Artwork depicting a group of Serratopsians with an Ankylosaurus moving along an ancient riverbed, observed by two tyrannosaurs
Julius Csotonyi
Have you ever considered a scenario where a group of plant-eating dinosaurs banded together, similar to certain modern-day animals? A 76 million-year-old set of tracks discovered in Canada could be the earliest indication of such behavior, although conclusions are far from definitive.
Last year, Brian Pickles and his team from the University of Reading in the UK uncovered parallel tracks in Dinosaur Provincial Park, Alberta, created by at least five individual creatures.
“The tracks are in close proximity and evenly spaced,” comments Pickles. “This indicates they were likely moving in unison.”
Initially, researchers believed all the tracks belonged to the well-known Ceratopsians, particularly the Triceratops. While they haven’t pinpointed the specific Ceratopsid that created the tracks, fossil evidence suggests that Styracosaurus albertensis was present in the area at that time.
“During our excavation, we noted that one set of tracks was distinct from the others,” Pickles remarks. “While it shares a similar size, it features three toes. The only large dinosaur known to have made such a footprint in the park during that era was the Ankylosaurus, a heavily armored species with a club-like tail.”
He explains that since the tracks were presumably made near a river, the Ankylosaurus might have walked among the Serratopsians simply because they were all heading to the river to drink simultaneously. However, it’s also plausible that different herbivorous dinosaur species grouped together over time for protection. Notably, two predatory Tyrannosaurus tracks were found in proximity.
“In contemporary African ecosystems, it’s common for giraffes, zebras, and wildebeests to form mixed groups, which have varying abilities to detect predators,” Pickles adds.
Nevertheless, this remains inconclusive for multi-species flocks among dinosaurs, as only one Ankylosaurus footprint has been identified thus far.
Technician inspecting tracks at Dinosaur Provincial Park in Alberta, Canada
Dr. Brian Pickles, University of Reading
“I was struck by the notion that tracks from two distinct large herbivorous dinosaurs could be found so closely situated, all oriented in the same direction,” states Anthony Martin from Emory University in Atlanta, Georgia.
“While it’s possible that the Serratopsians and Ankylosaurus could have occupied the area at different times, the proximity and alignment of their footprints provides a compelling argument that they influenced one another,” he elaborates.
Conversely, Anthony Romilio from the University of Queensland in Australia expresses skepticism about the presence of tracks from two separate species. “The proposed tracks of Serratopsia and Ankylosaurus exhibit surprising similarities,” he states.
In fact, noting that only the width of the track and the rear footprints were discovered, Romilio proposes that they may have been made by duck-billed dinosaurs. “In my view, these footprints are more likely attributable to a large-bodied hadrosaur,” he asserts.
“This doesn’t negate the possibility of mixed-species groups among dinosaurs. Various bird and mammal species are known to form such groups,” Romilio states. “It’s entirely reasonable to think that some dinosaurs may have done the same.”
However, Pickles refutes Romilio’s claim regarding the tracks. “These are definitely not hadrosaur tracks,” he states.
For many of us, mushrooms are merely peculiar forest growths, and fungi might seem like something that belongs in a dish with cream. However, scientists are increasingly revealing that fungi are far more sophisticated than we once believed.
Some claim fungi are “intelligent,” hinting at a select group of researchers who might possess consciousness.
This theory has stirred up controversy among experts, yet the rest of us are curious whether our breakfast ingredients think about us. What should we take away from such findings?
For ages, biologists have debated animal consciousness in species like fish and bats. Now, even brainless entities like plants, slime molds, and fungi are entering the discussion.
There’s likely more to mushrooms than just their appearance. Cecelia Stokes, a doctoral researcher in bacteria at the University of Wisconsin-Madison, clarifies this.
Underneath the soil, mushrooms connect with thread-like filaments known as mycelium or “hyphae,” which extend through the earth to find food and companions. The visible mushrooms are merely the reproductive organs of the fungi.
“[Fungi have] Stokes stated:
While it remains uncertain if such behaviors signify intelligence, she suggests that, since this concept has been linked to non-living entities like artificial intelligence, it may be “worth considering” a broader interpretation of intelligence.
A New Perspective on Fungi
Fungi have gained recognition, with research suggesting that their mycelium forms a “Wood Wide Web,” connecting trees within forests through nutrient-seeking networks.
They’ve also gained popularity as harbingers of the Zombie Apocalypse in popular video games and HBO series like Our Last.
Recent studies indicate that fungi can perform actions usually associated with humans and other animals, such as learning, memory, and decision-making.
Fukusaki and his team from Tohoku University in Japan noted this behavior while “feeding” the wood-decomposing fungus, Fanerochetevertina, with wood blocks in the dirt.
In a 2020 study, Fukusaki and his colleagues observed that the fungi “decided” on certain wood blocks over others, even “remembering” their growth direction after being relocated.
According to Fukusaki, these actions reflect intellectual behavior. “Of course, it’s not the same system as a brain,” he clarifies, explaining that the fungi’s “remembering” likely involves growing more towards the area where food was first located.
“However, I believe you could argue this is a form of memory within the mycelium system—a sort of structural memory.”
Slime molds, too, display memory-like behaviors, navigating away from previously explored zones during their food searches.
Mycelium not only extends through the soil to locate food but also detects environmental changes – Photo Credit: Getty Images
Last year, Fukusaki’s team conducted another experiment to see if fungi could “recognize” shapes.
Using nine blocks arranged in either a cross or circle in the soil, they monitored the fungi’s growth from the center outward. In the cross formation, the fungi ultimately left the central block to reach the outer blocks.
Fukusaki notes that while this could be a natural response to depleting central resources, he still regards it as “very intelligent.” The fungi’s ability to distinguish between the center and edges implies they recognize spatial orientation.
In their published work, researchers label this behavior as a form of “pattern recognition,” commonly used in computing to identify specific data combinations, but also applicable to how individuals recognize faces and sounds.
In the case of the circle formation, the fungi vacated the center, indicating they “determined” that enough food was already available, sharing this information throughout their network.
Given these findings, Fukusaki believes we gain a broader understanding of intelligence by viewing it on a spectrum. “This way, we can discuss intelligence in a wider context and compare ourselves to different life forms,” he states.
“If we define intelligence solely by human standards, we cannot effectively discuss its evolution.”
read more:
Extending Our Understanding
Studies like Fukusaki’s inspire new ways to ponder fungal consciousness, such as the “Fungal Heart,” a concept introduced by fungal biologist Dr. Nicholas Money.
He presented the argument in an essay for Psyche magazine in 2021, suggesting that fungi could possess consciousness if we broaden our understanding of what consciousness entails.
In his paper, Money asserts that “this broadens the identification of different forms of consciousness across species, ranging from apes to amoebae.”
Other primitive mind theories consider the notion of a “liquid brain,” explaining how slime molds and various microbial consortia process information without traditional neurons.
Furthermore, electrical signals detected in fungi are likened to those found in animal neurons, leading some to question if fungi possess a brainless nervous system, a topic also raised in discussions about plants.
However, for Fukusaki, the consciousness of fungi is less critical. “For me, it’s insignificant whether fungi are conscious; what’s essential is that they exhibit intellectual behaviors and can solve their problems,” he explains.
Stokes, on the other hand, finds the concept of consciousness too malleable. She acknowledges that fungi could fit into the same category as humans and other animals and could seem more relatable, yet she asserts that science “hasn’t kept pace with the complexity of the findings.”
By drawing such comparisons, she warns, “we overlook many of the unique biological features that set them apart from us.”
Theory Versus Evidence
Humans have a tendency to draw parallels; thus, what about claims regarding a brainless nervous system? According to Stokes, it’s no surprise that fungi and plants can detect electrical signals.
“Every cell generates energy through the movement of ions across membranes,” she explains. Mobile ions (charged atoms or molecules) are crucial for how cells function to produce energy.
However, while it’s easy to dismiss the theories surrounding fungal intelligence and consciousness as eccentric, it’s important to explore what drives these ideas.
Often, the urge to humanize organisms that seem unfamiliar to us serves to make them more relatable. Attribute human characteristics to species can, at times, sway public sentiment towards their protection.
Nonetheless, when it comes to the Wood Wide Web, some scientists argue that the theory has been overstated. The belief that trees communicate through fungal networks is often stated as fact despite the thin evidence supporting it.
Similarly, defining fungi as conscious under current frameworks might be premature and could potentially hinder conservation efforts. Conversely, altering the definition opens up too broad an interpretation. But, why does that matter?
“You don’t need to attribute human traits to recognize how fascinating fungi are,” asserts Stokes, whose research specializes in toxic “deathcap” mushrooms.
About Our Experts
Cecelia Stokes is a doctoral researcher at the University of Wisconsin-Madison in the U.S., known for her contributions to scientific journals including New Botanist.
Fukusaki is an associate professor specializing in forest microbial ecology at Tohoku University in Japan. His research has been published in journals such as An Interdisciplinary Journal of Microbial Ecology, Fungal Ecology, and Forest Ecology and Management.
The Atlantic hurricane season has yet to commence, but forecasters are already raising concerns. Indeed, the 2025 season, which officially spans from June 1st to November 30th, is anticipated to be remarkably busy.
As per the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), the likelihood of below-average activity stands at 60%. They foresee up to 19 named storms, with as many as 10 hurricanes and between 3 to 5 major hurricanes (Category 3 or higher).
Meanwhile, private forecasting firm Accuweather has a similar outlook, but adds another concerning prediction: up to six storms could directly impact the U.S. coastline.
This news comes on the heels of the destruction wrought by Hurricanes Helen and Milton in 2024. “Overall, it looks like it will be an even busier year,” said Alex Dasilva, Accuweather’s lead hurricane expert, to BBC Science Focus.
So, what gives scientists such confidence? While accurately predicting the timing and location of a storm remains elusive, there is increasing clarity regarding the broader factors that influence each season. This year, numerous climate indicators are aligning unfavorably.
The Atlantic is Storing Energy – A Lot of It
Hurricanes derive their power from warm ocean waters, and this year, the Atlantic is exceptionally heated.
“Sea surface temperatures are again significantly above average,” explains Dasilva. While 2025 may not match the record warmth of 2023 and 2024, conditions across most of the Atlantic Basin remain notably high.
However, it’s not just about surface temperatures; the ocean’s heat content plays a crucial role in driving the most formidable storms. This metric reflects how deeply the warm water extends beneath the surface.
“It’s truly impressive,” notes Dasilva. “When you’re at the surface, the water feels pleasantly warm. Now, imagine it extending hundreds of meters below in a region like the Western Caribbean, where mid-season temperatures can reach 80°F [27°C].”
The depth matters. Hot water serves as high-octane fuel for hurricanes; the deeper it extends, the more energy available for storms. This explains the “rapid strengthening” observed in many recent hurricanes, which can intensify dramatically within just a few hours.
“When you observe a storm rapidly intensifying, it’s something that explodes—because it encounters the highest oceanic heat, particularly off the Gulf Coast, Western Caribbean, or the southeast coast,” Dasilva adds.
Scientists now recognize that climate-driven ocean heat is on the rise yearly. As our planet warms, much of the additional heat gets absorbed into the ocean, creating a reservoir of deep energy for storms to utilize.
This doesn’t automatically mean more hurricanes overall, but those that do form are more likely to rapidly gain strength and achieve greater intensity.
Read more:
Changing Pacific Patterns Could Elevate Season End
The Pacific will serve as the puppeteer while the Atlantic supplies the fuel.
Key players include El Niño and the Southern Oscillation (ENSO)—the natural cycle of warming and cooling in the tropical Pacific Ocean. This cycle has a substantial influence on hurricane activity in the Atlantic.
A comprehensive book could be written about ENSO, so let’s summarize it briefly. During El Niño, warm waters from the tropical Pacific migrate eastward toward the Americas. During La Niña, the reverse holds true, with warm waters moving westward toward Asia and cooler waters prevailing near the Americas.
These shifts not only affect the Pacific but also change wind patterns worldwide, including in the Atlantic, either facilitating or hindering hurricane development.
At present, the Pacific is in the ENSO neutral phase, indicating that the warm waters are balanced. However, this isn’t necessarily good news.
“Research indicates that La Niña typically produces more storms, but neutral years are nearly as active,” says Dasilva. “The only time we’ve seen a significant reduction in storms is during El Niño.”
Why is this the case? During El Niño, robust upper winds from the Pacific often inhibit storms as they form in the Atlantic. Conversely, during neutral or La Niña years, these winds lessen, enabling hurricanes to form and strengthen more easily.
Moreover, a return of La Niña conditions later this year could set the stage for a busier end to the season.
“There’s a possibility for La Niña to resurge later in the season,” Dasilva notes. “If that happens, the latter part of the season could see heightened activity, so it’s important to keep a close eye on developments.”
With recent seasons demonstrating a trend towards more frequent storms, this increased warmth and favorable atmospheric conditions are notable.
Storm Trajectories Depend on Who’s at the Helm
While ocean temperature and ENSO conditions are crucial players, they aren’t the only factors at play.
Features such as the Bermuda-Azores high-pressure system—dominant over the Central Atlantic—greatly influence the final destination of storms once they form.
“This high-pressure zone in the Atlantic deflects storms around it,” Dasilva explains. “Most storms ultimately curve away towards the ocean and head toward Europe, but if this high pressure is particularly strong, it can stretch and push storms westward.”
However, the Bermuda-Azores system is dynamic and can shift throughout the season, making it challenging to accurately predict storm trajectories beyond a few days. “These dynamics can change rapidly, often hinging on timing,” Dasilva adds.
This season is also impacted by waters off West Africa.
Many of the most powerful Atlantic storms initiate as clusters of disturbed thunderstorms sweeping off the coasts of Africa as summer ends. In fact, around 85% of major hurricanes originate here.
However, this system is sensitive. Last year, unanticipated cooling off the West African coasts near the equator disrupted the jet stream, impeding the northward movement of storms and curtailing their development.
“Many believed the Atlantic was broken,” Dasilva said. The culprit was a pattern known as the Atlantic Niño, an obscure climate cycle that paradoxically has an opposing effect on hurricane activity compared to its namesake in the Pacific.
Dasilva anticipates a similar mid-summer slowdown again this year, but this doesn’t signify the season’s end.
The aftermath of a catastrophic flood caused by Hurricane Helen in North Carolina on September 28, 2024.
Inland Impacts
Another trend affecting the Atlantic hurricane season is the increasing influence of storms further inland.
A study published in Nature revealed that hurricanes making landfall have been slowing their rate of weakening over the past 50 years, with a 94% decrease in weakening rates. Essentially, this means that as storms travel inland, they often retain their strength, increasing the risk of damage far from coastal areas.
In 2024, Hurricane Helen struck Florida, triggering deadly floods in the southern Appalachian mountains. The storm was responsible for 94 fatalities and contributed to over 100 additional deaths. Furthermore, Hurricane Beryl spawned a tornado in western New York after making landfall in Texas.
“2024 was one of the most costly hurricane seasons on record, largely due to inland effects,” Dasilva states. “It’s critical for those living inland to monitor hurricane forecasts as closely as those living on the coast.”
Thus, whether you reside on the coast or inland, science signals a clear message: conditions are lining up for enhanced activity in 2025. Stay alert to forecasts.
About Our Experts
Alex Dasilva is a seasoned meteorologist and hurricane forecaster at Accuweather, specializing in long-range predictions and tropical weather. He currently serves as Accuweather’s lead hurricane predictor and frequently appears in broadcasts and live events to inform the media and the public about upcoming significant storm events.
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