Using the nematode C. elegans, scientists have made significant headway in understanding brain function. New insights into neural communication are provided by research that uses optogenetics and connectomics to challenge traditional models and deepen the understanding of complex neural networks. The transmission of information between neurons is currently being investigated, raising the question of whether we truly understand how the brain works.
There have been great strides in understanding the complex workings of the brain in recent decades, providing extensive knowledge about cellular neurobiology and neural networks. However, many important questions are still unanswered, leaving the brain as a profound and intriguing mystery. A team of neuroscientists and physicists at Princeton University has made groundbreaking strides in this field of research, particularly through their work with the C. elegans nematode. The study, recently published in Nature, is aimed at understanding how ensembles of neurons process information and generate behavior.
The C. elegans nematode is especially suitable for laboratory experimentation due to its simplicity and the fact that its brain wiring has been completely “mapped.” Furthermore, the worm’s transparency and light-sensitive tissues present the opportunity to use innovative techniques such as optogenetics. Through these techniques, the researchers were able to carefully observe and measure the flow of signals through the worm’s brain, gaining new insights that challenge established models of neural behavior.
The study provides a comprehensive explanation of how signals flow through the C. elegans brain and challenges established mathematical models derived from connectome maps. The researchers found that many of their empirical observations contradicted the predictions based on these models, leading them to identify “invisible molecular details” and “radio signals” as important components of neural behavior. Ultimately, this work aims to develop better models for understanding the complexity of the brain as a system.
The research was supported primarily by a National Institutes of Health Newcomer Award, a National Science Foundation CAREER Award, and the Simons Foundation. These findings have broad implications, particularly for understanding biological processes and developing new technologies.
Cheddar cheese often has a creamy, nutty flavor, but can also have fruity, meaty notes.
Julian Eales/Alamy
Cheddar cheese’s nutty, creamy flavor depends slightly on a delicate balance of bacteria that scientists have now identified. Understanding how these bacteria interact can help cheesemakers achieve the specific flavor they are trying to create, and even help create starters with the right balance of microbes. This could lead to computer simulations for formulating cultures.
All fermented foods and beverages, including cheese, kimchi, and kombucha, rely on complex interactions between microorganisms. To make cheese in particular, a starter culture is added to milk to begin fermentation, acidifying the dairy product and giving it a slightly tangy taste.
Cheese makers have long known that some of the important bacteria involved in this process are: thermophilus and types LactococcusHowever, little was known about how these interact and whether those interactions affect the flavor of cheese.
Kratz Melkonian Researchers from Utrecht University in the Netherlands focused on cheddar cheese, one of the world’s most popular cheeses.
They used variations of four starter cultures to create different cheese samples. One was from an industrial producer of such starters and included both. thermophilus bacteria and types Lactococcusmainly seeds L. lactis and its variants L. cremoris. Others were made by researchers and either contained the same bacteria as before or not. thermophilus bacteria or there is no type Lactococcus.
After a year, the research team found that the cheese made from the starter thermophilus bacteria The population of the type of ~ was much smaller Lactococcus Better than anything else, even a starter of nothing Lactococcus The type to start with.this suggests thermophilus bacteria important to strengthen Lactococcus It will grow, Melkonian said.
When it comes to taste, L. cremoris It seems to control the production of diacetyl and acetoin, the chemicals that give buttery flavor, but in too high a quantity can cause an “unpleasant” taste.
L. cremoris It also increased the concentration of compounds that add subtle meaty, fruity notes, the researchers wrote in the paper. Without this variant, cheese tended to contain high levels of chemicals that add nutty and creamy flavors.
There was no difference in the microbial activity or taste of cheeses using the same starter bacteria, regardless of whether the starter was made industrially or by the team.
Overall, these findings indicate that the flavor within cheddar cheese is easily influenced by various bacterial interactions. This could help cheesemakers fine-tune the taste of the cheese they’re making, Melkonian says. “We now have targets whose interactions can affect different bacteria.” Computer simulations can help you formulate starters with the right proportions of different bacteria to achieve the desired flavor. You could do that, he says.
Jarrett Webb He is the Technology Director at argodesign, where he leads a cross-disciplinary team that designs and builds digital products and experiences.
Product design is at a moment of profound change and redefinition, as technologies such as artificial intelligence (AI) and spatial computing dramatically impact the computing experience. AI in particular may have only a small impact on interface design, but it will have a huge impact on the overall product and ecosystem experience. Spatial computing, on the other hand, changes human-computer interaction and disrupts our understanding of what a computer is.
In this innovation cycle, product design requires a broader view of the interconnections between platforms and technologies, and there is a strong need for engineers and designers to participate in the process together.
Innovation is permanent for any successful product or business. There is a never-ending search to find the next new thing that enhances the user experience, expands product range, increases revenue, or all three at once. Product design is a multidisciplinary process with structures and frameworks to foster innovation, making it less difficult to innovate and increasing your chances of success. Engineers have a role in the process that goes beyond their normal responsibilities of simply validating a technology or concept. Before we discuss non-traditional ways for engineers to participate in product innovation, let’s consider innovation and product design conceptually.
Rather than forcing technology onto the product, the design process flows into the technology. In this way, technology becomes a natural solution.
Product design is a process, not a discipline or a product. It’s easy (understandably) to limit product design to color selection, content layout, and aesthetics. Design is often reduced to just the act of beautifying the user’s interface. Product design is much deeper and broader than visual design assets. For example, product design can provide direction and focus to business strategy, user experience strategy, or technology exploration.
This process establishes guide rails throughout any innovation effort. At the heart of product design is intuitive decision-making to make the best decision at the most appropriate time. Product design reduces risk and leads to more effective innovation through quality decision making.
The progressive role of engineers
Engineers play a strategic role in product innovation, and in addition to being methodical, they need to bring a metaphysical perspective. Our job is to communicate the essence of technology and think strategically about applying technology to problem areas. We are most constructive when we translate the technology “how to make X into Y” into “the types of products and services that can be achieved with technology X.”
For most technology leaders and software developers, this is a reversal of mode from traditional tactical, direct interaction with technology. Switching context from everyday construction and operation is difficult, but paramount to developing successful and innovative products. We are uniquely positioned to generate strategic insights from dense technical details that drive innovative business cases and product experiences.
Innovations must solve business problems such as improving operational efficiency, expanding existing revenue streams, or creating new revenue streams. Problem areas can be customer-facing (e.g., how can we deliver new functionality?) or internally-facing (how can we make processes more efficient?). The problem is of greatest concern. The specific technology or innovation used to solve a problem is often not that important. You can’t lose perspective on your business needs. Otherwise, the activity becomes too academic or a paid hobby.
A common household analogy is hanging pictures. The hole size, bracket, or tool used to hang the picture doesn’t matter as long as the picture is hung straight on the wall. The details of your processes and technologies are important because they relate to how well they solve problems, the cost of doing so, and the overall end-user experience.
Product innovations are experimental and cannot always be expected to yield productive results. It requires a learning curve and patience, as the results are often ambiguous and unclear. Business leaders sometimes struggle with this perspective. This is because this perspective is indeterminate (in terms of results and timelines) and it is difficult to translate pure technology innovation into value creation. A gap develops between technology and product teams, and technology teams struggle to articulate the capabilities and value of technology innovations, resulting in unfulfilled promises, a perception of “technology for technology’s sake,” and a lack of “search for problems.” This gives rise to jokes like “The solution to this problem”. ”
The current hype cycle in AI serves as a great concrete example. The challenge for technology and product executives is how to do more than check the box for AI – how to meaningfully incorporate AI into products. Rather than forcing technology onto the product, the design process flows into the technology. In this way, technology becomes a natural solution.
As technology or technology stack experts, we can convey abstract insights or contribute in a more conceptual context. Engineers add value to the product design process by sharing their expertise on technology properties. Designers use this information to shape and leverage technology in the visual and interaction design process. In this way, engineers inform new interaction models, interface metaphors, and product channels. This commitment creates confidence and conviction in the promise of the design.
Think of digital technology as a material like paint, stone, or wood. In order for craftsmen to create using materials, they need to understand the ontology and phenomenology of the materials. Artists should understand the difference between oil, acrylic, and watercolor paints. This is because each material has different properties that affect how it is created and what it contains. Engineers need to “find the essence” of technology. In this way, they become intermediaries between the abstract nature of design and the pedantic nature of technology. This philosophical perspective is especially important when your product is in a growth stage or uses new technology.
Whether your product is in a growing or stable stage, employing established or emerging technologies, integrating engineers into your product strategy and design process will improve your bottom line. There is a technology perspective that goes beyond the code “factory floor” operations and mechanics, and that sparks innovation. Sometimes this leads to small, impactful moments of innovation, and sometimes it’s a great revolution.
A new study has found that the slow brain waves typical of sleep occur in epilepsy patients when they are awake, helping to prevent the brain from becoming more excited. These waves reduce epileptic activity while negatively impacting memory, suggesting a potential new therapeutic approach for epilepsy.
UCL researchers have found that slow brain waves commonly seen during sleep occur in epilepsy patients while they are awake, preventing seizures but affecting memory, suggesting a new potential treatment for epilepsy. are doing.
A new study led by researchers at University College London (UCL) has found that slow waves, which normally occur only in the brain during sleep, also occur when epilepsy patients are awake, and show that slow waves, which are associated with epilepsy symptoms, can also occur in the brain during sleep. It was found that there is a possibility of preventing increased excitement.
Methodology and findings
The study was published today (November 30) in the journal nature communications The National Institute for Health Research (NIHR) UCLH Biomedical Research Center also took part in conducting electroencephalogram (EEG) scans from electrodes in the brains of 25 patients with focal epilepsy (a type of epilepsy characterized by seizures originating from specific parts of the brain). was inspected. brain), they performed an associative memory task.
Electrodes were placed in the patient’s brain to localize abnormal activity and inform surgical treatment.
During the task, participants were presented with 27 pairs of images that remained on the screen for 6 seconds. The images are divided into nine groups of three, and each group contains photos of people, places, and objects. In each case, participants had to remember which images were grouped together. EEG data were recorded continuously throughout the task.
After reviewing EEG data, the researchers found that the brains of people with epilepsy produce slow waves lasting less than a second while they are awake and participating in tasks.
The occurrence of these “awakening” slow waves increased in response to increased brain excitability, reducing the influence of epileptic spikes on brain activity.
In particular, it reduces the “firing” of nerve cells, which the researchers say can prevent epileptic activity.
Implications and future research
Lead author Professor Matthew Walker (UCL Queen Square Institute of Neurology) said: “Sleep is crucial for repairing, maintaining, and resetting brain activity. When we are awake, our brains gradually become more excitable, which recovers during sleep.
“Recent research has shown that a specific form of brain activity, namely slow waves during sleep, plays an important role in these restorative functions. We believe that these ‘sleep’ slow waves , we wanted to consider whether this could occur during wakefulness in response to the abnormal increase in brain activity associated with epilepsy.
“This study reveals for the first time ‘arousal’ slow waves, a potential protective mechanism used by the brain to counter epileptic activity. This mechanism takes advantage of brain defense activity that normally occurs during sleep, but can also occur during wakefulness in epileptic patients. ”
As part of the study, the team also wanted to test whether the occurrence of “awake” slow waves had a negative impact on cognitive function.
Researchers found that during memory tasks, “awake” slow waves reduced neuronal activity, thus affecting cognitive performance and increasing the time patients needed to complete the task.
The researchers reported that for every additional slow wave per second, reaction time increased by 0.56 seconds.
Professor Walker said: “This observation suggests that the cognitive impairments experienced by epilepsy patients, particularly memory impairments, may be due in part to short-term impairments caused by these slow waves. “
The research team hopes that future studies will increase such activity as a potential new treatment for epilepsy patients.
Lead author Dr Laurent Sheibany (UCL Queen Square Institute of Neurology) said:
“Our study suggests that naturally occurring activity is utilized by the brain to offset pathological activity. However, slow waves of ‘wake’ may have no effect on memory performance. This comes at a cost because we know we give.
“From a purely neurobiological perspective, this study also supports the idea that sleep activity does not occur uniformly throughout the brain, but may occur in specific regions of the brain.”
Reference: “Awakening slow waves in focal human epilepsy affect network activity and cognition” November 29, 2023 nature communications. DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-42971-3
This research was funded by the Medical Research Council, Wellcome, UCLH Biomedical Research Center and the Swiss National Science Foundation.
Flaring, the deliberate burning of excess natural gas into the atmosphere, is one way methane is released from oil and gas facilities. His EMIT mission for NASA, over more than a year of operation, demonstrated its proficiency in discovering methane and other greenhouse gas emissions from space.
Since its launch 16 months ago, the EMIT imaging spectrometer has international space station demonstrated the ability to detect more than just surface minerals. More than a year after first detecting a methane plume from its perch on the International Space Station (ISS), data from NASA’s EMIT instrument is now being used to analyze greenhouse gas emissions with a level of proficiency that surprised even its designers. used to identify source emissions.
EMIT‘s mission and capabilities
EMIT, which stands for Earth Surface Mineral Dust Source Investigation, was launched in July 2022 to map 10 major minerals on the surface of the world’s arid regions. Mineral-related observations are already available. researcher and the general public to better understand how dust in the atmosphere affects the climate.
Methane detection was not part of EMIT‘s primary mission, but the instrument’s designers expected the imaging spectrometer to have that capability. More than 750 sources of emissions have been identified since August 2022, some of which are small, located in remote areas, and persistent over long periods of time, according to a new study published in the journal However, this device is said to have achieved more than sufficient results in that respect. scientific progress.
EMIT identified a cluster of 12 methane plumes within a 150 square mile (400 square kilometer) area in southern Uzbekistan on September 1, 2022. The instrument captured this cluster, which the researchers call a “scene,” in a single shot.
Credit: NASA/JPL-California Institute of Technology
Methane emissions and climate change
“We were a little cautious at first about what this device could do,” said Andrew Thorpe, a research engineer on the EMIT science team. NASAis a researcher at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Southern California and the paper’s lead author. “It exceeded our expectations.”
Knowing where methane emissions are coming from gives operators of landfills, agricultural sites, oil and gas facilities, and other methane-producing facilities the opportunity to address methane emissions. Tracking human methane emissions is key to limiting climate change because it provides a relatively low-cost and rapid approach to reducing greenhouse gases. Methane remains in the atmosphere for about 10 years, during which time it traps heat up to 80 times more strongly than carbon dioxide, which remains for centuries.
When strong winds kick up mineral rock dust(such as calcite or chlorite) on one continent, the airborne particles can travel thousands of miles and impact an entirely different continent. Airborne dust can heat or cool the atmosphere and the ground. This heating or cooling effect is the focus of NASA’s Earth Surface Mineral Dust Source Investigation (EMIT) mission.
Credit: NASA/JPL-California Institute of Technology
amazing results
EMIT has proven effective in detecting both large-scale sources (tens of thousands of pounds of methane per hour) and surprisingly small sources (hundreds of pounds of methane per hour). It has been. This is important because it will allow us to identify more “superemitters,” or sources that produce a disproportionate share of total emissions.
A new study documents how EMIT was able to observe 60% to 85% of the methane plumes typically seen during airborne operations, based on the first 30 days of greenhouse gas detections.
On September 3, 2022, EMIT detected a methane plume emitting approximately 979 pounds (444 kilograms) per hour in a remote corner of southeastern Libya. This is one of the smallest sources ever detected by this instrument.
Credit: NASA/JPL-California Institute of Technology
Comparison with airborne detection
From thousands of feet above the ground, an aircraft’s methane detection equipment is more sensitive, but researchers need advance notice that they will detect methane before the aircraft can be dispatched. Many areas are not explored because they are considered too remote, too dangerous, or too expensive. Furthermore, actual campaigns cover a relatively limited area over a short period of time.
EMIT, on the other hand, will collect data from a space station at an altitude of about 400 kilometers, covering a wide area of the Earth, especially the arid region between 51.6 degrees north and 51.6 degrees south latitude. The imaging spectrometer produces a 50-mile-by-50-mile (80-kilometer-by-80-kilometer) image of the Earth’s surface (researchers call it a “scene”), including many areas that could not be reached with airborne instruments. capture.
“The number and size of methane plumes that EMIT has measured around our planet is astonishing,” said Robert O. Green. JPL Senior Researcher and Principal Investigator at EMIT.
We created this time-lapse video showing the International Space Station’s Canadarm2 robotic arm moving NASA’s EMIT mission outside the station. The Dragon spacecraft was launched…
To help identify sources, the EMIT science team created maps of methane plumes and identified them as Websitethe underlying data are available at the NASA and U.S. Geological Survey Joint Land Processes Distributed Active Archive Center (LPDAAC). Data from this mission will be available to the public, scientists, and organizations.
EMIT began collecting observations in August 2022 and has since recorded more than 50,000 scenes. The instrument discovered clusters of emission sources in little-studied areas. Southern Uzbekistan On September 1, 2022, we detected 12 methane plumes totaling approximately 49,734 pounds (22,559 kilograms) per hour.
Additionally, the instrument detected a much smaller plume than expected.captured in a secluded corner Southeastern Libya On September 3, 2022, one of the smallest sources to date was emitting 979 pounds (444 kilograms) per hour, based on local wind speed estimates.
Reference: “Attribution of Individual Methane and Carbon Dioxide Sources Using EMIT Observations from Space” Andrew K. Thorpe, Robert O. Green, David R. Thompson, Philip G. Brodrick, John W. Chapman, Clayton D. Elder, Itziar, Iraklis-Leuchert, Daniel H. Cusworth, Alana K. Ayasse, Riley M. Duren, Christian Frankenberg, Louis Gunter, John R. Warden, Philip.・E. Dennison, Dar A. Roberts, K. Dana Chadwick, Michael L. Eastwood, Jay E. Farren and Charles E. Miller, November 17, 2023, scientific progress.
DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.adh2391
EMIT mission details
EMIT was selected from the Earth Venture Instrument-4 public offering by NASA’s Science Mission Directorate’s Earth Sciences Division and was developed at NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory, managed for NASA by the California Institute of Technology in Pasadena, California. Data from this instrument is publicly available for use by other researchers and the public at the NASA Land Processes Distributed Active Archive Center.
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