Researchers in Brazil have unearthed a newly identified species of vertebrate sauropod dinosaur resembling those from Europe, hinting at an ancient migration route that once linked two continents, now divided by the Atlantic Ocean.
Artist’s impression of Dasosaurus tocantinensis. Image credit: TotalDino / CC BY 4.0.
This newly discovered dinosaur species lived approximately 120 million years ago during the Early Cretaceous period, a time when the world’s landmasses were consolidated within the southern supercontinent Gondwana.
Dubbed Dasosaurus tocantinensis, this dinosaur measured about 20 meters (66 feet) in length.
It belonged to the Somphospondyli clade, which includes titanosaur-like sauropods that thrived from the late Jurassic to the end of the Cretaceous period.
The partial skeleton of Dasosaurus tocantinensis was unearthed in the Itapecur Formation located in northeastern Brazil.
This dinosaur features distinct anatomical traits, such as elongated ridges and grooves on its caudal vertebrae, as well as a notably pronounced lateral bulge on its femur, characteristics not previously identified in any known species.
These unique features indicate that Dasosaurus tocantinensis lies outside the titanosaur lineage, a subgroup of sauropods that would later dominate the southern continents.
Interestingly, this new species appears most closely related to Galumbachitan morelensis, another sauropod that existed in present-day Spain around 122 million years ago.
The discovery not only catalogs a new species but also reinforces the idea that Early Cretaceous South America was not an isolated evolutionary niche.
Instead, it formed part of a vibrant network of land connections that facilitated dinosaur migrations between continents long before the Atlantic Ocean was fully formed.
“This finding expands the known diversity of Early Cretaceous sauropods in northern South America and underscores their biogeographical ties to Europe and other regions in northern Gondwana,” stated lead author Max Langer from the University of São Paulo and colleagues.
“Indeed, numerical biogeographical analyses suggest that a clade consisting of Dasosaurus tocantinensis and Galumbachitan morelensis originally arose in Europe, with their lineages migrating from Europe to South America through North Africa during the Valanginian (137 to 133 million years ago) and Aptian (121 to 113 million years ago) periods.”
The discovery of Dasosaurus tocantinensis was reported in a research paper published on February 12th in the Journal of Systematic Paleontology.
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Elver L. Mayer et al. (2026). A new European-like titanosaur from the Early Cretaceous of Brazil: Insights into the phylogeny, histology, and biogeography of Somphospondyli. Journal of Systematic Paleontology 24(1); doi: 10.1080/14772019.2025.2601579
Horses are unique in their vocalizations, producing two distinct sounds simultaneously—a low, cow-like moo and a high-pitched whistle from their throats.
Recent research reveals that horse vocalizations exhibit both low-frequency sounds around 200 hertz and high-frequency sounds exceeding 1,000 hertz, a phenomenon known as biphonation. The low-frequency sounds can be attributed to the vibrations of the horse’s laryngeal vocal folds, much like human speech and singing. However, the mechanism for producing the high-frequency sounds in such a large animal remains an intriguing question.
“Humans have coexisted with horses for over 4,000 years, yet equine communication remains partially misunderstood,” explains Tecumseh Fitch from the University of Vienna, Austria.
To investigate this phenomenon, Fitch and his team conducted tests and experiments on horse larynxes sourced from meat suppliers.
“Initially, we observed low-frequency sounds when we blew air into the larynx,” says Fitch. “However, after some adjustments, we successfully elicited high-frequency components.”
This established that both sound components originate from the larynx itself, contrasting with human whistling produced via the lips.
To confirm the whistling mechanism, researchers introduced air and helium—two gases of varying densities—through the larynx. This allowed them to test whether high-frequency sounds resulted from whistle production or tissue vibrations.
“The low-frequency sounds stem from vocal cord vibrations, similar to human singing or cow mooing, and remained unchanged when we altered the gases,” Fitch noted. “Conversely, the high-frequency content varied significantly with higher helium concentrations.”
Endoscopic examinations of live horses revealed that laryngeal muscles contract as the call begins, narrowing the glottis—where the vocal cords reside—and increasing airway resistance. This mechanism forces air through a narrow opening at high speed.
While other small mammals like mice and rats can produce laryngeal whistles, their frequencies are inaudible to humans.
“Horses are unique among mammals for their ability to produce two frequencies at once using their larynx, with whistles being part of their regular vocal repertoire,” Fitch adds.
This research sheds light on a previously undocumented method of aerodynamic whistle production in animals beyond rodents, explains Ben Jankovic at the University of New South Wales, Sydney.
Fitch and his colleagues propose that whistles enhance vocal clarity and transmission distance, although these theories require further investigation.
The parasitic species Temnothorax kinomurai targets the closely related ants, Temnothorax makora.
Credit: Clalit/iNaturalist
In a groundbreaking discovery, researchers have identified a unique parasitic ant species in Japan that has effectively eradicated both male and female worker ants from their colonies. This means that all individuals in these colonies function as queens, attempting to dominate the nests of competing species.
Typically, ant colonies are structured with a queen, female workers, and short-lived males that die shortly after mating.
For over four decades, scientists have speculated about the existence of this elusive parasitic ant, Temnothorax kinomurai, which is known to produce only queens. Until now, however, there was no definitive proof.
Young queens of this parasitic species infiltrate the nests of closely related ants, Temnothorax makora, killing the host queen and some workers through stinging. They then reproduce asexually, creating cloned offspring in a process called parthenogenesis—a phenomenon that is rare among ants but common in other insect species. As a result, workers from T. makora are deceived into nurturing the young kinomurai queens.
Research led by Jurgen Heinze and his team at the University of Regensburg, Germany, successfully bred and raised T. kinomurai queens in a controlled laboratory environment, resulting in 43 queen offspring—none of which displayed male reproductive organs.
The resulting 43 queens were then introduced to colonies of T. makora. Out of these, seven queens survived and successfully executed their takeover, producing 57 additional offspring, all confirmed to be female queens.
“This discovery reveals a completely new form of social organization among ants, adding a fascinating dimension to the already complex world of ants,” Heinze states.
While invading the colonies of other species can be a precarious tactic—evidenced by the study’s high queen failure rates—having an all-female offspring increases the likelihood of establishing a new reproductive colony.
“If parthenogenesis arose through random mutation, this is the outcome. A single T. kinomurai queen can produce 100 daughters without the need for mating, leading to 100 queens ready to seek out new colonies,” Heinze explains.
“This species represents the pinnacle of social parasitism evolution, showcasing the remarkable adaptability in the life cycles of social insects,” he concludes.
Württemberg State Museum / Hendrik Zwietasch, CC BY 4.0
Recent research on enigmatic symbols engraved on artifacts from Germany indicates that Stone Age humans, around 40,000 years ago, utilized a rudimentary form of writing. This discovery could potentially delay the timeline for the emergence of primitive writing systems by over 30,000 years, paralleling early cuneiform scripts.
Early Homo sapiens, particularly after migrating to Europe about 45,000 years ago, began to make intentional marks on various objects. These included pendants, tools, and intricately carved figurines adorned with graphic symbols—ranging from lines and crosses to dots. These groups also illustrated symbols on cave walls alongside animal representations, and their meanings remain a subject of scholarly debate.
“The systematic arrangement and repeated use of distinct symbols mark a notable advancement,” explains archaeologist Eva Dutkiewicz from the Museum of Prehistory and Early History in Berlin, Germany.
The overarching question concerns the meanings behind these ancient symbols. Without a ‘Rosetta Stone’ equivalent, deciphering their significance is complex; however, studying their application offers valuable insights.
To delve deeper, Dutkiewicz and linguist Christian Benz from Saarland University analyzed markings on artifacts unearthed in the Swabian Jura region, dating between 43,000 and 34,000 years ago, during the Aurignacian period. They examined 260 artifacts, including flutes and animal-human hybrid figurines, which featured 22 different symbols over 3,000 times, primarily employing a V-shaped notch, lines, crosses, and dots.
The researchers employed computer models to assess the complexity and density of information encoded in these sequences. By comparing these patterns to modern scripts and Protocuneiform—Mesopotamia’s oldest known writing dating from 3500 to 3350 BC—they aimed to identify parallels between Stone Age markings and later systems of communication.
“Information can be encoded through the variety and combination of symbols,” says Benz, noting that even the 26 letters of the English alphabet can generate extensive meanings through different arrangements.
The analysis indicated a clear distinction between Aurignac symbols and contemporary letters. Surprisingly, the statistical properties of these 40,000-year-old symbols closely resemble those found in early proto-cuneiform tablets. “Their characteristics show notable similarity,” Benz remarks.
This discovery suggests that early Homo sapiens in Europe may have developed a symbolic recording system, aligned with one definition of writing: a visual communication method using established markings.
“The study indicates that the markings from the Aurignac period mirror a compositional style akin to proto-cuneiform,” states paleoanthropologist Geneviève von Petzinger. “They exhibit repetition and organization.” Yet, this does not imply that both systems shared identical meanings.
While cuneiform originated primarily for accounting purposes—such as recording crop amounts—the question arises about the meaning of “writing” in the Stone Age. Some markings on Aurignac artifacts hint at potential calendrical functions. For instance, an ivory plaque featuring a lion-human figure called Adorant showcases sequences of dots that may represent “calendar observations,” Dutkiewicz suggests, noting their likely interest in tracking time.
Dutkiewicz and Benz further analyzed object symbol usage, revealing intriguing patterns. Despite the cross being common, it was never used on human depictions but frequently found on animal and tool carvings, especially relating to horses and mammoths. Conversely, dots were absent from tool representations.
Mammoth Figurine from Vogelherd Cave
University of Tübingen/Hildegard Jensen, CC-BY-SA 4.0
“While we cannot definitively interpret the meanings, a consistent pattern suggests deliberate choices in symbol application,” Dutkiewicz notes. Additionally, the consistency in these markings over millennia points to a tradition that was likely transmitted across generations.
“These markings were intentionally placed and had significance for the creators,” observes von Petzinger. “Their exact meanings, however, remain elusive.”
This research builds upon a 2023 study suggesting that sequences of dots and lines accompanying cave paintings, allegedly encoding predator behaviors, hint at early systems of recordkeeping.
Overall, while cuneiform emerged around 3200 BC as the first comprehensive writing system, its roots could trace back as far as 40,000 years.
Illustration of the Iron Age Mass Grave at Gomolava
Credit: Sarah Nylund
In a groundbreaking discovery, evidence suggests that women and children were intentionally targeted in the largest prehistoric mass murder ever found in Europe. The 77 victims, buried over 2,800 years ago, appear to have died from brutal violence.
This significant mass grave was unearthed at Gomolava, an early Iron Age site located in the Carpathian Basin of modern-day Serbia. The site is characterized by a man-made mound, known as a tell, formed through layers of debris accumulated over thousands of years of human habitation since the late 6th millennium B.C. Archaeological findings also include remnants of adobe structures, pottery, and organic materials.
Research led by Linda Fibiger and her colleagues at the University of Edinburgh analyzed skeletal remains sourced from cemeteries at the Vojvodina Museum in Novi Sad, Serbia, employing DNA and isotope studies to shed light on these ancient events.
Of the 77 individuals, 51 were identified as children and adolescents. Biological sex was ascertained for 72 of the individuals, revealing that 51 were female.
Initial assessments in 1976 had misattributed the cause of death to a pandemic; however, new analyses revealed unhealed injuries consistent with violent acts, including defensive wounds and projectile impacts.
“Many injuries were to the head, indicating forceful contact. The prevalence and nature of these wounds suggest intentional killing rather than accidental death,” Fibiger remarked. “This incident appears to be exceptionally brutal.”
The research team analyzed DNA from the remains of 25 individuals and studied the ratios of strontium, oxygen, and carbon isotopes found in the tooth enamel of 24 victims. This analysis helps reconstruct childhood environmental conditions and revealed that the individuals were often not closely related and had diverse diets in their youth.
“Most were not even related within the last 12 generations,” asserted Barry Molloy from University College Dublin, Ireland. He posits that the victims were part of a broader societal structure that shared cultural practices without necessarily forming close-knit groups.
This horrific genocide occurred during the 9th century BC, coinciding with the migration of nomadic pastoralists from the Eurasian steppes, while local populations were reestablishing old settlements and agricultural practices. Molloy highlighted the potential for conflicts over land rights during this transitional period, which could have led to such violent outcomes.
“The targeting of women and children suggests a different motive than what we typically associate with warfare,” Molloy explained. “It points toward a calculated strategy to assert control or quell dissent.”
There is speculation that perpetrators may have aimed to undermine resistance by killing young children, previously considered for enslavement, sending a strong message to nearby tribes.
Interpreting genocide is complex,” noted Pere Gelabert of the University of Vienna, Austria. “The Iron Age was marked by regional instability and conflict. Mass burial practices may reflect ritualistic massacres, focusing on women and children, or result from men being absent during such violent occurrences.”
Interestingly, the burial sites contained personal artifacts like bronze jewelry and ceramic vessels, along with animal remains and crushed stones, suggesting a careful and symbolic burial process. “This implies distinct groups carried out the killings and the funerals,” Molloy concluded.
How Birdwatching Can Enhance Your Cognitive Reserve
Steve Young/Alamy
Recent research suggests that birdwatchers exhibit distinct brain differences that could explain their remarkable skill in identifying unfamiliar birds. This indicates that engaging in birdwatching may alter brain structure, akin to the effects of learning a new language or musical instrument. Such activities are believed to enhance cognitive reserve—the brain’s capacity to combat aging and adapt to damage.
As individuals learn or practice new skills, neural pathways in the brain reorganize, strengthening relevant connections. This phenomenon, known as neuroplasticity, facilitates the acquisition of specialized knowledge. For example, professional musicians display structural changes in brain regions associated with auditory processing, while athletes experience similar adaptations in their motor cortex.
To explore the effects of birdwatching on brain structure, Eric Wing and his team from York University, Canada, examined the brain function and structure of 48 recreational birdwatchers, with participants categorized into experts and beginners. The age range of participants was between 22 and 79 years, ensuring balanced variables like gender, age, and education.
During brain scans, participants viewed bird images for less than four seconds. Following this, they attempted to identify the same bird from four options, each depicting a different species. “We purposefully selected bird species that were quite similar,” states Wing.
This identification task was done 72 times, utilizing images from 18 distinct bird species—six being local and twelve non-native.
As anticipated, expert birders outperformed novices, with an average correct identification rate of 83% for native bird species and 61% for non-native; novices, on the other hand, correctly identified only 44% of the birds.
Notably, while identifying non-local birds, activity increased in three key brain regions for expert birders, including the bilateral prefrontal cortex, bilateral intraparietal sulcus, and right occipitotemporal cortex—regions pivotal for object recognition, visual processing, attention, and working memory. “This illustrates the diverse cognitive processes involved in bird watching,” Wing explains.
Moreover, these areas exhibited greater structural complexity and organization in expert bird watchers compared to novices, indicating that developing expertise in birdwatching may reshape the brain.
As we grow older, the complexity and organization of brain structures typically diminish, a trend observed in both novice and expert birdwatchers. Nonetheless, the decline appeared less significant in birdwatchers, suggesting that engaging in birdwatching contributes to building cognitive reserve, enhancing the brain’s resilience against aging.
“This implies that staying mentally active in specialized areas may help mitigate the effects of aging,” asserts Robert Zatorre at McGill University in Canada. “While this has been a controversial topic, this paper provides new evidence that supports this concept.”
Broadly participating in other hobbies that demand similar skills—like attention, memory, and sensory integration—may drive comparable brain changes. Wing notes, “Birdwatching taps into numerous cognitive domains, potentially benefiting various cognitive abilities. However, the cognitive enhancement might not be exclusive to birds; if other activities engage similar processes, we could expect similar brain changes there.”
Nevertheless, this study reflects merely a snapshot in time. It’s possible that structural changes occurred prior to participants taking up birdwatching, or that other lifestyle factors leading to brain changes are more prevalent among birdwatchers. To determine if brain changes are directly linked to birdwatching, longitudinal studies involving multiple scans over several months or years are necessary, Wing asserts.
When a homicide detective in California’s Central Valley resumed her investigation into the unsolved murder of a bakery owner last year, she utilized an increasingly popular forensic tool that has been instrumental in solving numerous cases across the nation. Recently, infections have spread across the United States and Canada, drawing attention to public health concerns.
Kern County Sheriff’s Office Detective Ashley Sanchez expressed confidence in having pivotal evidence that could lead to identifying those responsible for the tragic 2010 death of 49-year-old Juanita Francisco. However, securing funding for the essential genetic genealogy research proved to be a significant challenge, Sanchez noted.
After all, the finances for such efforts do not stem from local taxpayers or government subsidies; crowdsourcing fundraising initiatives became the solution.
Juanita’s Bakery in Bakersfield, California Kern County Sheriff’s Office
This unique funding model highlights the challenging economic reality for many seeking to leverage the method, which gained traction following the apprehension of the “Golden State Killer” eight years ago and has resolved over 1,600 cases across the United States and Canada. According to a report updated earlier this year, compiled by a criminology professor at Douglas University in Canada.
Authorities looking into the potential kidnapping of Nancy Guthrie are also considering this methodology, which integrates traditional genealogy with cutting-edge DNA analysis, as a means to address unsolved crimes and unidentified remains.
An FBI billboard in California displays a missing person alert for Nancy Guthrie, mother of “TODAY” host Savannah Guthrie. via NBC Los Angeles
David Gurney, director of the Center for Investigative Genetic Genealogy at Ramapo University in New Jersey, highlighted that some government funding does exist, but the financial aid provided by states and federal authorities “barely scratches the surface.”
This underscores the reliance on crowdfunding as a feasible solution. Canadian criminology expert Tracy Dowswell estimates that approximately 120 of the 1,600 cases cataloged involved crowdfunding, but suggests this figure may be an underestimate, as many cases can receive funding from multiple sources, primarily those involving unidentified bodies.
Numerous additional cases are showcased on platforms like DNA Doe Project, Moxy Forensic Investigation, and DNA Solves — where Francisco’s fundraising initiatives are prominently featured. This crowdfunding strategy has seen success, although some cases remain unresolved, and others await funding.
“It’s remarkable to see how willing the public is to contribute to these cases,” remarked Gurney. “Nonetheless, this model is not sustainable for the criminal justice system.”
David Mittelman, CEO of Osram, the Texas-based DNA lab collaborating with DNASolves, noted that the site serves as a repository for many of their cases. “It’s nearly impossible to investigate—not due to a lack of evidence or interest, but rather the absence of a funding channel,” he stated.
Gurney emphasized that the need for crowdfunding illustrates the lack of recognition for genetic genealogy as a tool for solving America’s cold cases. Federal data indicates that this technique could potentially unravel hundreds of thousands of unsolved violent crimes and tens of thousands of unidentified remains cases.
“Without increased funding, expanding this effort to tackle the backlog of cold cases will remain challenging,” Dowdeswell stated.
Just a Handful of Labs
Genetic genealogy relies on several critical components. Researchers require a DNA sample and profile of the person they aim to identify. This profile needs to be uploaded to GEDMatch or FamilyTreeDNA, consumer DNA databases accessible for law enforcement purposes. The acquired profile can then be used to construct a family tree and trace the origins of unidentified DNA.
However, acquiring a quality profile can be challenging, as DNA samples often tend to be old and degraded, noted Kendall Mills from Season of Justice, a nonprofit dedicated to funding advanced DNA analysis for law enforcement agencies lacking the necessary resources.
Only a select few private labs in the United States, such as Osram, possess the capability to undertake the work required to develop these profiles, Mills added.
“Private labs typically utilize more advanced and sensitive technologies,” she explains. “They also have the capacity to conduct extensive research and development that public labs funded by taxpayer dollars often lack, but this expertise comes with a hefty price tag.”
Gurney mentioned that accessing consumer DNA databases comes with a price starting at $1,000 or higher.
He added that some state and federal agencies have initiated work on the labor-intensive genealogical research that will follow, yet much of this work relies on support from a diverse array of nonprofit organizations, private companies, and at least one academic institution (Ramapo).
Organizations like Ramapo and the DNA Doe Project, a groundbreaking nonprofit that has collaborated with law enforcement and coroners to solve over 150 cases using genetic genealogy, rely on networks of volunteers to contribute some or all of their genealogical work pro bono. Some companies, such as Othram, provide in-house services for a fee.
Mittelman pointed out that only a small number of Osram’s genealogy projects utilize crowdfunding; the company usually depends on a mix of state and federal grants, philanthropic donations, and nonprofit funding. Currently, DNASolves features dozens of cases from across the country that have successfully generated crowdfunding, with a few more aiming for a funding goal of $7,500 that remains unmet. Dowswell noted that he has documented 40 cases resolved through the site.
Mittelman shared that DNASolves was initially created to showcase case results, but as law enforcement agencies faced budget constraints for forensic work on high-interest cases, the company launched a successful crowdfunding campaign.
Gurney noted that the Ramapo center does not require crowdfunding, as its operations are financed through an educational component (the center offers certificates in genetic genealogy) and donor contributions.
In contrast, crowdfunding is vital for the DNA Doe Project, according to its communications director, Matthew Waterfield.
Waterfield believes that the primary hurdle to advancing genetic genealogy is the escalating costs associated with research and upload fees tied to the DNA databases essential for researchers.
Evelyn “Dottie” Leeds. Pinal County Sheriff’s Office
Waterfield recounted a case concerning an unidentified elderly woman discovered in a shallow grave in Arizona, which needed nearly $5,000 in funding to cover lab and database access fees. Raising the necessary funds took months. Through the “Doe-Nate” site, he added that with a DNA profile upload, a network of volunteer genealogists could solve a case in as little as eight hours.
“I wish I could say this was an isolated incident, but it’s not,” Waterfield noted. “There have been many instances where significant time was spent raising funds, but once secured, our volunteers have solved cases in mere hours, days, or weeks, bringing closure to families for the first time in decades.”
If more funding were accessible, Waterfield emphasized, “we would witness countless cases being resolved right now.”
Claim Federal Funding
To combat the financial challenges in this sector, Osram is advocating for the Carla Walker Act, a federal law proposing $10 million annually in grants to law enforcement agencies unable to perform genetic genealogy research internally. It also aims to cover equipment enhancements for public crime labs to begin conducting forensic investigations independently.
“Neither one company nor ten can resolve the multitude of cases,” Mittelman stated. “What’s essential is the collaboration of hundreds of labs utilizing the latest technologies.”
Waterfield confirmed that the DNA Doe Project backs the legislation, which enjoys bipartisan support in both the House and the Senate. He believes the provisions in this funding legislation could help reduce research costs by giving law enforcement agencies a variety of options for genetic genealogy researchers.
Detective Sanchez, who has found herself raising funds for cold case investigations, stated this was something she never expected to do. She participated in a comprehensive video about the case released by her department in November and gave an interview on a true crime show’s livestream in December.
The fundraising campaign for Juanita Francisco’s case was launched on November 21st and reached its funding goal by early January.
Sanchez expressed relief, stating that she can now refocus on her investigation and is hopeful that new leads will help identify Francisco’s killer.
Becoming a birdwatching expert transcends mere hobby; it’s a transformative activity that can significantly enhance brain structure and function. Recent studies reveal that engaging in birdwatching may promote cognitive improvements, even as we age.
In a study conducted in Canada with 58 participants, brain imaging showed that expert birdwatchers exhibited increased tissue density in regions linked to attention and perception compared to novices. This heightened density suggests enhanced communication between neurons, which correlated with superior bird identification skills.
Lead author Eric Wing, while a postdoctoral fellow at the Rotman Institute of Baycrest Academy of Research and Education in Toronto, states, “Our brains are incredibly malleable.”
Learning a new skill triggers neuroplasticity, the brain’s ability to reorganize itself. While previous research has focused on professionals like athletes and musicians, Wing’s team aimed to study birdwatchers due to the unique cognitive challenges birdwatching presents.
“Birdwatching combines fine discrimination, visual searching, environmental attention, movement sensitivity, and intricate pattern detection,” Wing explained. “It also requires recalling what we’ve seen and comparing it to internal cognitive templates.” He is now a researcher at York University in Toronto.
MRI Scans Reveal Brain Differences
The study included 29 expert birdwatchers aged 24 to 75, recruited from organizations like the Toronto Ornithological Club and Ontario Field Ornithologists. Novices ranged from 22 to 79 and were from similar outdoor or hiking clubs.
While some participants had decades of birdwatching experience, expertise was assessed through screening tests rather than time spent birding.
During a bird matching task, experts demonstrated superior accuracy in identifying both local and exotic bird species compared to novices.
Surprisingly, Wing noted distinct neurological activity among the expert birdwatchers.
The researchers employed two types of MRI scans—diffusion and functional—to assess the participants’ brains.
Diffusion MRI revealed greater density in brain areas involved in working memory, spatial awareness, and object recognition among experts.
Functional MRI data highlighted active regions in expert brains during bird-matching tasks, especially when identifying unfamiliar species.
“These findings offer insights into the significance of these brain regions in developing expertise,” Wing noted. “Such skills are crucial for recognizing new and unidentified bird species.”
Cognitive Benefits for Older Birdwatchers
Experts showed structural brain differences irrespective of age. Though this study doesn’t definitively prove birdwatching prevents cognitive decline, it does suggest potential benefits for brain health in older adults, according to Molly Mather, a clinical psychologist from the Meshulam Institute for Cognitive Neurology and Alzheimer’s Disease at Northwestern University’s Feinberg School of Medicine.
“As populations age in the U.S. and globally, we lack treatments to halt or reverse aging and Alzheimer’s-related changes,” Mather, who wasn’t involved in the study, emphasized. “Establishing a scientific basis for recommendations is invaluable.”
Mather noted a chicken-and-egg dilemma in this study: Do brain differences stem from birdwatching, or do individuals with certain neural traits become adept birdwatchers?
Moreover, participants were drawn from active outdoor groups, potentially reflecting healthier lifestyles.
Benefits of Nature Engagement
Benjamin Katz, an associate professor at Virginia Tech’s Department of Human Development and Family Sciences, pointed out that other factors in birding could enhance brain health. Immersion in nature boosts alertness, walking mitigates cognitive decline risk, and social interactions might expedite processing speed.
“Birdwatching isn’t a one-dimensional activity,” Katz, also not part of the study, remarked. “Numerous cognitive factors are involved.”
Katz urged that future research should track novice birdwatchers over time to observe potential brain changes as they gain expertise.
“We lack clarity on baseline differences,” he pointed out. “Long-term data is essential for strong conclusions regarding the impacts of birding.”
The study authors suggested their methodology could explore brain reorganization related to other complex skills.
“Our passions and experiences, especially those cultivated over countless hours or years, leave a lasting imprint on our brains,” Wing concluded. “Identifying ways to leverage this accumulated knowledge can bolster cognitive function.”
Professor Hannah Fry introduces her new program, AI Confidential, which delves into the most significant narratives emerging from the forefront of the AI revolution.
This compelling three-part documentary series begins on Monday, February 23, on BBC Two, and follows individuals who utilize AI to replicate their deceased loved ones or to enhance driving experiences with the semblance of friends and family. We had the opportunity to chat with her to gain further insights.
What is your perspective on artificial romance?
While I personally wouldn’t engage, I find it to be a fascinating spectrum. It resembles interactive romantic fiction, which isn’t inherently wrong.
On one end, you might fully believe that the AI you’re interacting with embodies the essence of the person you love, while on the other, it can simply enhance your imagination. Ultimately, it’s not entirely negative.
Are we nearing a future where AI may replace human relationships?
I can’t definitively say it will happen, but there’s a possibility it might.
Society seems increasingly isolated; social interactions have shifted, with more individuals working from home and spending less time outside.
The emergence of personal friendships with AI could exacerbate this trend.
What concerns you most about AI?
AI holds the potential to alienate us from our humanity and hinder genuine connections. Unlike self-driving cars, the subtle dangers of AI distancing us from our relationships can be more insidious.
While AI is being integrated into therapy, there’s a danger that it reinforces our existing beliefs, leading to greater isolation.
After producing this series, I realized how easliy this could manifest. Using an AI as a therapist during conflicts may lead to a skewed perspective that you’re solely in the right.
In contrast, a human therapist encourages you to consider different viewpoints. AI isn’t designed to tackle complex emotional issues; it can make self-radicalization all too easy. When engaging with AI, I often ask, “Please tell me when I’m wrong; I need a challenge.”
In the first episode of AI Confidential, Fry visits the Netherlands to meet Jacob von Lier and his AI girlfriend – Credit: BBC / Curious Films / Harriet Bird
Can chatbot technology fill the void of loneliness?
Absolutely. However, if we dismiss the idea that AI can serve as therapists or empathetic companions, we risk overlooking the needs of the lonely and vulnerable. While in an ideal world, everyone would have meaningful connections, that is not our reality.
In AI Confidential, you meet Justin Harrison, who has developed AI capable of mimicking voices, allowing communication with departed loved ones. What are the implications of this grief technology?
It’s disconcerting that such technology targets people during their most vulnerable moments.
Initially, I was skeptical of Harrison’s perspective on grief, which suggested we should eliminate sadness entirely, reflecting an inability to accept death. This approach seemed irresponsible to me.
However, as I contemplated my own recent loss, I understood how this technology could be an extension of what people often do to cope with longing for loved ones. It could provide comfort at acute stages of grief, especially in cases of unexpected loss.
Although I didn’t anticipate becoming emotional on camera, sharing that moment was crucial, as it illustrated our deeply human story. Ideally, AI should enhance our humanity, not detract from it.
That moment deepened my empathy for those who experience isolation. We all seek connection.
Read more:
What are the risks associated with personal AI agents?
We’re on the brink of launching personal AI agents that could manage tasks online, such as planning vacations.
These agents will interact with corporate representatives, raising concerns about whether they will act in your best interest. As much of our infrastructure relies on the internet, catastrophic failures could occur.
Imagine if someone manipulated an AI to disrupt power supplies in major areas. The repercussions could escalate significantly.
Companies recognize these risks and are striving to mitigate them.
In the second episode of AI Confidential, Fry examines the safety and potential risks of self-driving cars, meeting individuals impacted by this technology, including Rafaela Vasquez – Credit: BBC / Curious Films / Harriet Bird
Will AI ultimately dominate the world?
Not if I have anything to say about it!
AI presents significant challenges, but when managed responsibly, it can serve as a powerful tool for good.
Currently, AI acts as a catalyst, streamlining tasks and enhancing skills. Many individuals benefit from using AI for educational purposes, making learning more efficient and developing new abilities.
AI could also lead to breakthroughs like unlimited clean energy or fresh water for all. We could even transform desert areas into flourishing ecosystems.
Humanity has largely existed in a world marked by scarcity, but with advances in AI, we may unlock realms of abundance, offering solutions to various ailments and societal challenges.
While these transformations won’t happen overnight, the potential remains significant.
How can we ensure AI benefits society?
Companies can take proactive steps, such as recognizing signs of distress or AI dependency during interactions.
We should prioritize concerns around AI, as awareness drives change.
This interview has been edited for length and clarity.
Tune into AI Confidential now on BBC Two or BBC iPlayer starting Monday, February 23rd.
A groundbreaking study by paleontologists at Yunnan University reveals that two Myrodonidae fish species, which thrived in what is now China approximately 518 million years ago during the Cambrian period, possessed a unique vision system featuring two large lateral eyes alongside two smaller central eyes.
An artist’s reconstruction of the four-eyed Myllokunmingiid that navigated the ancient world. Image credit: Xiangtong Lei and Sihang Zhang.
This primitive jawless fish, known as Myllokunmingiid, existed during the Cambrian period, a time marked by rapid evolutionary advancements in body structures and sensory systems as a response to increased predation.
Considered the oldest known vertebrates, these fascinating creatures challenge our understanding of early vision.
In a recent study, Professor Peiyun Cong and colleagues investigated a newly discovered fossil of Myrocunminidae, expertly preserved at the renowned Sumjiang Fossil Bed in southern China.
“These fossils maintain remarkable detail in their eye structures,” stated Professor Cong.
“Initially, we focused on the large eye to outline its anatomy and were astonished to discover two fully functional small eyes nestled between them. The excitement of this finding was immense.”
Modern vertebrates primarily rely on two eyes for vision.
The pineal gland, a brain structure, plays a crucial role in sleep regulation by producing melatonin in response to light exposure.
Interestingly, some fish, amphibians, and reptiles retain the ability to detect light through what is commonly referred to as a “third eye.”
The discovery of two Myrocunminidae provides evidence that early vertebrates possessed a well-developed pair of image-forming eyes, rather than a simple light sensor.
“Our findings suggest that the pineal gland originated as an imaging eye,” remarked Professor Cong.
“Over time, these structures diminished in size, lost their vision capabilities, and assumed their modern function in sleep regulation.”
Using a high-powered microscope, researchers identified melanosomes—pigment-containing organelles crucial for vision—across all four Myrocunminidae orders.
Chemical analyses confirmed the presence of melanin, the same pigment utilized in contemporary vertebrate vision.
Circular formations resembling lenses indicate that these eyes had the capacity to detect light and form images, offering direct evidence of an advanced visual system in early vertebrates.
Professor Sarah Gabot from the University of Leicester emphasized, “Fossilized eyes are extremely rare. It’s remarkable that delicate structures like eyes can survive hundreds of millions of years.”
“However, under optimal conditions, such preservation is achievable, unveiling crucial insights into how extinct species perceived their environment.”
“We speculated that these Chinese fossil eyes might be remarkably preserved, demonstrating light-absorbing pigments in their retinas and lenses, revealing the visual acuity of our early ancestors.”
The Cambrian seas presented perilous conditions, with emerging large predators threatening the small, vulnerable early vertebrates.
Dr. Jacob Binther, a paleontologist at the University of Bristol, noted, “In such an environment, having four eyes may have provided these organisms with a broader field of vision essential for evading predators.”
This discovery elucidates long-held questions about the origin of the pineal gland, offering the oldest known evidence of a camera-like eye in the fossil record.
“This finding reshapes our understanding of vertebrate evolutionary history,” stated Dr. Binther.
“It turns out our ancestors were visually sophisticated beings capable of surviving in a hazardous world.”
The study also prompts a reevaluation of the established notion of the vertebrate “third eye.”
“These early vertebrates possessed not only a third eye, but intriguingly, a fourth eye as well,” concluded Dr. Binther.
This discovery is detailed in a paper published in the journal Nature on January 21, 2026.
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X Ray others. 2026. Four camera-shaped eyes found in the earliest Cambrian vertebrates. Nature 650, 150-155; doi: 10.1038/s41586-025-09966-0
When discussing evolutionary biology, we often assume that the offspring of organisms belong to the same species. However, the European ant Messol Iberix challenges this notion. Recent studies in evolutionary ecology have uncovered that certain ants in the genus Messer are likely descended from two different species, leading to the term hybrids.
A groundbreaking study conducted by researchers at the University of Montpellier in France revealed that European ant queens are capable of producing worker ants through cloning hybrids from other ant species. This remarkable finding positions the European ant as the first known animal to spontaneously generate offspring from a different species, a process termed Heterogeneous parity, challenging preconceived notions in reproductive biology.
By investigating the population genetics of Messer ants and analyzing single DNA nucleotides at specific genomic locations, scientists discovered that all worker ants within the European ant species are hybrids. Genetic sequencing has confirmed that these worker ants inherit maternal genes from European ants and paternal genes from their closely related harvester ants, identified as messerstructor. The ecological implications of this hybridization are significant, especially since these two species typically do not coexist in Europe, raising questions about the origins of these hybrids.
To investigate further, researchers analyzed samples from wild European ant colonies. From 132 males across 26 colonies, they observed that 44% exhibited hairiness—a trait indicative of European ants—while the remaining 56% appeared hairless, typical of harvester ants. Through DNA and protein sequence analyses, they confirmed these physical differences stemmed from a mix of both European and harvester ant species, which diverged over 5 million years ago.
Interestingly, European ant queens engage in polygamy, mating with both European and harvester ant males. This dynamic means that to produce worker ants, European ant queens rely on sperm from harvester males, as sperm from European males produces only queens. Consequently, all worker ants are hybrids, meaning the survival of these colonies is dependent on the presence of male harvesters.
To solidify their hypotheses, researchers sequenced the mitochondrial genome, which is exclusively inherited from mother ants. Analyzing 286 eggs from five laboratory colonies, they discovered that 9% of the eggs laid by queens solely contained harvester ant DNA, supporting the idea that European ant queens can produce offspring without their own genetic material. This unique phenomenon, where males serve as the sole source of genetic inheritance, is termed androclonality or androgen.
Researchers believe that millions of years ago, when both species thrived in close proximity, European ant queens acquired sperm from wild harvester ant colonies to produce workers. As harvester ant populations declined in Europe, these queens adapted by storing sperm and began directly cloning males through their eggs, establishing a unique clonal lineage of male harvester ants that persists today.
The study indicated that a majority of hybrid workers within the colonies observed were fathered by male clones, although a small fraction came from male harvester ants. The genetic diversity among cloned males was notably lower than that found in wild males. Researchers noted distinct physical differences, akin to the contrast between domesticated cats and their wild counterparts, with cloned harvesters exhibiting reduced body hair compared to their wild relatives. This led the researchers to propose that these male clones should be classified as a domesticated variant of the harvester ant species.
While artificial cloning is generally recognized in scientific circles, the natural cloning adaptation observed in European ant queens highlights a fascinating survival strategy. Although their ability to clone males from another species has been established, the cellular and genetic mechanisms underlying this process remain poorly understood. Unraveling the evolutionary origins of this behavior and its implications for other species presents an intriguing challenge for the research team in France.
For more insights on this topic, check out the article: here.
Laws of Thinking By Tom Griffiths, William Collins (UK) / Macmillan (USA)
For nearly seven decades, cognitive researchers have debated the nature of intelligence. On one side is computationalism, which posits that intelligence can best be understood through rules, symbols, and logic represented in equations. The opposing view, connectionism, suggests that intelligence arises from interconnected networks mimicking brain neurons, where no single element is intelligent, but the system collectively exhibits intelligence.
This ongoing intellectual conflict influences fields ranging from cognitive science to the artificial intelligence (AI) that is currently reshaping the global economy. This month, we delve into two impactful books on the subject. Notably, Laws of Thought: Exploring a Mathematical Theory of Mind stands out. In this work, Princeton University professor Tom Griffiths investigates the long-standing efforts to formalize thinking within mathematical laws, elucidating the foundations of modern AI and its future trajectory.
Griffiths organizes his narrative around three competing mathematical approaches to formalizing thought: rules and symbols, neural networks, and probabilistic methods. The first approach treats cognitive processes as problem-solving endeavors, breaking tasks into smaller goals and adhering to formal methodologies. Although this reinforced early AI systems, it also illustrated why human common sense is challenging to codify, as the requisite rules quickly expand into millions of entries.
Neural networks forgo specific rules, opting instead for learning from examples, whereby simple units interact to yield complex behaviors. This mirrors human cognition to some extent. The introduction of probability and statistics adds another layer: uncertainty. The human mind operates without perfect information, adeptly weighing evidence and updating beliefs.
According to Griffiths, a comprehensive understanding of intelligence—whether human or machine—requires an integration of all three frameworks. By utilizing archival research and interviews with leading scholars, he outlines humanity’s historical attempts to quantify mental processes through mathematics, resulting in a detailed but engaging narrative.
In contrast, neuroscientists Gaurav Suri and Jay McClelland present a different perspective in Emergent Mind: How Intelligence Emerges in Humans and Machines. They argue that the mind emerges as a byproduct of an interacting network of neurons—biological or artificial—that fosters thoughts, emotions, and decision-making, building on McClelland’s foundation in connectionism.
These two titles provide fascinating yet contradictory insights into the generative AI revolution. For Griffiths, large-scale language models (LLMs) validate his hybrid perspective; they demonstrate remarkable capabilities, but their occasional errors necessitate a symbolic layer for correction. Conversely, Suri and McClelland view LLMs as a validation of their claims, highlighting the impressive inferencing accomplished purely through neural networks.
The piece focuses more on its content than on mere subject matter; its tone fluctuates between informal asides and awkward phrasing. Explaining mathematics and science can be inherently challenging, and while neither book is entirely comprehensible, Griffiths’ Laws of Thinking offers a clearer narrative as it discusses the historical context of AI.
The authors of Emergent Mind assert that there are no inherent limitations to developing autonomous, goal-driven AI using solely neural networks, presenting a provocative viewpoint that may feel somewhat disconnected from practical realities.
Griffiths’ book, however, equips readers with a solid understanding of the linguistic frameworks necessary to articulate our thoughts, illuminating why the future of intelligence consists of overlapping complexities.
Does this evolving landscape signal a potential reconciliation between these two schools of thought?
Recommended Reads on Machine Intelligence
Algorithm for Survival
Written by Brian Christian and Tom Griffith
This engaging, non-technical book offers insights into how computational ideas influence daily decision-making, illustrating how algorithmic strategies can enhance human judgment. Co-authored by Griffiths, it remains relevant even in the post-ChatGPT era.
AI Restart Building Reliable Artificial Intelligence
Written by Gary Marcus and Ernest Davis
This book argues that while contemporary neural networks are effective, they can be fragile. It advocates for a hybrid model that merges the strengths of both the connectionist and symbolic approaches discussed in Griffiths’ analysis.
Chris Stokel Walker – I am a technology writer based in Newcastle upon Tyne, UK.
Your friend might have a larger circle of friends than you do, but don’t take it personally; it’s all about network structure.
Friendship dynamics can be illustrated through networks. By representing each person as a node and drawing lines between friends, you can visualize social connections effectively. This approach helps articulate the bonds of friendship in both offline and online environments.
Such networks enable examination of intriguing questions, like the concept of degrees of separation. For instance, if someone is a friend of your friend, they are two degrees separated from you, while their friends fall into the three-degree category.
How many connections must you traverse to link two individuals? Connections often form clusters. For example, consider a distinct group of friends, like those from your neighborhood, workplace, or a hobbyist club like astrophotography. It’s likely that many individuals within this group are interconnected as friends, thereby increasing your direct friendship circle.
However, long-distance connections exist as well. A long-lost friend living abroad may belong to a separate circle of friends, all passionate about soap carving. These individuals represent your second-degree connections, regardless of your unfamiliarity.
This concept relates to the well-known theory of six degrees of separation. By exploring connections beyond your immediate circle, you can swiftly extend the reach of your network. For instance, a former colleague in London could be engrossed in wargames with a barista located near the Houses of Parliament and may soon find themselves just a few degrees away from shaking hands with the prime minister.
What about influential individuals? Within friendship networks, some people naturally possess more connections. Consider a hypothetical group of 20 where 15 are friends with Sandy and only 5 with Charlie. If you randomly select someone, there’s a 75% chance they’re linked to Sandy but only 25% tied to Charlie. Therefore, your circle of friends is not randomly selected; you’re more likely to befriend popular individuals, creating an impression that your friends are more socially connected than you.
This scenario, referred to as the friendship paradox, serves a purpose in discovering prominent individuals. If you randomly survey a group, you’ll observe an average number of connections. However, if you ask them to name a friend, they will likely identify someone with a greater network. Thus, the connections in this newly identified group are typically above average.
So, when it seems your friends are attending more social events, have broader professional networks, or are engaged in more activities than you are, remember: it’s a matter of network dynamics, not personal inadequacy.
Peter Rowlett | Mathematics lecturer, podcaster, and author at Sheffield Hallam University, UK. Follow me on Twitter @peterrowlett
International Women’s Day (IWD), celebrated annually on March 8, serves as a pivotal occasion within the “Awareness Calendar”—a framework for raising awareness about diverse global issues. Nevertheless, a common male response to IWD is, “When is International Men’s Day?” The answer, November 19, aims to highlight men’s challenges, including abuse, homelessness, suicide, and violence.
This dismissal of IWD underscores the persistent stigma surrounding men’s mental health. While societal attitudes towards mental health have evolved positively, men still struggle to express their issues openly. Statistics indicate that women are significantly more likely to discuss their mental health challenges.
A major reason for this disparity is the widespread misunderstanding about men’s mental health. Research shows that approximately 40% of people are unaware that men can experience postpartum depression. This is hardly surprising given prevailing societal norms surrounding parenting, which tend to prioritize the mother’s experience, often neglecting the father’s emotional state despite their increasing presence during delivery.
“ 40% of individuals are unaware that men can also experience postpartum depression “
Viewing mental health through a zero-sum lens is erroneous; extensive efforts are still required to comprehend how depression can manifest differently in men. Frequently, symptoms are characterized by withdrawal and risk-taking rather than overt sadness. While International Men’s Day aims to raise awareness, mere acknowledgment is insufficient. It is crucial for healthcare systems to prioritize mental health equally alongside physical health.
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While scrolling through TikTok, I stumbled upon a video featuring Donald Trump accusing CNN journalist Caitlan Collins of “not laughing” after she questioned him about the convicted sex offender Jeffrey Epstein.
Without a pause, I continued scrolling. I wasn’t angry, nor did I contemplate the implications of a president making such derogatory remarks. Yet, as I reflected on those comments while writing this piece, I realized how abhorrent, unprofessional, and sexist they truly were.
My brain didn’t fail to react out of indifference; it succumbs to a neurological phenomenon known as habituation. This led me to explore how it shapes our lives and our capacity to navigate it effectively.
Habituation is our brain’s method of normalizing experiences, allowing us to engage with life without becoming overwhelmed. It acts as a neural shortcut that enables us to filter out irrelevant information, preventing sensory overload.
At the café where I work, trance music plays, my ski jacket feels weighty, and bright lights flicker nearby. However, until I consciously recognized these stimuli, my brain had adapted to ignore them, allowing me to focus more readily.
Habituation liberates neural resources, enabling us to promptly detect new stimuli vital for survival. “This mechanism is essential for survival across all species,” states Tali Shallot from University College London.
This habit-forming capability assists us in managing grief, chronic pain, and in normalizing suffering, making life more navigable. A striking example arises from studies on individuals with locked-in syndrome; despite being entirely conscious yet unable to communicate verbally or move, most report satisfaction. Notably, those who’ve endured this condition longer are more inclined to express contentment with their quality of life.
Habit formation also fuels progress. As the initial excitement of a new job diminishes, satisfaction levels stabilize due to habituation. Shallot notes that this waning enthusiasm propels the desire for advancement. “Our responses to pleasure decrease over time, motivating exploration and progress.”
However, forming habits isn’t always beneficial. Ignoring chronic pain may result in delayed medical intervention, while normalizing detrimental behaviors at home or work can lead to accepting intolerable situations.
Compounding this issue, habituation can be a mental health concern. “Most mental health disorders involve some form of habituation disorder,” notes Shallot. Research indicates that those with depression are slower to recover from negative events, highlighting the struggle to adapt to distressing news.
Shallot’s recent, unpublished findings reveal another concerning aspect: frequent financial risk-takers become desensitized to risks over time. “I can see this pattern in stockbrokers,” Shallot remarks.
On a lighter note, habituation explains why our homes feel smaller over time and why new clothes quickly lose their appeal, often prompting excessive consumption.
Take a Step Back and Slow Down
Short Breaks Enhance Focus
Michael Wheatley/Alamy
How can we break the cycle of habituation? How do we train our brains to regain awareness?
One effective method is mindfulness, which encourages heightened awareness of the present. Research shows that awareness can influence eating habits. Consider how easily we overindulge when we’re not truly savoring our food.
Another strategy is to take breaks, which may seem counterintuitive. Researchers, including Leaf Nelson from UC Berkeley and Tom Meyvis from NYU, found that interrupting pleasurable activities, like music or holidays, can enhance enjoyment. Breaks disrupt routines, aiding in the process of novelty, while stepping away from unpleasant experiences may hinder habit formation and increase irritation.
Injecting novelty into your routine is also beneficial. Repeating the same route can dull excitement; try varying your jogging path or rearranging your furniture. “These small changes can reveal unexpected joys, presenting fresh information to the brain,” Shallot advises.
Particularly concerning, however, is our increasing habituation to social media. “In recent years, society has grown normalized to rude online behavior,” Shallot explains. Constant exposure to negative events dulls our reactions and alters our response to significant global issues, especially for children, who experience desensitization towards violence due to media exposure. Studies correlate media violence exposure with increased risks of violence later in life.
The simplest solution? Take a break. “We need to engage with the world anew,” Shallot concludes. “Small shifts can lead to impactful changes.”
I embraced this advice, deleting social media apps from my phone, planning several short vacations instead of one lengthy break, and even switching gyms for a change of scenery. I aspire that upon my return to social media, I will not just feel greater joy, but also experience a heightened emotional response, allowing my brain to discern what truly deserves my attention.
Climate change is potentially enhancing frogs’ mating rituals with a new study revealing fascinating insights.
Researchers from the University of California, Davis discovered that temperature significantly influences the quality of male frogs’ mating calls, with warmer weather leading to more alluring calls.
Typically, male frogs’ calls become less vibrant in early spring. However, as temperatures rise, their calls speed up, catching the attention of female frogs in search of a mate.
“Frog calls are greatly influenced by the environment’s temperature,” notes lead author Julian Pecny, a former graduate student in the Department of Wildlife, Fish, and Conservation Biology at UC Davis. Currently, she serves as the director of conservation science at the North Carolina Amphibian and Reptile Conservancy.
“As the pond warms, the male frog’s call shifts from a slow, dull sound to a quicker, almost urgent tone. Even humans can hear this change, and female frogs are attuned to it as well.”
The results of this study are published in Frontiers of Ecology and Environment, based on research conducted at Quail Ridge Ecological Reserve and Lassen Field Station, part of the UC Conservancy.
Pecny employed a microphone positioned at the edge of a pond to record the love songs of Sierran tree frogs, analyzing them against variations in water temperature.
Photo credit: Brian Todd/UC Davis. As temperatures rise, male Sierran tree frogs enhance their mating calls to signal to females that conditions for breeding are ideal.
Importantly, the researchers found that female frogs are not merely choosing the most attractive male singers; they are using call quality to assess whether environmental conditions are suitable for breeding.
“This could be a method for females to track changes in seasonality over time,” says Pekny. “As the pond gets warmer, the males’ enticing calls become faster.”
This phenomenon could have significant ramifications as our climate continues to warm. With 41 percent of amphibians at risk of extinction, understanding frogs’ breeding timing and its fluctuations is vital for conservation efforts.
Typically, male frogs arrive at the pond before females, starting their calls to compete for attention. However, females delay until conditions are right for their eggs to thrive, gathering essential information from the quality of the males’ calls.
“It’s crucial for males to reach the pond before their competitors,” stated co-author Brian Todd, a professor in the Department of Wildlife, Fish, and Conservation Biology at UC Davis. “Conversely, females should arrive only when it’s the right time for egg laying.”
This groundbreaking discovery could reshape our understanding of animal reactions to climate change and may also impact insect species that make courtship calls during this season.
Interestingly, it’s not only frogs that can hear these mating calls; humans can, too.
“If you listen carefully over several weeks, you might notice the difference,” Pekny suggests. “Imagine how female frogs identify male calls over the course of the season.”
Just when you thought Bambi couldn’t get any cuter, meet the Pudu, the world’s smallest deer. Slightly taller than domestic cats, these adorable creatures more than make up for their small size with immense charm.
With captivating doe eyes, a button-shaped nose, tiny feet, and perky ears, this small South American mammal looks like it just hopped out of a Disney movie.
There are two species of Pudu: the Southern Pudu and the Northern Pudu, also known as the Kitapudu.
The Southern Pudu, with its chestnut-colored fur, is native to the Valdivia temperate forest in south-central Chile and Argentina.
In contrast, the Kitapudu has a lighter coat and a darker face, primarily found in the Andes Mountains of Colombia, Venezuela, Peru, and Ecuador.
Adult Kitapudus weigh about the same as a domestic cat, but unlike felines, Pudus can be seen sporting charming headgear!
Each year, adult male Pudus grow a pair of distinctive, single-pointed horns that they use in playful “jousting” matches during the autumn mating season in the southern hemisphere. Males establish their territory and compete for dominance and mating rights.
However, Pudus are typically solitary creatures, only socializing during mating or when females are raising their fawns. In the wild, they can be quite elusive.
By day, they conceal themselves in dense forest undergrowth, but at night, they emerge to perform essential duties such as marking their territory and foraging for food.
When it comes to diet, Pudus prefer low-hanging fruit—both literally and figuratively. Due to their petite size, they thrive on plant material found at ground level, including herbs, ferns, bark, and fallen fruit.
If they desire a treat from higher up, Pudus will ingeniously stand on their hind legs or climb a branch. Observers have documented them using their front legs to bend or break seedlings to reach tender leaves.
These nervous creatures are easily startled. This makes sense, considering their young are prey for Andean foxes, long-eared owls, and pumas—animals that can threaten their existence.
When alarmed, Pudus emit a warning sound and quickly zigzag to safety in the underbrush.
Though they breed successfully in captivity, the same cannot be said for their wild counterparts. Pudus are increasingly threatened by habitat destruction due to cattle ranching, agriculture, and logging.
Additionally, some are captured for the pet trade or hunted with specially trained dogs. A recent study found that wild Pudus have also begun transmitting diseases from nearby livestock, emphasizing the urgent need to protect these charming animals.
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Don’t worry; you’re not alone in experiencing this unsettling phenomenon.
Since 2006, psychologists at the University of Notre Dame in Indiana have been researching a cognitive phenomenon known as the doorway effect. In a significant study, they utilized virtual reality technology to illustrate how volunteers who walked through a doorway into a different room exhibited a notable decline in their memory of the items within the room.
The researchers provide a three-part explanation for this intriguing effect. Our memories are categorized into episodes, and reminiscing about information from previous episodes can be challenging. Crucially, passing through a doorway generates a new episode or “event boundary,” complicating the recall of information from the prior memory episode.
These findings imply that doorways possess a fascinating effect on our cognitive processes. However, a team from the University of Queensland offered a more nuanced perspective. They found that moving through doorways leading to the same room had minimal impact on memory retention. This may be due to insufficient contextual changes to establish event boundaries. Interestingly, the doorway effect only influenced memory when participants were distracted by a secondary task during the transition.
The Queensland team’s observations align with daily experiences, where distractions often lead to forgetfulness about our initial intentions upon entering a new space. This suggests that the doorway effect is most pronounced when transitioning between significantly different contexts, such as moving from the living room to the garden.
These new insights also indicate potential strategies for mitigating forgetfulness. When you enter a room with a specific task in mind, try to concentrate on your goal. If that proves difficult, jotting down a note on your hand can be a helpful reminder.
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When you envision the North Pole, you likely imagine a vast, icy wonderland devoid of life. Noise might be the last thing on your mind.
However, recent findings from a study published in npj Acoustics reveal that the underwater soundscape is far more expansive and diverse than we previously thought. This raises crucial questions about how to monitor and protect this unique environment.
Analyzing a decade’s worth of underwater sound data from Cambridge Bay in the Canadian Arctic, researchers discovered that climate change is accelerating ice loss, reshaping the region’s underwater soundscape—an alteration that could have serious ramifications for local wildlife.
“Climate change is more than tripling in the Arctic, which means ice is melting faster, melting earlier, and reforming later,” stated Dr. Philippe Blondel, the lead author of the study and a senior lecturer in the Department of Physics at the University of Bath, UK, in an interview with BBC Science Focus.
“As a result, the Arctic becomes more accessible for human activities. Navigation becomes easier for ships in an ice-free environment. A key finding from our research is that while ships generate noise, they are not the only contributors.”
The study identifies that not only large ships—often the focus of noise pollution regulations—but also other significant sources such as snowmobiles, aircraft, and smaller vessels contribute to underwater noise. Many of these smaller noise sources evade detection by satellite systems, leading to gaps in models that rely solely on vessel position data.
Vital Arctic species, including whales and seals, depend on sound for communication, navigation, finding food, and evading predators. With increasing underwater noise both in frequency and volume, these essential communication tools are increasingly compromised.
Whales rely on sound production and hearing for survival – Photo courtesy of Getty
Dr. Blondel likens the situation to standing next to a busy freeway. “You might only hear the ambient noise, but when a motorcycle rushes by, that high-frequency noise disrupts your ability to hear music.”
“When a large truck thunders past, it becomes nearly impossible to hear anything else.”
In a similar manner, one sound source could disrupt a whale trying to communicate with its calves, while another noise at a different frequency might drive the whale away from critical feeding areas.
However, the research team is not advocating for total silence in the Arctic. Instead, Blondel proposes that environmental policies should encompass a broader array of frequencies beyond the narrow “transport bands” typically measured in protection frameworks, such as the European Maritime Strategy Framework Directive.
He recommends establishing stricter shipping routes in the increasingly ice-free Arctic and implementing varying speed limits depending on wildlife presence, as potential strategies to mitigate harmful noise pollution.
Yet, enforcing such regulations poses challenges, as they would need to encompass everything from large vessels to smaller crafts, and the region is bordered by multiple nations.
“My primary goal was to demonstrate that when assessing the ocean’s soundscape, we need to consider all sound sources, not just large ships,” Blondel emphasized. “But my overarching aim is to establish some form of framework in the Arctic. We must devise effective noise guidelines before the situation worsens further.”
Researchers have made a groundbreaking discovery of ancient bacteria trapped in ice. This ancient bacteria could provide insights into antibiotic resistance—and potentially exacerbate the existing problem.
A recent study published in Frontiers of Microbiology highlights the analysis conducted by Romanian scientists on the antibiotic resistance profiles of these ancient bacterial strains.
Known as Cyclobacter SC65A.3, these bacteria have been preserved for approximately 5,000 years beneath a thick layer of ice in Scalisoara Cave, located in northwestern Romania.
According to the study authors, “These ancient bacteria are invaluable for science and medicine; however, meticulous handling and laboratory safety measures are crucial to mitigate the risk of uncontrolled spread.” Dr. Cristina Purcarea, a Senior Researcher at the Institute of Biology, emphasized this point.
As antibiotic resistance continues to rise, conventional antibiotics may soon become ineffective in treating infections.
The issue of antibiotic resistance is largely driven by overuse. However, Professor Purcarea noted that Cyclobacter SC65A.3, recovered from thousands-of-years-old ice deposits, reveals the natural evolution of antibiotic resistance long before the introduction of modern antibiotics.
To recover this bacterial strain, scientists drilled a 25-meter ice core representing a 13,000-year timeline and transported the frozen samples in sterile bags to their laboratory.
Once in the lab, researchers analyzed the bacterial DNA embedded in the ice chips to explore how the bacteria survived such frigid temperatures and how they interacted with various antibiotics.
The bacterium was recovered from the great hall area of the Scalisoara cave in Transylvania, Romania – Credit: Getty Images
Scientists found that Cyclobacter possessed over 100 genes related to antibiotic resistance.
They tested these bacteria against 28 different antibiotics and discovered resistance to 10 of them, which included drugs used to treat infections of the lungs, skin, blood, reproductive system, and urinary tract.
Purcarea noted, “The 10 antibiotics to which we found resistance are commonly used in both oral and injectable therapies for a variety of serious bacterial infections in clinical settings.”
The findings suggest that strains capable of surviving in cold environments may serve as reservoirs for genes that aid in drug resistance.
“As the ice melts and releases these microorganisms, their resistance genes could spread to modern bacteria, further complicating the global issue of antibiotic resistance,” Purcarea explained.
Nevertheless, there is a silver lining. Cyclobacter SC65A.3 contains nearly 600 genes with unknown functions, including 11 genes that have the potential to kill other microorganisms or inhibit their growth.
This indicates that this strain could pave the way for the development of new treatments and therapies, particularly against major antibiotic-resistant pathogens.
In the iconic 1980 film Star Wars: The Empire Strikes Back, Han Solo and his crew brave the dangers of an asteroid field while fleeing Imperial forces. Droid C-3PO famously states, “The odds of successfully navigating the asteroid belt are about 3,720 to 1.”
This dramatic scene illustrates a chaotic asteroid field filled with swirling rocks, a scenario that has been widely depicted in cinema.
However, the truth about our solar system’s asteroid belt is quite different from Hollywood portrayals. Astronomers estimate that the average distance between asteroids in this belt is nearly 1 million kilometers, based on the volume of the belt and the estimated number and size of the asteroids.
As a result, navigating between asteroids is quite feasible due to the vast distances separating them.
In fact, numerous space probes have successfully traversed the asteroid belt. NASA’s Pioneer 10 was the first spacecraft to do so. On July 15, 1972, this car-sized probe entered the asteroid belt, embarking on a seven-month, 434 million km (267 million mile) journey through the main belt.
Initially, mission planners had limited data on the density of the asteroid belt, but their assumptions proved correct, allowing the spacecraft to pass through without incident.
Since Pioneer 10, eight additional spacecraft—including Pioneer 11, Voyager 1, Voyager 2, Ulysses, Galileo, Cassini, New Horizons, and Juno—have navigated the asteroid belt. Remarkably, none of these missions had to avoid asteroids, and none encountered problems.
Conditions may vary in other star systems, where asteroids could be more densely packed. However, such asteroid formations are generally unstable and do not persist for long due to frequent collisions and fragmentation.
Therefore, the typical science fiction image of a crowded, fast-moving asteroid swarm is unlikely to exist in reality.
This article answers the question posed by Suzanne Baxter of Cornwall: “How difficult would it be to fly through an asteroid belt?”
Here’s some good news: snakes rarely consume humans. However, there have been alarming reports, particularly in Indonesia, where several incidents over the last decade involved people being killed or swallowed by pythons. A notable case included a 45-year-old woman discovered fully clothed inside a 5-meter (16-foot) bloated python.
Nonvenomous snakes like pythons and boas typically use an ambush technique to capture prey. They grip their victims using backward-curved teeth and kill them by constricting their powerful bodies, which cuts off blood supply to vital organs, including the brain. This causes the prey to lose consciousness and die within mere minutes.
After immobilizing their prey, snakes swallow them whole, headfirst. Their unique skull structure allows them to consume animals significantly larger than their heads. For instance, the lower jaw is comprised of two halves connected by elastic ligaments, enabling the snake to stretch. Muscles in the digestive tract then aid in moving the prey to the stomach, where strong acids and enzymes break it down, allowing it to linger for days or even weeks.
The diet of a snake is closely linked to its size, ranging from insects, rodents, birds, and lizards, to monkeys, pigs, deer, and even crocodiles. Humans can pose a challenge due to their wider shoulder blades, which makes it difficult for snakes to constrict their jaws. Nevertheless, even small adults and children may fall victim to larger species.
Digestion of a human can take up to a month, including teeth and bones. Recent research has identified specific intestinal cells in pythons that effectively process substantial amounts of calcium and phosphorus from dissolved bone. However, snakes can’t digest keratin protein, so hair and nails remain intact. Additionally, clothing can complicate ingestion, leading to further challenges if a snake attempts to consume a human.
This article addresses a question posed by Southampton resident Lillian Hart: “What happens if I get eaten by a python?”
At high altitudes, red blood cells act like “glucose sponges,” potentially aiding in the regulation of blood sugar levels. A recent study highlights this fascinating discovery, with researchers aiming to develop innovative treatments for diabetes. They’ve even created a drug that replicates these effects in mice.
Research indicates that individuals living at high elevations, where oxygen is scarce, experience lower incidences of diabetes. In the United States, residents at altitudes of 1,500 meters (4,920 feet) are 12% less likely to develop diabetes compared to those living below 500 meters (1,640 feet).
The exact reasons for this phenomenon remain somewhat elusive, but a new publication in Cell Metabolism hints that red blood cells might be key, as our bodies produce an increased number of these cells under low oxygen levels.
To test this theory, researchers placed mice in a hypoxic environment, effectively lowering their blood oxygen levels. They observed that glucose from the blood was being absorbed by the red blood cells, which were now oxygen-deprived.
Red blood cells have often been overlooked because of their simplicity. In low oxygen conditions, bone marrow produces distinct types of red blood cells. – Credit: Getty
These red blood cells converted glucose into molecules that can release oxygen more readily.
Dr. Yolanda Martí Mateos, a postdoctoral fellow at the Gladstone Institute and lead author of the study, explained, “This enables red blood cells to effectively release the limited oxygen they carry to our tissues, essential for survival during hypoxia.” BBC Science Focus.
According to Dr. Martí Mateos, “Red blood cells produced in hypoxic conditions are unique and contain more glucose transporters than their normal counterparts.”
The research team aspires to use their findings as a “proof of concept” to inspire new approaches to diabetes treatment.
“We’re excited about a small molecule from our lab called HypoxyStat, which simulates the effects of hypoxia without reducing the oxygen we inhale,” Dr. Isha Jain, also from the Gladstone Institute, shared with BBC Science Focus.
In mice, the drug effectively reversed high blood sugar levels, demonstrating effectiveness far superior to existing treatments.
“There’s much work ahead before this reaches patients, but the biological insights are promising,” Jain noted.
Paleontologists have made an exciting discovery of a monumental new dinosaur species in a secluded area of the Sahara Desert. Named Spinosaurus mirabilis—which translates to “amazing spinosaurus” in Latin—this colossal creature roamed more than 95 million years ago in what is now Niger, far from the coastal regions typically associated with similar fish-hunting dinosaurs.
Measuring as long as a school bus and weighing several tons, Spinosaurus mirabilis stands out from other spinosaurs due to its distinctive scimitar-shaped crest on its head. This unique feature was so rare that researchers did not recognize its importance during the initial excavation in 2019; they only grasped its significance upon returning in 2022 to unearth additional specimens.
“This discovery was so sudden and surprising that it was incredibly exciting for our team,” said Paul Sereno, Professor of Organismal Biology and Anatomy at the University of Chicago. Sereno led the groundbreaking research, which was published in a 2016 Science study.
“I will cherish the moment we gathered around our laptops at camp to observe the new species for the first time, after one of our team members generated a 3D digital model of the bones we uncovered to assemble the skull. It was then that the full significance of the discovery became clear,” he added.
The interlocking upper and lower teeth of the skull form a lethal trap for slippery fish. Fish-eating is a proven adaptation found in ichthyosaurs, crocodiles, and pterosaurs, and distinguishes Spinosaurus from its dinosaur relatives. – Photo credit: Keith Ladzinski
Previous Spinosaurus fossils are mainly found near ancient coastlines. These dinosaurs, characterized by their long snouts and conical teeth reminiscent of modern crocodiles, were exceptionally adapted for hunting fish.
The extent of their aquatic capabilities is still debated, with some researchers asserting they were powerful swimmers, while others believe they spent most of their time paddling through shallow waters.
Interestingly, S. mirabilis was discovered hundreds of kilometers away from the nearest coast. Researchers propose that this region of Niger may have once been a lush forest landscape crisscrossed by rivers, rather than a coastal area.
Ana Lazaro, a participant in the 2022 Niger Expedition, holds the third and most complete head print known from the new spinosaurid Spinosaurus mirabilis. – Photo credit: Alvaro Simarro
“I envision this dinosaur had no difficulty entering 2 meters (6.5 feet) of water with its robust legs, but likely spent most of its time stalking through shallower areas, hunting for the day’s many large fish,” Sereno remarked.
Nevertheless, many mysteries remain about this new species and its closely related counterparts in the Spinosauridae family.
“This new discovery will only enhance its mystique,” said Steve Brusatte, a professor and paleontologist at the University of Edinburgh, who was not involved in the study. BBC Science Focus.
“This surprising discovery underscores that there is still much to learn about Spinosaurus. While dinosaurs have long been shrouded in enigma, each new fossil sheds light on their true nature, bringing Spinosaurus into clearer focus.”
Archaeologists excavating a training dig near Cambridge have discovered chilling burial pits that may shed light on the violence and punishment during England’s turbulent Viking Age.
The site, excavated by a team from Cambridge University in Wandlebury Country Park, presents a daunting puzzle. Four nearly intact skeletons lie alongside disturbingly fragmented bones, including skulls, legs, and pelvises, seemingly grouped or stacked upon one another.
“Unique is the right word,” said Dr. Oscar Aldred, an archaeologist with the Cambridge Archaeology Unit, in an interview with BBC Science Focus. “I’ve been doing this job for 30 years, and I’ve never encountered anything like this.”
The macabre nature of this find is underscored by the four complete human bones, which appear to have been deposited shortly after death. One individual was decapitated, with a noticeable cut on his jaw.
The ruins were uncovered by undergraduate students during a training excavation last spring and summer. Photo credit: Cambridge Archaeological Unit/David Matzliach
Notably, the decapitated man, estimated to stand 196 cm (6 feet 5 inches) tall, was found face down, with his hands and feet likely bound. His height was extraordinary, especially at a time when the average man measured only 168 cm (5 ft 6 in).
His skull is particularly intriguing, featuring a healed hole that suggests trepanation—an ancient surgical procedure involving drilling into the skull.
“[The hole] indicates he was likely in the healing process,” stated Dr. Trish Beers, Curator of the Duckworth Collection at the University of Cambridge, in a piece for BBC Science Focus.
Trepanation was a common practice in antiquity, found in cultures from Greece and Rome to South America. It was often employed to treat conditions like migraines and seizures.
Dr. Beers speculated that this individual may have suffered from a tumor on the pituitary gland, which can cause excess growth hormone.
In the late 8th century, Cambridge was under the control of Offa, the ruler of the Mercian kingdom, but by the late 9th century, Vikings had established a presence nearby. Photo credit: Cambridge Archaeological Unit/David Matzliach
Adding to the grim nature of the burial site, layers of dismembered individuals were found atop the skeletons, with body fragments separated at joints.
“The combination of an articulated individual in a group of bodies, with five skulls and pelvises almost stacked on each other, is truly eerie,” stated Aldred. “What transpired here was undeniably frightening.”
Radiocarbon dating indicates that these deaths occurred during the tumultuous 8th and 9th centuries, a period when Cambridgeshire served as a volatile frontier between Anglo-Saxon Mercia and Viking-ruled East Anglia.
The identity of the deceased remains a mystery: were they Anglo-Saxon captives or Vikings themselves?
Ongoing analyses, including ancient DNA and isotope testing, aim to reveal more about these individuals and their origins.
“I want to go beyond the fact of their death and humanize these people,” Aldred emphasized. “We should not only explore how they died but also understand who they were.”
Dolphins are known for their playful behavior, often observed holding puffer fish in their mouths. When frightened, these fish inflate with seawater, resembling a spiky tennis ball, which the dolphins spin and toss into the air.
Experts suggest that this may be part of the dolphins’ innate playful repertoire, although the exact reason remains uncertain. It’s possible that young dolphins are honing their echolocation skills, locating pufferfish on the ocean floor and engaging with them like a cat teasing its prey.
Interestingly, dolphins seem aware of the fact that puffer fish contain tetrodotoxin, a potent toxin. If they intended to consume the fish, they would likely stop playing and eat them. Instead, they delicately hold the pufferfish in their mouths without causing damage.
Another intriguing theory is that dolphins might be seeking a mild high from the chemicals released by pufferfish. Their playful interactions could be a way to experience these effects in a safe manner.
Dolphins are known for their playful interactions with various marine species – Credit: Getty
Moreover, dolphins are also seen tossing octopuses before consuming them. This behavior has a practical advantage: it eliminates the choking hazard posed by the numerous suckers on the inside of their throat.
Some animal games remain a mystery. For example, killer whales, celebrated for their intelligence and social behavior, exhibited a peculiar trend in the 1980s off Washington state’s coast, where a pod began carrying dead salmon on their heads. This behavior initiated with a single female and soon spread to the rest of the pod.
Though this trend faded by 1988, it resurfaced in 2024, making dead fish hats fashionable once more among killer whales. This peculiar behavior raises questions: Are they saving treats for later, or is it a playful game with unknown rules?
This article addresses the question, “Are there any animals that use other animals for sport?” submitted by Jeanie Holmes.
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You can be compensated for your online posts, provided they are utilized for AI training.
According to Dr. Margaret Mitchell, the chief ethics scientist at Hugging Face, an open-source AI company, there is a pressing need for AI firms to trace AI-generated content back to its original creators.
“Many creators—including artists, writers, and everyday users—are losing out on compensation for their contributions,” she stated during her talk at AI Everything in Cairo, Egypt.
“I envision a future where we can truly identify the sources of input that make AI outputs possible and adequately reward them.”
Generative AI heavily relies on certain creators more than others. Some AI-generated works exhibit distinct links between input and output, such as a recognizable writing style or an artist’s signature.
Recently, renowned Japanese animator and film director Hayao Miyazaki criticized AI-generated images that mimic the unique style of his Studio Ghibli films.
But the issue extends beyond musicians and artists, as large-scale language models (LLMs) like ChatGPT and Google Gemini are trained on extensive online resources.
AI companies frequently “harvest” data from the internet to train their LLMs. – Credit: Getty
“We are all creators,” Mitchell emphasized, as reported by BBC Science Focus. It is essential that reward models recognize contributions from all online users, whether it’s a poem or a vacation sunset photo taken five years ago.
Fortunately, there are emerging models that can track the relationship between input and output, rewarding creators based on their contributions.
However, such a system is not yet in place, and existing AI business models hinder the funding required to develop it, Mitchell said, although some AI companies are exploring potential solutions.
For instance, in a document from 2021, AI company Anthropic’s CEO Dario Amodei proposed a “crazy idea” for a reward distribution model akin to the monetization platform Patreon, which was recently opened by court order.
Mitchell noted that existing LLMs could implement known technological strategies to facilitate this model. Clustering algorithms, for example, could help track similarities and attribute authorship.
To maintain user privacy, this model would require consent, allowing users to opt in for their data to be linked to their identity (with compensation) or remain anonymous.
“To foster innovation, we need to pave the way for this kind of research,” Mitchell asserted. “Currently, the path forward is completely closed.”
I used to love walking. In my youth, an ideal afternoon meant venturing into the woods, letting my feet lead the way. Now, as I near 40, I’ve realized my knees aren’t what they once were and emit an “umm” sound whenever I stand.
So when I had the chance to test an exoskeleton to ease my aching joints, I felt intrigued, especially since I’d be using it to hike the rugged Snowdonia area, home to Wales’ highest mountain.
This adventure offered a chance to reclaim hobbies lost to city life and aging, not to mention the excitement of living out my sci-fi fantasy of becoming a cyborg!
Your Legs Are Stronger
The term “exoskeleton” often brings to mind images of clunky robotic suits, similar to Ripley’s Power Loader from Alien. Yet, despite being marketed as an exoskeleton, the Hyper Shell X Ultra feels more akin to a climbing harness.
This lightweight device weighs just 1.8 kg (3.9 lbs) and can be strapped to your waist or thigh. Equipped with sensors, the £1,599 gadget monitors my movements while AI algorithms learn my walking patterns, predicting when I’ll take a step. Once it senses motion, an electric motor assists in lifting my leg, making movement easier.
The app guided me through setup, taking only about 15 minutes to learn how to use the device. Initially, my legs felt like a marionette controlled by an unseen puppeteer, but I quickly acclimated.
The Idea Behind the Hypershell
On its lowest setting, this exoskeleton assists in covering up to 30 km (18.6 miles) on a single battery charge. For tougher terrains, like steep inclines, the “Hyper” setting offers significant aid, though at the cost of range.
For this reason, each exoskeleton is equipped with an additional battery pack, weighing only 400g (0.8lb) for easy transport.
With 12 different modes for varied activities, including running, cycling, and uphill hiking, there’s even a workout mode that allows for resistance training against leg movement.
Hypershell X Ultra provides electric assistance to reduce the strain of walking – Ezzy Pearson
Full Power
As we started our hike in beautiful sunshine (rare for an autumn day in North Wales), I realized my main challenge as a walker is climbing. I can walk for hours on flat terrain, but even a slight incline can cause discomfort in my calves.
However, today, I ascended the first long uphill path cheerfully, chatting with companions without losing my breath.
Although this route was meant to challenge us and the X Ultra, we soon encountered loose rocks and nearly vertical scree.
As panic set in, I switched to full power and geared up for the climb. Despite the assistance, it was still demanding, and I broke a sweat without feeling the usual burn in my thighs.
Reaching the Elidir Faur Plateau, we were rewarded with breathtaking views of sunlight dancing on the lake below. The serene breeze and warm sun made me feel one with nature until the X Ultra began jerking my leg unexpectedly.
Even on full power, every time I shifted my weight, the device anticipated my next step. The sensation was akin to Wallace and Gromit: The Wrong Trousers. Once I adjusted the power, my legs regained control.
Without the exoskeleton, that climb would have been insurmountable, or it would’ve taken me significantly longer. Instead, I was able to explore the plateau and bask in the beauty of endless mountains and grazing sheep.
However, an hour later, during the next steep ascent, I felt fatigue despite not feeling tired or experiencing burning legs.
The X Ultra exosuit, while empowering, led to overconfidence. I neglected to rest and fuel my body when I should have. I quickly regretted this decision.
Fortunately, I had a chocolate bar to replenish my energy until the next rest stop. In similar situations, hikers can become so fatigued that they may require rescue. Fortunately, exoskeletons are being utilized by various search and rescue teams across the U.S. and China to assist weary hikers back to safety.
Exoskeletons are also beneficial for individuals facing mobility challenges. One fellow hiker had a knee injury, yet with device adjustments, she hoped her weakened leg could keep pace with her robust knee (although she was cautious about overexertion).
Ezzy climbs a Welsh mountain with the help of cyborg-enhanced legs – Ezzy Pearson
Supports Your Legs
One zone where the Hypershell fell short was during the final descent through a section known as Devil’s Kitchen. At times, the exoskeleton hindered movement; I found myself stuck on a narrow path and had to slide down.
Ultimately, we completed the hike just as the sun set. We spent nine hours on the trail, utilizing the Hypershell the entire duration. Without this exoskeleton, reaching the top in time for the golden light cascading over the mountain would have been nearly impossible.
While our hike aimed to explore the capabilities of the X Ultra, I am truly hopeful for its future potential.
Living in a walkable city, my main modes of transport and exercise revolve around foot travel. However, navigating the hilly terrain, characterized by some of Britain’s steepest roads, means I often face a challenging climb on my way home.
After my experience with the Hypershell, I’ve managed to make it home on foot until now, but my joints are becoming increasingly creaky. It’s comforting to know that options like this exist for when that day inevitably arrives.
And let’s be honest—becoming a cyborg is pretty remarkable.
Whether you’re strategizing your chess moves, exploring high-scoring options in Scrabble, or crafting your investment plan in Monopoly, board games are an excellent avenue for enhancing your cognitive skills. Engaging in these games demands a variety of mental faculties, including problem-solving, critical thinking, decision making, memory retention, and concentration, while also providing a valuable platform for face-to-face social interaction.
Given their cognitive and social advantages, it’s no wonder that playing board games can support brain health as you age.
Board games are essential for brain development – Photo credit: Getty Images
Specific games, such as chess, have been extensively studied for their ability to strengthen mental skills. A 2025 review of neuroimaging studies comparing expert and novice chess players revealed that seasoned players exhibit higher brain activity and connectivity in regions related to visual processing, spatial awareness, and decision-making.
For enthusiasts of tabletop role-playing games like Dungeons & Dragons, there’s encouraging news as well. A 2024 study from University College Cork found that these games offer escapism, creative expression, and social support, significantly enhancing players’ mental health.
The board game industry is flourishing, with countless options available and dedicated cafes and bars emerging where you can enjoy them. If you’re searching for a delightful way to spend a rainy afternoon, immersing yourself in a good game is definitely a worthwhile option.
This article addresses the question, “Are board games good for the brain?” posed via email by Ray Townsend.
Latest orbital data indicates that Mars’ recently active volcanic system is more than just a one-time eruption. Long-lasting magma conduits under Mount Pavonis, one of Mars’ largest volcanoes, have reformed lava flows over time, illuminating distinct eruption stages and evolving chemical signatures. These findings enhance our understanding of Mars’ internal dynamics and the processes through which rocky planets mold and alter their surfaces.
This perspective map from ESA’s Mars Express displays three of Mars’ iconic giant volcanoes: Mount Arsia, Mount Pavonis, and Mount Askreus. Image credit: ESA / DLR / FU Berlin.
What seems to be a solitary volcanic eruption often stems from intricate processes occurring deep beneath the surface of Mars, where magma shifts, evolves, and transforms over an extended timeframe.
To comprehensively understand volcanic activity, geoscientists analyze volcanic ejecta from the planet’s surface, unveiling concealed magma systems that significantly influence eruptions.
This groundbreaking study, spearheaded by Bartosz Pieterek from Adam Mickiewicz University, demonstrates that such complexities are also applicable to Mars.
By integrating detailed surface mapping with orbital mineralogy data, researchers meticulously reconstructed the volcanic and magmatic evolution of the region south of Mount Pavonis in unprecedented detail.
“Our research reveals that even during Mars’ recent volcanic activity, the subsurface magma system remained intricate and dynamic,” stated Dr. Pieterek.
“Volcanoes did not erupt just once; they evolved in response to changing underground conditions.”
This study highlights that the volcanic system progressed through various eruptive stages, transitioning from early fissure-induced lava flows to late point-source activity that produced cone-shaped vents.
Despite the differing appearances of these lava flows, they all originate from the same foundational magma system.
Each eruption phase leaves distinct mineral signatures, enabling scientists to trace the evolution of magma over time.
“The variations in these minerals signify that the magma itself was undergoing evolution,” Pieterek noted.
“This likely reflects shifts in the depth of magma origins and the time it spent underground before erupting.”
“Currently, direct sampling of Martian volcanoes isn’t feasible, making studies like this essential for gaining insights into the structure and evolution of Mars’ interior.”
“This discovery underscores the power of orbital observations in revealing the hidden complexities of volcanic systems on Mars and other rocky planets.”
Find out more in the study published in the Journal of Geology on January 29, 2026.
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Bartosz Pieterek et al. Spectral evidence for magma differentiation within the Martian plumbing system. Geology, published online on January 29, 2026. doi: 10.1130/G53969.1
The European Space Agency’s (ESA) pioneering ExOPlanet satellite, CHEOPS, has uncovered a remarkable four-planet system. Notably, the outermost planet is a small rocky world instead of a gas giant, challenging previous assumptions about planet formation. This intriguing configuration surrounding the nearby red dwarf star LHS 1903 indicates that the outermost planet may have formed significantly later than its counterparts, providing compelling evidence that planets can develop in gas-poor environments—conditions once deemed impossible.
Artist’s impression of the four-planet system around LHS 1903. Image courtesy of ESA/ATG Europe.
LHS 1903 is an M dwarf star located approximately 116.3 light-years away in the constellation Lynx.
This star, also referred to as TOI-1730 or G 107-55, is cooler and less luminous than our Sun.
The planet sequence around LHS 1903 begins with the rocky planet LHS 1903b, followed by two gaseous planets, LHS 1903c and LHS 1903d—a pattern that aligns with expectations.
However, astronomer Thomas Wilson from the University of Warwick, along with his team, discovered a surprising fourth planet on the system’s outer edge, which is rocky rather than gaseous.
“This creates an inside-out planetary arrangement: rock → gas → gas → rock,” said Dr. Wilson.
“Typically, rocky planets are expected to form close to their host star.”
Current scientific models suggest that planets closest to a star are often rocky, as stellar radiation can strip away gaseous atmospheres, leaving behind dense, solid cores.
In contrast, gas giants form in cooler regions where they can retain gas.
However, LHS 1903e seems to have lost its gaseous atmosphere or may never have had one.
“The mystery surrounding planet formation and evolution remains significant,” stated Dr. Maximilian Günther, CHEOPS project scientist and ESA astronomer.
“Discovering clues like this is precisely what CHEOPS aims to achieve.”
The research team explored various hypotheses about the unusual formation of this rocky planet.
For instance, could it have been impacted by a giant asteroid or other large object that stripped away its atmosphere?
Or was there a gravitational exchange in the configuration of the planets over time?
Through simulations and orbital calculations, researchers ruled these scenarios out.
Instead, they presented a more fascinating explanation: the planets may have formed sequentially rather than simultaneously.
“By the time this exoplanet formed, the system may have been void of the gases typically necessary for planet formation, yet here we find a small, rocky world defying all expectations,” Dr. Wilson added.
“This could be the first evidence of planets forming in so-called gas-deficient conditions.”
A study detailing this groundbreaking discovery has been published in the latest issue of Science.
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Thomas G. Wilson et al. Formation of gas-deficient planets in a four-planet system around the red dwarf star LHS 1903. Science published online on February 12, 2026. doi: 10.1126/science.adl2348
In a recently submitted research paper to be published in the Planetary Science Journal, scientists from the SETI Institute, Southwest Research Institute, California Institute of Technology, and Paris Observatory propose a revolutionary theory regarding Saturn’s moons. Titan and Hyperion, previously thought to be primordial bodies, are actually the result of a dramatic merging of two ancient moons. This groundbreaking discovery could redefine our understanding of Titan’s thick atmosphere and possibly shed light on the formation of Saturn’s iconic ring system.
This mosaic of Saturn and its largest moon Titan combines six images (two each with red, green, and blue spectral filters) to create a naturally colored view. The image was captured using Cassini’s wide-angle camera on May 6, 2012, from approximately 778,000 km (483,000 miles) away. Image credit: NASA / JPL-Caltech / Space Science Institute.
In the upcoming paper, researchers including Matiya Chukku propose a new model describing the recent dynamical evolution of Saturn’s satellite system.
The scientists explain, “This phenomenon is driven by the youthful appearance of Saturn’s rings, the dynamic youth of its medium-sized moons, the rapid tidal migration of Titan, its changing tilt and eccentricity, and the recent escape from a postulated spin-orbit resonance with the planet.”
The study contends that Hyperion, a small, irregular moon in a 4:3 orbital resonance with Titan, is significantly younger than previously believed.
The moon’s current elongated orbit suggests Titan has migrated outward by approximately 4 to 5 percent since these two moons became gravitationally locked.
Researchers posit this gravitational resonance likely formed just 400 to 500 million years ago.
To explain Hyperion’s apparent youth, a scenario is proposed where an additional medium-sized moon, dubbed ProtoHyperion, once orbited between Titan and Iapetus.
As Titan’s orbit expanded, this system experienced instability, forcing Proto-Hyperion into a chaotic trajectory, ultimately leading to a collision with Titan.
This merging event disrupted the established spin-orbit resonance between Saturn and Titan, altering Saturn’s axial tilt.
Simultaneously, debris from this collision may have accumulated on modern-day Hyperion, whose low density and high porosity indicate it is likely a conglomerate of debris rather than a pristine structure.
Numerical simulations conducted by the research team indicated that such conditions would lead to frequent collisions between Titan and the hypothesized additional moon.
Throughout its evolution, Iapetus acquired orbital characteristics similar to those observed today, consistent with the gravitational disruptions during this dynamic instability.
These simulations further reveal that Titan’s orbit typically expanded during the merger, allowing ongoing tidal migration, potentially facilitated by resonant interactions within Saturn.
This instability may not have been confined solely to the outer regions of the Saturn system.
Scientists suggest that an eccentric Titan, influenced by this event, may have destabilized Saturn’s inner satellites through resonant interactions.
Collisions and re-accretion among these moons may have resulted in the material that constitutes Saturn’s current ring system.
Previous evidence has hinted at the relatively young age of Saturn’s rings, estimated to be hundreds of millions of years old, based on their mass, composition, and interactions with adjacent moons.
The new model aligns the timing of these events with the creation of Hyperion and the restructuring of Saturn’s external satellite system.
Cassini passed Hyperion on May 31, 2015, at a distance of approximately 21,000 miles (34,000 km). This image was captured during Cassini’s flyby on September 26, 2005, showcasing vivid details across Hyperion’s unique, rolling surface. Differences in color may indicate varying compositions of the surface material. Image credit: NASA / JPL-Caltech / Space Science Institute.
“Hyperion, the smallest of Saturn’s major moons, has provided crucial insights into the history of the Saturnian system,” said Dr. Chukku.
“In simulations where additional satellites became unstable, Hyperion was frequently lost and survived only under rare conditions.”
“Our research concluded that the gravitational locking between Titan and Hyperion is relatively recent, dating back just a few hundred million years.”
“This timeframe aligns with the disappearance of the hypothesized additional moon.”
“If this additional moon merged with Titan, it could have created debris in Titan’s vicinity, which aligns with where Hyperion eventually formed.”
The authors also evaluate Rhea’s history, noting that its rapid outward migration suggests crossing a so-called valgus resonance with the Sun in recent geological time.
Such dynamic indicators are more consistent with systems that have recently experienced large-scale transformations rather than those unchanged for billions of years.
“Although these events occurred hundreds of millions of years ago and are challenging to confirm directly, recent observations consistently challenge previous models and unveil new dynamical pathways,” the researchers concluded.
“Our hypothesis predicts a dynamically active and relatively young Saturn system, shaped by recent dramatic events.”
“Future orbital, geophysical, and geological data, especially from missions targeting Saturn’s moons, will be crucial in validating this scenario.”
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Matiya Chukku et al. 2026. Origin of Hyperion and Saturn’s rings in the Two-Stage Saturn System Instability. Planetary Science Journal in press. arXiv: 2602.09281
Utilizing archival data from NASA’s NEOWISE mission alongside information from various space and ground-based observatories, astronomers have uncovered a remarkable observational record of a massive star’s transition into a black hole—a phenomenon previously theorized but seldom witnessed.
The location and disappearance of M31-2014-DS1. Image credit: De et al., doi: 10.1126/science.adt4853.
In their final stages, massive stars often undergo instability, expanding and exhibiting significant fluctuations in brightness that can be observed by humans.
Typically, these stars meet their end in spectacular supernova explosions, which are incredibly luminous and readily detectable.
However, it is theorized that not all massive stars culminate in such explosive deaths.
In some cases, a star’s core collapses, causing the outer materials to fall inward, leading to the creation of a black hole.
These failed supernovae are particularly challenging to identify due to their weak energy signatures, often appearing as stars that simply vanish from sight.
Columbia University astronomer Kisharai De and colleagues leveraged lengthy infrared observations from the NEOWISE mission to investigate variable stars within the Andromeda Galaxy, leading to the discovery of the rare supergiant star M31-2014-DS1.
During 2014, this star brightened in mid-infrared light; however, from 2017 to 2022, it dimmed by around 10,000 times in optical light (rendering it undetectable) and about tenfold in total light.
Subsequent observations using Hubble and large terrestrial telescopes revealed faint red remnants detectable in near-infrared light, indicating the star is now heavily obscured by dust, or a shadow of its former supergiant self from years past.
Researchers interpret these findings as evidence of a failed supernova explosion, resulting in the birth of a stellar-mass black hole.
“The star’s dramatic and sustained dimming is extremely unusual, indicating the core did not explode as a supernova but collapsed directly into a black hole,” stated Dr. De.
“It was long assumed that stars of this mass always explode as supernovae.”
Their observations challenge the belief that stars of equivalent mass either necessarily explode or fail to do so, likely influenced by chaotic interactions between gravity, gas pressure, and powerful shockwaves within a dying star.
Dr. De and his fellow scientists identified M31-2014-DS1, another giant star that may have met a similar fate as NGC 6946-BH1.
This study advances our understanding of the fate of the star’s outer layers post-supernova failure and collapse into a black hole.
Interaction among these elements, particularly convection influenced by temperature variances within a star, plays a crucial role.
The internal regions are extremely hot compared to the cooler outer areas, resulting in gas movement from hotter to cooler zones.
Even after a star’s core collapse, gases in the outer layers continue to move rapidly due to convection currents.
Theoretical models suggest that these currents prevent most outer layers from plunging directly into the core. Instead, the innermost layer orbits the black hole, allowing for the ejection of the outermost layers in the convective region.
As the ejected material cools while moving from the surrounding heat of the black hole, it forms dust as atoms and molecules condense.
This dust obscures the hot gas orbiting the black hole, warming it and creating brightness observable at infrared wavelengths.
This lingering red glow remains visible long after the star has vanished.
“The accretion rate is significantly slower than if the stars collided directly,” asserted Andrea Antoni from the Flatiron Institute.
“This convective material possesses angular momentum, causing it to rotate in a circular motion around the black hole.”
“Consequently, the process takes decades instead of months or years to unfold.”
“All these factors contribute to a brighter source than otherwise anticipated, leading to a prolonged delay in the dimming of the original star.”
For further insights, refer to this paper. The findings are published in this week’s edition of Science.
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Kisharai De et al. (2026). Massive stars in the Andromeda Galaxy vanish due to black hole formation. Science 391(6786): 689-693; doi: 10.1126/science.adt4853
New genetic and proteomic analysis reveals that from 73,000 to 20,000 years ago, the Japanese archipelago was home to the cave lion (Panthera spelea). This insight contrasts with previous beliefs that the region was primarily a refuge for the Tiger (Panthera tigris).
A cave lion painted at the Chauvet Cave in France.
Lions and tigers were apex predators during the Late Pleistocene, playing vital roles in the East Asian megafauna ecosystem.
“Since their emergence around 2 million years ago, lions and tigers have been dominant apex predators, shaping the evolution of other carnivores and influencing herbivore populations through predation,” stated researchers Shu-Jin Luo and colleagues from Peking University.
“About a million years ago, as lions migrated from Africa, they expanded their ranges in Eurasia, becoming important competitors.”
“However, due to significant habitat contraction from anthropogenic activities in the early 20th century, their ranges no longer overlap, with the closest populations now over 300 km apart in India.”
“In contrast, during the Late Pleistocene, lions and tigers frequently coexisted within the lion-tiger transition zone, which extends from the Middle East through Central Asia to the Far East,” the researchers indicated.
The Japanese archipelago, the easternmost part of this zone, was historically viewed as a refuge for tigers, yet the identity of these big cat subfossils was uncertain.
To explore the origins and evolutionary history of Japan’s Pleistocene feline populations, researchers examined 26 subfossils unearthed from various sites in the Japanese archipelago.
“Using advanced techniques such as mitochondrial and nuclear genome hybridization, paleoproteomics, Bayesian molecular dating, and radiocarbon dating, we surprisingly discovered that all ancient remains identified as ‘tiger’ were actually cave lions,” the team said.
Despite the low endogenous DNA content in most samples, scientists successfully retrieved five near-complete mitochondrial genomes and one partial nuclear genome.
The phylogenetic analysis indicated that the Japanese specimens formed a distinct monophyletic group within the Late Pleistocene cave lion lineage, designated as Speller-1.
Nuclear genome analysis of well-preserved specimens confirmed these findings, clearly differentiating the lion lineage from tigers.
Paleoproteomic analysis identified unique amino acid variants in α-2-HS-glycoprotein associated with lions but not tigers.
The research team concluded that cave lions dispersed throughout the Japanese archipelago approximately between 72,700 and 37,500 years ago, facilitated by a land bridge connecting northern Japan to the mainland during the last ice age.
They inhabited areas previously believed to favor tigers, coexisting with wolves, brown bears, black bears, and early humans, forming a crucial part of the archipelago’s Late Pleistocene ecosystem.
The authors propose that Speller-1, the cave lion, may have survived in the Japanese archipelago for at least 20,000 years after its extinction across Eurasia, outlasting its last extinction event in eastern Beringia by more than 10,000 years.
“Future studies of lion and tiger subfossil sites across mid-latitude Eurasia are essential for understanding species range dynamics and clarifying the historical interactions between lions and tigers,” the researchers concluded.
Read the full study published on January 26, 2026, in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.
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Shin San et al. 2026. “During the Late Pleistocene, the Japanese archipelago protected cave lions rather than tigers.” PNAS 123 (6): e2523901123; doi: 10.1073/pnas.2523901123
The Chandra team has unveiled a stunning new composite image of the Cocoon Nebula, a fascinating reflection and emission nebula located in the constellation Cygnus. This image artfully combines high-energy X-rays with optical and infrared light, showcasing a vibrant population of newborn stars emerging from the surrounding clouds of dust and gas.
This composite image of the Cocoon Nebula highlights a heart-shaped formation. X-ray data from Chandra reveals a new cluster of stars, complemented by optical light from astrophotographers Michael Adler and Barry Wilson, as well as infrared data from the WISE mission. Image credits: NASA / CXC / SAO / JPL / Caltech / WISE / M. Adler / B. Wilson / L. Frattare.
The Cocoon Nebula is located approximately 2,650 light-years away in the constellation Cygnus.
This nebula, also known as IC 5146 or Colinder 470, spans 15 light-years across.
The object was first discovered by American astronomer Edward Emerson Barnard on October 11, 1893.
Chandra astronomers noted, “This image depicts the Cocoon Nebula as a vibrant, glowing heart-shaped cloud amidst a backdrop of millions of stars in the Milky Way.”
“The core of this nebula features warm reds, oranges, and golds, forming a luminous cocoon of gas and dust, with soft, uneven edges that gradually fade into the surrounding darkness.”
“Within this illuminated cloud lies a multitude of young stars, some visible as bright white or bluish dots, while others remain hidden or only detectable through X-ray light captured by NASA’s Chandra X-ray Observatory.”
“These X-rays trace a population of newly formed, highly active stars clustered near the center of the nebula,” the researchers explained.
“The heart-shaped nebula glows from a combination of light emitted by these young stars and starlight reflected by the surrounding dust.”
“Optical data from two astrophotographers, along with infrared observations from NASA’s Wide Field Infrared Surveyor (WISE), add depth and texture, unveiling a shimmering starry landscape and the dense, dusty regions where new stars are continuously forming.”
A groundbreaking study by geoscientists at the University of Florida and the Paris Institute of Geophysics reveals the origin of Earth’s most severe gravity anomaly, known as the Antarctic Gravity Hole (or Antarctic Geoid Depression). This anomaly is attributed to millions of years of slowed underground rock flow.
Evolution of the Antarctic geoid cyclone. Image credit: P. Glišović & AM Forte, doi: 10.1038/s41598-025-28606-1.
According to Professor Alessandro Forte from the University of Florida, gaining a better understanding of how Earth’s interior influences gravity and sea levels can shed light on factors essential for the growth and stability of significant ice sheets.
“Variations in gravity due to differences in rock density beneath the surface, although small in absolute terms, can have a substantial impact on ocean levels,” he explained.
“In regions of reduced gravity, water tends to flow toward areas of higher gravity, causing sea levels to be relatively lower in those spots.”
“As a result of the Antarctic gravity hole, the sea level around Antarctica is significantly lower than it would typically be.”
In this research, Professor Forte and Dr. Petar Grišović from the Paris Institute of Geophysics have meticulously mapped out the Antarctic geoid cyclone, revealing its development throughout the Cenozoic Era, spanning from 66 million years ago to the present day.
The team utilized a global scientific initiative that integrates seismic data and advanced modeling techniques to reconstruct the 3D structure of Earth’s interior.
“It’s like performing a CT scan of the planet without the use of conventional X-rays,” Forte remarked.
“Earthquakes generate seismic waves, which act as the ‘light’ that reveals Earth’s inner structure.”
The researchers successfully created a global gravity map that aligns closely with satellite data, validating their underlying model.
The next challenge involved reversing the geophysical clock to examine how the Antarctic geoid cyclone has evolved over millions of years.
By employing physics-based reconstructions and sophisticated computer models, they retraced geological changes spanning 70 million years.
These historical analyses indicate that the Antarctic geoid cyclone began in a relatively weak state.
From approximately 50 to 30 million years ago, however, the gravity hole began to strengthen, coinciding with significant shifts in Antarctica’s climatic conditions, including the onset of a global ice age.
“We aim to test the causal relationship between this intensified gravity hole and the Antarctic ice sheet. Our new modeling will connect changes in gravity, sea levels, and continental elevation,” stated Professor Forte.
This research seeks to answer pivotal questions about the interactions between our climate and the processes occurring within Earth.
For more details, refer to the study published in December 2025 in the journal Scientific Reports.
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P. Grišović and A.M. Forte. 2025. Cenozoic evolution of Earth’s strongest geoid low reveals the dynamics of the Antarctic subsurface mantle. Scientific Reports 15, 45749; doi: 10.1038/s41598-025-28606-1
For the first time, astronomers utilizing NASA/ESA/CSA’s James Webb Space Telescope have detected hydrogen sulfide gas in the atmospheres of three gas giant exoplanets orbiting the star HR 8799, located in the Pegasus constellation and approximately 30 million years old. This significant finding indicates that the sulfur originated from solid materials in the protoplanetary disk where the planets formed.
Artist’s rendering of the HR 8799 planetary system during its early evolutionary stages, featuring a gas and dust disk around planet HR 8799c (Dunlap Institute for Astronomy and Astrophysics/Media Farm).
HR 8799 lies about 129 light-years away from Earth and hosts a substantial debris disk alongside four super-Jupiter planets (HR 8799b, c, d, and e).
The smallest of these gas giants is five times the mass of Jupiter, while the largest exceeds ten times Jupiter’s mass.
These exoplanets reside far from their star, with the nearest planet being situated 15 times farther from its star than Earth is from the Sun.
Unlike many exoplanets discovered through indirect data analysis, the planets in the HR 8799 system can be directly observed using ground-based telescopes.
“HR 8799 is unique as the only imaged stellar system containing four gas giant planets, although other systems have one or two larger companion stars with formation processes yet to be understood,” explained Dr. Jean-Baptiste Ruffio, an astronomer at the University of California, San Diego.
Utilizing Webb’s unprecedented sensitivity, Dr. Ruffio and colleagues conducted detailed studies of the chemical compositions of the planets HR 8799c, d, and e.
Due to the faintness of these planets—approximately 10,000 times dimmer than their host star—the researchers developed innovative data analysis techniques to isolate weak signals in the Webb data.
“Prior studies of carbon and oxygen on these planets, conducted from Earth, could originate from ice, solids, or gas in the disk, making them unreliable indicators of solid material,” noted Dr. Jerry Xuan, a postdoctoral researcher at UCLA and Caltech.
“In contrast, sulfur is distinctive because, away from the star, these planets should harbor sulfur in solid form.”
“It’s impossible for these planets to accumulate sulfur in gaseous form.”
The identification of hydrogen sulfide indicates that sulfur was gathered in solid form from materials that existed in the disk surrounding the star during the planets’ formation. These solids were assimilated as the planet formed, and the intense heat of the young planet’s core and atmosphere caused them to vaporize into the sulfur gas present today.
Notably, the sulfur-to-hydrogen and carbon-to-oxygen-to-hydrogen ratios on these planets are significantly higher than those found in stars, hinting at a distinct planetary composition.
This puzzling consistency in the enrichment of heavy elements is also observed in Jupiter and Saturn.
“The uniform enhancement of carbon, oxygen, sulfur, and nitrogen in Jupiter is complex, but observing this in another star system suggests a universal trend in planet formation, where planets naturally integrate heavy elements in nearly equal proportions,” Dr. Xuan commented.
The findings could advance the search for Earth-like exoplanets.
“The techniques used here allow for the optical and spectral separation of planets from stars, enabling detailed studies of exoplanets located far from Earth,” Dr. Xuan stated.
“While currently limited to gas giants, as telescope technology and instruments improve, scientists aim to apply these methods to Earth-like planets.”
“Locating an Earth analog is the ultimate goal of exoplanet research; however, achieving this may take decades.”
“Nevertheless, within the next 20 to 30 years, we might obtain the first spectra of an Earth-like planet, allowing us to investigate biological markers such as oxygen and ozone in its atmosphere.”
J.B. Ruffio et al. “Jupiter-like homogeneous metal enrichment in a system of multiple giant exoplanets,” Nat Astron published online on February 9, 2026. doi: 10.1038/s41550-026-02783-z
For years, glaciologists have been intrigued by the peculiar plume-like structures hidden beneath the Greenland Ice Sheet. Recent research conducted by scientists from the University of Bergen, NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center, and the University of Oxford indicates that these enigmatic features are the result of thermal convection—an intriguing process typically associated with Earth’s mantle.
Location of a large plume-like structure (triangle) within the Greenland Ice Sheet. Credit: Leysinger Vieli et al., doi: 10.1038/s41467-018-07083-3 / Law et al., doi: 10.5194/tc-20-1071-2026.
“Typically, we perceive ice as a solid material, so the revelation that parts of the Greenland Ice Sheet experience heat convection—similar to cooking pasta— is both extraordinary and fascinating,” said study co-author Professor Andreas Born from the University of Bergen.
“The realization that thermal convection can occur within ice sheets defies our expectations,” remarked lead author Dr. Robert Loh, also from the University of Bergen.
“However, the ice is at least a million times softer than Earth’s mantle, making the physics align. It’s truly a remarkable phenomenon in nature.”
“These findings could play a crucial role in reducing uncertainties in models predicting ice sheet mass balance and sea level rise,” added Professor Born.
Deep ice is found to be approximately ten times softer than previously assumed, but this does not imply a faster melting rate.
“Enhancing our understanding of ice physics is vital for greater certainty regarding future conditions; nonetheless, softer ice alone does not guarantee accelerated melting or increased sea levels. Further studies are necessary to explore this,” Dr. Loh emphasized.
Although these findings do not predict imminent disasters in Greenland or elsewhere, they underscore the complex and dynamic nature of this region.
“Greenland and its ecosystem are indeed unique,” Dr. Loh commented.
“The ice sheet is over 1,000 years old and is the only one on Earth that coexists with a culture and established communities along its edges.”
“Understanding the processes beneath the ice will better equip us to handle the changes occurring along coastlines globally.”
Read more about the research in the upcoming publication in Cryosphere this month.
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R. Law et al. 2026. Investigating the conditions under which convection is likely to occur within the Greenland Ice Sheet. Cryosphere 20: 1071-1086; doi: 10.5194/tc-20-1071-2026
Paleontologists have discovered fossilized remains of one of the smallest sauropod dinosaurs from the Late Triassic period in southern Brazil. This remarkable find sheds light on early dinosaur development and physiology.
Massospondylus carinatus, a small sauropod dinosaur from the Early Jurassic of southern Africa. Image credit: Nobu Tamura, http://spinops.blogspot.com / Patty Jansen / Sci.News.
Dr. Luciano Artemio Real from the University of Sudoeste da Bahia and his team collected significant dinosaur material from the Cerro da Aremoa outcrop located in southern Brazil.
The Cerro da Aremoa outcrop serves as a crucial geological and zoological record within the Santa María Supersequence in central Rio Grande do Sul.
This recently recovered material dates to the Carnian period of the Late Triassic, approximately 237 to 227 million years ago.
The fossilized remains include small bones, each measuring less than 5.7 cm (2.2 inches), comprising parts of the humerus, metatarsals, nail phalanges, neural arch, and vertebral center.
A thorough phylogenetic and anatomical analysis positioned the specimen clearly within the basal sauropod clade.
“This specimen is a significant juvenile dinosaur,” noted the paleontologists.
“A combined analysis of its morphology, bone histology, and phylogenetic data indicates that it represents a basal sauropod from the Brazilian Triassic.”
Unlike later giant sauropods, this early version likely maintained a much smaller size during its developmental phases.
Notably, the bone microstructure exhibited signs of at least one complete growth interruption cycle, indicated by a line of growth arrest. This suggests that the dinosaur experienced a developmental pause early in its life, hinting at the potential for flexible growth strategies within early sauropods.
These findings may provide insights into the eventual gigantism characteristic of later sauropod species.
“These observed traits indicate that the individuals, still in development, have experienced their first growth arrest and are in the midst of a second cycle,” researchers commented.
“Our analyses suggest ontogenetic features typical of juvenile sauropods exhibiting a single growth arrest.”
“Our research unveils a new growth strategy in the early evolution of sauropods, illuminating the origins of small dinosaurs during the Triassic period.”
The full findings will appear in the April 2026 edition of the journal Paleo World.
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Leomir Santos Campos et al. 2026. A new small basal sauropod (Dinosauria: Saurischia) discovered from the Santa Maria supersequence in the Upper Triassic of southern Brazil. Paleo World 35 (2): 201064;doi: 10.1016/j.palwor.2025.201064
Keratin composites enable animals to walk with hooves, fly with wings, and sense their environment through their skin. Mammalian whiskers consist of elongated keratin rods attached to specialized tactile structures, enhancing the animal’s sensory perception. A recent study conducted by scientists at the Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems aims to explore the structure, porosity, and stiffness of the whiskers found in the Asian elephant (Elephas maximus).
Schulz et al. investigated the whiskers of Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) to determine their geometric and mechanical adaptations for enhanced tactile sensitivity, which encodes contact location through vibrotactile signals. Image credit: Schulz et al., doi: 10.1126/science.adx8981.
Whiskers in mammals, resembling elongated keratin rods, serve as sophisticated sensory tools.
While the keratin material itself does not directly sense touch, whiskers are housed within hair follicles, surrounded by dense sensory neurons that translate subtle mechanical vibrations into nerve signals.
Previous research primarily focused on the shape and movement of whiskers, often assuming a uniform mechanical structure along their length.
However, emerging evidence suggests that the stiffness and internal composition of whiskers can differ from root to tip, highlighting the importance of material properties in tactile sensation.
Unlike many other mammals, elephants possess numerous immobile whiskers distributed over the thick skin of their highly skilled trunks.
Though these whiskers cannot move independently, they frequently interact with objects, enabling elephants to perform precise tasks, from delicate manipulations to food handling.
Given the immobility of their whiskers, Dr. Andrew Schultz and colleagues hypothesized that elephants rely on variations in the shape and material structure of their whiskers to enhance tactile perception.
The researchers employed techniques such as micro-CT imaging, electron microscopy, mechanical testing, and functional modeling to examine the shape, porosity, and stiffness of whiskers in both juvenile and adult Asian elephants.
Findings reveal that the material properties of elephant whiskers transition from thick, porous, and rigid roots to thin, dense, and soft tips.
Dr. Schultz noted, “Tapping the handrail with different parts of the whisker wand felt soft at the tip and sharp at the base. I could easily feel where contact occurred without even looking.”
These functional gradients significantly influence how mechanical vibrations are relayed to sensory neurons, enhancing the clarity and strength of tactile signals.
Specifically, the transition from a firm base to a softer tip amplifies signal power, aiding elephants in accurately determining contact locations along the whisker, which is crucial for navigation and fine manipulation.
In this manner, elephant whiskers exhibit a type of built-in or “physical” intelligence, optimizing sensation through intelligent material design without needing active movement.
This exciting discovery is driving the authors’ efforts to apply natural insights into advancements in robotics and intelligent systems.
“Bio-inspired sensors that replicate elephant-like stiffness gradients could provide precise information with minimal computational cost, simply by leveraging intelligent material design,” Dr. Schultz stated.
The team’s groundbreaking research was published in the Journal on February 12, 2026, in Science.
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Andrew K. Schultz et al. 2026. Functional gradients drive tactile sensation in elephant whiskers. Science 391 (6786): 712-718; doi: 10.1126/science.adx8981
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