Male Octopus (Amphioctopus fangsiao) with Curled Hectocotylus (Upper Left)
Photo by Keijiro Haruki
For male octopuses, protecting a specific arm is crucial. This pivotal appendage, known as the hectocotylus, has a distinct role in reproduction, which makes its preservation vital.
Recent research led by marine biologist Keijiro Haruki from Nagasaki University sheds light on the lengths male octopuses go to safeguard this indispensable limb from damage or predation.
Haruki initiated the study by gently prodding a male octopus’s arms. He observed significant resistance from the octopus whenever he touched its hectocotylus: “This reaction indicated how much this arm matters to male octopuses, akin to how human males react when threatened.”
The hectocotylus (designated R3) of male octopuses is anatomically unique compared to the other seven arms, specifically designed for sperm transfer during mating.
Male octopuses possess a single testicle situated within the mantle (the bulbous part at the rear of the head), where sperm are produced and stored in structures called spermatophores.
During mating, the male octopus inserts the tip of his hectocotylus into the female. Before ejaculation, the hectocotylus is rolled into a tubular shape, allowing the male to force water through it and push the spermatophore into the female.
To understand how octopuses safeguard their essential third arm, Haruki’s team studied 32 male and 41 female pygmy octopuses (Octopus Parvas).
Among the sample, 13 females were missing their R3 arm, but only one male lacked this vital appendage. Various experiments compared the usage of R3 between genders.
Male Octopus Parvus Exploring During Experiment (Lower Right)
Photo by Keijiro Haruki
The first experiment involved placing a lead weight in the center of an aquarium to observe how the octopuses used their limbs to investigate. It was found that significantly more females than males employed their R3 arm to explore the novel object.
In a subsequent test, frozen shrimp were presented in a box within the tank. Males exhibited a tendency to explore with their other seven arms far longer before risking the use of their hectocotylus.
Haruki concludes that this elaborate arm usage system likely evolved because safeguarding one specialized arm is less costly than enlarging the male’s penis.
When a male loses R3, his mating activity halts until a new one regenerates, which can take several months. Nevertheless, Haruki notes that such losses are rare, indicating that males effectively protect this crucial arm from harm.
When discussing hair removal options, many products promise quick fixes or a return to the hair’s original luster. Unfortunately, these claims often fall short, leading to subpar and temporary results.
Fortunately, breakthroughs in science may reveal effective strategies to combat this issue.
The intriguing solution could involve freezing hair at extremely low temperatures to produce clones—yes, clones! Sci-fi enthusiasts, get ready to support this innovation.
What Causes Male Pattern Baldness?
The common misconception is that bald individuals lack hair entirely, but that’s not true. When hair is lost, it doesn’t disappear; instead, it shrinks.
“Baldness is a result of hair shrinking,” explains Paul Kemp, CEO of HairClone, a pioneering company dedicated to next-generation hair loss treatments. “The hair isn’t gone; it’s just becoming smaller and less visible.”
The shrinkage occurs due to a type of skin cell known as dermal papilla, which surrounds the base of hair follicles and is essential for hair formation, growth, and texture.
During hair loss, the number of these vital cells—typically around 1,000 per follicle—diminishes dramatically.
This loss is exacerbated by dihydrotestosterone (DHT), a potent derivative of testosterone that affects hair follicles differently across the scalp. Generally, dermal papilla cells on the top of the head are more susceptible to this process compared to those on the sides.
Recent research findings, published in Experimental Dermatology, explore how these skin cells differentiate during early embryonic development, suggesting a genetic basis for why some areas are more prone to hair loss.
“The dermal cells that are lost and those that remain originate from distinctly different populations,” Professor Kemp clarifies. “Essentially, where you experience hair loss can be likened to a ticking clock set from the moment your body begins to develop.”
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Why Cloning Hair Could Cure Baldness
With the loss of dermal papilla cells linked to baldness, researchers are racing to discover ways to replenish them. Hair cloning, also known as hair propagation, is gaining traction, thanks to frontrunners like HairClone.
This pioneering technology is not yet available in the UK or US, but if successful, it could come with a hefty price tag. Kemp notes, “While initial costs will be high, scaling up production should help lower prices, making it comparable to advanced hair transplant techniques.”
Unlike traditional hair transplants, hair cloning can be initiated before significant hair loss occurs, ensuring discreet treatment results.
Here’s how the process works:
1. Hair Root Collection and Preservation:
Healthy hair follicles are extracted from areas where hair is still growing and cryogenically preserved for later use. For optimal results, it’s crucial to gather these follicles while they are still young.
2. Cell Multiplication:
This step involves isolating and multiplying dermal papilla cells in a laboratory setting. As Dr. Jennifer Dillon states: “From one follicle, we can multiply these cells over 1,000 times, resulting in over a million cells.”
3. Replantation:
The cultivated dermal papilla cells are injected back into bald areas of the scalp, returning hair to its natural thickness and fullness. This step is awaiting regulatory approval, but initial clinical data is promising.
While banking hair follicles is currently possible globally, it comes with a significant cost.
What Other Treatments Are Available?
Although hair cloning is a buzz-worthy topic, it isn’t the sole treatment option. A study published in the Cosmetic Dermatology Journal suggests that fat cells harvested from the abdomen could regenerate hair. This method, known as autologous fat grafting (AFG), eliminates the need for cryogenic preservation.
AFG falls under stem cell therapy, using versatile cells that can transform into various cell types to meet regenerative needs. Instead of freezing hair cells, stem cells can be extracted from the patient’s body and directed to grow into hair cells, injected into the scalp just like in hair cloning.
Another innovative treatment in development is microRNA therapy, which fine-tunes gene expression to stimulate hair growth and has the potential to be applied topically, thus reducing invasiveness.
When Will These Treatments Be Available?
As with hair cloning, various stem cell and microRNA treatments are currently seeking clinical approval, potentially becoming available in the coming years. Despite the rising optimism for effective baldness treatments, Dr. Claire Higgins, a tissue regeneration expert at Imperial College London, warns that success in lab trials does not always translate to clinical effectiveness.
Dr. Higgins believes that understanding the specific reasons why some dermal papilla cells are more vulnerable to hair loss will be key in designing more effective treatments. “While we understand the physiological changes leading to hair loss, the underlying causes remain unclear.”
Optimistically, Kemp concludes that future generations will have revolutionary solutions for hair restoration, much like advancements in dentistry. “Rather than waiting for hair loss to occur, we envision a world where individuals can maintain their hair throughout life.”
About Our Experts
Dr. Paul Kemp is the Co-founder and CEO of HairClone. Previously, he led the development of the first multicellular therapy approved by the FDA, currently benefitting millions globally. He also serves as co-director for doctoral training in regenerative medicine at the University of Manchester.
Dr. Claire Higgins is a leading lecturer in Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine at Imperial College London, focusing on hair follicles and skin regeneration.
Dr. Jennifer Dillon heads research at HairClone, specializing in the development of cell therapies for hair loss and possessing over a decade of experience in stem cell and cancer research.
While the precise amount of urine contributed by cetaceans to the ocean remains unclear, marine biologists have recently highlighted the crucial role whale urine plays in sustaining a healthy marine ecosystem by redistributing significant amounts of nutrients.
For instance, female humpback whales feed in the Gulf of Alaska and then travel thousands of miles to the Hawaiian Islands to give birth.
This is particularly important for newborn calves, as they require a warm and comfortable environment to thrive, supported by a thick layer of insulating blubber. Conversely, the most nutritious feeding grounds for whales are found in the cold, krill-laden waters of polar regions.
Whales can produce hundreds of gallons of urine daily – Image credit: Getty
When whales head to their breeding areas, they typically cease feeding and rely on stored fat for energy. Consequently, the nutrients they consumed in high-latitude regions are released as urine and feces.
Particularly noteworthy is the significance of urine on this conveyor belt; a 2025 study revealed that gray, humpback, and right whales collectively transport nearly 4,000 tons of nitrogen annually.
In regions around the Hawaiian Islands, migrating whales can effectively double the nutrient influx into shallow waters.
This nutrient flow is critical as it stimulates the growth of phytoplankton, injecting energy into the marine food web.
The impact of this process was even greater prior to commercial whaling, when the nutrient transport via the Great Whale Conveyor Belt was likely three times more than it is today.
This article addresses the inquiry (made by Lou Grant in Birmingham): “What portion of the ocean consists of whale pee?”
If you have any inquiries, feel free to email us at:questions@sciencefocus.com or send us a messagefacebook,×orInstagramPage (please include your name and location).
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You may have heard from biohacking podcasters, flashy social media ads, nutrition experts, or radiant influencers that effectively managing your blood sugar is crucial for maintaining good health.
Blood sugar management is no longer solely a diabetic concern; it’s now heralded as essential for achieving an ideal diet, endless energy, and decreased inflammation.
It’s no wonder that online searches for “blood sugar” have surged by over 30% in the last five years, leading to a booming global market for continuous blood glucose monitors, which are expected to grow tenfold within the next decade.
Yet, amidst all this excitement, there’s a crucial message that many doctors want to convey: Most people don’t need to worry about their blood sugar levels at all. Health proponents often misinterpret this aspect.
As Dr. Nicola Guess, a clinical and academic nutritionist at the University of Oxford, puts it: “These individuals are misinformed.”
Don’t Fear the Roller Coasters
You’ve likely learned to be wary of the “peaks and troughs” in blood sugar levels—but what does that actually entail?
Picture consuming a slice of soft, airy white bread. When you digest carbohydrates, they break down into glucose, a simple sugar that enters your bloodstream.
In a healthy metabolism, your body responds by releasing insulin—a hormone that facilitates glucose transport from the blood into cells for energy. When insulin functions properly, blood sugar levels begin to decline.
As white bread is a refined carbohydrate, it converts to glucose rapidly, causing a swift spike in blood sugar levels followed by an equally quick insulin response to bring it back down.
The outcome? A notable blood sugar peak accompanied by a swift drop.
A slice of white bread can spike your blood sugar more quickly than sugar – Image credit: Getty Images
At first glance, this may sound concerning. Health influencers often warn that such blood sugar fluctuations can lead to inflammation, fatigue, cravings, and, in the long run, decreased metabolic health.
This leads to recommendations against foods that trigger rapid blood sugar changes, including white bread, pasta, white rice, potatoes, cookies, cakes, and pastries.
Instead, they advocate for low-glycemic foods like vegetables, legumes, meats, fish, and healthy fats, believed to maintain stable blood sugar levels.
While this advice holds some truth—eating protein, fiber, and fat alongside carbohydrates can moderate your blood sugar response—it’s important to reconsider the bread scenario.
Applying a generous layer of butter can slow glucose absorption, thereby controlling the blood sugar rise.
Switching to whole wheat bread increases dietary fiber, making it denser. Adding some oily peanut butter can further balance the fat and protein intake.
However, for good health, it’s not necessary to meticulously monitor the balance of fat, protein, carbohydrates, and fiber in every meal. Despite common fears, most fluctuations in blood sugar levels are normal and not something to stress over.
“Blood sugar levels should rise after consuming a carb-heavy meal. This is a standard physiological reaction,” explains Sarah Berry, Professor of Nutritional Science at King’s College London and Chief Scientist at the nutrition company ZOE.
“Blood sugar levels fluctuate, but our bodies are adept at managing this.”
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Peaks and Valleys Are Normal
One of the most enduring but misleading beliefs about blood sugar is that daily fluctuations lead to harmful inflammation.
You may have encountered a TikTok video showcasing a blood sugar monitor graph or read a caption under a photo of avocado toast promising an “anti-inflammatory” blood sugar hack.
However, inflammation isn’t inherently negative.
“Postprandial glucose fluctuations stimulate inflammation, as it’s a natural response to eating,” asserts Dr. Guess.
She clarifies that our immune systems get a small boost with every meal to defend against potential threats like bacteria and pathogens.
This mild, short-lived inflammation is not only typical but often beneficial.
“The issue arises when blood sugar levels soar and then plummet,” Berry states. “If this pattern occurs repeatedly over time, it can heighten the risk of chronic diseases.”
Individuals without diabetes are tracking their blood sugar levels – Image courtesy of Getty Images
In essence, a consistently high intake of refined carbohydrates and sugary foods can result in frequent blood sugar spikes, increasing your risk of developing type 2 diabetes and other metabolic disorders over time.
Nonetheless, for most individuals, occasional peaks and dips in blood sugar after meals are completely normal and harmless.
“Moderate spikes and dips in blood sugar are not detrimental,” Berry asserts.
The Afternoon Slump Mystery
You’ve likely heard that blood sugar fluctuations contribute to energy variations, and that peaks and troughs are responsible for your mid-afternoon slump. While there’s some truth to this, scientists still understand only part of the puzzle.
Though the science in this domain remains relatively nascent, recent research, including studies led by Berry, suggests that some individuals may feel fatigued and anxious when their blood sugar levels dip. However, blood sugar might be just one element contributing to this fatigue.
Factors like sleep quality, stress levels, and individual biological differences might equally or more significantly influence energy levels.
“There’s much we don’t know,” admits Guess. “Understanding how people feel is challenging to measure objectively.”
Afternoon slumps aren’t solely due to blood sugar levels; lack of sleep, stress, and your body’s circadian rhythms all contribute – Image credit: Getty Images
While the precise cause of fatigue and sudden energy changes remains unclear, a slight drop in blood sugar levels is typically not hazardous, particularly for those without diabetes.
An afternoon slump doesn’t pose a life-threatening risk nor will it likely affect your long-term health.
This is because the body doesn’t rely exclusively on glucose for energy; it operates on multiple fuel types. If humans were vehicles, we would be hybrids capable of utilizing different energy sources to function efficiently.
“Glucose serves as gasoline; it’s just one type of energy source for the body,” explains Guess. “Our bodies can alternate between using stored fat for energy and energy derived from food intake.”
A temporary drop in blood sugar might make you feel slightly unwell, but it doesn’t imply you’re running on empty; your body simply adapts and taps into other energy reserves.
It’s not on the brink of failure; it’s merely switching fuel sources.
No Blood Sugar Hacks Needed
You might have come across tips, tricks, and hacks designed to prevent those annoying peaks and troughs in blood sugar levels (which are usually benign).
For instance, there are suggestions to sprinkle cheese on grapes, dip apple slices in peanut butter, and start meals with vegetables to moderate your blood sugar response.
These hacks can be beneficial for individuals who are prediabetic, diabetic, or insulin resistant. As we’ve explored, including fat, protein, and fiber with your carbohydrates can help stabilize blood sugar responses.
However, for the majority of us, Guess asserts that these tips are largely unnecessary.
Blood sugar hacks may be trending, but for most people, they’re unnecessary – Image courtesy of Alamy
Even for individuals facing metabolic issues, adding extra fats can lead to unnecessary caloric intake, according to her.
“Weight gain is the primary contributor to insulin resistance, prediabetes, and type 2 diabetes; the solution for all these conditions is weight loss,” she clarifies. “Adding fat to carbohydrates only obstructs weight loss.”
Berry underscored that the route to better blood sugar levels isn’t through simple tricks but a balanced diet incorporating protein, fat, and fiber.
Blood Sugar Monitor Concerns
Some individuals amplify their blood sugar apprehensions. In recent times, it has become more common for non-diabetics to utilize continuous glucose monitors (CGMs). Originally deemed medical devices for type 1 diabetes patients, these sensors attach to the arm and track blood sugar levels in real time.
Dr. David Unwin, a general practitioner with a focus on nutrition, mentions that CGMs can be advantageous for patients with diabetes, prediabetes, or excessive junk food consumption, as they provide “like having a police officer on your arm,” offering instant feedback about hidden sugars in food.
Many CGM providers suggest wearing the device briefly, such as for two weeks, to observe how blood sugar levels react to various meals.
However, Berry argues that constant CGM use is “neither necessary nor beneficial for healthy individuals.” Guess cautions that it could lead to “profound anxiety and negative impacts on mental health” surrounding food choices.
In extreme cases, this anxiety can spiral into dangerously obsessive eating behaviors, like orthorexia. Orthorexia is an eating disorder characterized by an obsession with perfect health.
While evidence suggesting CGM use can escalate to orthorexia is scarce, Unwin notes that those who monitored their blood sugar levels did not exhibit signs of developing eating disorders.
Still, any eating behavior can evolve into an obsession, and relying on blood sugar levels as a measure of food quality is a “false flag,” according to Guess.
Over 2 million people in the United States use continuous blood glucose monitors – Image courtesy of Getty Images
Berry added: “Some may opt for cookies over bananas after learning that bananas spike blood sugar levels more than cookies. Clearly, that’s absurd.”
Similarly, orange juice can cause a notable increase in blood sugar levels, whereas sodas with artificial sweeteners may not. However, while orange juice is a source of vitamin C and other nutrients, soda often contains artificial additives that provide minimal to no nutritional value.
Likewise, lard impacts blood sugar levels minimally, yet as a saturated fat, it can adversely affect heart health.
Ultimately, Berry asserts that blood sugar levels represent only “one piece of the puzzle,” and dietary guidance should consider aspects like cholesterol, blood pressure, weight, and gut health—not solely blood sugar.
When addressing significant health threats, particularly heart disease, high blood pressure and cholesterol are “far more critical than glucose,” Guess emphasizes.
In contrast, “the influence of food on blood sugar levels is likely to have a minimal effect on overall health,” she adds.
In essence, refrain from fixating too much on blood sugar levels; even an awareness of them might not lead to substantial improvements. And if that focus dictates your meal choices, you may be overlooking the broader picture.
“As a nutritional scientist, I don’t want to overshadow the essence of food: It is meant to be enjoyed!” Berry concludes.
Contemporary artificial intelligence (AI) models are vast, relying on energy-hungry server farms and operating on billions of parameters trained on extensive datasets.
Is this the only way forward? It seems not. One of the most exciting prospects for the future of machine intelligence began with something significantly smaller: the minute worm.
Inspired by Caenorhabditis elegans, a tiny creature measuring just a millimeter and possessing only 302 neurons, researchers have designed a “liquid neural network,” a radically different type of AI capable of learning, adapting, and reasoning on a single device.
“I wanted to understand human intelligence,” said Dr. Ramin Hassani, co-founder and CEO of Liquid AI, a pioneering company in this mini-revolution, as reported by BBC Science Focus. “However, we found that there was minimal information available about the human brain or even those of rats and monkeys.”
At that point, the most thoroughly mapped nervous system belonged to C. elegans, providing a starting point for Hassani and his team.
The appeal of C. elegans lay not in its behavior, but in its “neurodynamics,” or how its cells communicated with one another.
The neurons in this worm’s brain transmit information through analog signals rather than the sharp electrical spikes typical of larger animals. As nervous systems developed and organisms increased in size, spiking neurons became more efficient for information transmission over distances.
Nonetheless, the origins of human neural computation trace back to the analog realm.
For Hassani, this was an enlightening discovery. “Biology provides a unique lens to refine our possibilities,” he explained. “After billions of years of evolution, every viable method to create efficient algorithms has been considered.”
Instead of emulating the worm’s neurons one by one, Hassani and his collaborators aimed to capture their essence of flexibility, feedback, and adaptability.
“We’re not practicing biomimicry,” he emphasized. “We draw inspiration from nature, physics, and neuroscience to enhance artificial neural networks.”
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What characterizes them as “liquid”?
Conventional neural networks, like those powering today’s chatbots and image generators, tend to be very static. Once trained, their internal connections are fixed and not easily altered through experience.
Liquid neural networks, however, offer a different approach. “They are a fluid that enhances adaptability,” said Hassani. “These systems can remain dynamic throughout computation.”
To illustrate, he referenced self-driving cars. When driving in rain, adjustments must be made even if visibility (or input data) becomes obscured. Thus, the system must adapt and be sufficiently flexible.
Traditional neural networks operate in a strictly unidirectional, deterministic fashion — the same input always results in the same output, and data flow is linear within the layer. While this is a simplified view, the point is clear.
Liquid neural networks function differently: neurons can influence one another bidirectionally, resulting in a more dynamic system. Consequently, these models behave stochastically. Providing the same input twice may yield slightly varied responses, akin to biological systems.
C. elegans is a small worm, about 1 mm long, that thrives in moist, nutrient-rich settings like soil, compost piles, and decaying vegetation. – Credit: iStock / Getty Images Plus
“Traditional networks take input, process it, and deliver results,” stated Hassani. “In contrast, liquid neural networks perform calculations while simultaneously adjusting their processing methods with each new input.”
The mathematics behind these networks is complex. Earlier versions were slow due to the reliance on intricate equations requiring sequential resolution before yielding an output.
In 2022, Hassani and his team published a study in Nature Machine Intelligence, introducing an approximate way to manage these equations without heavy computation.
This innovation significantly enhanced the liquid model’s speed and efficiency while preserving the biological adaptability that conventional AI systems often lack.
More compact, eco-friendly, and intelligent
This adaptability allows liquid models to store considerably more information within smaller infrastructures.
“Ultimately, what defines an AI system is its ability to process vast amounts of data and condense it into this algorithmic framework,” Hassani remarked.
“If your system is constrained by static parameters, your capabilities are limited. However, with dynamic flexibility, one can effectively encapsulate greater intelligence within the system.”
He referred to this as the “liquid method of calculation.” Consequently, models thousands of times smaller than today’s large language models can perform comparably or even exceed them in specific tasks.
Professor Peter Bentley, a computer scientist at University College London, specializing in biologically-inspired computing, noted that this transformation is vital: “AI is presently dominated by energy-intensive models relying on antiquated concepts of neuron network simulation.”
“Fewer neurons translate to a smaller model, which reduces computational demand and energy consumption. The capacity for ongoing learning is crucial, something current large models struggle to achieve.”
As Hassani stated, “You can essentially integrate one of our systems into your coffee machine.”
“If it can operate within the smallest computational unit, it can be hosted anywhere, opening up a vast array of opportunities.”
Liquid models are compact enough to run directly on devices like smart glasses or self-driving cars, with no need for cloud connectivity. – Credit: iStock / Getty Images Plus
AI that fits in your pocket and on your face
Liquid AI is actively developing these systems for real-world application. One collaboration involves smart glasses that operate directly on users’ devices, while others are focused on self-driving cars and language translators functioning on smartphones.
Hassani, a regular glasses wearer, pointed out that although smart glasses sound appealing, users may not want every detail in their surroundings sent to a server for processing (consider bathroom breaks).
This is where Liquid Networks excel. They can operate on minimal hardware, allowing for local data processing, enhancing privacy, and reducing energy consumption.
This also promotes AI independence. “Humans don’t depend on one another for function,” Hassani explained. “Yet they communicate. I envision future devices that maintain this independence while being capable of sharing information.”
Hassani dubbed this evolution “physical AI,” referring to intelligence that extends beyond cloud settings to engage with the physical realm. Realizing this form of intelligence could make the sci-fi vision of robots a reality without needing constant internet access.
However, there are some limitations. Liquid systems only function with “time series” data, meaning they cannot process static images, which traditional AI excels at, but they require continuous data like video.
According to Bentley, this limitation is not as restrictive as it appears. “Time series data may sound limiting, but it’s quite the opposite. Most real-world data has a temporal component or evolves over time, encompassing video, audio, financial exchanges, robotic sensors, and much more.”
Hassani also acknowledged that these systems aren’t designed for groundbreaking scientific advancements, such as identifying new energy sources or treatments. This research domain will likely remain with larger models.
Yet, that isn’t the primary focus. Instead, this technology aims to render AI more efficient, interpretable, and human-like while adapting it to fit various real-world applications. And it all originated from a small worm quietly moving through the soil.
The notion that reducing food intake could enhance longevity has existed for millennia. The ancient Greek physician Hippocrates famously stated, “If you overnourish the patient, you nourish the disease as well. Excess is contrary to nature.”
For decades, scientists have been investigating the validity of this advice.
The first major evidence emerged in the 1930s when American nutritionist Dr. Clive McKay discovered that rats on a restricted diet lived nearly twice as long as those with unrestricted access to food.
These rats did not suffer from constant hunger nor did they struggle for survival. On the contrary, they exhibited better health in old age, showcasing improved lung and kidney function, with no signs of cancer (until their food supply was increased post-experiment).
Since then, calorie reduction has been linked to increased lifespan and health across various life forms, including single-celled organisms, nematodes, flies, spiders, grasshoppers, guppies, trout, mice, hamsters, and dogs.
Why is this the case? The theory suggests that reduced food consumption activates a biological mechanism in your cells that encourages energy conservation.
When food is scarce, expending energy for activities like reproduction becomes counterproductive, especially in an environment lacking sufficient resources.
Thus, evolutionary biology suggests that animals in such circumstances should conserve energy, slowing their aging process until food availability improves, increasing their chances of remaining healthy enough to reproduce later.
Anti-aging effects of eating less
While there is ample evidence of caloric restriction in animals, obtaining reliable human data poses challenges.
Funding bodies, ethics committees, and participants are understandably hesitant to commit to long-term dietary interventions.
The most significant trial to date is the carrie trial (A Comprehensive Assessment of the Long-Term Effects of Reducing Energy Intake), where participants aimed to cut their intake by 25% over two years.
(Ultimately, the average reduction was only 12 percent, highlighting the difficulty of maintaining such a regimen, even with scientific support.)
Though two years is insufficient to conclusively determine longevity, participants did experience an average weight loss of 8 kg (17.6 lb), along with minor reductions in LDL cholesterol, blood pressure, blood sugar levels, and inflammatory markers.
Cutting back on protein
If you wish to apply this concept personally, an important question arises about what exactly should be reduced in your diet.
Recent studies indicate that a reduction in protein intake—the critical factor influencing our health—may be essential.
For example, one study by researchers at the University of Sydney found that mice on a low-protein diet lived approximately 30% longer than those on a protein-rich diet.
Specificity matters here. Since proteins are composed of 20 amino acids, reducing one or more of these could potentially extend lifespan.
Research indicates that lowering levels of “branched-chain” amino acids (BCAAs) might extend male mice lifespan by 30%. (The reasons behind the different effects in female mice remain unclear.)
In fact, reducing the specific amino acid isoleucine resulted in a 33% increase in male mice lifespan (compared to just 7% for female mice).
Ongoing research is investigating additional amino acids. For instance, methionine presents a delicate case.
Mice consuming a diet with 0.15% methionine lived 10% longer than those on a standard diet containing 0.4% of this amino acid.
Conversely, mice consuming 0.1% methionine often faced early death from rectal prolapse, prompting one to consider the risks involved.
Current research is shifting focus from merely restricting dietary components to optimizing them. However, with 20 amino acids, the permutations can be overwhelming.
Even experimenting with simple combinations of high and low doses of each amino acid could require over a million trials.
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Genome-based amino acid diet
To tackle this complexity, scientists are examining our DNA, which directs protein synthesis. The building blocks of proteins are amino acids.
What if we provided living organisms with a diet that reflects the amino acid ratios found in their DNA?
Early research on fruit flies showed that those fed a diet aligned with their DNA ratios were larger, matured faster, laid more eggs, and had longer lifespans compared to those on standard diets.
A subsequent study involving mice found that when provided with the ideal dietary amino acid balance via their DNA, the mice demonstrated faster growth, increased muscle mass in males, and enhanced sperm production.
However, it’s yet to be determined if these mice will also enjoy prolonged lifespans.
Rapamycin (red) inhibits a protein known as mTOR (blue), which is linked to aging – Image credit: Science Photo Library
While the biological effects of reducing protein intake remain uncertain, scientists are making strides in understanding the underlying mechanisms. Similar to calorie restriction, this approach appears to significantly slow down the aging process.
A recent study published in May 2025 suggests that a low-protein diet may help in reducing DNA damage and mutations.
This doesn’t imply that proteins are directly mutagenic, but their influence on metabolism might lead to the production of “free radicals” that can harm DNA and cellular structures.
DNA mutations are known precursors to cancer and have long been associated with the aging process.
The exploration of how dietary adjustments can indirectly influence the rate of chemical “errors” in our DNA is a promising area for research.
Not everyone needs protein reduction
So, should you begin reducing your protein intake? While animal studies provide compelling evidence, human research yields more nuanced findings.
One 2014 study found that individuals consuming less protein tend to live longer than those with high protein intakes. A 50-year-old consuming under 45 g (1.6 oz) of protein daily may expect to live approximately four years longer than someone consuming 90 g (3.2 oz) daily.
Nonetheless, generalizing this advice proves challenging. In individuals over 65, the same study indicates the opposite effect. This might be due to age-related muscle loss, where protein consumption aids in weight gain.
Moreover, individuals consuming a higher proportion of plant-based protein did not face an increased mortality risk during midlife.
Hence some contend that risks may stem more from excessive red and processed meat intake than protein consumption itself.
Another factor could be that plant proteins are generally lower in certain amino acids, like methionine, meaning high vegetable consumers might naturally have a lower methionine intake.
Sadly, no comprehensive human studies have been conducted to deliberately restrict specific amino acids.
However, it would be intriguing to research this approach in humans, not through protein powders but via dietary combinations that adhere to our genetic requirements and can be easily integrated into daily nutrition.
Such findings may help mitigate the downsides associated with strict diets. Reducing food variety often leads to reported feelings of hunger, chills, decreased libido, irritability, and slower recovery from injuries.
As an old saying in longevity science goes, while dietary restrictions might not extend your life, they can certainly make your life feel longer.
Medication alternatives to protein restriction
Perhaps the answer lies not in our kitchens but in pharmaceuticals. A drug called rapamycin, for example, activates cellular recycling pathways that mimic those triggered during dietary restriction, leading to lifespans increased by up to 60% in mice.
Diabetes medications that lower blood sugar are another avenue to induce caloric reduction and extend mouse lifespans.
Moreover, GLP-1 agonists such as semaglutide (Ozempic) have showcased the potential to alleviate various conditions by directly curbing appetite.
Could these or other medications help us maintain health without adhering strictly to lengthy dietary regimens?
As a person interested in a long, healthy life, but wishing to avoid being a hungry centenarian, I eagerly anticipate the initiation of clinical trials.
You might be surprised to discover that diabetes encompasses more than just two types. While Type 1 and Type 2 are well-known, you may have come across Type 1.5, which has recently gained attention.
Type 1.5 diabetes, formally known as Latent Autoimmune Diabetes (LADA), is not a new variant of diabetes but is relatively uncommon. It has been recognized as a distinct type since 1993; comprising 3 to 12 percent of all adult diabetes cases.
Like type 1 and type 2 diabetes, LADA is characterized by elevated blood sugar levels, or glucose, in the blood.
Regardless of the diabetes type, symptoms remain consistent. These include intense thirst, frequent urination, fatigue, and unexpected weight loss. The UK’s leading charity against diabetes notes these include the “four T’s”: thirst, toileting, tiredness, and thinness. diabetes uk
If you experience these symptoms, prompt diagnosis is crucial. Left untreated, diabetes can lead to severe complications affecting the kidneys, eyes, feet, and even nerves.
So, if the symptoms are similar across diabetes types, how can healthcare experts discern which type you have? And how does this differentiation influence treatment?
Comparing Type 1.5 Diabetes to Type 1 and Type 2 Diabetes
Diabetes, in its various forms, has affected humans throughout history. Ancient healers in Greece, India, and Egypt frequently mentioned a peculiar symptom: sweet-smelling urine. Thus, the term diabetes derives from the Greek word “diabetes,” meaning to pass, and the Latin word “mellitus,” meaning sweet.
This sweet-smelling symptom arises from the buildup of glucose in the body. Glucose is processed by a hormone called insulin, produced by the pancreas, which converts it into a usable energy source for cells.
Glucose buildup occurs when the body either:
Fails to produce sufficient insulin (as in type 1 diabetes)
Or does not respond effectively to insulin (as seen in type 2 diabetes)
In both scenarios, the kidneys struggle to reabsorb excess glucose in the bloodstream. When they cannot eliminate glucose effectively, surplus sugar spills into the urine, indicating the presence of disease.
LADA shares numerous traits with these two predominant diabetes types, leaning closer to type 1 than type 2.
Finger prick test provides an immediate overview of blood sugar levels.
One significant reason individuals with type 1 diabetes have insufficient insulin is that their immune system attacks pancreatic cells responsible for insulin production. As these cells decline, the body struggles to maintain glucose levels.
The same is true for LADA. An influx of immune cells targets the pancreas, leading to decreased insulin production and gradually rising blood sugar levels. However, the timeline for the onset of the disease differs.
Type 1 diabetes typically has a rapid onset, often diagnosed in childhood or during a clinical emergency. In contrast, LADA progresses slowly and usually occurs in adults over 30.
As we age, a protective layer known as the periislet basement membrane (BM) develops around insulin-producing pancreatic cells. Current understanding suggests that this layer shields these cells from immune system attacks.
Thus, LADA’s onset resembles type 2 diabetes, which typically manifests in adults. Due to this similarity, up to 14% of individuals diagnosed with type 2 diabetes may actually have LADA.
Significance of Misdiagnosis
The primary treatment for type 2 diabetes is a medication called metformin. Administered in pill form, metformin works in two ways: it not only restricts the liver from absorbing excessive glucose but also enhances the body’s sensitivity to insulin.
However, a clear management strategy for LADA is still not established. While metformin may be prescribed, insulin replacement therapy could also be necessary. If someone has LADA misdiagnosed as type 2 diabetes, they might receive metformin when insulin is the actual requirement.
Taking inappropriate medication over extended periods can elevate blood sugar levels. Chronically high blood sugar can lead to severe complications, including heart disease, stroke, eye issues (retinopathy), foot problems (ranging from increased susceptibility to infections and ulcers to sensory loss), kidney disease (nephropathy), and nerve disorders (neuropathy).
LADA can also invoke damage to small blood vessels, termed microvascular disease. A 2020 study indicated that strict glycemic control from the onset of LADA significantly decreases the risk of subsequent microvascular disease.
Consequently, minimizing misdiagnosis rates is vital for individuals with LADA. Fortunately, there are effective methods to distinguish LADA from type 1 and type 2 diabetes.
The first and foremost step a doctor can take is to check for antibodies. These antibodies incorrectly signal the immune system to attack insulin-producing pancreatic cells. Finding at least one antibody suggests the presence of autoimmune diabetes. Elevated antibody levels may indicate a more rapid progression of LADA.
This principle also applies when multiple antibodies are present. In such cases, immediate insulin treatment becomes crucial to help manage blood sugar levels more effectively.
Practitioners may also assess a person’s insulin output. This can be done by measuring a blood protein known as c-peptide, which is produced during insulin synthesis in the pancreas. Elevated c-peptide levels may respond well to metformin. However, if the levels are significantly low or undetectable, immediate insulin therapy should be initiated. In LADA, c-peptide levels tend to diminish over time, and it is recommended to conduct tests every six months.
A person’s body composition can further indicate LADA. Individuals exhibiting symptoms of the “four T’s” (thirst, frequent urination, fatigue, and weight loss) who maintain relatively low fat levels or body weight are generally more inclined to have LADA than type 2 diabetes. Additionally, LADA patients typically possess favorable cholesterol levels, which can aid in refining the diagnosis.
Once an accurate diagnosis is established, LADA can be treated appropriately. It’s critical to reach this point with guidance from healthcare professionals.
In September, Mexican officials confirmed an outbreak of the lethal flesh-eating parasite in Nuevo Leon, located less than 70 miles (113 kilometers) from the Texas border.
The outbreak was identified in an 8-month-old cow along the busy Monterrey to Laredo highway. Cocliomia hominivorax – the New World screwworm – has resurfaced for the first time in decades, threatening its eradication status achieved in the United States over fifty years ago.
This discovery raised concerns among U.S. ranchers and veterinarians who vividly recall the destruction this voracious insect once wreaked. The screwworm fly, a metallic blue-gray, appears relatively ordinary until its larvae begin to burrow into the living flesh of animals.
“The adults resemble the blowflies commonly found in my lab in North Carolina,” remarks Professor Max Scott, an entomologist at North Carolina State University who has dedicated his career to pest research. “The difference is that this blowfly is an obligate parasite. The female must lay her eggs in a living host.”
Within hours of being laid in a wound or natural opening, the eggs hatch into maggots that burrow deep into the tissue. After several days of feeding, the larvae drop to the ground and pupate, often leaving the host deformed or dead.
Each female can lay hundreds of eggs, and untreated infestations often attract other species of flies, exacerbating the host’s decline.
In livestock, screwworms can result in significant weight loss, skin damage, and even fatalities, representing a multibillion-dollar challenge for the livestock industry in South America.
A Terrible Past
The New World screwworm once plagued regions in the southern United States, Mexico, and the Caribbean. It wasn’t until the mid-20th century that an unexpected mix of genetics, radiation, and air transport helped regain control over the species.
Post-World War II, scientists at the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) pioneered germ-free insect technology, a groundbreaking method for genetic control. The approach was both simple and radical—breed millions of screwworm flies in captivity, sterilize them using gamma rays, and release them into the wild.
Females mate only once, so even if they pair with a sterile male, they won’t produce offspring, leading to a population collapse.
In the 1950s, experiments on Curaçao confirmed the method’s effectiveness. By the early 1960s, screwworms had been eradicated from Florida. The initiative spread west and south, ultimately eliminating the fly from the continental United States, Mexico, and much of Central America by the early 2000s.
The eradication campaign was costly, reportedly exceeding $750 million. However, it saved the livestock industry billions in losses annually and allowed U.S. cattle production to thrive in the following years.
A small production facility in Panama, jointly managed by the U.S. and Panamanian governments, maintained permanent barriers, releasing 100 million sterile flies weekly along the Panama-Colombia border and regularly developing new strains for longevity.
This system functioned effectively for two decades until it faltered. By 2023, infection cases began to re-emerge in Panama. Within two years, the parasite spread to Costa Rica, Nicaragua, and Honduras, now reaching northern Mexico.
New World screwworm larvae feed on infected animal wounds for about seven days, then fall to the ground, burrow into the soil, and pupate. – Credit: COPEG
What Went Wrong?
The specific reasons behind the barrier’s collapse remain unclear, but Scott noted “warning signs indicating trouble along the border.”
Farmers failing to adhere to protocols when transporting livestock may have further facilitated the spread of infection, explaining the surge in cases beyond the natural movement of fly populations.
Scott pointed out that the Panama facility is currently overburdened, producing around 110 million sterile flies weekly. In contrast, during the initial eradication efforts in Mexico, local facilities generated between 500 million and 700 million units weekly. “We needed that volume,” he noted.
This shortfall means an insufficient supply of sterile flies to manage the ongoing outbreak.
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The Enemy at the Gate
As of now, there is no evidence that the screwworms have crossed into the U.S. The USDA has deployed approximately 8,000 traps in Texas, Arizona, and New Mexico but has not detected any flies. Nevertheless, vigilance is high.
“The risks are substantial,” Scott cautions. “The best chance to curb the outbreak was further south, near the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. Reports of cases further north complicate containment given the current production capacities.”
In response, the U.S. government initiated a “five-pillar plan,” which includes constructing two new fly dispersal facilities in Texas. One facility at Moore Air Force Base can spray 100 million sterile flies weekly, while plans for a larger production plant in southern Texas aim to triple that capacity.
The USDA is also investing $100 million into innovative pest control technologies, exploring options from electron beam and X-ray sterilization to genetically modified flies.
A significant resurgence of screwworms could be catastrophic for U.S. livestock producers. An outbreak may incur billions in animal losses, quarantines, and trade restrictions. When the parasite re-emerged in Florida in 2016 from Caribbean-imported deer, it infected 145 animals, taking nearly a year to eradicate.
Human infections are rare but can be severe. The parasite’s scientific name, Cocliomia hominivorax, translates to “man-eating fly.” Most cases affect travelers to infested regions, leading to infections from wounds and nasal passages.
“This is not a major public health issue,” Scott explained. “However, caution is advised when visiting affected areas.”
The bulges on the larva’s body are the origin of the name “screw maggot.” – Credit: USDA Agricultural Research Service
Modern Genetic Upgrades
Scott believes that the old sterile fly method remains viable, especially when enhanced by new biotechnology. His lab at North Carolina State University has spent years developing genetically engineered screwworm strains that produce only males, significantly increasing efficiency.
Traditional sterile insect techniques require releasing both males and females, resulting in many males mating with sterile females.
This means that very high doses of radiation are needed to fully sterilize females, Scott noted. In contrast, his team’s method yields only males. They can then focus on sterilizing these males specifically, allowing researchers to maintain a higher quantity of healthier flies unlikely to reproduce.
These male-only stocks were field-tested in Panama in 2018 but were not deployed because existing methods were deemed sufficient. As the parasite moves northward, regulatory approval for genetically modified screwworms might become essential.
Moreover, researchers are investigating “gene drive systems” utilizing CRISPR technology to bias genetics, ensuring that most offspring carry infertile or male-only genes. In theory, this could drastically reduce the number of flies needed for suppression.
“We hope funding will be available to develop more effective technologies,” Scott stated. “The goal is to reduce releases from 100 million sterile flies to potentially just 10 million. This would make genetic control far more feasible.”
For the time being, strategies remain focused on aerial dispersal, targeted capture, and cross-border collaboration. Yet, scientists are increasingly concerned about the screwworm’s capability to migrate northward faster than anticipated.
“Given the current fly population, we sincerely hope to prevent them from entering the United States,” Scott warned. “But uncertainties remain.”
At present, the border remains intact. With each new case emerging towards the north, the focus shifts from whether the screwworms will invade the U.S. to whether they will be prepared upon their arrival.
You might be surprised to learn that there are many animal gamers out there. For instance, in California, U.S. Navy sea lions are trained to: manipulate a cursor on a screen using their noses to press four buttons (up, down, left, and right) to navigate through a maze.
The sea lions, utilized by the Navy for locating and retrieving underwater objects, earn real herrings as rewards for completing their tasks, as opposed to loot boxes or power-ups.
This game is specifically designed to assess the cognitive skills of the sea lions; however, they face tough competition from the Navy’s bottlenose dolphins, which have been trained to control a joystick with their mouths to play the same game.
On land, primates reign supreme as gamers. Chimpanzees and orangutans at zoos in Edinburgh, Scotland, and Leipzig, Germany, have recently been trained to forage for food in a virtual setting.
When one of them discovers a digital snack (with apples, grapes, and bananas scattered throughout the game), they are rewarded with a real-life equivalent of the food.
This game offers valuable insights into how these animals utilize landmarks, like trees, to navigate while searching for food.
Meanwhile, chimpanzees in the United States have showcased their ability to navigate virtual mazes. A 2014 survey conducted by the Language Research Center at Georgia State University revealed that they perform comparably to children aged 3 to 6 years old.
Chimpanzees in the United States demonstrating these remarkable skills – Illustration by Robin Boyden
However, like sea lions, primates also face strong competition. In 2021, four pigs in the United States were taught to operate a joystick using their noses to guide a cursor on the screen to a target, a task that requires a “conceptual understanding of the task and skilled motor skills.”
There are even digital mice and tablet apps for cats that let them “catch” fish with their paws.
Where will this all lead? A hedgehog playing Sonic Racing? A hamster playing Grand Theft Auto? Perhaps not, but these animal gamers reveal that we still have much to learn about their cognitive capabilities.
This article addresses the question posed by Guy Russell via email: “Can animals play video games?”
If you have further inquiries, feel free to email us at:questions@sciencefocus.com or send us a messageon Facebook,on Twitter, oron Instagram(don’t forget to include your name and location).
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Can scientists transfer animal brains to computers? The answer hinges on how we define “transfer” and “brain.” If we’re a bit flexible in our interpretation, it’s essentially already taking place.
Caenorhabditis elegans are minuscule worms found in soil and decaying plant matter. As multicellular eukaryotes, they technically qualify as animals.
This tiny worm never surpasses 1mm (0.03 inches) in length and is one of the most well-known organisms on Earth.
We have sequenced its genome and mapped all development, encompassing approximately 2,000 cells, including 300 neurons. The variations in this worm are minimal, but what differences do exist have been mapped.
Thus, scientists could model the entire brain on a computer, reproducing not just identical reflex behaviors as found in nature, but even training them to perform new tasks, such as balancing virtual poles (and yes, that’s true).
However, even if we liberally interpret our definitions, this scenario doesn’t entirely hold up.
The C. elegans brain was not uploaded in the conventional sense. Instead, it was replicated using data gathered from years of experiments involving thousands of these worms. There hasn’t been a method to accurately record and transfer the thoughts and memories of an individual creature to a computer.
Caenorhabditis elegans are tiny worms that thrive in soil and decaying vegetation – Image credit: Science Photo Library
Many believe brain uploads represent the future of humanity, viewing it as an “inevitable consequence” of advancements in neuroscience and artificial intelligence (AI), potentially leading to the ultimate solution to death.
Nevertheless, several significant challenges must be addressed before this can become a reality.
As our conscious minds are intricately constructed from the cells and chemicals within our skulls and nervous systems, we must find a way to fully interpret our brain states in exquisite detail.
Next, we need to create a software model that can accurately mimic brain behavior at the molecular, or perhaps even atomic, level.
Over a decade ago, scientists demonstrated that it was feasible to identify neurons and their connectivity in meticulously prepared mouse brains. These brains were stained, sliced to 70 nanometers thick, and then reconstructed into a 3D format using a computer. As expected, the mouse did not survive.
Many believe that brain uploads are the future of humanity – Image credit: Aramie
This serves as an example of a destructive scan. The methods many suggest as necessary for recording a brain in sufficient detail may lead to its destruction.
As medical imaging technology achieves higher resolutions, some speculate that we could one day scan all cell states non-destructively. However, such scans must be instantaneous; otherwise, parts of your brain could be considering new things before the scan finishes.
Could this be achievable with a recently deceased brain? Scientists indicate that it might be essential to scan the brain while it’s actively functioning to ensure all cells accurately model the intended behavior.
Today’s computers are remarkable, yet even the most optimistic futurists predict we may need a century before we can simulate at the atomic scale required.
Moreover, there’s a final profound question. If you can upload your brain non-destructively in 500 years…what happens next? You would exist in a virtual world as computer software, while the original version of you continues to think in your biological form, likely with a slight headache from the scan.
But if you are still alive, did you genuinely trick death? Clearly not. Instead, you’ve allowed for the creation of virtual duplicates that could be used according to their will. That’s a disconcerting thought.
This article answers the question posed by Darcie Walsh from Preston: “Can scientists upload animal brains to a computer?”
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I found myself in a softly illuminated room, making my way to the table. The beat of “Mamushi” by Megan Thee Stallion filled the air, while two large white circles moved rhythmically along the silhouette of my body displayed on the screen.
Is this an exclusive sex club in Germany at 2 AM?
Unfortunately, no. I’m actually in a suburban shopping center on a Tuesday afternoon, experiencing a massage from an Aescape robot.
Aescape lets me explain, is a “groundbreaking lifestyle robot company” that “transforms the wellness sector by delivering outstanding massage experiences.” To put it simply, they provide robot massages: a cushioned table paired with two large robotic arms that knead your body according to your preferences and a preset program.
I absolutely love massages—there’s nothing that makes me happier than having the sack of flesh I call a body manipulated like Wagyu beef. So, I opted for the “power-up” option for 30 minutes, which costs $60 and promises to make you feel “good and alert.”
According to Mayo Clinic Health System, massage therapy can benefit numerous conditions including anxiety, depression, sports injuries, digestive issues, headaches, and soft tissue sprains. It also enhances circulation, boosts the immune system, reduces stress, and increases energy levels.
But can a robotic massage compare to one delivered by a human?
“There are many gimmicks out there. My mother owns a massage chair, and I use a Theragun at home,” explains Christa de La Garza, a board-certified massage therapist from Colorado. While these devices can be beneficial, Della Garza believes there’s no cause for concern about robots taking over.
Primarily, there are tangible physical advantages to interacting with humans. During the early days of the pandemic, many felt “skin hungry,” a term reflecting a need for physical touch that comes from prolonged isolation.
A paper published in 2024 in Nature, indicated that receiving touch is “very significant,” revealing that touch interventions help alleviate pain, depression, and anxiety in adults. The study found that while touch from objects and robots could provide physical benefits, the mental health advantages were minimal.
“Receiving safe and therapeutic touch is incredibly powerful,” shared Della Garza.
Aescape clarifies on their website that they do not intend to replace therapists but rather to complement their services and address workforce shortages in the industry.
An Aescape robot masseuse. Photo: Provided by Aescape
Upon my arrival, the efficient, blonde receptionist assured me, “Humans can’t be replaced.” Although I was late due to parking complications, the machine didn’t seem to mind. It felt like a typical spa, complete with nail polish, pedicures, and crystals for sale at the front desk. As we walked to the robot room, she mentioned that Aescape is quite popular, especially among clients who “are uneasy about being touched by strangers.”
Once inside, she provided me with high-compression, Aescape-branded leggings and top to wear. As my treatment began, I learned these garments help improve the machines’ “body detection.” Lying on the table, I remained very still as the Aescape robot scanned my shape. The staff explained the screen controls and an emergency button to halt the process if needed.
“We don’t need it!” she said cheerfully before changing my outfit.
Once I was facing the screen, I was greeted with a variety of options. What kind of music would I prefer? Choices included a playlist named lo-fi ambient jazz, classic rock, or “brat.” I could also see clear outlines revealing my body’s quirks—did they have to outline my saddlebags so distinctly?—or watch calming videos of the ocean, snowy mountains, or rainy forests. The headrest could be adjusted for different pressure settings on the machine.
One of Della Garza’s concerns about robotic massages is the potential for overthinking. With a human therapist, you tend to surrender more, as they steer the majority of the experience, allowing you to switch off your mind.
I, however, was distracted by the temptation to fine-tune the music and visuals. Did I want to see the snow? It was okay. Was a “Brat” playlist relaxing? Nope—back to ambient lo-fi. Is that really what my body looks like? This is unsettling.
Several friends expressed concern that a robotic massage might make me anxious. What if the powerful robotic arms tore through my muscles like a pile of deli meat? Conversely, my greater worry was that the massage wouldn’t be firm enough, leaving my tension knots intact.
Nevertheless, the massage proved enjoyable. The robot’s smooth plastic hands felt pleasantly warm. While they lack the finesse and precision of human touch, they provide a rather fun experience. In fact, the robot hands resemble knobby shapes, much like small Dutch clogs, with a firm push against the back.
By the end of the session, I felt significantly more relaxed than when I began. Although I wasn’t exactly elated, I sensed that I could comfortably drift into a deep, dreamless sleep.
While it certainly can’t replace the human touch, I appreciate the surrender and attention to detail a traditional massage provides. Additionally, Aescape doesn’t address the head, hands, or feet. But if you’re feeling sore after a workout or find yourself walking around a suburban shopping center for a duration, I could see it as a viable option. It’s relatively affordable, and there’s no need to tip.
The findings indicate that this bathroom behavior is not only unhygienic but can also significantly elevate the risk of developing bleeding, commonly referred to as hemorrhoids.
In a study conducted by US scientists involving 125 adults undergoing colonoscopy (a procedure in which a doctor examines the intestine with a camera), participants were surveyed about their lifestyle and bathroom habits.
Subjects provided answers regarding their habits, and the doctors performing the colonoscopy assessed any bleeding present.
Remarkably, 66% of participants reported using their smartphones while having a bowel movement, primarily to scroll through social media and check the news. Toilet users were more likely to engage in this scrolling behavior than those who did not.
Researchers performed statistical analyses to account for additional factors that could influence bleeding risk, such as physical activity, age, and diet.
Eventually, it was revealed that those who brought their phones into the restroom faced a 46% greater risk compared to those who left their devices behind.
So, why is scrolling such a concern? It essentially boils down to the amount of time spent sitting in the bathroom, which can increase due to distractions from your phone.
In fact, 37% of those who scrolled in the toilet admitted to spending over five minutes per visit, in contrast to just 7.1% of non-scrollers.
Researchers suggested that this extended duration could put additional pressure on the anal region, increasing the likelihood of tissue swelling.
Dr. Trisha Pasricha, a Harvard Medical Instructor, stated in BBC Science Focus: “Avoid bringing your smartphone to the toilet! It diverts your attention from the task at hand.”
As a minimum precaution, she recommended setting a five-minute timer or opting for traditional reading material like magazines.
Hemorrhoids, also known as piles, are swollen tissue masses around the anal area that can lead to itching, pain, and bleeding – Credit: Sexan Monkon Kamusao
Bleeding results in nearly 4 million doctor visits or emergency room trips annually in the United States. In the UK, it is estimated that hemorrhoids affect 10% of the population.
Anecdotally, a correlation between phone use in the bathroom and bleeding has been noted, though few studies provide compelling evidence.
“I believe there’s still much to explore regarding the health impacts of constant phone scrolling,” Pasricha remarked. “In our study, we first identified a link between smartphone use in the bathroom and bleeding, but this is just the beginning of what promises to be more research in this area.”
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About our experts
Dr. Trisha Pasricha is a gastroenterologist and director of the Gut-Brain Research Institute at Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center in Boston. She is also a medical instructor at Harvard Medical School and has received the American Gastrointestinal Association’s Research Scholars Award. Pasricha is a recognized medical journalist and author of the forthcoming book You’ve All Pooped Wrong (Avery, £22).
IT is a popular topic of discussion over drinks and dinner. The debate centers on whether AI will take away jobs. So far, AI hasn’t had a fair shot at writing newspaper opinion columns, but I’m convinced there are aspects of my role that AI simply can’t replicate.
Except for now, it seems AI is making claims that it can. Recently, it was revealed that at least six respected publications had to retract articles they published, as they turned out to be fragments of fiction generated by AI and later submitted by someone under the name Margaux Blanchard. One such piece was a Wired article titled “Love in Love in Love Fold,” which humorously featured Minecraft as a wedding venue. This piece quoted a so-called “digital celebrity,” Jessica Foo, who appears to exist only in name. Another publication called Dispatch received a pitch from “Blanchard” about an imaginary neighbor’s town called Gravemont, which also does not exist.
In social conversations about topics like ChatGPT, I struggle against an overwhelming sense of frustration. I dislike ChatGPT deeply. This feeling qualifies as hatred for me, because it provokes a visceral response that’s just shy of real anger. I don’t find it just annoying or confusing—I genuinely despise it.
Thus, I’ve been digging into the reasons behind my aversion. There are valid points in favor of the AI era. For instance, a friend in the scientific field explained how AI accelerates the process of developing and testing hypotheses. Routine tasks become less time-consuming with AI’s assistance.
Nonetheless, there are numerous factors causing my trepidation. The environmental impact of using ChatGPT is well-documented, but for me, it’s not the most pressing concern. It troubles me that people are actively choosing technologies that threaten to make much of their work obsolete. For example, AI can distill complex information through Google searches, which is often too straightforward. Moreover, those leading the AI revolution often evoke the worst stereotypes of the typical tech bro.
This reactionary mindset is what I find particularly tragic. Trusting ChatGPT could weaken people’s mental capabilities. I firmly believe that creative imagination is like a muscle; it thrives on exercise. Recently, I assisted a 7-year-old with her creative writing assignment. When she needed to describe the forest, I asked her to imagine it and share what she saw. “We don’t need to do that,” she replied. “You can ask AI to do it.”
She indirectly suggested that we let ChatGPT help rewrite the article. Call me a Luddite if you must, but my reaction was one of dismay! Some challenges should be embraced! It’s beneficial for your brain to tackle them! I’ve read about people using ChatGPT for selecting dishes from a restaurant menu. Choosing what to eat is one of life’s small pleasures—why outsource that to a machine?
However, what troubles me most isn’t that. The gravest issue is how ChatGPT infiltrates people’s personal lives. There’s a barrage of suggestions on using it for workout plans, coding solutions, and document summarization. That’s fine, but hearing about its use for writing birthday cards, best man speeches, or farewell texts makes a part of my soul wither. As someone who writes for a living, I can’t accept this. These moments of expression need to be heartfelt and authentic, not perfectly crafted by algorithms.
My deep-seated dislike for ChatGPT stems from how willingly people transform meaningful interactions into mere transactions. For instance, whether it’s an email or a post, much of the value in receiving a message lies in knowing someone invested their time and thought into crafting it.
I fully recognize that 15 years down the line, I might look back on this article with amusement, adapting to AI-optimized workdays and AI-assisted tasks. I may find I was naive to worry at all! “I love you” could be easily programmed to mimic genuine affection! I also understand that my aversion to ChatGPT might render me less employable in the future, as I might lack the skills to harness AI effectively. That’s okay; I can retreat to the woods and live a less-than-ideal life. Yet, I will be unhappy in a tangible way, clinging to the ability to think independently.
If your teeth are facing damage, innovative toothpastes may soon appear on the market in the coming years. Some of their ingredients may surprise you.
Toothpaste derived from your own hair could offer an effective and eco-friendly method to safeguard and restore damaged tooth enamel during the initial stages of decay, according to new research from King’s College London.
The research team has found that keratin, a protein present in hair, skin, and nails, creates protective layers that emulate the structure and function of natural tooth enamel when interacting with saliva. In their experiments, scientists extracted keratin from animal wool, which is similar to human hair.
The Science Behind the Hair Toothpaste: Explainer (Credit: King’s College London)
Enamel loss and decay are ongoing issues for dental professionals. Factors such as acidic food and drinks, aging, and inadequate oral hygiene contribute to the gradual deterioration of the teeth’s protective layer.
This deterioration can result in tooth sensitivity, discomfort, and, ultimately, tooth loss. “Unlike bone and hair, enamel does not regenerate,” states Dr. Sherif Elshalkawi, Senior Author and Consultant of Prosthetics at King’s College London. “Once lost, it is gone forever.”
While fluoride toothpaste can help slow the process, this groundbreaking keratin-based solution has shown potential to stop it completely.
When combined with naturally occurring minerals in saliva, it forms a dense crystal-like layer that shields teeth, sealing off exposed nerve channels. As these nerves are responsible for sensitivity, this novel treatment not only aids in preventing enamel breakdown but also alleviates current symptoms.
This research has been published in Advanced Healthcare Materials, detailing how scientists extracted keratin from animal wool to form a structured scaffold on the teeth that continues to attract calcium and phosphate ions, ultimately creating a protective enamel-like coat.
This substance can be used daily in regular toothpaste or applied professionally as a gel, similar to nail polish, for targeted restorative treatment. El Sharkawi suggests that this affordable, sustainable method could be available to the public in the next two to three years.
“Keratin presents a revolutionary alternative to existing dental care practices,” comments Sara Gamea, a doctoral researcher at King’s College and lead author of the study.
“It not only draws on biological waste such as hair and skin for a continuous supply but also reduces reliance on conventional plastic resins often used in restorative dentistry, which are harmful and less durable.”
“Keratin also offers a more natural appearance than these alternatives, as it can better match the original tooth color.”
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Top Image: Dr. Sherif Elshalkawi presents the animal wool utilized in this groundbreaking treatment (credit: King’s College London)
Microorganisms residing in your gut might be contributing to your insomnia, according to new research conducted in China. Conversely, your sleep patterns can also impact your gut health.
While earlier studies have hinted at a connection between sleep habits and gut health, a recent analysis featured in the journal General Psychiatry suggests that this relationship may indeed be causal. This implies that sleep can influence your gut directly, and vice versa.
Dr. Ph.D., who leads the research at an affiliated brain hospital of Nanjing Medical University in China, told BBC Science Focus that this study could “reshape our understanding of insomnia and spark interest in microbiome-based interventions.”
In the future, treatment for insomnia could involve gut-focused solutions such as probiotics (found in yogurt or sauerkraut), prebiotics (fiber sources), or even fecal transplants.
“Moreover, gut microbiomes may act as biomarkers, tracking the effectiveness of these treatments and enabling personalized care,” Shangyun noted.
Researchers employed a statistical approach known as Mendelian randomization (using genetic data to determine causal relationships) to explore the connection between insomnia and the gut microbiota.
They identified specific genes connected to insomnia and assessed whether individuals with these genes were more likely to harbor certain gut microorganisms.
The researchers also reversed the inquiry, examining whether specific gut microorganisms could affect the likelihood of developing insomnia.
For their analysis, scientists used data from 387,000 individuals with insomnia alongside gut microbiome data from 26,500 individuals, all sourced from European populations. Thus, these findings may not apply universally.
Intestinal microbiomes comprise the community of bacteria and yeasts inhabiting the digestive system – Credit: Tom Leach / Science Photo Library
The analysis suggested that 41 types of gut bacteria may contribute to insomnia, at least in part.
However, Shangyun indicated that certain microorganisms hold more significance than others. Notably, they identified 14 groups associated with a higher likelihood of insomnia, while others were linked to a lower chance.
In contrast, the research found that insomnia is associated with a decrease of 43-79% in a specific group of seven bacterial types.
Furthermore, insomnia correlated with a 65% increased likelihood of 12 bacterial groups being four times more prevalent in the intestines.
A particular class of bacteria, known as Odlibacter, was found to be closely tied to insomnia risk. This type of gut bacteria is often linked to improved gut health.
Overall, this study highlights a vicious cycle: certain gut bacteria may lead to insomnia, while a lack of sleep can alter gut microbiota.
Shangyun emphasized the need for further research before healthcare providers can recommend gut health strategies to enhance sleep quality.
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About our experts
Dr. Shi Shangyun is a scientist at the Faculty of Psychiatry, affiliated with the brain hospital at Nanjing Medical University in Jiangsu Province, China.
After 25 years of investigation, researchers at Northwestern University in the United States have found out why some adults have acclimatized to near-optimal cognitive functioning since the 1980s.
Referred to as “super agers,” these individuals are over 80 years old, yet their memory capabilities rival those of adults in their 50s and 60s.
Since the year 2000, scientists have examined 290 of these super agers, assessing 77 brains to better understand those who resist cognitive decline.
The study revealed shared personality traits among the ultra-elderly compared to the general population. These individuals often report being highly social and possessing strong interpersonal connections.
However, the differences in personality are merely the tip of the iceberg. Dr. Sandra Weintraub – a Professor of Psychiatry, Behavioral Science, and Neurology at Northwestern and co-author of a new paper summarizes the findings regarding these super agers – “What we observed in their brains was astonishing; it felt like earth-shattering news for us.”
In some super agers’ brains, scientists identified amyloid and tau proteins, commonly known as plaque and tangles, which are significant in the context of Alzheimer’s disease. In other super agers, these were absent.
Nonetheless, no brains exhibited the damage typically linked with these plaques or tangles.
“Our observation is that there are two distinct mechanisms enabling someone to become a super ager,” Weintraub stated. “The first is resistance, meaning they do not develop plaque or tangles. The second is resilience; they do form these but do not experience negative brain impacts.”
Super agers displayed not only varying personality traits but also distinct brain structures, particularly in the size and shape of the cortex.
In addition to that, these super agers exhibited youthful brain structures. While older brains generally have thinner cortices compared to younger ones, these individuals did not show such thinning.
In particular, they displayed remarkable thickness in the anterior cingulate cortex, a crucial area involved in processing information related to decision-making, emotions, and motivations.
Moreover, super agers had a greater number of Von Economo neurons, also known as spindle cells, compared to their normally aging peers. These neurons, located in the cortex, play a significant role in social behavior, emotional processing, and self-awareness.
“Our research indicates that exceptional memory in later years is achievable and correlates with a well-defined neurobiological profile,” Weintraub stated. “This paves the way for novel interventions aimed at preserving brain health in older age.”
Researchers expressed hope that their work would encourage cognitive health and unveil new approaches to slow or prevent future neurodegenerative diseases like dementia.
If you find yourself at your desk, feeling a bit fatigued and pondering where the weekend went, the thought of a four-day workweek might sound incredibly appealing. Just think about all you could accomplish with an extra day! You could finally tackle those odd tasks, enjoy some fresh air, or simply catch up on sleep.
This notion has circulated for years, but now the evidence is mounting. By trimming the workweek by just one day, you can reduce stress, enhance sleep quality, boost physical activity, and even improve productivity.
This concept is shaping a global movement toward rethinking the modern workweek, backed by trials occurring in Europe, North America, and other regions.
A recent study conducted by researchers from Boston College and University College Dublin tracked approximately 3,000 employees across 141 organizations in six English-speaking countries. For six months, these participants worked up to eight hours less per week, without any reduction in pay.
The results published in Natural Human Behavior were quite impressive. Employees reported enhanced mental and physical health, fewer sleep disturbances, and lower fatigue levels. Most companies found sufficient value in the results to continue with the new arrangements post-trial.
“We are observing global trends where workers experience burnout, extended hours, and minimal time for personal and family matters—not just in high-income nations but across many low and middle-income countries,” noted Wenfang, the study’s author and associate professor of sociology at Boston University, in an interview with BBC Science Focus.
“A four-day workweek offers a potential avenue for employees to rethink and restructure their work arrangements for better benefit.”
Hard Data
While many studies rely on employee surveys, recent research in Germany led by Professor Julia Bachmann aims to gather more concrete data. Her team monitored stress, activity levels, and sleep using Garmin fitness trackers worn by both participants in the four-day workweek and those maintaining full-time schedules.
The findings revealed that those in the four-day workweek group experienced significantly lower stress levels, as indicated by heart rate variability.
“The four-day workweek group showed significantly less stress on most days,” said Bachmann to BBC Science Focus. “Interestingly, even on weekends, they did not reach the stress levels of the control group.”
Interestingly, Saturday turned out to be the most stressful day, likely due to errands and family responsibilities, while Sunday was the least stressful. Participants also increased their walking, exercise, and gained an extra 38 minutes of sleep per week.
“They are more active, engaging in more sports. Their stress levels are lower, and they’re sleeping a bit more during the week,” Bachmann noted.
According to Bachmann, the early indicators point in a favorable direction; however, the data on sleep quality is still being analyzed.
Crucially, these physiological findings aligned with the self-reported data from participants. This is significant given the long-standing concerns about bias in self-reported data in other studies on the four-day workweek. “This is typically the main criticism,” Bachmann stated. “But now we have objective data that supports these self-reported outcomes.”
As part of the same study, researchers also gathered hair samples to analyze cortisol levels, a hormone linked to chronic stress. The results are pending, but Bachmann is hopeful they will be available later this year. If consistent with other findings, these results could provide further independent evidence of the health benefits of a four-day workweek.
The trial included 41 organizations across Germany, spanning from IT firms to healthcare providers. Not every employee transitioned to a four-day schedule within each company, as some departments within large corporations maintained full-time hours. Most who switched reduced their work hours without extending their workdays. Reports indicated that monthly overtime also decreased.
Fortunately, for any CEOs reading this, no significant revenue changes were noted during the four-day workweek, and both employee productivity and work intensity improved.
Importantly, this model gained widespread popularity: 73% of organizations expressed plans to continue with the four-day workweek in some capacity, and 82% of workers hoped to maintain it.
Fitness trackers were used to capture hard data on how four days of the week can improve your health – Credit: Getty Images
The Future of Work
So, is the Monday to Friday grind truly sustainable? According to Professor Cal Newport, a Georgetown University computer science professor trained at MIT and author of Deep Work, it’s not that straightforward. He agrees that a shortened week may offer some relief; however, he believes it lacks proper progression. “One of the key contributors to burnout among knowledge workers is overload,” he noted in an interview with BBC Science Focus. “Individuals juggle numerous projects, tasks, and obligations simultaneously.”
In other words, the focus should not solely be on how long we work, but also on the expectations attached to that work. “Transitioning to a four-day week only indirectly addresses this issue,” he asserted. “There’s anecdotal evidence suggesting that reducing workloads might lessen them somewhat. These new constraints can help people feel comfortable saying ‘no,’ making the most effective approach to managing workloads direct.”
Bachmann’s team is currently planning to streamline the four-day workweek concept further to explore how employees compress their tasks into four days compared to genuine reductions in total working hours.
Overall, the outlook for a four-day workweek is positive. Studies around the globe are converging on similar conclusions. Hopefully, a shorter workweek can enhance health and well-being without compromising performance.
However, as Newport emphasizes, the hours we work may matter less than the expectations we set. If a four-day week becomes a reality, it may require reevaluating our workloads rather than just adjusting our calendars.
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About Our Experts
Wenfang He is an associate professor in the Sociology department at Boston University, USA. His research has appeared in journals like Natural Human Behavior, Social Forces, Jobs and Occupations, and Advances in Life Course Research.
Julia Buckmann is the chair for co-direction at the Centre for Work Transformation and Business Transformation at the University of Münster in Germany. Before this role, she served as an assistant professor at the University of Dublin and LMU Munich. Having received several international awards, Julia is focused on the impact of social and technological change on (collaborative) work, leadership, and innovation.
Cal Newport is a computer science professor trained at MIT and teaching at Georgetown University in the United States. He writes extensively about technology, work, and the pursuit of depth in an increasingly distracting world. His publications include eight books such as Lower Productivity, Email-Free World, Digital Minimalism, and Deep Work.
Parasites transmitted by cats may influence the behavior of nearly half of the global population, leading to riskier behaviors and increased aggression.
A recent review article aggregated various studies to emphasize the significance of considering both mental health and the physical consequences of parasite infections.
Reviews published in Frontiers of Psychiatry focus on the most prevalent parasitic infections affecting humans, particularly Toxoplasma gondii.
These parasites can enhance the production of dopamine, a hormone associated with feelings of pleasure, in the brain.
While increased dopamine may seem beneficial, it actually promotes detrimental behaviors, resulting in poor impulse control, heightened aggression, and an increase in risky sexual practices.
“The societal implications of these findings are significant,” the study notes. “The potential for behavioral modifications due to widespread infections of parasites like T. gondii highlights that such infectious diseases can lead to psychological and social challenges in addition to medical ones.”
“Particularly, the likelihood that these infections can intensify aggressive and impulsive behaviors raises vital considerations for understanding and preventing violence and behavioral disorders.”
It is estimated that 30-60% of the global population may be infected with T. gondii, though rates in the U.S. are significantly lower, around 10%.
Most healthy adults do not exhibit obvious physical symptoms, resulting in many infections going unnoticed.
The ultimate target for T. gondii – the cat’s digestive system. Image source: Getty Images/Artmarie
Cats are primary hosts for these parasites as they reproduce within the cat’s digestive system, forming egg-like structures known as oocysts.
Once cats excrete waste, these oocysts can contaminate the environment, infiltrating soil, water, and vegetation. Other animals, including the prey of cats like birds and rodents, may ingest them.
In a bid to return to a cat’s digestive tract, T. gondii has adapted to manipulate the brain chemistry of these prey species, making them less likely to escape and more likely to be consumed.
Humans primarily contract T. gondii through handling cat feces or consuming undercooked foods. Fortunately, there are simple measures to reduce the risk of infection.
Thoroughly wash your hands, knives, and cutting boards after handling raw food, especially meat.
Ensure that lamb, pork, venison, and other meats are cooked thoroughly.
Thoroughly rinse fruits and vegetables under running water.
Avoid unpasteurized milk and dairy products, especially goat milk.
Wear gloves while gardening.
Exercise caution and wash hands after cleaning the cat’s litter box.
This deficiency is crucial for energy production, brain development, and maintaining a robust immune system.
According to the World Health Organization, anemia affects 31% of women of reproductive age, 36% of pregnant women, and 40% of children under 5.
Inflammation can interfere with iron absorption, stemming from acute diseases or chronic conditions such as obesity. With rising global obesity and chronic disease rates, this creates additional challenges in tackling iron deficiency worldwide.
Iron Deficiency
Iron deficiency can lead to anemia, as iron is vital for red blood cell production. Anemia is characterized by low hemoglobin levels, the protein that gives blood its red color and transports oxygen.
The World Health Organization reports that anemia affects 31% of adult women of reproductive age, 36% of pregnant women, and 40% of children under 5 years old. Approximately half of all global anemia cases result from iron deficiency. Common symptoms include pale skin, fatigue, shortness of breath, and irregular heartbeat (known as palpitations).
Iron deficiency poses serious health risks, especially when it causes anemia, including a weakened immune system, complications during pregnancy and childbirth, maternal and infant mortality, and delayed growth and brain development in children.
Diet can influence iron absorption. – Photo credit: Getty
The repercussions of iron deficiency are particularly severe for women and children, who are the most susceptible.
Menstruating women have a heightened need for iron due to monthly blood loss. Pregnant women require extra iron for the placenta, fetus, and increased blood volume. Children need iron for rapid growth and brain development, making adolescent girls—who are both growing and menstruating—especially vulnerable.
In their study, Benson and Law convened a panel of 26 experts alongside four patient representatives. Their collective recommendations advocate for a more positive and inclusive strategy for managing iron deficiency, particularly for at-risk populations.
The panel stressed the importance of regular screening during pregnancy and early childhood. They emphasized utilizing ferritin, a blood protein indicating liver iron storage, as a reliable marker for diagnosing iron deficiency and determining intervention timing.
If treatment is necessary, oral iron supplements are the first recommendation. They are effective, widely accessible, and cost-effective. For those experiencing side effects like nausea and constipation, the panel suggested taking supplements on alternate days to enhance tolerability. In more severe instances, or if oral iron proves ineffective, intravenous iron may be needed.
Lastly, the panel asserted that iron deficiency should not be viewed as an isolated issue, but rather part of the routine care for mothers and children, including pregnancy tests, child health visits, and nutrition programs.
Iron Advice
While some individuals may need treatments for iron deficiency, many cases can be prevented through daily dietary choices.
Begin by adding more iron-rich foods to your meals, such as pulses, legumes, green leafy vegetables, nuts, and iron-fortified cereals (opt for lower sugar options for kids and adolescents).
For those consuming animal products, limit intake to moderate amounts of lean meat—about 70g (2.5oz) per day, as recommended by the UK Eatwell Guide—which can provide easily absorbable iron.
If you primarily follow a plant-based diet, consider pairing iron-rich foods with vitamin C sources like lemon juice, tomatoes, and strawberries to enhance iron absorption.
Avoid drinking tea or coffee during meals as polyphenols can hinder iron absorption; this applies to taking iron supplements as well. Consuming them with a vitamin C source, such as orange juice, can significantly improve absorption.
If you belong to a higher-risk group—such as menstruating individuals or caregivers of young children—or if you experience excessive fatigue, consult your doctor. A simple blood test can evaluate your iron levels. In children, iron deficiency may also manifest as unusual cravings, such as for ice or non-food items.
Iron deficiency is prevalent but manageable and often preventable. With awareness and mindful choices, maintaining healthy iron levels can be as straightforward as selecting what goes on your plate.
From hot dogs to crispy bacon, by 2026, many food staples in the US will utilize gene-edited meat. Indeed, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has recently given the green light to the agricultural use of certain genetically enhanced pigs. Other global regulators may soon follow suit.
But should we be concerned? Is this modified pork safe? And what about the ethics of creating these pigs?
Firstly, it’s important to note that not all gene-edited animals are produced in a laboratory setting. Instead, these livestock come from animals whose DNA has been modified early in their development, often conferring advantageous traits starting from a single cell or fertilized egg.
This gene editing isn’t focused on enhancing pork flavor; it’s primarily aimed at safeguarding the pigs from diseases.
For instance, a UK company is currently developing genetic modifications in pigs that render them resistant to Porcine Reproductive and Respiratory Syndrome (PRRS), a virus that significantly weakens the immune system of pigs. PRRS poses a serious threat, leading to the deaths of piglets, miscarriages in pregnant sows, and increased vulnerability to other infections.
Pork is the third most consumed meat in the United States after chicken and beef.
The stakes are high, with efforts to manage PRRS costing the US pork industry about $1.2 billion (£878 million) each year.
When the virus does break through, the implications can be dire. In 2006, a pandemic in China infected over 2 million pigs, resulting in 400,000 deaths.
CRISPR Bacon
How much have these pigs really changed? That’s a valid concern. However, the actual modifications are surprisingly minor.
To combat the PRRS virus, scientists have edited out a portion of the CD163 protein in the pig’s DNA, which the virus uses to invade pig cells.
Pigs with this genetic modification show resistance to nearly all known strains of PRRS, but they are otherwise similar to conventional pigs. Despite initial fears that viruses could evolve to bypass edited proteins, this hasn’t occurred.
Dr. Christine Tait-Burkard, a researcher at the University of Edinburgh’s Roslin Institute, describes the original CD163 protein as “like nine beads on a string,” with only one bead—the fifth one—removed during editing.
Interestingly, the gene rearrangement could also occur naturally in some pigs. “It’s possible there is a pig somewhere in the world resistant to this virus,” Tait-Burkard states. “However, we don’t have the luxury of time for natural breeding, so we must utilize biotechnology to introduce it into our breeding programs.”
The editing employs a toolkit known as CRISPR, a Nobel Prize-winning technology that has gained popularity in scientific research for its efficiency, precision, and affordability. The CRISPR tool uses a “guide” sequence to target DNA, employing protein “scissors”—naturally occurring proteins found in bacteria—to make necessary cuts. Minor adjustments, such as those seen in PRRS-resistant pigs, disable particular genes.
A New Norm?
Once they hit grocery store shelves, PRRS-resistant pigs are expected to become the first widely consumed gene-edited animals. However, they are not the first genetically modified products available to consumers.
Hypoallergenic “Gal Safe” Pork, designed for consumers with meat allergies, received approval in 2020. In 2022, the FDA also approved a type of cow known as Smooth cow—a breed enhanced with traits from naturally occurring genetic variants in tropical cows for shorter hair and better heat recovery. Additionally, genetically modified “Aquadvantage” Salmon is available in the US, albeit primarily sold in restaurants.
The situation is more complex across the Atlantic. As it stands, gene-edited foods cannot be marketed in the EU, and legislation for Genetic Technology (Precision Breeding) in the UK lays groundwork for breeding gene-edited crops, but it has not yet been extended to animals.
Even if regulations evolve globally, will consumers be eager to purchase gene-edited sausages and bacon?
The labeling for this new gene-edited pork remains undecided, but Dr. Katie Sanders, a communications specialist at North Carolina State University, suggests that there is greater potential for consumer acceptance compared to traditional genetically modified (GM) foods. This perception stems from the belief that gene-edited products appear more natural.
In the past, genetically modified (GM) crops stirred up fears and headlines focused on “frankenfood.” However, many of these crops were ultimately approved, with most scientists considering them safe for consumption. These GM crops often incorporate foreign genes—like “Bt” corn, which carries genes from the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis to repel insect pests.
In contrast, the current wave of CRISPR-edited foods only features modifications that could naturally occur within the species. Scientists have not created an entirely new variety of pigs.
Sanders and her colleagues, along with associate professor Jean Parera at Texas A&M University, conducted a national survey of more than 2,000 Americans to gauge attitudes towards CRISPR-edited pork. While results await publication, Sanders notes that respondents generally indicated a likelihood to purchase CRISPR-edited pork.
This trend was especially noted in urban populations (compared to rural ones) and among those with lower educational attainment (as opposed to individuals with degrees).
In 2006, PRRS outbreaks in China affected over 2 million pigs, leading to 400,000 deaths.
When asked how producers can persuade more consumers to adopt gene-edited meat, Parrella emphasized the importance of “responsible use and ethical considerations surrounding CRISPR applications.”
Initial marketing of PRRS-resistant pigs highlights these ethical considerations, demonstrating they have been addressed. A division of the industry, known as The Pig Improvement Company—yes, that’s its actual name—underscores benefits like enhanced animal welfare, reduced antibiotic reliance, and positive environmental effects.
If their messaging resonates, could more gene-edited animals find their way to our dinner tables? Perhaps. Scientists at the Roslin Institute are currently researching edits to combat other livestock diseases, including the bovine diarrhea virus.
However, Tait-Burkard cautions that engineering resistance to specific viruses, like avian influenza, may pose more significant challenges or require edits harmful to animal cells. The proteins they edited for pig PRR resistance are “excellent targets,” but they are challenging to identify.
For traits linked to productivity, such as improved breeding and meat quality, the agricultural sector is already refining efficient breeding techniques to achieve these objectives. As such, it’s unlikely that costly gene editing will be utilized to create “super” meat anytime soon.
Nonetheless, if gene editing can enhance animal protection, minimize antibiotics, and alleviate environmental burdens, it could swiftly transition from novelty to normalcy—provided animal welfare remains uncompromised.
Future research indicates that even with equivalent technological advancement, radio signals from Earth’s airports could be detected by alien astronomers.
Radar systems employed to monitor aircraft in major hubs like London’s Heathrow and New York’s JFK emit radio waves as formidable as those produced by extraterrestrial civilizations from 200 light years away, according to researchers.
The study, led by University of Manchester doctoral candidate Ramilo Kais Said, explored how radio signals from both civilian and military radar operations disperse as they exit Earth, predicting their appearance as they approach nearby stars.
Recent preliminary results revealed at the National Astronomical Conference in Durham, UK, indicate that radar stations at global airports are transmitting signals at a remarkable total of 2,000 trillion watts.
This intensity is sufficient for the most sensitive telescope on the planet, Green Bank Telescope, to detect an alien planet located 200 light years away.
Within our solar neighborhood is a system containing over 1,000 stars, with the nearest, Proxima Centauri, being just 4.2 light years distant.
However, whether alien astronomers can interpret these signals remains uncertain.
As Earth’s rotation reveals various airports, the signal strength fluctuates within a 24-hour cycle, making it clear that it is not of artificial origin.
What does radar from Earth’s airports look like to aliens on planets around the AU microscope 32 light years away?
A more distinct signal could arise from military radar. While these signals are generally weaker than those from airport facilities, they are more focused and likely to flash in a manner resembling lighthouses, thus appearing unnatural.
Nonetheless, the primary limitation on who can observe our air traffic is not the radar systems’ power but rather the laws of physics. The earliest radar systems made their debut in 1935. Since radio waves travel at the speed of light, even these early, weaker signals only covered a distance of 90 light years through space.
This research also aids those on Earth in their quest for signs of extraterrestrial intelligence, helping to gauge the extent to which civilizations similar to ours can be detected.
“Our findings suggest that radar signals unintentionally generated by any planet with advanced technology and complex aviation systems could serve as a universal indicator of intelligent life,” said Caisse Saide.
For many of us, mushrooms are merely peculiar forest growths, and fungi might seem like something that belongs in a dish with cream. However, scientists are increasingly revealing that fungi are far more sophisticated than we once believed.
Some claim fungi are “intelligent,” hinting at a select group of researchers who might possess consciousness.
This theory has stirred up controversy among experts, yet the rest of us are curious whether our breakfast ingredients think about us. What should we take away from such findings?
For ages, biologists have debated animal consciousness in species like fish and bats. Now, even brainless entities like plants, slime molds, and fungi are entering the discussion.
There’s likely more to mushrooms than just their appearance. Cecelia Stokes, a doctoral researcher in bacteria at the University of Wisconsin-Madison, clarifies this.
Underneath the soil, mushrooms connect with thread-like filaments known as mycelium or “hyphae,” which extend through the earth to find food and companions. The visible mushrooms are merely the reproductive organs of the fungi.
“[Fungi have] Stokes stated:
While it remains uncertain if such behaviors signify intelligence, she suggests that, since this concept has been linked to non-living entities like artificial intelligence, it may be “worth considering” a broader interpretation of intelligence.
A New Perspective on Fungi
Fungi have gained recognition, with research suggesting that their mycelium forms a “Wood Wide Web,” connecting trees within forests through nutrient-seeking networks.
They’ve also gained popularity as harbingers of the Zombie Apocalypse in popular video games and HBO series like Our Last.
Recent studies indicate that fungi can perform actions usually associated with humans and other animals, such as learning, memory, and decision-making.
Fukusaki and his team from Tohoku University in Japan noted this behavior while “feeding” the wood-decomposing fungus, Fanerochetevertina, with wood blocks in the dirt.
In a 2020 study, Fukusaki and his colleagues observed that the fungi “decided” on certain wood blocks over others, even “remembering” their growth direction after being relocated.
According to Fukusaki, these actions reflect intellectual behavior. “Of course, it’s not the same system as a brain,” he clarifies, explaining that the fungi’s “remembering” likely involves growing more towards the area where food was first located.
“However, I believe you could argue this is a form of memory within the mycelium system—a sort of structural memory.”
Slime molds, too, display memory-like behaviors, navigating away from previously explored zones during their food searches.
Mycelium not only extends through the soil to locate food but also detects environmental changes – Photo Credit: Getty Images
Last year, Fukusaki’s team conducted another experiment to see if fungi could “recognize” shapes.
Using nine blocks arranged in either a cross or circle in the soil, they monitored the fungi’s growth from the center outward. In the cross formation, the fungi ultimately left the central block to reach the outer blocks.
Fukusaki notes that while this could be a natural response to depleting central resources, he still regards it as “very intelligent.” The fungi’s ability to distinguish between the center and edges implies they recognize spatial orientation.
In their published work, researchers label this behavior as a form of “pattern recognition,” commonly used in computing to identify specific data combinations, but also applicable to how individuals recognize faces and sounds.
In the case of the circle formation, the fungi vacated the center, indicating they “determined” that enough food was already available, sharing this information throughout their network.
Given these findings, Fukusaki believes we gain a broader understanding of intelligence by viewing it on a spectrum. “This way, we can discuss intelligence in a wider context and compare ourselves to different life forms,” he states.
“If we define intelligence solely by human standards, we cannot effectively discuss its evolution.”
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Extending Our Understanding
Studies like Fukusaki’s inspire new ways to ponder fungal consciousness, such as the “Fungal Heart,” a concept introduced by fungal biologist Dr. Nicholas Money.
He presented the argument in an essay for Psyche magazine in 2021, suggesting that fungi could possess consciousness if we broaden our understanding of what consciousness entails.
In his paper, Money asserts that “this broadens the identification of different forms of consciousness across species, ranging from apes to amoebae.”
Other primitive mind theories consider the notion of a “liquid brain,” explaining how slime molds and various microbial consortia process information without traditional neurons.
Furthermore, electrical signals detected in fungi are likened to those found in animal neurons, leading some to question if fungi possess a brainless nervous system, a topic also raised in discussions about plants.
However, for Fukusaki, the consciousness of fungi is less critical. “For me, it’s insignificant whether fungi are conscious; what’s essential is that they exhibit intellectual behaviors and can solve their problems,” he explains.
Stokes, on the other hand, finds the concept of consciousness too malleable. She acknowledges that fungi could fit into the same category as humans and other animals and could seem more relatable, yet she asserts that science “hasn’t kept pace with the complexity of the findings.”
By drawing such comparisons, she warns, “we overlook many of the unique biological features that set them apart from us.”
Theory Versus Evidence
Humans have a tendency to draw parallels; thus, what about claims regarding a brainless nervous system? According to Stokes, it’s no surprise that fungi and plants can detect electrical signals.
“Every cell generates energy through the movement of ions across membranes,” she explains. Mobile ions (charged atoms or molecules) are crucial for how cells function to produce energy.
However, while it’s easy to dismiss the theories surrounding fungal intelligence and consciousness as eccentric, it’s important to explore what drives these ideas.
Often, the urge to humanize organisms that seem unfamiliar to us serves to make them more relatable. Attribute human characteristics to species can, at times, sway public sentiment towards their protection.
Nonetheless, when it comes to the Wood Wide Web, some scientists argue that the theory has been overstated. The belief that trees communicate through fungal networks is often stated as fact despite the thin evidence supporting it.
Similarly, defining fungi as conscious under current frameworks might be premature and could potentially hinder conservation efforts. Conversely, altering the definition opens up too broad an interpretation. But, why does that matter?
“You don’t need to attribute human traits to recognize how fascinating fungi are,” asserts Stokes, whose research specializes in toxic “deathcap” mushrooms.
About Our Experts
Cecelia Stokes is a doctoral researcher at the University of Wisconsin-Madison in the U.S., known for her contributions to scientific journals including New Botanist.
Fukusaki is an associate professor specializing in forest microbial ecology at Tohoku University in Japan. His research has been published in journals such as An Interdisciplinary Journal of Microbial Ecology, Fungal Ecology, and Forest Ecology and Management.
Are there any forms of suspended animation? If you consider how animals hibernate during winter, that’s a natural example. However, if we reference the science fiction concept of stasis—where an individual is placed in a pod and frozen to endure an interstellar voyage—then it’s more of a fantasy.
That said, there are several realistic applications, particularly if we can address the challenges of preserving human tissues through freezing.
For decades, the possibility of employing cold temperatures to slow down biological processes has been recognized, and we’ve recently started using this method as a critical life-saving intervention.
For instance, patients experiencing a heart attack can undergo what is formally termed “suspended animation for delayed resuscitation,” wherein they are rapidly cooled to induce hypothermia. This process slows bodily functions and safeguards vital organs, especially the brain, albeit at the cost of disrupting blood circulation.
This approach significantly reduces the chances of brain damage and proves incredibly effective, allowing individuals to survive without treatment for up to 90 minutes.
This form of suspended animation entails dropping body temperature to approximately 59°F (15°C), compared to the usual 98°F (37°C). Temperatures below this threshold can result in cellular death.
Once the temperature dips below freezing, the large volume of water within cells turns problematic. Ice forms and expands, creating sharp crystals that can damage delicate cells and blood vessels.
Those who have suffered frostbite can attest to the harmful effects of extreme cold on body tissues. Completely freezing a person would be fatal.
Nevertheless, we successfully freeze human embryos, which can remain frozen for as long as 19 years before being thawed and developing into healthy infants.
The suspended animation envisioned in science fiction remains a distant reality – Illustration credits: Daniel Bright
Embryos typically freeze at an early stage when they consist of only a few cells, and they survive thanks to prior preparation. Protective agents are used to draw out water and prevent the formation of ice crystals.
These embryos are then rapidly frozen in a tank of liquid nitrogen at -196°C (-320°F), allowing for prolonged storage in suspended animation.
North American Wood Frog employs a similar strategy to survive winter. As the temperature drops, it can inundate its cells with glucose (a natural antifreeze), effectively freezing itself until both heart and brain functions cease.
The frog’s organs are encased in ice, yet the glucose inhibits ice crystals from forming within its tissues.
As temperatures rise, it gradually thaws and resumes normal activity. This process is a complex challenge for humans; every body part would necessitate risky water extraction and chemical solutions.
Hibernation represents a different strategy. Small rodents, such as mice and hedgehogs, permit their body temperatures to drop significantly, leading to a marked decrease in breathing and heart rate.
Larger mammals don’t need to reduce their body temperatures as drastically. For example, American black bears may drop from 36°C to 30°C (96°F to 86°F), reducing their metabolic rate by about 25%. This is usually sufficient to avert bone and muscle loss resulting from prolonged inactivity.
Being frozen is far from ideal, and for large mammals, it may be more advantageous than suspended animation through a hibernation-like state.
This article responds to the inquiry (from Safia Hall via email) regarding whether suspended animation has ever been realized.
Please feel free to email your questionsto Question @sciencefocus.com or message us onFacebook,Twitter, or Instagram(don’t forget to include your name and location).
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I woke up with a multitude of itchy red bites. And? Most likely, it’s those pesky mosquitoes that are causing the irritation. While they aren’t the sole culprits for the marks left behind, the redness is actually a reaction to the saliva from those tiny, blood-sucking insects.
Globally, there are around 3,500 mosquito species, including 36 in the UK and over 200 in the US, with only the females being the notorious bloodsuckers.
Mosquitoes are widely recognized as nuisances. Even in regions like the UK and the US, where concerns over diseases such as malaria, dengue, and Zika are minimal, it’s important to be aware of their potential threats.
However, Professor James Logan urges us to take these creatures seriously. He is the Dean of the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine’s (LSHTM) School of Disease Control and the CEO of Arctech.
“As climate change progresses, more mosquitoes capable of transmitting diseases are encroaching closer to the UK and the US, including not just malaria-carrying mosquitoes but those that spread dengue as well,” he states.
“Currently, there are no active disease outbreaks, but that won’t be the case for long. It’s not a question of ‘if,’ but rather ‘when.’”
According to Logan, the US is “even further ahead” in this regard, with cases of dengue, malaria, and the West Nile virus on the rise.
In May 2025, the UK Health Security Agency reported the first detection of the West Nile virus within British mosquitoes.
Regardless of potential disease threats, mosquito bites tend to be a common nuisance every summer, with scant scientific evidence to support any immediate concerns.
In the UK, the National Health Service (NHS) has noted an uptick in visits to pages about “insect bites and stings,” indicating a rise in the number of people reporting bites in recent years.
“The warmer weather might encourage mosquito reproduction and activity, leading to more of them being around,” Logan mentions.
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Physical barriers like mosquito nets, window screens, and appropriate clothing can help protect against bites. – Credit: Holly Wilmes
Why do mosquito bites itch?
As the weather heats up, the mosquito population rises—so what makes their bites so bothersome?
It all boils down to the mosquito’s mouthparts, slender and needle-like, designed for sucking.
“Mosquitoes are drawn to your scent, warmth, and moisture. When they alight on you, they insert their mouthparts into your skin,” Logan explains. “The tip of the mouthpart navigates around, seeking a blood vessel, and once it finds one, it feeds from there.”
In the process of feeding, these unwelcome intruders inject saliva into your bloodstream to prevent clotting and numb pain, allowing them to go undetected.
However, the chemicals they inject can trigger an allergic response, resulting in those itchy red welts.
“When bitten by a particular mosquito species for the first time, the reaction is generally mild,” states Logan. “With repeated bites, your body becomes sensitized, and the reactions may become stronger. Continuous exposure can further adapt your immune system.”
Your immune system treats substances like mosquito saliva as threats, prompting white blood cells to produce antibodies. Consequently, your body reacts with redness or swelling during subsequent encounters.
This process is known as sensitization, akin to how allergies develop. Fortunately, regular exposure—termed desensitization—can reduce your response over time.
In seasonal regions, the intermittent summer exposure to mosquitoes means our bodies take longer to acclimatize.
How to keep mosquitoes at bay
Now that we’ve identified the problem, how can we prevent mosquito bites? While closing windows and donning long clothing are effective strategies, they may not be appealing during hot summer days.
You might consider installing insect screens or mosquito nets in your sleeping areas.
“Removing breeding grounds is also crucial,” Logan advises, as mosquitoes thrive in stagnant water—anything deeper than a bottle cap can serve as ideal breeding conditions. Ensure to cover water sources such as flowerpots, buckets, and bird baths, and eliminate any trash or recyclables that might gather water.
In addition, wearing insect repellents is advisable. Logan praises DEET (N,N-diethyl-M-toluamide) as “one of the best repellents available,” affirming its safety when applied according to product instructions.
If you prefer a natural alternative, consider using Lemon Eucalyptus oil, noted also as OLE or PMD. Other options include IR3535 and picaridin.
Some essential oils have shown promise; a 2023 study found that clove, cinnamon, and geraniol oils can be effective.
Despite this, Logan cautions, “reliance solely on natural solutions may not be sufficient.”
If you’re willing to invest further, consider “impregnated” clothing—this doesn’t refer to anything sensational but involves fabric treated with insect repellents or insecticides, typically permethrin.
“We also have plug-in devices that distribute pesticides throughout our homes,” Logan adds, “which can eliminate pests like spiders and flies that venture inside.”
Since mosquitoes are attracted to our body odor, changing our scent can deter them – Credit: Jaromir via Jetty
What to do if bitten
If you’ve already fallen victim to a mosquito bite, here are some tips to manage the situation.
“The first rule is not to scratch,” Logan advises, acknowledging the challenge. “Scratching only risks infection.”
In severe cases, mosquito bites could lead to serious infections, sepsis, or even limb amputation, Logan warns.
If a bite is particularly bothersome, you may consider over-the-counter antihistamines or hydrocortisone creams, although their effectiveness can vary.
“They may work wonders for some, while others experience little relief,” he notes. “Antihistamine creams need to be applied immediately after being bitten due to the rapid production of histamine.”
“Unfortunately, many people delay addressing the bite, making timely intervention essential.”
In summary, Logan emphasizes:
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About our experts
Professor James Logan serves as the Director and Head of Disease Management at the London School of Hygiene (LSHTM). He is associated with Arctech, a spinout from LSHTM. His research focuses on using sensors, insects, and other wildlife as biosensors for disease diagnostics and developing nature-inspired tools for disease surveillance. His team was the first to identify the connection between body odor and malaria infection.
You might have come across videos online featuring Donald Trump and Elon Musk. These clips recreate iconic scenes from shows like Breaking Bad. Additionally, you may have seen footage of them dancing to the classic hit “YMCA” at the Great Year Day Party.
The catch is that while one of these scenarios actually took place, the other is a fabrication created using artificial intelligence (AI). You may recall both events, but can you tell which one is *?
In psychological terms, the “source monitoring framework” illustrates how we identify the origins of our memories.
This framework treats the source of a memory as a cohesive unit of information, encoded alongside other elements of our experiences.
However, the “tags” that denote the origins of a memory can easily fade, leaving other aspects intact.
As a result, AI-generated clips may blur in our minds with actual events, which is a growing concern as the quality of AI videos continues to improve.
Many of us hold fragmented memories but often struggle to distinguish what’s real from imagined scenarios – Credit: Gary Yowell via Getty
This dissociation between memory content and its origin is a common occurrence. You may recognize the actor on screen, yet find yourself unable to recall any other films or shows he has appeared in.
Her research indicates that when certain ideas are suggested to us, we may foster them in our own minds but later forget their original source, leading us to confuse them with genuine experiences.
According to Loftus’s findings, AI can easily plant numerous false memories in our minds, particularly when we consume artificial content in environments similar to those where we consume authentic news.
This raises critical questions about how to label AI-generated content and how to help people remember that it is fictional.
*For clarification, the dance at the New Year’s Eve party was indeed real.
This article responds to the inquiry (posed by Christopher Wiley of Birmingham): “Does artificial intelligence give us false memories?”
Please email us your questionsat Question @sciencefocus.com or reach out viaFacebook,Twitter, orInstagram(please include your name and location).
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Fast Radio Bursts (FRBs) represent one of the greatest mysteries of the universe in our time. Initially identified in 2007, these transient radio wave phenomena have perplexed astronomers ever since.
Although we have detected thousands of them, the precise causes, origins, and unpredictable behaviors of FRBs remain elusive.
Just when scientists thought they were starting to unravel the mysteries, two new studies published in January 2025 added twists to the ongoing FRB enigma, challenging earlier theories.
“The FRB is one of those cosmic mysteries that deserves to be solved,” states Dr. Tarraneh Eftekhari, a radio astronomer at Northwestern University, in reference to the first new paper published in Astrophysics Letter.
Though the solution may be a long way off, the universe continues to guard its secrets.
What Makes the FRB Mysterious?
While it may not be entirely accurate to say that FRBs were discovered purely by chance, their initial detection happened within data collected for an entirely different purpose.
Pulsars, or “pulsating radio sources,” are far better understood cosmic phenomena, having been discovered in 1967 by Professor Jocelyn Bell Burnell, arising from neutron stars. These are incredibly dense remnants of giant stars boasting magnetic fields far stronger than Earth’s.
These rapidly spinning stellar remnants emit regular pulses of radio waves akin to cosmic beacons.
The consistency of these pulses and their emissions at specific frequencies initially led to the hypothesis that they could be of natural origin, which earned the first pulsar the nickname “Little Green Man 1.”
While pulsars quickly found their rightful place in astrophysics, FRBs tell a different story.
Jump forward to 2007 when they emerged unexpectedly from data gathered by the Parkes Multibeam Pulsar Survey, an international collaboration involving Jodrell Bank Observatory, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Bologna Astronomical Observatory, and Australia’s National Facilities.
The emission from this event was so powerful that it overshadowed all other known sources at the time by a substantial margin.
“In terms of energy output, a 1-millisecond-long FRB can emit as much energy as the Sun produces over three days,” says Dr. Fabian Djankowski, an astrophysicist at the French National Centre for Science and Technology specializing in FRBs.
However, for over five years after the initial detection, no similar events were recorded. Skepticism faded as more FRBs began to emerge.
Thousands have been detected since then, and astronomers estimate that two or three FRBs may blaze across the sky every minute.
These enigmatic signals release immense energy from deep space, illuminating the sky with their mysterious nature. And the strangeness does not end there.
Initially, FRBs were believed to be one-off occurrences, cosmic anomalies. This assumption seemed valid, as follow-up observations failed to reveal any repeating sources.
That changed in 2016 when FRB 121102 was found to emit repeated bursts. Currently, between 3% and 10% of FRBs are classified as “repeaters.”
Why do some FRBs remain silent after a single burst, while others emit multiple bursts? This is yet another mystery awaiting resolution.
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What Causes FRBs?
Numerous hypotheses have been proposed regarding the cause of FRBs, ranging from chaotic black hole collisions to extraterrestrial signals. Many explanations have emerged, including the unlikely scenario of a microwave being accidentally detected. However, one candidate seems to rise above the rest.
“When massive stars collapse and go supernova, they leave behind highly magnetized neutron stars, or ‘magnetars,'” notes Eftekhari. “The reason magnetars are a compelling candidate for FRBs is that we have observed similar events emanating from known magnetars within our Milky Way.”
Neutron stars already possess strong magnetic fields, but magnetars are in a category of their own, with magnetic fields thousands of times stronger than those of typical neutron stars.
Furthermore, a higher frequency of FRBs has been detected in galaxies with rapid star formation. As Eftekhari explains, “To produce a supernova that results in a magnetar, a massive star is required, and these giant stars are found in star-forming galaxies.”
So, is the case settled? Not quite.
The Canadian CHIME radio telescope detected FRB 20240209A, potentially originating from a globular cluster. – Photo Credit: CHIME Experiment
This is where the two new studies published in January 2025 come into play, both examining the recurring FRB known as 20240209A.
“The first exciting aspect of this FRB is that it originates outside our galaxy,” says Vishwangi Shah, a doctoral student at McGill University, referencing the second study.
“There is only one other FRB detected outside our galaxy. In terms of its repeaters, I believe it originates from a globular cluster.”
Both Eftekhari and Shah suggest that 20240209A is also associated with globular clusters (dense groups of ancient stars existing on the outskirts of galaxies).
“This is remarkable,” Eftekhari comments. “The notion of magnetar progenitors poses a challenge since they typically require a group of young stars to form magnetars.”
So what does this mean for FRBs? One possibility is that magnetars are still the culprits, but they may be generated through entirely different mechanisms.
For instance, within these stellar graveyards, two normal neutron stars might combine to form magnetars. Alternatively, a white dwarf—a stellar remnant too small to evolve into a neutron star—could gather material from a nearby companion, culminating in a massive explosion that results in a magnetar.
Ultimately, the exact origin of these outlier events remains unknown. “It’s thrilling to contemplate that we might be dealing with a subpopulation of FRBs,” Eftekhari remarks. “This case isn’t as clear as it appears.”
Can We Determine the Origins of FRBs?
Despite nearly two decades of research, many questions regarding FRBs linger. Which objects are responsible? What processes drive these phenomena? And why do some FRBs repeat while others do not?
Thanks to advances in FRB detection technology, answers may be nearer than anticipated.
CHIME is currently undergoing enhancements aimed at pinpointing bursts with unprecedented precision.
This advancement in FRB detection represents great progress in unraveling their mysteries. While many FRBs have been observed, accurately identifying their environments has left several key questions regarding their origins unanswered.
Jankowski believes that in the near future, many cases like 20240209A could be unlocked, revealing their underlying mechanisms. “I anticipate significant progress in the coming years,” he adds.
The Square Kilometer Array (SKA), a massive observatory spanning Australia and South Africa, aims to join the search for FRBs shortly.
Eftekhari and Shah have also proposed utilizing the James Webb Space Telescope to explore the region where 20240209A was detected.
“It’s an incredibly exciting time for FRB research,” highlights Jankowski. “We are poised to make remarkable discoveries in the next few years.”
Meet Our Experts
Dr. Tarraneh Eftekhari is a radio astronomer at Northwestern University, USA, with contributions to various scientific journals including Astrophysics Letter, Nature Astronomy, and Astrophysical Journal.
Dr. Fabian Djankowski is an astrophysicist at the French National Centre for Science and Technology who specializes in FRBs. His work has appeared in Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, Astrophysics Letter, and Astronomy and Astrophysics.
Vishwangi Shah is a doctoral student at McGill University in the USA and a researcher focusing on radio astronomy and FRBs. She has been published in Astrophysics Letter and Astronomy Journal.
Joe Biden’s recent prostate cancer diagnosis has brought awareness to these health issues within the public discourse.
Prostate cancer charities are urging men across the country to assess their cancer risk through signs and to seek medical advice if they experience symptoms like frequent and uncontrollable urination. Nevertheless, prostate cancer remains a nuanced and intricate condition.
The prostate gland is located beneath the bladder and typically enlarges with age. The urethra, which drains urine from the bladder, passes through the prostate. Consequently, when the prostate enlarges, it can compress the urethra, impeding urine flow and leading to symptoms such as dribbling and increased urgency to urinate. Overall, this is a prevalent condition.
Likewise, the incidence of cancers originating in the prostate is quite common. Autopsy studies indicate that 36% of white individuals and 51% of African Americans had unreported prostate cancer. In the 1970s, he was diagnosed with prostate cancer.
This presents a significant challenge concerning prostate cancer. It can manifest in a form that causes minimal harm while also possessing a variant that is potentially lethal and can metastasize to nearby organs and bones.
The key to addressing this issue lies in identifying which cases pose a threat, as treatments like surgery, radiation therapy, and hormone therapy may have side effects such as long-term erectile dysfunction and incontinence.
It is essential that patients avoid unnecessary treatments that do not benefit them.
Unfortunately, there is currently no straightforward method to differentiate between aggressive tumors and those that are indolent. A blood test known as the PSA (prostate-specific antigen) test was created in the 1990s to monitor men’s responses to prostate cancer treatments.
This led Richard Alvin, the researcher who developed the PSA test, to remark, “The widespread use has resulted in a costly public health crisis.” This is due to the PSA test potentially generating false positives caused by factors aside from prostate cancer, including infections and benign prostate enlargement.
In the U.S., the Preventive Services Task Force reviews research independently and issues recommendations regarding screening.
In short, increased screening rates in the U.S. may have contributed to deteriorating health outcomes for men, as they pursued treatments for conditions detected through positive test results that were not life-threatening.
Despite a reduction in testing rates since their peak in the ’90s, prostate cancer mortality rates in the U.S. have gradually decreased over the years. This might be attributed to improved treatment protocols, rather than indicating benign prostate enlargement. Limiting trials to men who exhibit symptoms of prostate enlargement could prevent unnecessary cancer treatments.
To mitigate this issue and avoid unnecessary treatments, a “watchful waiting” approach has shown efficacy. A recent 15-year British study indicated that localized prostate cancer with low mortality rates whether treatment included radiation, prostate removal, hormone therapy, or observation. This underscores the futility of invasive treatments offering no significant benefits.
So, what steps can we take? In the UK, the National Screening Committee regularly reviews the recommendation for PSA screening for prostate cancer. Recent research has identified harmful cancers through MRI screenings, but there is still insufficient evidence regarding whether this can reduce death rates while minimizing excessive treatments.
Meanwhile, straightforward messages regarding the benefits of screening are being communicated to men without adequately addressing the potential drawbacks. Numerous screening events are organized by well-meaning charities during sports events. Advocates argue that informed consent is critical; otherwise, we risk offering false promises and ensuring minimal progress in men’s health.
The 11-foot alligator that capsized a canoe on May 6th, resulting in the death of a woman in Central Florida, serves as a reminder that while attacks by crocodiles on humans are “quite rare,” they can sometimes lead to tragic outcomes, according to state wildlife officials.
“This highlights the powerful wildlife that inhabits our natural spaces,” remarked Roger Young, executive director of the Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission.
The committee advises individuals to be vigilant during the crocodile mating season from early April to June, as the risk of attacks tends to rise. This increased danger is attributed to crocodiles being more active, aggressive, and visible during this time.
Wildlife agents and committees have shared tips for avoiding and staying safe around reptiles.
Where are they?
Crocodiles inhabit areas from central Texas to North Carolina, as noted by the Louisiana Department of Wildlife and Fisheries.
Louisiana and Florida boast the largest populations, exceeding 1 million. Georgia has between 200,000 and 250,000 crocodiles, while South Carolina is home to around 100,000.
Morgan Hart from the South Carolina Department of Natural Resources believes that the rise in crocodile attacks is due to “significant population growth in the South Carolina Coastal Plains.”
New residential developments often create artificial lakes, soon attracting crocodiles.
Exercise caution around alligators.
If you see a crocodile on land, “the best option is to leave it alone,” Hart advised.
Crocodiles may hiss if they feel threatened by someone standing too close, according to her.
People should be cautious about approaching crocodiles, as this could indicate that the animals have been fed and associate humans with food.
“They generally do not pursue people, but they can close the distance quickly,” the agency notes, explaining that crocodiles can sprint at speeds of up to 35 mph over short distances.
Keep a close watch on children and pets.
Crocodiles are likely to pursue prey that they can easily overpower.
“Pets can often resemble crocodiles’ natural prey,” said Lauren Clareabout, a spokesperson for the Florida Wildlife Commission.
People should keep pets leashed and prevent them from swimming or playing in known crocodile habitats such as canals, ponds, or lakes.
“The sounds of dogs barking and splashing can attract crocodiles,” the Florida Wildlife Commission cautioned.
Be mindful where you swim.
Wildlife agencies recommend swimming only in designated areas during daylight hours, free from pets.
“Crocodiles are most active during dusk and dawn,” Clareabout noted.
Feeding alligators in Florida, Georgia, South Carolina, and Texas is illegal and can be dangerous (with the exception of designated hunting seasons).
According to the Louisiana Department of Wildlife Fisheries, people should avoid throwing fish scraps or feeding other wildlife in areas where crocodiles congregate.
“Feeding them only leads to trouble,” stated Donald Hauser, general manager at Gator Park, located just south of Miami. He highlighted that once crocodiles are fed for three days, they lose their natural fear of humans.
“The key is to stay away,” he advised.
How to defend yourself.
Officials state that you should only confront a crocodile if it has latched onto you.
“In such cases, target the most sensitive areas: the eyes, nose, or throat,” Everglades National Park in South Florida advises, recommending that individuals “hit, kick, or jab with as much force as possible to compel the crocodile to release you.”
Nevertheless, if you find yourself caught in the crocodile’s jaws, your chances of escape are slim, Hauser cautioned.
“It’s best to have trained individuals handle such situations,” he advised.
“Crocodiles generally do not eat humans,” he explained, but they might take a bite and then release. However, if the grip is long enough, it could be too late,” he concluded.
All 28 of the largest cities in the United States are gradually sinking, which could impact 34 million residents, according to new research.
Researchers at Virginia Tech’s Earth Observation and Innovation Lab utilized satellite-based radar technology to assess sedimentary land subsidence in these major urban areas.
The data revealed that in all examined cities, at least 20% of urban regions sank by a minimum of 2mm per year. In 25 out of the 28 cities, nearly two-thirds of the land exhibited signs of sinking.
“The immediate dangers of land subsidence include heightened vulnerability to localized flooding, potential structural damage to buildings, roads, bridges, and pipelines, as well as disruption of essential services,” stated Assistant Professor Manoochehr Shirzaei from Virginia Tech, as reported by BBC Science Focus.
Certain areas of Houston, Texas, are experiencing a sinking rate of 1cm per year. – Credit: Art Betting via Getty
Shirzaei noted that even slight annual movements can compromise building foundations and distort land enough to create surface cracks.
“In places like Houston and New York, local subsidence is already associated with infrastructure vulnerability and heightened flood risks during storms,” he explained.
This phenomenon of subsidence is largely driven by groundwater extraction. As urban populations grow, the demand for freshwater intensifies.
Water is drawn from aquifers, allowing for the flow of rocks containing water and other geological layers.
However, if water is extracted faster than it can be replenished, the aquifer can become compressed, leading to subsidence of the land above.
“Urban centers built on reclaimed or depositional areas, such as parts of San Francisco and New Orleans, face particular vulnerability,” added Shirzaei.
Studies indicate that cities like New York, Chicago, Seattle, and Denver experience sinking rates of about 2mm annually.
In Texas, certain cities experience sinking rates of around 5mm per year, with specific areas in Houston sinking as much as 1cm annually.
Localized zones in cities such as Houston, New York, Las Vegas, and Washington, DC, are sinking significantly faster than adjacent areas.
“As time progresses, subsidence exacerbates the effects of climate change, especially in coastal regions and flood-prone areas,” warned Shirzaei. “As the land sinks and sea levels rise, the floodplains stretch, and storm surges reach further inland.”
He emphasized that the study offers a “roadmap for aggressive, science-based planning” to assist experts and policymakers in monitoring subsidence and mitigating its impacts.
The 28 most populous cities in the United States include New York, Los Angeles, Chicago, Houston, Phoenix, Philadelphia, San Antonio, San Diego, Dallas, Jacksonville, Austin, Fort Worth, Columbus, Charlotte, San Jose, Indianapolis, San Francisco, Seattle, Denver, Washington, Portland, Las Vegas, Detroit, and Memphis.
This study has been published in Natural City.
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About our experts
Manoochehr Shirzaei is an associate professor of geophysics and remote sensing at the Faculty of Geo-Science at Virginia Tech. He specializes in geodesy and geophysics, focusing on satellite geodesic theory, inverse theory, signal processing, modeling techniques, and the physics of crustal deformation.
Menopause marks a significant transition in a woman’s life when the ovaries cease hormone production, but the journey leading up to this milestone can span several years. This extended phase is known as perimenopause.
On average, menopause occurs around age 51, meaning many women begin noticing symptoms of perimenopause in their mid-40s. These symptoms can vary greatly from one individual to another. While hot flashes and irregular heavy periods are commonly cited, not everyone experiences them.
Additionally, even within the same person, symptoms can differ in type, frequency, and intensity.
More than 75% of women report experiencing a range of symptoms, with about 25% indicating that these symptoms significantly impact their quality of life. Common issues include sleep disturbances, anxiety, and weight gain.
Unfortunately, these symptoms are often overlooked or dismissed by professionals as resulting from other medical conditions.
Symptoms and Treatment
Insomnia is often one of the earliest symptoms, potentially starting in one’s late 30s or early 40s. Research shows up to 60% of women over 40 are affected by sleep problems.
Changes in mood are also common, with women experiencing feelings of anger, irritability, sadness, and depression.
Other possible symptoms include brain fog, memory lapses, difficulty concentrating, joint and muscle pain, vaginal dryness, decreased libido, and discomfort.
Many women hesitate to seek medical help due to embarrassment or a desire to avoid making a fuss. While consulting a healthcare provider is crucial, currently, there are no official menopause or perimenopause tests for women older than 45.
This highlights the importance of tracking symptoms and noting when they occur. By discussing these experiences with your doctor, women can collaboratively determine the best treatment options.
For instance, there is robust evidence supporting the benefits of hormone replacement therapy (HRT) as endorsed by the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence, particularly for alleviating hot flashes and night sweats.
HRT has also been shown to help some women achieve better sleep and may alleviate negative cognitive symptoms. Additionally, cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) can assist with management and stabilize mood and sleep patterns.
However, prescribing clonidine and antidepressants as first-line treatments is considered outdated.
Other studies indicate that HRT may also help maintain bone mineral density and reduce the risk of osteoporotic fractures later in life.
HRT encompasses various medications, including estrogen, combinations of estrogen and progestogen (another female hormone), and testosterone. These can be administered through patches or gels.
The type and dosage of HRT depend on the specific condition being managed, individual risks, and personal preferences. There is no definitive cutoff for starting HRT; the benefits must outweigh perceived risks.
New Research
Women undergoing HRT also experience a reduced risk of colorectal cancer and type 2 diabetes. Studies have indicated that starting estrogens as part of HRT early in the perimenopausal phase may further lower the risk of coronary heart disease and Alzheimer’s disease.
Specifically, the cardiovascular disease prevention benefits are notable for women who begin HRT in their 50s as compared to those who start after age 60.
However, initiating HRT solely for the prevention of cardiovascular disease or dementia is not recommended. There are known risks associated with certain types of HRT, including an elevated risk of uterine cancer when estrogen-only HRT is used without progestogens, as well as an increased risk of blood clots.
Osteoporosis generally affects older adults and postmenopausal women. HRT can help treat it. – Image credits: Science Photo Library
The primary concern remains breast cancer. This area is complex due to variable risks linked to historical clinical trial data, along with personal and family health histories, and lifestyle factors such as alcohol intake and obesity.
This variability can impact the clinical significance of the data for each individual.
Current evidence suggests that estrogen-only HRTs have little to no correlation with breast cancer risk, while combined HRTs may increase the risk by 3-4 cases per 1,000 women.
Alternative Treatment
Local estrogen HRT, applied topically, has proven very effective for managing vulvar and vaginal pain and dryness, as well as recurrent urinary tract infections.
Moreover, testosterone treatments paired with estrogens may benefit some women with low sexual desire.
Unfortunately, HRT isn’t a panacea. A review of current clinical trials shows no significant improvements in cognitive function, bone density, body composition, strength, or psychological health for women undergoing treatment.
Many women may opt against HRT, particularly those with a history of breast cancer.
Previously, alternative treatments were limited, primarily focusing on antidepressants and clonidine. These options have shown limited effectiveness and significant side effects. Recently, the new non-hormonal medication Fezolinetant has received approval for managing blood flow issues.
Natural Relief
In addition to medication, lifestyle and behavioral modifications—like improving sleep, increasing physical activity, and adopting better nutrition—carry no associated risks and can yield significant benefits.
Starting with sleep is often beneficial. When well-rested, focusing on enhancing activity and diet becomes more manageable.
Implementing good sleep hygiene practices, avoiding screens before bedtime, maintaining a consistent sleep routine, and utilizing CBT have all been shown to mitigate insomnia and other sleep disorders in women undergoing menopause.
Increasing activity levels can also be incredibly beneficial. Strength training exercises help build and maintain muscle and bone density, which helps prevent osteoporosis, enhances flexibility, and reduces insulin resistance.
Aerobic activities such as running, swimming, and cycling can improve long-term heart and brain health. Maintaining a balanced diet rich in fresh foods while limiting ultra-processed items is advantageous at any life stage.
Although menopause can be challenging, various proven interventions can assist in making this transition smoother.
The billionaire battle in space between Jeff Bezos and Elon Musk has entered a new arena, the satellite internet.
Started as an online bookstore 30 years ago, Amazon is Merchandising Behemoth, the owner of the James Bond franchise, and is a seller of electronic gadgets like the echo smart speaker and one of the most powerful providers of cloud computing.
So it’s not surprising that Amazon is launching the first few of the thousands of satellites known as Project Kuiper, offering another option to keep them connected in the modern world. The marketplace that brings high-speed internet from orbit to the ground is now dominated by Elon Musk’s SpaceX Rocket Company, which operates similar services. Starlink has thousands of satellites in orbit and has more launches almost every week, and Starlink already serves millions of customers around the world.
When will it be released and how can I see it?
The first 27 projects Kuiper Satellites are scheduled to lift from Cape Canaveral Space Force Station in Florida at 7pm Eastern time on Wednesday.
They fly on Atlas V, a rocket created by the United Launch Alliance, a joint venture between Boeing and Lockheed Martin. ULA plans to do it Provides live coverage From 6:35pm
The forecast only predicts 20% of the chances that winds and showers from coastal storms are likely to cause potential problems. However, there is a two-hour window where the load of propellant on the rocket begins and the launch may occur.
The spacecraft deploys the Kuiper satellite in a circular orbit 280 miles above the surface. The satellite’s propulsion system gradually raises its orbit to an altitude of 393 miles.
What is Project Kuiper?
Project Kuiper is the constellations of Internet satellites aimed at providing high-speed data connections to almost every point on Earth. To make this a success, you’ll need thousands of satellites. Amazon’s goal is to operate more than 3,200 over the next few years.
The company competes with SpaceX’s StarLink, which was originally sold primarily to residential customers.
Kuiper aims to make its market, especially remote locations, but will also be integrated with Amazon Web Services, the company’s cloud computing product popular with large companies and governments around the world. This could make it more attractive for businesses with satellite images and weather forecasts that need to perform data calculations, as well as moving large amounts of data throughout the Internet.
Ground stations connect Kuiper satellites to the web service infrastructure in a way that allows businesses to communicate with their own remote devices. For example, Amazon suggests that energy companies can use Kuiper to monitor and control remote wind farms and offshore drilling platforms.
In October 2023, two prototype Kuiper satellites were launched and the technology was tested. Amazon said the test was successful. These prototypes were not intended to be useful in operational constellations, and after seven months they returned to a burnt-out atmosphere. company I said Since then, we have updated the design of “subsystems on all systems and subsystems.”
“There’s a huge difference between launching two satellites and launching 3,000 satellites,” said Rajeev Badyal, Amazon executive who works for Kuiper, in a promotional video before its launch.
When does Amazon offer internet services from the space?
Amazon told the Federal Communications Commission in 2020 that the service would start after deploying the first 578 satellites. The company says it expects customers to connect to the internet later this year.
A fully functional constellations require thousands of satellites, but the company is able to serve in certain regions with far fewer orbits before expanding into later, more global coverage.
The approval of the FCC constellations required that at least half of the satellites be deployed by July 30, 2026. Industry analysts say if they show significant progress by then, the company can get an extension.
Putting a satellite into orbit also depends on the launch of the rocket that occurs on a schedule. This can be a problem if sufficient rockets are not available. Amazon also needs to build hundreds of ground stations to relay signals to users.
E-cigarettes have been credited with helping millions of people in the UK quit smoking, but that doesn’t mean they are without risks.
Vaping may contain fewer harmful substances like nicotine, TAR, and other toxins compared to traditional tobacco, but it is still linked to long-term health issues and can be addictive. Your body may need time to adjust and overcome the addiction completely.
If you are heavily reliant on vaping and nicotine, quitting cold turkey can lead to withdrawal symptoms, including cravings, anxiety, irritability, dizziness, fatigue, headaches, and changes in appetite. These symptoms usually peak around 72 hours after you stop vaping as nicotine leaves your system entirely.
As you approach this 72-hour mark, you may start noticing improvements in taste and smell, clearer breathing, lower blood pressure and heart rate, and reduced chest tightness and shortness of breath.
Currently, an estimated 5.6 million British people are vaping
A survey by the non-smoking charity Truth Initiative found that 90% of people who quit vaping reported reduced stress, anxiety, and depression.
The lungs have the ability to repair themselves, and within a year of quitting nicotine altogether, lung capacity and immune function improve significantly, especially for former smokers.
While long-term effects of quitting vaping are still unknown due to its recent emergence, experts generally agree that the risk of cancer and heart disease is likely to decrease after quitting e-cigarettes.
This article addresses the question (from an email by Antonia Fletcher), “What happens if you stop vaping?”
Submit your questions via email toQuestion @sciencefocus.com or message us onFacebook,Twitter, or Instagram(don’t forget to include your name and location).
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Protein Church has seen a recent surge in young worshippers, with Andrew Scott leading the services.
According to a survey by the CS Mott Children’s Hospital in Michigan, two in five Americans aged 13 to 17 reported consuming protein supplements like shakes and powders last year.
An investigation by online supermarket Ocado found that 62% of UK Z and millennials increased their protein intake last year.
On foodie Tiktok, dishes like black bean pasta, tofu-filled pasta sauce, and chickpea and cashew chocolate brownies are gaining popularity.
Cottage cheese has become a favorite due to its high protein content, with a 97% increase in demand reported by Ocado.
While young adults are focusing on consuming more protein, older adults are falling short of the recommended intake levels.
Research from the University of Birmingham in 2020 showed that older adults consume less protein than middle-aged adults.
Another study in 2020 by the University of Sheffield found that only a small percentage of adults over 65 met the daily protein recommendations.
It’s evident that while young people are increasing their protein intake, older adults are struggling to meet their protein needs.
Why middle-aged adults need more protein
Professor Elizabeth Williams from the University of Sheffield explains that protein requirements vary throughout life, with older adults needing more protein to combat reduced protein synthesis efficiency.
Other factors like muscle loss and anabolic resistance in older adults contribute to the need for higher protein intake.
As we age, our bodies need more protein, especially postmenopausal women, as hormonal changes can lead to increased muscle loss. – Credit: Hispanoristic via Getty
Why seniors struggle to eat enough protein
Anabolic resistance and sarcopenia worsen with age, especially among less active individuals, making it crucial for seniors to consume sufficient protein.
Dr. Connor Carrey emphasizes the importance of protein intake for older adults to maintain muscle mass and functional levels.
Not consuming enough protein can lead to muscle loss and bone health issues in older adults.
Elderly individuals and those with fragile health find it challenging to meet their protein requirements.
How much protein is enough?
Protein intake is usually measured in grams per kilogram of body weight, with recommended daily amounts varying for different age groups.
For older adults, experts recommend a higher protein intake of around 1-1.2g/kg per day to support muscle health and prevent muscle loss.
Increasing protein intake through meals like eggs can help middle-aged and older adults maintain muscle mass.
Breakfast is a meal when many of us are protein deficient. This means providing an opportunity to redress the balance.
How to eat enough protein for better health
Eating protein-rich foods like eggs for breakfast can help improve protein intake and support muscle health.
Experts recommend consuming 25g of protein in each meal to maintain muscle mass and overall health.
Switching to protein-rich breakfast options like eggs, yogurt, or nuts can help individuals increase their daily protein intake.
For those struggling to consume large quantities of protein, liquid sources like milk and dairy products are recommended.
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About our experts:
Professor Elizabeth Williams is a nutrition science professor at the University of Sheffield, specializing in diet-related chronic diseases and healthy aging.
Dr. Connor Carrey is a postdoctoral researcher and nutrition instructor focusing on proteins at University College Cork.
Amani Kite is a functional nutritionist specializing in intestinal, hormonal, and metabolic health.
Good neighborhoods are defined by the people who reside there. The presence of a helpful individual can enhance the community, while a negative neighbor can detract from its overall quality. The same concept applies to the brain, as revealed in a recent study indicating that brain cells behave like communities. Some cells contribute to a nurturing environment, promoting health and resilience in adjacent cells, while others spread stress and damage like bad neighbors.
Throughout one’s life, the composition of this brain community influences the aging process. Negative relationships can accelerate aging and lead to issues such as memory loss, while a healthy brain community can work collectively to combat aging. Researchers at Stanford University believe that these findings could potentially inform the development of treatments to slow or reverse aging.
Published in the journal Nature, the study identified 17 cells that influence aging positively or negatively. Notably, T cells and neurons were highlighted for their significant impact as bad and good neighbors, respectively. T cells, typically involved in fighting infections, can contribute to inflammation in the brain and hasten aging, while neural stem cells play a vital role in rejuvenation and maintaining a youthful brain.
The researchers conducted gene activity mapping across 2.3 million cells in the mouse brain, constructing a “spatial aging clock” to predict the biological age of individual cells. This innovative approach could lead to new biological discoveries and interventions, such as inhibiting pro-aging factors released by T cells or enhancing the efficacy of neural stem cells.
These findings have implications for understanding diseases like Alzheimer’s and potential strategies to strengthen the brain’s natural repair mechanisms and prevent cognitive decline. The research offers hope for uncovering ways to support brain health and combat aging-related challenges.
There is a common misconception that mucus and phlegm are harmful to the body and should be expelled. However, mucus actually serves as a protective barrier between our body and the outside world.
Just like flypaper, mucus covers the moist surfaces of our nose, sinuses, and lungs to filter out harmful substances we inhale. It consists mostly of water along with proteins, sugars, and molecules that help control harmful bacteria. Therefore, there is no need to get rid of it as it forms a protective layer.
We constantly produce mucus, but it goes unnoticed most of the time. Microscopic hairs called cilia push it back into the throat, and we unconsciously swallow it. Only when excess mucus is produced during illness does it become more noticeable.
When we are sick, the mucus becomes thicker and stickier, but it still plays an essential role in trapping bacteria, viruses, and cells involved in the immune response. So, it is generally best to let the mucus do its job without interfering.
While removing mucus may not provide immediate relief, excess mucus can be uncomfortable. Maintaining moist air, using saline irrigation, gargling with salt water, and staying hydrated can all be beneficial. Nasal decongestants from pharmacies can also help, but should not be used for more than a week to avoid worsening nasal congestion.
In conclusion, there is no need to remove mucus, and doing so will not speed up recovery. However, if it makes you feel better, there is no harm in clearing it.
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Asked by: Daniel Grant, Sunderland
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From the early days of robot creation, researchers have been dealing with the “uncanny valley” phenomenon, where something resembles a human but falls short of being completely realistic. A recent breakthrough involves attaching human skin to robots, creating a more lifelike appearance.
The team of researchers from the University of Tokyo, Harvard University, and the International Neurointelligence Research Center have successfully created lifelike skin for robots using live human skin cells, as detailed in a study published in the journal Cell Report Physical Sciences.
Lead author Michio Kawai explained that the skin is created by culturing skin cells from excess tissue with collagen tissue, which is then solidified around the robot using a perforated anchor structure.
Initially, they experimented with attaching skin using tiny hooks, but this caused tears. Instead, they developed a perforated anchor structure that mimics the functionality of real skin, creating a more natural appearance.
To ensure durability and flexibility, holes were drilled in the robot, collagen gel was applied, and skin was attached on top. This method aims to create robots that can self-repair surface damage and adapt to a wide range of tasks.
While the skin lacks blood vessels and must be kept moist to prevent drying out, future research aims to create pathways for nutrients and moisture within the skin tissue. Challenges such as maintaining sterile conditions during development must also be addressed.
In the quest for human-like robots, the team aims to replicate anatomical structures like glands, pores, blood vessels, fat, and nerves to achieve the perfect skin resemblance. As soft robotics technology advances, the potential applications of skin-covered robots expand to various fields.
While still in the demonstration phase for research purposes, this technology could eventually impact areas like skin aging, cosmetics, surgery, and training for surgeons. Despite the current limitations, advancements in robotic skin signal a promising future.
About our experts
Michio Kawai: A PhD student in bioengineering at Harvard University, focusing on research in Cell Report Physical Sciences, Helyon, and Case.
Shoji Takeuchi: Professor of Biohybrid Systems at the University of Tokyo, known for research in Science Robotics, Natural Chemistry, and Nature Communications.
Forest bathing is an ancient Japanese therapeutic technique dating back to the 1980s. It involves spending restorative time in forests and natural environments to connect with nature and achieve sensory relaxation. Despite sounding like hippie nonsense, there is scientific evidence emerging that supports the benefits of forest bathing.
This practice does not involve any nudity or water activities; instead, it encourages mindfulness, disconnecting from technology, light exercise, and escaping the sensory overload of the modern world. Research has shown that spending time in nature can have a positive impact on mental and physical health, reducing blood pressure, cortisol levels, and heart rate.
Studies on green space exposure have demonstrated significant improvements in various health markers, such as lower rates of diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and mortality. Forest bathing is taken seriously in Japan and South Korea, where doctors prescribe it as a therapeutic intervention for stress and hypertension.
A UK study on forest bathing led by Dr. Kirsten McEwan has shown promising results, including a 12% improvement in heart rate variability and enhanced mood. The mechanism behind these health benefits is believed to involve the stimulation of the parasympathetic nervous system and the release of chemicals by trees that boost the immune system.
Nature’s impact on long-term health outcomes is still being studied, but initial findings suggest that spending time in nature can have significant health benefits. Perhaps Western medicine is beginning to recognize and embrace the benefits of traditional practices like forest bathing, aligning with generations of knowledge that being outside in nature is good for overall well-being.
About our experts
Dr. Kirsten McEwan, Associate Professor of Health and Wellbeing at the University of Derby, is leading research on forest bathing through the Forest Therapy Hub.
Reports suggest that Americans are set to witness a peculiar and somewhat alarming occurrence as swarms of tarantulas are poised to invade certain regions of the country.
Despite the ominous connotations associated with this event, it is actually a normal annual happening where thousands of spiders are on the lookout for mates, particularly in Colorado, Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona.
Naturally, one might feel inclined to take action upon witnessing such a spectacle, but how challenging is it to manage these swarms? And what level of threat do they truly pose?
What’s prompting the spider swarms?
The appearance of swarms of animals and insects typically indicates two main reasons: migration or mating. In the case of American tarantulas, it is primarily due to the latter. It is an intriguing scenario distinct from what we might typically envision.
“Every year, male tarantulas come out in search of a mate, while females remain in their burrows releasing pheromones to attract males,” stated Lauren Davidson, an entomologist at the Houston Museum of Natural Science. “It’s a fascinating phenomenon that occurs based on weather conditions and geographical location.”
Male tarantulas usually have a short lifespan solely for the duration of the mating season, with only mature males actively seeking a mate. Upon detecting a female’s pheromones, the male tarantula initiates a mating ritual by drumming near the entrance of her burrow. If the female is receptive, she will come out to meet him.
Wondering where you might encounter these males? Tarantula mating season varies across different regions; for instance, mating in Texas typically occurs in early summer, while in Colorado and New Mexico, it can extend until October.
Davidson notes, “The timing is consistent each year, and these events are often unnoticed by urban residents. It’s a cyclical process that occurs at night due to tarantulas being nocturnal.”
Though it may appear to be migration, the spiders are primarily in search of mates within close proximity to their usual habitats, generally traveling no more than a kilometer from home.
Encountering a tarantula: What to do?
While encounters with tarantulas may be rare, it is not impossible. If you do come across one, remain calm as these spiders are harmless. Despite their intimidating size, their venom is similar to that of a bee sting and bites are infrequent. Tarantulas typically avoid human contact and resort to kicking out irritating hairs if threatened.
Direct contact with these hairs can cause itchiness and irritation, but one would need to be in close proximity to the spider for that to occur. Davidson reassures, “Many people travel to witness these tarantulas as they are docile creatures and safe to handle.”
About our expert
Lauren Davidson: Associate Curator of Entomology at the Houston Museum of Natural Science and Manager of the Cockrell Butterfly Center. Davidson has authored several children’s books focusing on entomology education.
Life on Earth has faced various threats over millions of years, from asteroids to pandemics to climate change. According to the IPCC, nearly one in five terrestrial species is at risk of extinction by 2100 due to rising global temperatures.
Marine life is also in peril, with coral reefs disappearing rapidly. Dr. Mary Hagedorn, a coral reef expert, has been working on cryopreserving coral to ensure its survival and potential reintroduction into ecosystems.
Her innovative idea involves creating a lunar biorepository to store frozen cell samples of key species for ecosystem reconstruction. The moon’s cold temperatures and protection from radiation make it an ideal location for such a vault.
The focus is on preserving fibroblasts, which can be reprogrammed into different cell types, including stem cells for cloning. This initiative aims to safeguard Earth’s ecosystems and potentially support future human space exploration, such as Mars missions.
While the concept may seem futuristic, the team has already begun freezing cell samples from species like the starry goby for testing. The ultimate goal is to send diverse genetic samples to the lunar vault to ensure the preservation of essential species.
Creating a biorepository on the moon presents logistical challenges but could be achievable with NASA’s support and funding. Future generations might benefit from this innovative approach to conservation and space exploration.
Dr. Mary Hagedorn and Professor Ian Crawford are leading experts in this field, with a focus on conservation, lunar science, and astrobiology. Their research and work contribute to the understanding of ecosystems and the future of space exploration.
Utilizing artificial intelligence (AI) in combination with mind-reading technology is essential for recreating the sensations we experience in our dreams.
In a well-known Japanese study, the initial steps of this method were showcased in 2023. Researchers employed a functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) scanner to monitor the brain activity of participants during sleep and utilized machine learning to identify recognized objects like keys, individuals, and chairs from that activity.
Nevertheless, this study concentrated on sleep onset, the first two stages of sleep where visual imagery (hallucinations) occur, and did not explore dreams at all.
They adopted this approach so participants could articulate what they observed upon waking.
To replicate dreams, we need an extensive database of detailed fMRI information from dreaming volunteers to educate a large-scale AI. Participants should possess exceptional recall abilities to describe their dreams vividly, which will help determine the accuracy of the predictions.
Recording dreams in this level of detail poses a significant challenge, and establishing a reliable method to generate such data remains uncertain.
Nonetheless, progress has already been made in related areas, with research studies producing vast datasets of fMRI brain activity from conscious participants watching videos, listening to spoken language, and reading text.
By employing AI trained on these datasets, we can already predict what people are viewing or reading while awake.
Assuming there is enough data to develop such an AI in a few years, as well as portable fMRI machines that allow for dreaming individuals to be monitored while asleep, the required methodologies to exhibit results will already be in place.
Generative AI such as OpenAI’s Sora and Google DeepMind’s Lumiere can already generate captivating video sequences. Utilizing dream analysis AI, when you provide a textual depiction to the generative AI, you receive a video illustrating the dream sequence.
However, it’s important to note that these AIs are not actually reading minds, but rather matching brain activity patterns with images that may have been previously seen. The generative AI cannot validate if the video accurately represents the dream—it simply pieces together images and possibly adds a rudimentary narrative.
Though the end product may strikingly resemble a dream with many familiar elements, it does not provide an exact replica, similar to how the movie Cast Away featuring Tom Hanks only loosely mirrors the true story of Jose Salvador Alvarenga, a fisherman stranded for 14 months in the Pacific Ocean.
AI is remarkable, intelligent, and sometimes eerie, but in terms of understanding the human brain, it is not always precise.
This article responds to a query by Andrew Taylor via email: “How close are we to being able to record our dreams?”
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