tell us a few things about them?
Dr. Jain discussed how early myths caused a delay between the first woman to fly in space (Valentina Tereshkova) and the first American woman to fly in space almost 20 years later (Sally Ride). There was concern over issues like “retrograde menstruation” and how many menstrual products astronauts would need.
Have Attitudes Towards Women in Space Changed?
Dr. Jain noted a significant improvement in attitudes and how NASA supports open access and evidence-based information about female astronauts’ health. They even support the idea of female astronauts freezing their eggs before going into space.
What Happens to Our Reproductive System in Space?
Dr. Jain explained that astronauts’ hormonal cycles do not seem to change in space. Menstruation still occurs, and women can ovulate, potentially leading to fertilization and pregnancy. Although these things may be possible, the focus is currently more on keeping astronauts healthy than finding out if babies can be born in space.
What Do We Know About the Risks to Women’s Bodies and Pregnancy in Space?
Dr. Jain pointed out that radiation in space poses a risk to a developing fetus and that the effects of space travel on the body, including weightlessness and changes in blood volume, could impact pregnancy. Many unknowns still exist around this topic.
Given That There Are Still Many Gaps in Our Knowledge, How Realistic Are Plans to Start an Extraterrestrial Human Colony?
Dr. Jain believes that, while there’s much to learn and research, human curiosity will likely lead to humans colonizing other planets and moons in the future. However, she stressed that extensive research is needed to ensure the safety of such endeavors.
What Impact Could Space Travel Have on What We Know and Don’t Know?
Dr. Jain described the potential for space travel to provide answers about reproductive health and fertility. She believes that space agencies may investigate these questions in the future, potentially leading to new discoveries.
Are Citizens, Scientists, and Nations Racing to Have a Baby in Space?
Although the concept of reproductive health in space may seem fascinating, Dr. Jain emphasized the need for more funding and research in this area. She believes that reproductive health is often underfunded on Earth and that more focus and funding are necessary to understand the effects of the space environment on the human body.
About our experts
Dr. Varsha Jain is a space gynecologist at the University of Edinburgh. Her research has been published in the journals npj Microgravity, International Journal of Gynecology and Obstetrics, and Developmental Cells.
Breaking science news is always exciting, whether it’s an unexpected discovery or an answer to a question you didn’t know you were being asked. This is why we are sharing some of our favorite articles from the health, space, medical, and technology fields that made headlines in the past year.
How to have an optimal day, according to research published this year
Set the right temperature in your bedroom
The importance of sleep is evident, and studies have found that getting enough deep sleep influences various aspects of our lives. Research from Harvard Medical School suggests that older adults sleep most efficiently and restfully at temperatures between 15 and 25 degrees Celsius (60 and 77 degrees Fahrenheit).
Enjoy a snooze to activate your brain
Another study has revealed that hitting the snooze button and spending an extra 30 minutes in sleep can lead to improved cognitive performance. In contrast to common belief, keeping secrets may also boost your energy levels, especially when it comes to sharing good news.
The strangest news of 2023
Scientists unleashed their creativity with annoying questions
Neuroscientists hit participants with rapid questions to test their brains’ creative abilities. Furthermore, a dwarf reeds snake was observed performing cartwheels, and researchers wrote an algorithm to generate the “ultimate swear word” that did not have any obscene connotations.
Medical advances this year
New technology has 'invaded' the brain
The use of ultrasound and bubbles to “Trojan horse” drugs across the blood-brain barrier could pave the way for Alzheimer’s disease treatments. There is also evidence that a father’s gene leads the fetus to demand more nutrients during pregnancy.
Fecal transplants begin in the UK
Initial trials are being conducted to utilize fecal transplants for removing super-drug-resistant bacteria from patients with liver disease. Additionally, research has pointed to the human body’s natural mechanisms to reverse biological aging.
Technology and Physics in 2023
ChatGPT-4 changed AI forever
AI chatbot GPT-4 has been upgraded to allow users to enter image prompts, making them less likely to produce false facts. This is in addition to a machine that can read your mind and AI software that generates lifelike virtual replicas.
An important theory of gravity has become a reality
The discovery of low-frequency gravitational waves and the mapping of the dark universe have furthered our understanding of dark energy and dark matter. Furthermore, India achieved a soft landing on the moon’s south pole in 2023.
Space Exploration 2023: Timeline
Various celestial alignments have boosted launch trajectories, leading to numerous fascinating discoveries, dramatic explosions, and sightings throughout the year. Some of these include the discovery of the oldest barred galaxies, the launch of the Jupiter Icy Moon Explorer (JUICE), and the first soft landing on the moon’s south pole by India. There have also been advancements in treating ecosystem loss and creating powerful antibiotics from honey.
Science news that cheered up the world this year
Indigenous soils and medicines have been celebrated this year, with indigenous soils such as “Dark Earth” helping climate-resilient forests grow faster, and honey from honeypot ants being used to create powerful antibiotics. Additionally, the successful uterus transplant of a woman born without a uterus offers hope for potential childbirth.
If your dog can distinguish between toys and doesn’t destroy them, then it may be a genius. That’s according to scientists who have identified a unique type of genius dog and have found that it all depends on how well they know their toys. You can read more about it here.
The dogs referred to by the researchers behind this study are known as gifted word learner (GWL) dogs. They know the names of their toys and can retrieve them on command. In fact, they can learn words very quickly and have been found to be incredibly rare.
One of the first organizations to closely examine the characteristics of these dogs, using a sample of 41 dogs from nine countries, was the Eötvös Lorand University (ELTE) in Hungary. The results showed that the genius dogs knew the names of 29 toys on average, but many of them knew over 100 of their toys by the end of the study.
Max, one of the genius dogs studied, knows the names of over 200 toys. Max, a 5-year-old male border collie, is from Hungary. – Photo credit: Ildiko Gyenes
To confirm that these dogs were real, the researchers first asked owners to send in videos of their dogs retrieving toys by name. After this stage, the researchers met with owners in a “virtual lab” to test the toy retrieval in more controlled conditions.
The study conducted by ELTE revealed that GWL dog owners reported that their talented pups were able to learn the names of new toys within 30 minutes. It became clear that certain breeds, such as Border Collies, were more likely to have this talent than others. However, no special training is required to own a GWL dog.
These dogs are so rare that it took researchers five years to find 41 dogs in nine countries using social media. You can watch their experiments here.
“GWL dogs are so rare that until now we only had anecdotes about their background.” – Professor Adam Miklosi, head of the Department of Animal Behavior at ELTE
If you have encountered a friend who started the day cheerful and then turned grumpy, you know the power of contagious emotions. It’s easy to find yourself feeling down when you’re around someone who is also feeling low. But the good news is that the opposite is also true. Your friend’s cheerful demeanor could help lift your spirits when you’re feeling sad.
Psychologists suggest that when people interact, they often mimic each other without even realizing it. This can include body language, speech patterns, and facial expressions, especially when interacting with people they know and care about.
These processes often involve effective communication and mutual understanding. One way we understand others’ emotions is by simulating those emotions in our own minds. The result is that we can “infect” each other with our emotions.
But who wins in these emotional interactions? Whether you succumb to someone else’s sadness or they catch your happiness may come down to their and your expressiveness and level of receptivity.
Emotional expressiveness and suggestibility vary from person to person. Those who laugh a lot when they’re happy are more likely to infect their friends with their happiness. Similarly, friends who are suggestive and mimic facial expressions are more likely to catch your smile and start feeling happier.
Facial expressions are not the only way to convey emotion. For example, fear has an odor, and there is evidence that smelling the sweat of an anxious person can trigger activity in parts of the brain involved in empathy and emotional processing.
And emotions can also be contagious through social media. People exposed to more negative posts are more likely to post negative content themselves.
When encountering emotions that differ from your own, your experience may depend on your investment in that person. When we care about someone, we are more likely to mirror their emotions. On the other hand, encountering conflicting emotions from strangers may be more difficult to handle.
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A recent study delved into the play preferences of cats and discovered that cats enjoy having control over when, where, and how they play. This finding sheds light on how to encourage cats to play fetch.
According to research published in Scientific Reports, scientists found that cats initiated and concluded the fetch game more frequently than their owners. And, when the cats were the ones to start the game, they played for a longer duration compared to when their owners initiated the game.
Interestingly, cats actually continued playing for longer periods even after their owners had stopped the game. This suggests that while cats seem to be in control of the fetch game, they are willing to continue playing as long as they are allowed to.
This study, announced in Scientific Reports, surveyed 924 cat owners with cats who play fetch, involving 1,154 current or former cats.
The study revealed that fetching cats typically have favorite items to retrieve and play with, often opting for various household objects over toys, especially those that are mouse-sized, such as hair ties or bottle tops.
Moreover, these cats tend to have a preferred family member and location for playing and fetching. The researchers from the University of Sussex, including Gemma Forman, noted that cats show a preference for bedrooms and stairs, with different heights adding to their interest in playing.
But why do some cats play fetch?
Researchers speculate that fetching behavior mirrors hunting behavior, but with an added element of social interaction with their owner, creating a unique interspecific dynamic that is not commonly observed in cats.
Among purebred cats, Siamese cats are more likely to engage in fetch, while mixed-breed cats exhibit higher involvement in the fetch game.
For pet owners who are not professional pet trainers, the study offered some encouragement – 94% of pet owners reported that their cats started playing fetch without needing to be taught. Additionally, most cats begin fetching at a young age, with 61% of the cats in the study starting before they were one year old.
Gemma Forman, one of the study authors, emphasized the importance of being open and accepting of their cat’s needs and behaviors, as their cat might have already indicated its desire to play, even if communicating this need can be challenging.
Approximately 15 species of eel live here. Eel family They are all long snake-shaped fish, most of which migrate between the ocean and inland freshwater at different times in their lives.
The most notable journey is carried out by the European eel. Anguilla Anguilla. Born in the Sargasso Sea in the central Atlantic Ocean. Hey, transparent larvae that look like leaves hatch. A small fish head is attached to it. They drift thousands of miles on Atlantic currents until they reach the shores of Eastern Europe, where they transform into young bootlace-sized fry known as glass eels or elvers.
They mature in shallow coastal waters and eventually change color into large yellow eels that migrate along rivers to lakes. Eels remain inland and freshwater for decades, before changing color again to become silver eels several meters long.
The golden eel is in the final stages of its life, taking on a daring mission to swim back decades into the Sargasso Sea. Only when they approach the spawning water do males and females mature and develop their reproductive organs.
For many years, the European eel’s epic life cycle remained an unproven theory. It was in 2022 that it became a reality. Scientists tracked golden eels to their spawning groundsThere, the female releases millions of eggs, which are fertilized externally by the male eel.
The next big question is what the future holds for eels. The number of glass eels reaching Europe’s coasts has plummeted by more than 95 percent in recent years, making the species critically endangered. They face many problems, including migratory routes blocked by dams and illegal trade in glass eels for breeding in farms.
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Scientists who study non-human animals do not use the word “love” in their published papers. Ironically, most animal behavior scientists were initially drawn to this topic due to their profound and enduring interest in animals.
However, researchers have traditionally been trained not to use anthropomorphic terms such as “love” to describe the emotions of non-human animals. Instead, they use terms like “temperament” and “positive cognitive bias” to avoid anthropomorphism. Though this strict stance on using human terminology for non-humans is starting to soften, due in part to the usefulness of certain terms in describing animal behavior and strong evolutionary reasons to believe that non-human animals are not completely dissimilar to humans.
Observing dog behavior makes it clear that dogs are deeply in love with humans, although some may refer to it as “hypersocial” or “socially obsessed.” There are also questions about how to recognize and define “love” in non-human animals who lack the linguistic capabilities to communicate their emotions.
Various studies have examined dogs’ sensitivity to human emotional states and physiological responses, such as separation anxiety and heart rate changes. These studies shed light on the complex relationship between dogs and humans and suggest that dogs may indeed experience emotions similar to love.
Credit: Justin Padgett
On the other hand, some behaviors that appear affectionate may be vestigial or instinctual rather than expressions of genuine affection. For example, wolves, dogs’ closest ancestors, use behaviors such as “kissing” as part of their natural interactions. Physiological research on heart rate, hormones, and brain activity provides further evidence of the bond between dogs and humans.
Furthermore, fMRI images of dog brains show activity in the reward center when dogs are near their owners, suggesting a positive emotional response. This evidence, combined with dogs’ ability to form associations and respond to human cues, implies a deep emotional bond between dogs and humans.
Our eyes, with over 100 million light-sensitive cells and some of the fastest muscles in the body, are able to pick up everything from starlight traveling across galaxies to the full range of human emotions. I can.
However, by connecting to our minds through the approximately 1 million nerve fibers that connect each eye to our brains, we are able to synthesize smooth vision that is not distracting or overwhelming, acquire the ability to interpret what is happening around you.
important parts of the human eye
pupil
It looks like a black dot, but it’s actually a gap that allows light to pass through to the back of your eye.
cornea
The cornea, the transparent dome in front of the eye, refracts light and helps direct it along the correct path to the retina.
iris
The colored part of the eye that dilates or constricts the pupil to control how much light enters. The iris is part of a larger structure that forms a layer between the retina and the sclera.
lens
A transparent lens that changes shape to focus incoming light onto the retina.
retina
Although it is often thought of as the back of the eye, it is more accurately the innermost layer that receives light that is reversed by the lens. The retina is packed with light-sensitive cells and nerve cells.
sclera
The sclera, also known as the white of the eye, is a tough, protective outer layer made of collagen fibers.
vitreous body
A transparent jelly that fills the eyeballs. As we age, the consistency of this jelly becomes more liquid and gradually becomes less wobbly.
optic nerve
A thick bundle of nerve fibers that carries signals between each eye and the brain.
How do we see it?
The simplest explanation is that what we see is the result of light entering the eye through the cornea and lens, which directs and focuses the light onto the light-sensitive cells (rods and cones) in the retina. about it.
June 4, 1996 marked the first flight of the Ariane 5 rocket, which unfortunately ended in disaster. Just forty seconds after takeoff, the rocket veered off course and exploded. This catastrophic event was caused by a small software error, where a 64-bit floating point number was converted to a 16-bit signed integer. The conversion failed because the number was greater than 32,767, the maximum value that can be represented in 16 bits. This overflow error led to the dumping of debug data into the memory area controlling the rocket’s engines, resulting in the failure of the backup computers and ultimately leading to the rocket’s loss of control and explosion.
In 2015, it was revealed that a similar overflow error could potentially cause a power outage if a Boeing 787’s generator controls were activated for 248 consecutive days, reaching the maximum value for a 32-bit signed register. However, the issue could be resolved by resetting the counters. Fortunately, the flawed software in the 737 Max did not cause a disaster like the Ariane 5 incident.
Overflow errors are similar to rounding errors, but have subtle differences. Rounding errors usually occur when a number is calculated incorrectly and stored in binary, causing small errors to accumulate and eventually lead to significant errors.
Rounding errors can affect missiles…
A well-known example of this type of mistake occurred during the Gulf War, where a Patriot missile hit barracks instead of the incoming Scud missile, resulting in casualties. This was due to rounding errors in the tracking system that accumulated and caused the missile to veer off target.
…and the train
Software bugs can have disastrous consequences, as seen in an incident in May 2019 where an experienced train driver unfamiliar with the train’s new software accidentally accelerated to 15 mph, causing a collision and derailing the train.
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Planets that are too close to their star (such as Venus) are too hot, and planets that are too far away (such as Mars) are too cold, but planets that are within the habitable zone have just the right temperature. Although great efforts have been made to identify planets in the theoretical habitable region of stars, until now there has been no way to know whether a planet really has liquid water. Now, astronomers from the University of Birmingham and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology have found that if an exoplanet’s atmosphere has less carbon dioxide than its neighbors, it may have liquid water on its surface. It was shown that it was suggested.
Artist’s impression of the super-Earth planet Ross 508b. Image credit: Sci.News.
Astronomers have detected more than 5,200 extrasolar worlds so far. Modern telescopes allow us to directly measure the distance from a planet to a star and the time it takes to complete one revolution.
These measurements help scientists infer whether a planet is within its habitable zone.
However, there was no way to directly confirm whether a planet was truly habitable, i.e. whether there was liquid water on its surface.
Throughout our solar system, astronomers can detect the presence of liquid oceans by observing glints, flashes of sunlight reflecting off liquid surfaces.
These glows, or specular reflections, have been observed, for example, on Saturn’s largest moon, Titan, and helped identify the moon’s large lakes.
However, detecting similar glows on distant planets is not possible with current technology.
But astronomer Julien de Witt of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, astronomer Amaury Tryaud of the University of Birmingham and colleagues believe there is another habitable landform close to home that could be detected far away. I noticed something.
“Looking at what was happening to terrestrial planets in our own star system gave us an idea,” Tryaud said.
Venus, Earth, and Mars share similarities in that all three are rocky and live in relatively temperate regions relative to the Sun.
Earth is the only planet of the three that currently has liquid water. Researchers then noted another clear difference. That means there is significantly less carbon dioxide in Earth’s atmosphere.
“We think these planets formed in a similar way, and if we find a planet with less carbon than it does now, it must have gone somewhere else,” Tryaud said.
“The only process that can remove this much carbon from the atmosphere is a strong water cycle involving oceans of liquid water.”
In fact, Earth’s oceans have played a major and persistent role in absorbing carbon dioxide.
For hundreds of millions of years, the ocean has absorbed enormous amounts of carbon dioxide. This is about the same amount that remains in Venus’ atmosphere today.
This planetary effect has resulted in Earth’s atmosphere being significantly depleted in carbon dioxide compared to neighboring planets.
Dr. Frieder Klein, a researcher at the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, said: “On Earth, much of the carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is sequestered in seawater and solid rock over geological timescales; It has helped regulate climate and habitability for billions of years.” .
Astronomers reasoned that if a similar decrease in carbon dioxide was detected on a distant planet compared to a nearby planet, this would be a reliable signal of a liquid ocean and life on its surface. did.
“After an extensive review of the literature in many fields, from biology to chemistry to carbon sequestration related to climate change, we found that if carbon depletion is indeed detected, it is likely that liquid water and its effects are “We think this is likely a strong indication that this is a sign of life.” Dr. de Witt said.
In the study, the researchers developed a strategy to detect habitable planets by looking for traces of depleted carbon dioxide.
Such searches are ideal for “pea” systems, like our solar system, in which multiple terrestrial planets, all about the same size, orbit relatively close to each other.
The first step, the scientists suggest, is to confirm that a planet has an atmosphere by simply looking for the presence of carbon dioxide, which is expected to dominate the atmospheres of most planets.
“Carbon dioxide is a very strong absorber of infrared light and can be easily detected in the atmospheres of exoplanets,” Dr. de Witt said.
“The carbon dioxide signal could reveal the presence of an exoplanet’s atmosphere.”
Once astronomers determine that multiple planets in a system have atmospheres, they move on to measuring their carbon dioxide content to see if one planet has significantly less than the others.
If so, this planet is likely habitable, which means there is a large amount of liquid water on its surface.
However, habitable conditions do not necessarily mean that the planet is inhabited. To confirm whether life actually exists, the authors suggest that astronomers look for another feature in the planet’s atmosphere: ozone.
On Earth, plants and some microorganisms contribute to absorbing carbon dioxide, although to a lesser extent than the oceans. Nevertheless, as part of this process, living organisms release oxygen, which reacts with solar photons and turns into ozone. Ozone is a much easier molecule to detect than oxygen itself.
If a planet’s atmosphere shows signs of both ozone and carbon dioxide depletion, the planet may be habitable and inhabited by humans.
“If you see ozone, there’s a pretty good chance it’s related to carbon dioxide being consumed by life forms,” says Tryaud.
“And if it’s life, it’s glorious life. It won’t be just a few bacteria. It’ll be a planetary-scale biomass that can process and interact with large amounts of carbon.”
The researchers believe NASA/ESA/CSA’s James Webb Space Telescope can measure carbon dioxide, and possibly ozone, in nearby multiplanetary systems like TRAPPIST-1, a seven-planet system orbiting a bright star. I’m guessing it is. Light years from Earth.
“TRAPPIST-1 is one of the few systems that can use the Web to study Earth’s atmosphere,” said Dr. de Witt.
“We now have a roadmap to finding habitable planets. If we all work together, we may make paradigm-changing discoveries within the next few years.”
of study It was published in the magazine natural astronomy.
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AHMJ triode other. Atmospheric carbon depletion as a tracer of water oceans and biomass in temperate terrestrial exoplanets. Nat Astron, published online on December 28, 2023. doi: 10.1038/s41550-023-02157-9
I’m currently sitting in a trendy pub in a small village on the outskirts of Cambridge. It’s a Thursday night in early December, so it’s dark and freezing outside. But here there is a warm and cozy fireplace, and the whole place is decorated with festive decorations. Michael Bublé is singing Christmas songs on the radio and I’m holding a big glass of Malbec. life is wonderful.
It’s been a long day (actually a long week) and let me prove to you that this is definitely the place to be. This is one of his “gastropubs” that serves lovely food and where I enjoyed a weekday date night with his wife Jane.
For dinner we both had salted trout to start, then as main courses Jane had hake and I had burger and chips. The portion sizes were healthy and we were both pretty full by the time we finished eating.
Then you know what happened next. The waiter comes over with the dessert menu and asks, “Are you tempted?” Yes, it’s definitely possible. And even though we were full, even on a weeknight, we both ordered dessert. I had sticky toffee pudding with ice cream and my wife had a slice of tarte au citron with crème fraîche. Like clockwork, the dessert stomach hits again.
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Now the question arises, why is it so specific to dessert? Would I have been better off having another burger? Would Jane have eaten more hake? Absolutely not. So what’s so special about the dessert?
To answer this question, we need to look to evolution. Flashback to the Serengeti River 50,000 years ago and your ancestors dragging an antelope into their village. Let’s just say, metabolically speaking, they spent 2,000 calories stalking, chasing, and defeating them.
It is clear that once they return to their village, they will have to burn at least 2,000 calories to recoup their expenses. Otherwise, it’s not sustainable. However, there is no guarantee that you will successfully catch an antelope next time. This means that if they only They don’t live very long if they eat to meet their metabolic needs.
At that time, the pleasurable part of the brain is activated. This dominates the sense of reward we all receive from eating, leading us to eat more than we actually need. But how do you overcome the mechanical challenge of having 2,000 calories of food stuck in your stomach?
Well, our brains can be very picky. They begin to crave more calorie-dense foods, meaning they contain more calories per gram. This allows you to fill every inch of your stomach.
So what are the foods with the most calories? Those high in free sugars and fats. So, what foods are high in sugar and fat? dessert.
In other words, your dessert tripe is actually an evolutionary holdover from your days in the Serengeti. It’s there to make sure you’re craving the right types of food even when you’re full so you can maximize your calorie intake at every meal. After all, there was no guarantee at all when the next meal would arrive.
You’ve probably noticed an obvious problem here. While this movement has kept us living in a periodic cycle of feast and famine, many people today live in cycles of feast and then more feast. I definitely wasn’t need That sticky toffee pudding (which I really enjoyed and didn’t regret for a minute!).
By the way, the “dessert belly” is not just a strange human phenomenon. Now, I completely understand that I’m not going to top my lunch of crème brûlée and a glass of chilled muscat with a freshly killed antelope by a lion. But consider a grizzly bear during a salmon run upstream in the Pacific Northwest of the United States.
Grizzlies arrive at the salmon run swimming buffet in the fall, with the aim of storing as much fat as possible for the upcoming hibernation.
The bear first eats the fish almost whole, down to the bones. However, as they become fuller and filler and store more and more fat, they will only eat the skin of the salmon and the thin layer of fat underneath. why? Because this is the most caloric part of the fish. They begin to change what they eat to maximize their energy reserves.
So, while desserts are clearly a human cultural construct, the phenomenon of maximizing the caloric density of foods that we crave when we are full has been conserved through evolution. That means it’s not your fault for finding room for dessert even after a satisfying meal.
Are you wondering how to make the best cup of coffee possible? Unfortunately, there isn’t a simple answer. Navigating through social media and specialized coffee communities can leave you perplexed by expensive machines and unique methods for achieving the ideal flavor.
Given that taste in coffee is subjective, there isn’t really a “perfect” cup of coffee. Instead, it’s about finding a really good cup that suits your personal preferences. To achieve this, there are a few key components you’ll need. While additional costs can bring improvements, they are typically minimal.
So the real question is, how can you make excellent coffee without breaking the bank? We consulted Chris Hendon, a leading expert in coffee science and a professor of computational materials chemistry at the University of Oregon.
1. Get the right beans
Good coffee starts with high-quality beans, which comes as no surprise. While pre-ground coffee from the supermarket might be convenient, it doesn’t offer the best results in terms of flavor.
Hendon explains, “Coffee is a seasonal natural product. As it is roasted, gases escape and the organic molecules responsible for aroma and flavor are lost. The fresher the coffee, and the closer it is to the roasting and harvest date, the better. The flavor profile is enhanced when the coffee is fresher.”
“Look for coffee that has been roasted within one to four weeks before purchasing. Although it may take some effort to find, it makes a significant difference in the end result.”
While this may require more time and money, avoiding pre-ground coffee and opting for fresh, high-quality beans will deliver the best taste.
Credit: Jose A. Bernat Bacete
2. Perfect the grind
Although we mentioned that you don’t need to invest in expensive coffee equipment, if you’re going to spend money on one gadget, make it a grinder. According to Hendon, this will make the most significant difference in the taste of your coffee.
Typically, more expensive burr grinders grind coffee instead of breaking it with blades. Additionally, for those who want to take an extra step, Hendon and his team have researched the concept of “splitting beans.” This includes adding a small amount of liquid to the ground beans, resulting in reduced static electricity and a richer flavor.
3. Change the water
While ground coffee is a crucial ingredient in this widely popular drink, there’s another element often overlooked: the water used. The quality of the water can significantly impact the end result of your cup of coffee, and it all comes down to chemistry.
“Hendon points out that there is a substantial water quality issue in the UK, as hard water with high mineral content, including calcium and bicarbonate, forms calcium stones, which adversely affects the taste of coffee. Specifically, the calcium extracts flavor from the coffee, whereas bicarbonate neutralizes acidic compounds, ultimately detracting from the taste.”
Given that hard water is prevalent in the UK and worldwide, it may be the reason why the coffee you brew at home doesn’t match the quality of coffee from cafes, even when accounting for other factors. Hendon suggests trying soft or distilled water with your homemade coffee and observing any noticeable differences. If there is a discernible improvement, your hard water could be limiting the flavor of your morning cup of coffee.
4. Control temperature, timing, and mass
While investing in a top-notch grinder and high-quality coffee and using soft water can enhance your coffee, there are four additional essential factors that impact the taste of your coffee. The good news is that these factors don’t entail any extra expenses.
Extraction time
Water temperature
Water mass
Coffee mass
These four variables significantly influence the flavor and strength of your coffee.
“Hendon elaborates, “These are the four big factors that influence the final taste of coffee. There are nuances, such as how the grind affects brewing time, resulting in a slower process.”
“Higher temperatures facilitate the flavor extraction process, while adjusting the amount of water and coffee controls the coffee’s strength. More coffee and less water yield a stronger flavor, whereas it becomes diluted in the opposite scenario.”
5. Experiment
Ultimately, coffee is subjective. While science can provide guidelines for brewing great coffee, it can’t account for individual preferences. Feel free to experiment with various brewing methods to discover your preferred coffee flavor.
Consider experimenting with different brewing methods or altering aspects such as water quantity, temperature, brew time, bean type, and unique techniques like wetting beans before grinding or storing coffee in the freezer. Enjoy the process and have fun taking your coffee to new levels!
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About our expert Christopher Hendon
Christopher Hendon is a professor of computational materials chemistry at the University of Oregon and an author of multiple books and articles on how to brew the perfect cup of coffee.
In the relatively short period of space exploration history, the moon has experienced significant changes as a result of human activity. From the historical significance of our first footprints to the damage caused by spacecraft crashes, our impact on the moon is evident and nearly preserved within the moon’s regolith.
For the past 1.1 billion years, the Moon has been in the Copernican Era, the current epoch. Now, there are calls for a new lunar era to be formally defined: the lunar Anthropocene. This proposed era started in 1959 with Russia’s first-ever landing of the Luna 2 spacecraft on the moon. With upcoming missions like NASA’s Artemis and Lunar Gateway, further changes are expected.
Dr. Justin Holcomb, a space archaeologist, and researcher at the University of Kansas, USA, was interviewed.
What markers suggest that a new era has begun on the Moon?
Unlike the Earth’s Anthropocene, the moon provides a unique setting for human activity to be recorded due to its limited systems and ability to preserve the entirety of human history. The relatively slow impact of meteorite collisions has historically been the primary cause of change on the Moon, contrasting with the addition of the human variable now present on the lunar surface.
What’s the biggest impact we’ve had there?
When humans land on the Moon, they significantly impact the surface. However, accidental impacts, such as spacecraft crashes, pose a significant risk and have occurred multiple times since 2019. These accidents jeopardize planned areas of operation and can potentially erase important historical sites on the Moon.
What else do we have left there?
Various artifacts and items have been left on the Moon, including personal items, scientific equipment, and the national emblem on India’s rover. It’s argued that the space debris on the Moon should be considered as space heritage rather than just waste, and thus, it needs to be protected as such.
How are human activities changing the Moon’s geological processes, and to what extent can humans disrupt the balance of the Moon’s system?
The impact of human activities on the Moon’s geological processes, such as the movement of lunar regolith and potential contamination of ice due to rocket fuel, presents concerns for the future. These impacts could have far-reaching consequences and affect the balance of the Moon’s system.
How will the Moon change further for future space missions after 2024?
With a focus on mining and the potential for private companies to be involved in future space missions, the Moon is expected to experience significant changes in the coming years. The increase in planned lunar missions indicates a new phase in the relationship between humans and the moon. With the rise of private space companies, the landscape of space exploration has shifted.
About our experts
Dr. Justin Holcomb, a postdoctoral researcher at the Kansas Geological Survey at the University of Kansas, has conducted research in various scholarly publications.
It’s easy to be misunderstood if your name has the word “murderer” in it.
Still, it appears to have been a wild year for killer whales. From “attacking” and sinking several boats off the coast of southwest Europe to hunting great white sharks around South Africa and Australia, this black-and-white behemoth is living up to its name as of 2023. It looked like.
The whale’s surprising behavior has repeatedly put the spotlight on one of the ocean’s top predators since spring, spawning internet memes and wondering if the whale is just playing around or planning revenge. It’s fueling debate about what’s going on.
But for scientists, the recent orca antics are more fascinating than horrifying, with some saying they show how much there is still to learn about these highly intelligent marine animals.
Perhaps the biggest orca news of the year was a series of mysterious incidents in which killer whales appeared to ram boats off the coast of the Iberian Peninsula. In May, three killer whales collided with the rudder and side of a sailing yacht in the area, causing the yacht to sink.
This “attack” comes amid an observed increase in encounters between killer whales and boats since 2020. Monica Wieland Shields, director of the Orca Behavior Institute, a nonprofit research institute in Washington, said hundreds of incidents have been reported during this time.
At least four ships have sunk in the past two years due to the damage, she said.
No injuries or deaths were reported, and in most cases the whales did not sink boats. However, the incident became so famous that it sparked a meme that heralded the beginning of the “Orca Rebellion” and the “Orca Wars.” Many social media users supported “Team Killer Whales” and claimed that whales had finally fought back against humans.
But Shields said the sinking evoked real fear as well as light-hearted fun.
“So many people have come to my state of Washington this year and asked, ‘Is it safe to see whales here? How big is our boat? Is it possible that a whale will attack this ship?” she said. “I’m worried that instead of people leaving with a sense of respect and fascination with whales, they’re leaving with a fear of whales that’s probably not warranted.”
Among experts, the incident off the coast of the Iberian Peninsula is puzzling and has sparked debate about the whale’s intentions.
Many scientists believe that killer whales do not attack at all.
“They’re not afraid of boats, and there’s nothing to eat there,” said Robert Pittman, a marine ecologist at Oregon State University’s Marine Mammal Research Institute. “They are intelligent, social animals, but they probably live in environments that are less stimulating for their mental abilities.”
So whales sometimes stumble upon something they find interesting and repeat the behavior for a while, he said.
Shields said videos of some of the incidents do not appear to show the killer whale intentionally aiming at the boat’s rudder or hull. Rather, she thought, the animals were likely acting out of curiosity and playfulness.
Josh McInnes, a behavioral ecologist at the University of British Columbia, agreed, noting that killer whales are known to engage in social learning by spreading and picking up behaviors within their pods. That could explain the series of boat encounters, he said.
Mr McInnes compared the behavior to roughhousing.
“Orcas are very athletic. They can grow up to 25 feet long and weigh up to 80,000 pounds, so when they come into physical contact with objects, they can get a little bit forceful,” he said.
Mr Shields said given the whale’s size, it would likely cause much more damage to ships and yachts if it carried out a coordinated attack.
Additionally, the idea that whales are standing up and fighting back doesn’t fit with what scientists know about killer whales.
“Orcas just want to have fun,” Pittman said. “Revenge is not inherently beneficial. Unless you are human, you have no adaptive capacity at all.”
But encounters between killer whales and boats weren’t the only stories making headlines this year. The whale also attracted attention for its ruthless hunting techniques.
In October, the carcass of a great white shark with its liver ripped out washed up on a beach near Portland, Australia. Researchers determined that killer whales were the culprit.
McInnes said killer whales do not normally prey on sharks, but they are capable of preying on sharks and have been previously observed preying on them in waters of Australia, Africa and even the Pacific Northwest. It is said that there is.
And why were sharks missing certain organs? Experts say this was purely practical.
“Sharks generally aren’t very nutritious for killer whales because they’re made of cartilage,” McInnes said. “But the liver is rich in fats and lipids, so it’s a very nutritious part to eat.”
In the past, killer whales have been known to target the liver when preying on sharks. Since 2017, scientists have been tracking the hunts of two killer whales, Port and Starboard, who killed at least eight great white sharks off the coast of South Africa and washed their liverless carcasses ashore.
In a video taken by a whale watching expedition off the coast of San Diego, a killer whale teaches its baby how to hunt by headbutting a dolphin. Erika Sacrison / Gone Whale Watching
However, orca behavior recorded in different parts of the world is generally unrelated. McInnes said different populations of killer whales are genetically distinct and do not normally socialize or interact.
But by studying all the observed events, scientists can gain broader insight into what killer whales are capable of and how they live.
Shields said she had “mixed feelings” about the attention that killer whales will receive in 2023. If anything, she said she hopes the headline will inspire people to get more involved in conservation efforts.
“I really hope that people take away from these stories a certain fascination and appreciation for killer whales,” Shields said. “They are found in every ocean and are present all over the planet. The ocean body closest to where you live is probably home to killer whales. So there’s a lot to learn. there is.”
Matthew Brown's entry “Goleuadau'r Gogledd”. Means “Aurora” in Welsh.
Matthew Brown
There are few sights as spectacular as the Northern Lights. The Aurora Photographer of the Year competition, run by travel photography blog Capture the Atlas, takes advantage of the dazzling effects of the Northern Lights.
The waning sun photographed on Senja Island in Norway
alex wides
This year, 25 breathtaking shots from around the world made it to the final round, and we've published a selection of them here. Each brings a special aspect to this unusual phenomenon caused by charged particles from the sun colliding with atmospheric gases.
“Circle of Life” filmed in Finland at almost -30 degrees Celsius
Freudis Dalheim
As the sun's next peak in activity (known as the solar maximum) approaches in 2024, people are already able to catch glimpses of the aurora borealis over a wider area than usual in both the north and south. Next year's exhibition will be even more spectacular.
“A moment on the ice” taken from an ice cave in Alaska, USA
marybeth kitzenski
'Lost Who I Want To Be' filmed at Moke Lake in New Zealand
Jordan McInally
Many of the photos in the 2023 competition were taken in locations where the Northern Lights are rare, such as south Wales, and are captured in Matthew Brown's photography. Goreuadau's Goggled (Main image). The name translates to 'lights of the north' in Welsh and images show local landmark Paxton's Tower lit up. “It's rare to see the aurora borealis this far south,” Brown said. “For more than an hour, the horizon beyond the clouds cast shades of green and pink. But for one brief but magical moment, the sky burst
Carbon emissions from fossil fuels could finally start declining in 2024
Villanor/Shutterstock
Emissions of greenhouse gases that cause global warming have been on the rise since the Industrial Revolution, and 2023 looks set to be no different. According to him, this year emissions from fossil fuel combustion increased by more than 1% compared to 2022. global carbon budget Edited by Pierre Friedlingstein and his colleagues from the University of Exeter, UK.
However, in 2024, these emissions could begin to decline for the first time, largely due to unprecedented circumstances.
In the late 1990s, when I was studying for my PhD, I read an article touting the “next big thing” in the food sector. To be honest, the next highlight didn’t seem very appetizing. Apparently, within the next 10 years, we’ll all be eating Beetleburgers.
Entomophagy, the eating of insects, is common in many parts of the world. Considering the ethical issues of livestock farming, the article boldly proclaimed that insect farms are the future of food.
Insects raised without welfare issues are excellent at converting foodstuffs that are unavailable to us into proteins that we can use. Additionally, they require far less space than livestock and produce far fewer greenhouse gas emissions than cows.
But despite some obvious benefits, a quarter of a century later, customers in developed countries still aren’t eating flies or baking with beetles. The reason is obvious. More than 1,000 species of insects are eaten around the world, most commonly in the tropics, but Western societies generally do not eat “bugs.”
Like the bushtucker trial I’m a Celebrity Get Me Out of Here Eating insects is a repulsive idea to many people.
A piglet eats food made from black soldier fly larvae in the animal house at the University of Bologna. – Photo credit: Luigi Avantaggiato
Articles extolling the virtues of eating insects continue to appear frequently in the media. And while the headlines often feature shock values, authors are increasingly focusing on the ethical and climate-friendly aspects of insect farming.
If you look beyond the headline ‘Grasshoppers for Beginners’, you’ll quickly see that insects are already well-positioned to play a more important role in our food chain. Instead of eating fried grasshoppers with a side salad of mealworms, we’re developing better ways than ever to use insects as food for our favorite animals.
Insects could be a protein-rich game changer
The star of this insect animal feed revolution is the black soldier fly (Hermesia Illuscens). Adults are only about 16 mm (about 0.5 inches) long and resemble small, independent wasps. But soldier flies don’t have stingers and don’t sting, so this mimicry is just an evolutionary ploy.
A widely distributed species, the key to the black soldier fly’s importance is its larvae. This is because black soldier fly larvae are “non-selective” feeders. This is a polite way of saying that you will eat almost anything.
Black soldier fly larva. – Photo credit: Luigi Avantaggiato
They thrive on all kinds of food, from manure to animal and vegetable food waste. This property makes it excellent for waste disposal. For this alone, the flight of black soldiers is beneficial to us, but only before we turn them into animal feed.
The waste treatment process is called “ento remediation” and uses large chambers called bioconverters that house large numbers of black soldier fly larvae. These larvae consume food and other organic waste, producing soil-like organic residue that can be used as a rich fertilizer.
Inside the bioconverter, the larvae grow rapidly, and more than 50 percent of the weight they gain is protein. Once they reach the pupal stage (the stage of metamorphosis into an adult), they reach their nutritional peak. At this point, it has already helped convert the waste into fertilizer, which can be harvested and used as animal feed.
Bioconverter at the BEF Biosystem facility in Alessandria, Italy. – Photo credit: Luigi Avantaggiato
Insect animal feed can replace traditional animal feed, which often relies on soybean meal. Soybeans have a high environmental cost due to the land and water required to grow them and the resources required for transportation.
Although much of the research on animal feed production has focused on feeding livestock such as pigs and chickens, the black soldier fly is also attracting attention as a food source for farmed fish. Currently, the majority of feed for farmed fish often consists of fishmeal. Fishmeal is also used as livestock feed and is made by drying and crushing fish.
While this makes good use of fish parts we don’t eat and bycatch that can’t be returned to the ocean, fishmeal production can promote overfishing and the decline of fragile marine ecosystems.
Replacing fishmeal with sustainably farmed insects could revolutionize this important aspect of marine conservation.
Desert locusts (grasshoppers) raised for animal feed at the Italian Cricket Farm in Turin, Italy – Photo credit: Luigi Avantaggiato
From pet food to human food
However, black fruit flies are not the only species raised as animal feed. Some species of locusts breed very well and are relatively easy to maintain.
Insects are small and do not require much space, so it is possible to keep them under strictly controlled conditions to optimize their growth and reproduction. Those who keep reptiles are probably familiar with house crickets (Aketa Domestic). These light brown crickets are widely grown as pet food, but their potential as a source of protein for livestock is also attracting attention.
These insects may also eventually become a more direct part of our diet. The Italian Cricket Farm in Turin, Italy, is investigating the possibility of processing crickets into a protein-rich “insect flour” that can be incorporated into our food products. Currently awaiting European food safety approval, it is precisely this type of processing that could become a culturally acceptable way for insects to enter our diets.
In fact, crickets are quite delicious even when eaten without being processed into flour. A few years ago I ran an insect-eating workshop at the Cheltenham Science Festival. At that time, a local chef prepared a series of dishes for people to try. Beer-battered fried brown crickets sandwiched between sage leaves were a snack that people tried at first out of curiosity, but were so delicious they returned within seconds.
After digesting organic waste at the BEF Biosystem facility in Alessandria, Italy, black soldier fly larvae are harvested and turned into animal feed. Digested organic waste is used as soil fertilizer – Photo credit: Luigi Avantaggiato
Cricket farms in Italy produce around 200,000 crickets a year, which can be scaled up relatively easily. The production efficiency of crickets is amazing. Every 1 kg (2.2 lb) of crickets requires only 1.7 kg (3.7 lb) of feed to produce. Compare this to the 10 kg (22 lb) of feed required to produce 1 kg of beef and the benefits are clear.
Additionally, the final product is incredibly nutritious, containing twice the protein of beef, as well as a variety of vitamins, minerals, fatty acids, and other nutrients.
Changing tastes and ethics
As with any new idea in food production, potential disadvantages must be carefully considered.
It is clear that what an animal eats can influence the quality of the meat that is subsequently produced. Research on this is ongoing, but data so far suggests that while insect diets can affect the fatty acid content of meat, these changes have no negative impact in terms of taste and are not noticeable. It has been shown that this is not the case.
Another important issue to ponder is the ethics of raising insects. Ethical concerns about animal use are complex and change in response to changes in society and our scientific understanding.
Over the past few decades, we have seen much higher welfare standards introduced into livestock farming than were thought necessary in the past, but many would argue that there is still a long way to go.
These welfare advances have focused primarily on mammals, secondarily on poultry, and to a lesser extent on fish. However, insects are not mentioned at all in ethical discussions about animal use.
Black soldier flies are kept in an “aviary” at the Bug’s Life farm in Perugia, Italy, to encourage breeding. – Photo credit: Luigi Avantaggiato
In fact, we tend to think that insects cannot feel pain or suffering. However, this view is beginning to change.
We are beginning to learn more about the internal world of insects, and are discovering that they may be able to feel what we perceive as pain. Although this is an emerging field of research, the conclusion is that we may need to rethink the way we think about insects in many cases.
Having said that, I think it is actually very unlikely that we will change our views until insects are given the same welfare measures as “traditional” farm animals. The biggest advantage of using insects for food, either directly or through animal feed, is that they are environmentally friendly.
Dredging oceans for fishmeal and growing soybeans for protein feed are environmentally harmful, associated with high carbon costs and habitat loss or degradation.
On the other hand, raising insects has the potential to significantly reduce environmental impact. They occupy less space, use fewer resources to produce more protein, can utilize waste produced by humans, and do not rely on habitat development or displacement.
Crane fly cakes and locust bread may not be on your plate anytime soon, but insect-raised pork, chicken and beef certainly will be. Maybe that article from 25 years ago was onto something after all. Insects may really be the future of food.
Experts answer the biggest questions facing humanity. For example, “Could we live on Mars?” Do pills really help you lose weight? Can technology save us from climate change? Will we ever cure cancer? Is it possible to stop the decline in cognitive function?
How to master your metabolism
Are you ready for a slimmer, healthier you? It's time for a metabolic transformation. By making a few simple, research-backed changes, you can significantly increase your body's calorie burn.
The best science images of 2023
A piece of rock shattered from an asteroid hurtling through space, the first human footprint in North America, and a giant meatball made from a woolly mammoth. These are just some of the images that caught our attention BBC Science Focus This year's editor, no, the last one was not a mistake. Enjoy our selection of incredible images as we rub our eyes in 2023.
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The best technology innovations of 2023: The desire to improve things drives innovation. We highlight some of the ground-breaking innovations announced last year that caught our attention as they took improvement to a whole new level.
Pain gap between men and women: The health care system is flawed and has dire consequences for women. Dr. Michelle Griffin looks at why women's pain is undertreated.
How modeling comet impacts can help find extraterrestrial life: A cosmic snowball in space may have delivered life-giving molecules to Earth.
Issue 400 will be released on December 29, 2023
don't forget that BBC Science Focus Also available on all major digital platforms. There is a version of android, Kindle Fire and Kindle e-readers, but also, iOS app For iPad and iPhone.
Its mauve, suction cup-covered arms gently unfold to grab an egg shaped like an elongated ping-pong ball. A jet of water from a siphon next to the octopus's head ensures that the unhatched cubs get enough oxygen.
From a distance, she is surrounded by hundreds of females, living up to her nickname. The pearl octopus (Muusoctopus robotus) resembles a spherical gem that sits on the ocean floor. This is the largest known assemblage of eight-armed molluscs on Earth, numbering approximately 20,000 individuals, and has been witnessed by people all over the world in astonishingly high resolution. “Oceans” episode BBC series Planet Earth III.
This view would have been amazing enough even if it were from shallow water, including tropical coral reefs and kelp forests. But these octopus mothers tend to their eggs in freezing cold and darkness, about 2 miles below the surface. of the deep sea.
“The fact that there is life there is amazing in itself,” says the producer and director. Will Ridgeon They spent two years photographing the octopus, collaborating with scientists and technicians at California's Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute (MBARI).
The aptly named pearl octopus rears its eggs in an octopus garden surrounded by flower-like anemones. – Credit: Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute
The octopus farm, as the site is now known, is located on a hill in the eastern Pacific Ocean, 160 km (100 miles) southwest of Monterey Bay, near a giant underwater mountain called Davidson Seamount. This place was discovered during his expedition in 2018. live streamed over the internet.
It was the first time I had ever seen so many creatures in one place, let alone in the deep sea. (Octopuses are notoriously solitary animals and tend to be cannibalistic when kept together in captivity.) ).
Ridgeon watched the livestream of the discovery and immediately knew it was a story to be filmed in a new BBC series.he teamed up with Dr. Jim Barrya senior scientist at MBARI, began regularly visiting octopus farms in 2019 to learn more about why so many octopuses congregate in certain areas.
“The question is, why is it there?” Barry says. Barry and his colleagues gathered specialized tools and began a series of detailed studies. They created a photomosaic of his 2.5-hectare (about 27,000 square feet2) portion of the property and stitched together high-resolution images that allowed them to count the octopus population.
They also installed time-lapse cameras on the ocean floor, taking close-up photos every 20 minutes at a time for months to show what the octopuses were doing, and Barry's team gradually expanded the octopus park's largest began to unravel some of the mysteries.
Octopus farm location. – Image credit: MBARI
work remotely
Ridgeon took part in an expedition to an octopus farm early on. Initially, filming took place during lockdown, so he participated via live video link from his bedroom in Bristol, England (with occasional interruptions from his five-year-old daughter).
Once COVID-19 restrictions allowed, Ridgeon joined Barry and his team aboard MBARI's vessel, the research vessel Western Flyer. However, no one visited the octopus farm directly. All surveys and filming were done using a car-sized remotely operated vehicle (ROV) equipped with a camera and a robotic arm.
The dive began around 6 a.m., and the ROV was lowered into the ocean through a hole in the Western Flyer's hull called the moonpool. “It's very James Bond,” Ridgeon says. The descent to the octopus garden can take up to two hours, and the ROV will remain there all day.
The pilot controls the ROV via a cable connected to a control room on the ship on the ground, and everyone watches the video feed to see what's happening below.
Researchers survey the octopus farm from the Western Flyer's ROV control room. – Credit: Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute
“You forget you're looking at a screen,” Ridgeon says. “You think you're there,” says the MBARI engineer. He worked with the BBC to find the ideal camera setup to photograph the octopus garden. It was not possible to use footage from a camera fixed to the ROV due to too much vibration.
“I think the BBC will do a little bit about that.” [shivering]“But not as much as we had,” Barry says. ROVs “shudder” not because of the cold temperatures of the deep ocean, but because the thrusters must be activated constantly to ensure they stay close to the ocean floor (ROVs are positively buoyant, so if they fail they will ). .
To get around this, Barry and Ridgeon used a separate 4K camera mounted on a specially designed stand that could be placed on the ocean floor.
“I think that's the secret behind the images,” Ridgeon says. Unlike the ROV cameras used by scientists, which can only reach within a few meters of objects on the ocean floor, the 4K camera's focal length of about 20 centimeters (7 to 8 inches) allows it to precisely navigate between octopuses. can be captured.
But it was difficult to use. It took up to 40 minutes to get into position, and the team had to hope it wouldn't fall over and the action would happen in front of it. Ridgeon operated the camera from the ship using his PlayStation controller, which MBARI engineers adapted for the job. “At first it's like trying to film him with his hands tied behind his back,” Ridgeon said.
Another challenge with deep-sea photography is light. “Put the light as far away from the camera as possible, ideally around the sides so it’s three-quarters backlit. [the scene]That way, there are no reflections from any debris in the water,” explains Ridgeon.
The octopus garden provides insight into the life and reproduction of molluscs. – Credit: Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute
Those “fragments” are marine snow. These are organic particles that constantly rain down from the shallow ocean above. Marine snow is made up of dead plankton and their feces stuck together by microbial glue, and is the main food source for deep-sea animals. However, it makes filming difficult as the movie can look like it was shot in a snowstorm.
To see through the snowstorm and achieve the desired three-quarters backlighting effect, the MBARI team built a lighting system that the ROV could hold on its side, away from the camera. “That's how we got some really great shots,” Barry says.
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Accelerate development
As Barry's investigation and BBC filming progressed, the team made some surprising discoveries. First, no medium-sized octopus ever visited this location, and there were no signs of it feeding. It was only a fully grown adult octopus.
They were here to breed and for no other purpose. It may be called an octopus farm, but this place is definitely an octopus farm. The researchers also collected evidence that incubating females use on-site hot springs to speed up the development of their offspring.
For octopuses, there is a strong relationship between temperature and hatching time. The colder it is, the longer it will take and the more dangerous it will be. This is because there are scavengers that prey on unborn, unprotected octopus eggs.
Temperature studies have shown that the seawater surrounding each octopus nest can reach 10°C (50°F), much warmer than the 1.6°C (34°F) seawater just a few meters away. It was shown. By observing specific octopuses (identifiable by scratch and scar patterns) in the field, Barry and his colleagues determined that their eggs take an average of 1.8 years to hatch.
During this time, the female does not move but is constantly fighting off predators and guarding her approximately 60 eggs. “Once you plant an egg on a rock, that's it. You can't leave that spot,” Barry says. At just under two years, it's not the longest parenting period for an octopus. This record is given to another species that other MBARI scientists discovered nearby, Graneledon boreopafica, clinging to the sides of Monterey She Canyon 1.4 km (just under a mile) deep. I did.
Researchers watched one female incubate her eggs for four and a half years, longer than any other recorded animal. However, she was growing her eggs in water that was much warmer than the octopus park's ambient temperature of 1.6 degrees Celsius. Without the hot springs, the eggs in the octopus garden would take more than 10 years to hatch. When this site was discovered, biologists were surprised to find octopuses nesting there.
But geologists were fascinated by warm water seeping through the ocean floor, something they had never seen before. These springs are much cooler than the red-hot hydrothermal vents that form at the edges of tectonic plates where new molten ocean floors are created.
Although the enormous pressure will not cause the water to boil, the temperature around the vent can reach hundreds of degrees. These were first discovered in his 1970s, and plumes of hydrothermal water rise up to hundreds of meters in the water column, making them relatively easy to detect with temperature probes. In contrast, hot springs are more difficult to find because they form away from these tectonically active regions and have much cooler temperatures.
But geologists believe they could exist in the thousands and are highly stable, likely remaining in the same location for hundreds or even thousands of years. Therefore, biologists believe that more octopus farms may be established around these springs.
birth and death
In the final scene of the “Octopus Garden” episode Planet Earth III, a cluster of tiny sucker-like arms appears beneath the brooding female, then a wobbling young octopus swims away into the darkness like a mini-umbrella. More chicks follow and begin life at sea.
No one knows where they're going…yet. “That's what I want to understand next,” Barry says. The hatchlings are large for a newborn octopus, at about 6 cm (2 inches), so they have the best chance of survival. But as anyone who has seen the Octopus documentary knows, this comes at a heavy cost to mothers.
“These mothers are trying so hard to protect their bloodlines, and they're just dying out,” Barry says. Her father died a few years ago, shortly after mating. On the screen, we see the women's eyes cloudy and their bodies wrinkled. Ridgeon saw what happened next, but she decided it was not suitable for an evening television audience.
Dead octopuses are quickly attacked by scavengers such as fish, snails, sea anemones, and shrimp. For Barry, this is another important part of his discovery at the octopus farm. The nesting season is asynchronous, with octopuses hatching and mothers dying throughout the year. Approximately 9 each day. The female octopus' body nourishes the rest of the ecosystem and helps supplement the energy input from marine snow by 72 percent.
Graneledon boreopafica (a species of octopus that incubates eggs in cold water) has a 4.5 year rearing period, which holds the record for the longest rearing period of any animal. – Credit: Alamy
“This is clearly a huge food subsidy for the local ecosystem,” Barry says. “That wouldn't happen in shallow water,” he added. Because there is a lot of food around. But in the more barren depths, nothing goes to waste.
The BBC has finished filming at the octopus farm, but Barry's research continues. One of the things he wants to know is the age of the sea anemone. These are giant orange flower-like animals that make the octopus garden look like a real garden.
Barry studies sea anemones, which live for decades in shallow coastal waters, and finds that deep-sea species can survive for centuries, in contrast to octopuses, which are relatively short-lived. That's what I'm thinking.
“They're like sentinels that just sit there while the octopus cycles,” he says. There are many more questions Barry would like to answer. “Are octopuses confined to this breeding form in warm areas, or are they able to breed elsewhere with cooler ambient temperatures? Is there fidelity to specific nest sites? ?Will they return to their place of birth?'' he asks.
No one knows how far the octopuses travel before they reach the garden or how they found them, but Barry said he was surprised by the large number of dead and dying octopuses floating around. I suspect I smelled it. “We'll definitely be back,” he says.
The Northern Hemisphere is currently in the midst of the Ursid meteor shower, which has a relatively short active period of just over a week. Last night’s winter solstice marks the peak of the Ursa Minor meteor shower, which is expected to produce approximately 5 to 10 meteors per hour. However, visibility may be affected by the almost full moon.
If you’re interested in exploring other celestial sights while waiting for the Ursid, consider checking out our beginner’s guide to astronomy for easy constellations to start with.
When will the Uruid meteor shower occur in 2023?
This year, the Uruid meteor shower will peak in the early hours of tonight, December 22-23, 2023, and will be active from December 17 to 26. The meteor shower may be less visible outside of the peak dates, and it’s expected to produce up to 10 meteors per hour, partly due to the influence of the almost full moon. This is in contrast to the Geminid meteor shower at the beginning of the month, which saw up to 150 meteors per hour.
According to astrophysicist Dr. Darren Baskill from the University of Sussex, “Just as the Geminid meteor shower, the best shooting star shower of the year, fades away on December 17th, the Ursa Minorids will take over. The crisp, cool nights this time of year are perfect for observing the night sky, as long as you stay warm.”
When is the best time to observe the constellation Urus?
The prime time to see shooting stars in the Ursid meteor shower is from midnight to 5 a.m. on December 23, 2023. This is when the radiant point is positioned highest in the sky, resulting in longer and more visible meteor trajectories.
At this time of year, the sky gets darker, and the moon sets as it nears 5am, increasing the chances of seeing meteors. Additionally, the Earth’s rotation shifts us in the direction of Earth’s orbital motion, facilitating the entry of meteors into the atmosphere and improving visibility.
Where should you look to see the Urshids?
The constellation Ursa Minor appears to radiate from a single point directly overhead, known as the “radiant,” located in the Ursa Minor constellation. Ursa Minor, also known as the Little Dipper, is a fixed feature of the northern sky and revolves around its poles once every 24 hours.
To locate the radiant of the Ursa Minorids meteor shower, follow these 5 steps:
Find the Big Dipper and Ursa Major. Look for the prominent star map of the Big Dipper, also known as the Plow, part of the Ursa Major constellation. Note the distinctive shape of the ladle or pot.
Identify the pointer star. Locate the two stars at the outer edge of the dipper’s bowl, known as the pointer stars, named Dube and Melek.
Extend a line from the pointer star. Imagine a line extending from the two pointer stars away from the ladle.
Find Polaris (North Star): Follow the imaginary line to reach the North Star, the North Star. It is located in the Ursa Minor constellation and is near the celestial north pole.
Follow the handles: From the North Star, follow the handle of the Big Dipper to arrive at another ladle resembling the Big Dipper, just above which the radiant point is located.
Knowing the radiant’s location can help differentiate between the Ursids and Geminids, although Ursids are visible across the sky. If possible, aim to observe from a location that provides a broad view of the night sky.
How to maximize your chances of finding Ursids
You don’t need special or expensive equipment to observe meteor showers; your eyes are your best tools. Here are some tips for maximizing your chances of spotting the elusive Ursids:
Maximize darkness: Choose a location away from light pollution for the best visibility.
Adjust your eyes. Allow your eyes to adapt to the dark for 10 to 20 minutes to improve night vision.
Protect from the elements: Prepare for low temperatures with blankets and warm drinks.
Stay comfortable: Find an unobstructed view of the sky using a recliner or hammock.
Use a red light. If necessary, use a red filter for your phone or a red flashlight to avoid disrupting your night vision. The red part of the light spectrum does not interfere with night vision.
Where do Urid meteors come from?
The Ursid meteor shower is associated with Comet 8P/Tuttle, a contact binary comet consisting of two separate objects that are in physical contact with each other. This comet leaves behind debris that intersects Earth’s orbit to produce the meteor shower.
Comet 8P/Tuttle has a 13.6-year orbital period and follows a predictable orbit around the Sun. It is influenced by Jupiter’s gravitational pull similar to the comet 46P/Wiltanen.
How many Urid meteors can we see?
Under ideal conditions, expect to see 5 to 10 meteors per hour. However, the nearly full moon may limit visibility at the end of 2023.
How can you tell the difference between Ursa Minor and Geminid meteors?
The Ursa Minor and Geminid meteor showers originate from different parts of the sky, with Ursids appearing overhead and Geminids appearing in the constellation Gemini. Additionally, they move at different speeds, with the Ursa Minor meteor shower producing slow-moving meteors with short tails.
About our expert Dr. Darren Baskill:
Dr. Darren Baskill is an outreach officer and lecturer at the University of Sussex, with a background in Physics and Astronomy. He previously lectured at the Royal Observatory Greenwich and organized the Astronomical Photographer of the Year competition.
The U.S. military’s X-37B spacecraft departed Thursday on another top-secret mission expected to last at least several years.
As with previous missions, the reusable plane, which resembles a mini space shuttle, carried sensitive experiments. No one is on board.
The spaceplane took off from NASA’s Kennedy Space Center at night aboard a SpaceX Falcon Heavy rocket, but was delayed for more than two weeks due to technical problems.
This was the seventh flight for the X-37B, which has been in orbit for more than a decade since its debut in 2010.
The military’s X-37B spacecraft will launch on Thursday from the Kennedy Space Center in Cape Canaveral, Florida, on its seventh mission to orbit. Joe Skipper/Reuters
The last flight was the longest ever, lasting two and a half years before ending on the runway at Kennedy Airport a year ago.
Space Force officials declined to say how long the orbital test vehicle would remain in flight or what it would carry, other than for NASA experiments to measure the effects of radiation on materials.
Manufactured by Boeing, the X-37B resembles NASA’s retired space shuttle. But at 29 feet long, it’s only a quarter of the size. We don’t need astronauts. The X-37B is equipped with an autonomous landing system.
It is designed to take off vertically like a rocket, but land horizontally like an airplane, and orbit at a height of between 150 and 500 miles. Two X-37Bs are based in Kennedy’s former shuttle hangar.
How will our species evolve in space? If humans were suddenly forced to board a fleet of space arks and abandon Earth, evolution by natural selection would force our bodies to adapt to the new environment. Humans will probably become extinct before we change anything.
Even assuming that air, food, and water are all synthesized and infinitely recyclable, the microgravity environment currently makes it difficult for astronauts on the International Space Station to undergo daily strenuous exercise. Bone density decreases by about 1 percent every month.
If this situation continues for several years, everyone will suffer from serious illness. Osteoporosis. If our voyage were to go into deep space, we would also have to worry about radiation. Galactic cosmic rays We will be exposed to approximately 250 times the normal background radiation we receive on Earth, and a single solar flare can be strong enough to cause radiation sickness.
Surviving this situation for decades at a time would require a spacecraft with an environment more similar to Earth than our current spacecraft. A large-diameter rotating habitat to simulate gravity and thick shielding to block radiation would be the minimum requirements. But if the conditions inside the spacecraft were exactly the same as on Earth, there would be no evolutionary pressure for our bodies to adapt.
Society will definitely evolve. Surrounded by danger and heavily dependent on technology, we are becoming more authoritative, with each person fulfilling their assigned role without question, ready to sacrifice themselves for the good of the species. It is possible to develop a principled society. This is too important to be left to the unpredictability of democratic, free-market capitalism, so a rigid hierarchy akin to the sailing ship regime of the 19th century will likely emerge.
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One of my favorite activities while scuba diving or snorkeling on a tropical reef is to gently approach a coral rock and observe the colorful Christmas tree worms without startling them.
These tiny creatures resemble miniature fir trees, resembling the man-made variety made of brightly colored plastic and tinsel. They come in a variety of colors such as red, yellow, orange, and blue, but they all belong to the same species, Spirobranchis giganteus.
If you get too close, these reclusive creatures quickly retreat into a tube in the coral, closing the small gill opercula behind them before eventually reemerging when it’s safe.
Christmas tree worms can grow up to 3.5 cm in length, with most of their bodies concealed within the tube. They have feather-like spiral tentacles known as radiozoa that are used for breathing and feeding.
These tentacles, which act as gills, absorb oxygen and filter out food particles and plankton, transporting them towards the worm’s mouth. Close relatives of Christmas tree worms, including feather dusters and peacock worms, are part of the same family, Sabellidae.
Both female and male Christmas tree worms release their eggs and sperm into the seawater, where they fuse to form larvae that drift for 9-12 days before settling on a suitable coral to begin their lives. These worms are known to be picky about their coral hosts and can live up to 30 years.
Christmas tree worms have hundreds of bright orange eye spots between their tentacles, which contain light-sensitive opsin pigments that send signals to the worm’s brain to alert them to potential predators overhead. Interestingly, worms in crowded colonies tend to hide in their nests for longer periods of time, possibly due to the safety of blending in with a larger group.
For more interesting information, check out our ultimate science pages.
A strange phenomenon called visual masking can reveal the time scale of perception, but its underlying mechanisms are not well understood.
Colored plots show neural activity recorded in mouse visual cortex (V1). Each row of tick marks represents the spikes of a different neuron. Although researchers can predict the target side from neural activity with near-perfect accuracy, animal subjects often get incorrect masked trials due to how brain regions downstream of V1 process this information. I am.Image credit: Gail other.
Have you ever wanted to make something invisible? It turns out your brain can do it.
Unfortunately, this is a limited superpower. In visual masking, we do not consciously recognize another image when it appears in rapid succession.
But the timing of those images is important. For masking to work, the first image must flash very quickly, and the second image must follow rapidly (on the order of 50 milliseconds).
Don't get me wrong, the first image doesn't stay in view very long, but it's definitely long enough to be recognizable without the second image or mask.
Scientists discovered this phenomenon in the 19th century, but why and how the human brain does this remains a mystery.
“This is an interesting observation, that your perception doesn't accurately reflect what exists in the world,” said Dr. Sean Olsen, a researcher at the Allen Institute.
“Like other optical illusions, we think this tells us something about how the visual system works and, ultimately, the neural circuits underlying visual perception.”
In a new study, Dr. Olsen and colleagues take a closer look at the science behind this bizarre illusion and show for the first time that it also occurs in mice.
When the mice were trained to report what they saw, they were also able to pinpoint the specific areas of the brain needed for the visual masking illusion to work.
Dr. Christoph Koch, also from the Allen Institute, said, “Our research has narrowed down the region of the brain responsible for perceiving the world around us.''
“What are the steps from the time the photons rain down on your retina to when you actually become consciously aware of what you’re seeing?”
When a rain of photons hits our retina, the information follows a predetermined path from the eyeball through several different areas of the brain and into the highly-processed areas of the cortex, the wrinkled outermost shell of the brain. It ends with
Previous research on visual masking has led scientists to believe that neurons in the early part of the brain in the retina and its pathways are activated even when a person is unaware that they are looking at an image. I know. In other words, your brain sees things without your knowledge.
To explore where unconscious sensations turn into conscious perceptions and actions, scientists first asked 16 mice to move a small mouse in the direction of rapidly flashing images in exchange for a reward if they chose the correct direction. I trained him to spin a Lego wheel.
I then added different masking images on either side of the screen, immediately after the target image.
Adding a mask prevented the animal from performing the task correctly. This means that the animal can no longer recognize the original target image.
Because visual masking had never been tested in mice before, the authors had to create a task for mice, in which the images and the way they were presented were different from those used in previous human studies. I meant that.
To confirm that the optical illusion they showed to rodents was also relevant to us, they tested it on 16 people.
It turns out that human perception (or lack thereof) and mouse perception of this particular visual masking illusion are very similar.
The researchers then used a special technique known as optogenetics, which allowed them to quickly suppress activity in cells or areas throughout the brain with flashes of light.
They targeted this inhibition to the mouse's primary visual cortex, known as the first part of the cortex where visual information from the eyes enters higher cortical areas of the brain.
By turning off the primary visual cortex the moment the masking image appeared, they were able to completely block visual masking after the target image. Even though the masking image was visible, the mouse reverted to accurately locating the first image. the current.
This result implies that conscious perception is occurring in the visual cortex or in higher regions of the cortex downstream.
“This is consistent with the general idea in the field that the cortex is the seat of conscious cognition in mammals, including ourselves,” Dr. Koch said.
Although this study narrowed down the region responsible for conscious perception to the cortex, there are still many regions of the cortex that may be involved.
Further studies will need to silence these other areas to test their effects on visual masking tasks.
“We're starting to put some limits on where masking is occurring,” Dr. Olsen said.
“We think this is a good paradigm to track to track other areas that are listening to the primary visual cortex and essentially fusing the flow of target and mask information in the brain. Masu.”
of findings It was published in the magazine natural neuroscience.
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SD Gale other. Visual cortex is required for posterior masking in mice. nut neurosi, published online on November 13, 2023. doi: 10.1038/s41593-023-01488-0
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