Recent research conducted by archaeologists at Curtin University and Sheffield Hallam University indicates that Neolithic communities, rather than glaciers, were responsible for transporting Stonehenge’s iconic six-tonne sandstone Altar Stone from north-eastern Scotland to Salisbury Plain.
Stonehenge. Image credit: Sally Wilson.
Curtin University researcher Dr. Anthony Clarke stated, “Our findings indicate that transporting the Altar Stone involved meticulous planning over multiple stages.”
“Instead of being carried naturally by ice, our evidence points to a calculated movement across various challenging terrains.”
“Our simulations suggest that during the last Ice Age, while glaciers might have transported rocks to Dogger Bank in the North Sea, they did not reach southern England. Therefore, prehistoric people had to move the stones hundreds of kilometers manually.”
“This study reveals no feasible glacier route connecting the source area to Stonehenge, thus confirming the necessity of human transport.”
“This implies that the stones may have been transported in stages, potentially utilizing a combination of land and water transport methods.”
The research incorporated mineral dating, geological provenance analysis, and computer simulations of ancient ice sheet movements to understand how the Altar Stones came to rest on Salisbury Plain.
The team initially identified the stone source in north-eastern Scotland by analyzing its mineral composition and age.
They then modeled the behavior of ancient glaciers and found evidence suggesting that the ice may have carried the stones southeast to Dogger Bank, currently submerged in the North Sea.
From these findings, the research team proposed that prehistoric peoples may have retrieved the stone from Dogger Bank, transported it to Salisbury Plain, and ultimately integrated it into the construction of Stonehenge.
“This discovery highlights an impressive level of organization and collaboration among Neolithic communities,” Dr. Clarke remarked.
“Transporting large stones over extensive distances would have required intricate planning, coordination, and a profound understanding of the landscape, along with significant determination.”
“Our study demonstrates the effectiveness of combining geological analysis and computer modeling to address enduring questions about the construction of Stonehenge.”
“Future research intends to pinpoint the exact origin of the Altar Stone in north-eastern Scotland and further explore potential transport routes utilized by prehistoric peoples.”
The results will be published in today’s Quaternary Science Journal.
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Anthony JI Clarke et al. From the Highlands to the Henge: Elucidating the Source and Transport Routes of Stonehenge’s Altar Stones. Quaternary Science Journal, published online June 4, 2026. doi: 10.1002/jqs.70080
The 5-meter-long altar stone is mostly buried at the center of Stonehenge.
Laurence Berger/Getty Images
Recent research into Stonehenge’s enigmatic altar stone suggests it may have originated from northeast Scotland, possibly carried south by glaciers. However, scientists argue that it’s more plausible humans transported this six-tonne stone.
This striking 5-meter-long monolith has been situated at the heart of Stonehenge’s worked rock ring for around 4,500 years, partially buried beneath two other stones.
In a 2024 study, researcher Anthony Clark and his team from Curtin University in Perth determined that the altar stone’s origins lie in northeastern Scotland, based on detailed rock chemistry analysis.
Clark notes, “The altar stone is sandstone—like crushed grains of sand on a beach. We can fingerprint the age and chemical makeup of these particles and compare them to other rocks across the UK and Ireland.”
The chemical profiles revealed a match with rocks from the Orcadian Basin, confirming the altar stone must have traveled approximately 750 kilometers to reach Stonehenge in southern England.
Initially, Clark and his colleagues theorized that the altar stones were likely transported by boat. They also explored the possibility that glaciers may have facilitated this movement during the last ice age, reducing the distance for human transport.
Utilizing geological analysis and ancient ice flow modeling, they reconstructed glacier movements. Their findings indicated that while most ice flow from northeast Scotland headed north, some could have directed south, potentially delivering rocks to Dogger Bank. This land bridge connected Britain to mainland Europe until it was submerged beneath the North Sea about 8,000 years ago, long before Stonehenge’s construction began around 5,000 years ago.
If glaciers had indeed transported these altar stones to Dogger Bank, it could have significantly shortened the journey for humans.
However, the flooding of Dogger Bank makes this hypothesis increasingly complex. Given that other stones at Stonehenge weigh between 25 and 30 tons and were undoubtedly moved by humans over substantial distances, it’s likely they possessed the necessary skills and determination to relocate the altar stone as well.
Clark emphasizes, “The builders of Stonehenge were not rushed. Similar to the pyramids, this took years to accomplish; it didn’t need to be done within modern timescales.”
Ultimately, further sampling may help pinpoint the exact quarry from where the altar stone originated. However, the reasons behind this monumental endeavor may forever remain a mystery. “Why would we select certain stones for monuments?” Clark poses, drawing parallels to choosing premium materials for modern kitchens or treasured pieces of jewelry. “Humans have always been drawn to specific stones, and for some reason, these ancient Britons required sandstone from northeastern Scotland.”
In April, Mark Zuckerberg declared that the company would significantly increase capital expenditures in the coming year to enhance its position in the development of advanced artificial intelligence. Last week, he delivered on that commitment with the unveiling of a $15 billion “AI Superintelligence” team, boasting nine-figure salaries and a 49% stake in Scale AI. Meta has also brought aboard Alexandr Wang, the 28-year-old founder of Scale and former roommate of Sam Altman from OpenAI.
Prior to Meta’s investment, Scale was already servicing most major AI players, some of whom were not enthusiastic about the development. Bloomberg reports that the head of Scale AI now brings insight into the operations of other competitors. Google, Scale’s largest client, expressed concerns as the tech giant informed startups that their existing partnerships would be reconsidered Reuters reported on Friday.
My colleague, Robert Booth, has more insights:
One Silicon Valley analyst referred to the announcement as indicative of a “wartime CEO” mentality.
Super Intelligence is characterized as a form of AI that surpasses human capabilities in all areas—a current standard that remains unattained by existing AI systems, known as Artificial General Intelligence (AGI).
In light of effective advancements by rivals including Sam Altman’s OpenAI and Google, and substantial investments in Meta’s underperforming Metaverse concept, observers are keen to see if Meta can meet its ambitious targets in AI.
While the scale of this financial commitment may suggest a lead in the AI race, Meta is actually playing catch-up. The company’s latest models lack the sophistication of competitor offerings. Earlier this year, it revealed a model that was adjusted to succeed on popular benchmarks—an unconvincing strategy. Its enormous financial outlay and new team formations aim to enhance its stature among industry leaders.
Discover more about Meta’s Superintelligence initiative here.
AI News Week
Wikipedia, essential to AI, struggles to showcase human contributions
Photo: Blake Montgomery
Last week, Wikipedia ceased its testing of AI-generated article summaries after backlash from editors and volunteers who contribute to the online encyclopedia. These AI-generated summaries were displayed above human-written introductions on the article pages. This experiment, which targeted around 10% of mobile users, lasted for two weeks.
Feedback was described as “strongly negative,” according to the nonprofit parent of Wikipedia. One editor expressed on the Public Forum: “A truly frightening idea.” Another stated, “Please exclude AI from Wikipedia.” Many joined in saying that this was uniquely detrimental. While some advocated for AI abstracts to simplify access to technical articles, the majority argued that errors and misinterpretations could harm Wikipedia’s reputation for reliability.
General sentiment among editors can be summarized as “Yuck.”
“We’re trying to balance AI integration with Wikipedia. There’s very minimal AI presence, just enough to aid editors and improve reader access,” explained one editor. The continual debate surrounds “What defines the line between human-generated and AI-generated content?”
In contrast, Reddit has begun charging for access to its application programming interfaces in 2023. This posting library is invaluable for AI companies, serving as a broad repository of contemporary human-written texts crucial for training large language models like ChatGPT. Reddit’s executives are leveraging this resource to monetize its value for AI firms. This decision has disrupted the user experience, particularly angering volunteer moderators and millions of community members who have protested the changes without success. They prioritized revenue from AI businesses over user satisfaction, starkly opposing Wikipedia’s approach.
A few days after Wikipedia rolled back its AI summary test, the Wikimedia Foundation hosted an in-person editing event at the United Nations. According to Rudder, the information manager, this gathering of a diverse group of editors was part of UN Open Source Week, coinciding with various open-source hackathons.
Editors interacted enthusiastically around laptops, collaborating on articles in multiple languages in a vibrant auditorium. Italian and Sri Lankan representatives acknowledged the vital work of editors in speeches, and Wikimedia Foundation executives expressed gratitude for their contributions, alongside UN Digital and Emerging Technology Governors. It was an energetic atmosphere.
Rudder emphasized the importance of in-person events, stating, “It fosters community. There’s a misconception that Wikipedia editors operate in isolation, when in reality, that’s far from the truth.” Wikimedia NYC recently organized the UN event, with Rudder observing it vital for connecting new editors to the community.
Like Reddit, Wikipedia’s vast text corpus serves as key training data for most, if not all, major language models. Wikipedia endorses a corporate approach to data access with Wikimedia Enterprise, which was launched in 2021. While Reddit operates for profit, the Wikimedia Foundation is a nonprofit entity. Although Wikipedia data remains available freely, utilization can be costly.
Unilike Reddit, Wikipedia emphasizes the human effort required to sustain the site and its information consistently by adjusting features in response to community feedback.
Technical Perspectives on the Anti-Deportation Protests in Los Angeles
Apple’s Walled Garden: From Eden to Pen
Photo: Apple Corps Ltd.
Recently, Apple hosted its annual WWDC developer conference, where the most significant announcement was a redesign of the iPhone operating system (iOS), referred to as “Liquid Glass.” The virtual buttons displayed on the iPhone screen appear transparent, allowing the background image to warp slightly, reminiscent of the colorful, translucent plastic used in older Macs.
The refreshed aesthetic is visually appealing but lacks excitement. Ultimately, it felt like a backdrop for news on Hurricane Prediction. How relevant is the color of my phone’s controls?
Of course, there were other updates, like live translations in FaceTime calls, enabling smoother communication with distant relatives and friends.
Yet overall, the updates lacked inspiration. Over the years, iPhone updates have seemed more forward-thinking than, for instance, the introduction of a second-generation 3G connection in 2008. Apple’s progress pales in comparison to the dynamic Android ecosystem. I once spoke with a venture capitalist in San Francisco in 2019, and I couldn’t even identify his iPhone model.
Unlike competitors, Apple has been slow to introduce new AI features. Google and Samsung have rapidly incorporated AI into their mobile offerings. For example, live translation has been a part of Android for years. Google’s Pixel Buds can convert speech in real-time, while Apple’s AirPods still lack this capability. Google consistently releases enticing, if sometimes quirky, AI updates.
Following the demonstration, Gizmodo noted that while Apple recognizes that AI may not align with consumer desires, it can’t openly admit this. However, despite differing opinions on ChatGPT among monthly users, Apple’s announcements offered little substance. If Apple wishes to retain users within its ecosystem, it must deliver something captivating and valuable.
Last week, Google launched an updated version of its operating system, while Samsung unveiled features for its next foldable phone. Android Central. Have you heard about these developments? In tech journalism, it’s well-known that Apple and iPhone stories often receive more clicks than those about Android phones—despite a higher global market share for Android. The reasons behind this phenomenon warrant their own discussion. Many spent the week discussing Android updates, contrasting with Apple’s liquid glass interface. Apple’s updates seem primarily cosmetic, raising questions about their overall impact as they inspire humor instead of admiration.
Samsung’s seventh generation of foldable phones raises questions about the novelty in the smartphone market. When contemplating your new iPhone’s lack of excitement, what do you want it to achieve? There’s no inherent need for a folding phone. My Motorola Razr facilitated effective communication, but that wasn’t due to its physical design.
I find myself pondering the value of Google’s new AI feature. Although there may not be a consensus on what most users desire from an AI-enhanced smartphone, it’s clear that without innovation, stagnation occurs. I feel Apple fails to present remarkable features worth considering. While the audio summary for Google search results might seem unnecessary, it is indeed fascinating—particularly for the visually impaired. Meanwhile, Siri struggles with basic tasks like controlling Spotify and managing notifications.
Having relied on my iPhone as my primary device for roughly 15 years, I feel I’m at a turning point. It may soon be time to explore Android and discover the new shiny gadgets, especially as I navigate the Apple hardware and app ecosystem.
A new study led by archaeologists from Curtin University suggests that Stonehenge’s iconic circle of stones – the Altar Stone, a six-tonne sandstone megalith – was discovered at least 750 kilometres from its current location.
Stonehenge. Image by Regina Wolfs.
Stonehenge, a Neolithic standing stone monument on Salisbury Plain in Wiltshire, England, provides invaluable information about prehistoric Britain.
Construction of Stonehenge began around 3000 BC and was modified over the next 2000 years.
The megaliths at Stonehenge are divided into two main categories: sarsens and bluestones.
The larger sarsens consist mainly of duriclast silicrite, taken from Marlborough’s West Woods, about 25km north of Stonehenge.
Bluestone is a general term for a variety of locally uncommon rocks, including volcanic tuff, rhyolite, dolerite, and sandstone.
Stonehenge’s central megalith, the Altar Stone, is the largest of the bluestones, measuring 4.9 x 1 x 0.5 metres, lying stone, weighing 6 tonnes, and is composed of a pale green mica sandstone with a distinctive mineral composition.
In the new study, Curtin University PhD student Anthony Clark and his colleagues studied the age and chemical composition of mineral grains within the altar stone fragments.
“Analysis of the age and chemical composition of the minerals in the altar stone fragments showed that they matched rocks from north-east Scotland, but were clearly different to the bedrock in Wales,” Mr Clarke said.
“We found that certain mineral grains in the altar stones are mostly between 1 and 2 billion years old, while other minerals date back to around 450 million years ago.”
“This provides a clear chemical fingerprint suggesting that the stone came from rocks in Scotland’s Auckland Basin, at least 750km from Stonehenge.”
“Given the constraints of Neolithic technology and its Scottish origin, this discovery raises intriguing questions about how such large stones could have been transported long distances around 2600 BC.”
Stonehenge layout and view of the Altar Stone. Image courtesy of Clark. others., doi:10.1038/s41586-024-07652-1.
“This discovery has important implications for our understanding of ancient communities, their connections and transportation,” Professor Chris Kirkland, from Curtin University, said.
“Our discovery of the altar stone’s origins highlights the importance of social co-operation in the Neolithic period and helps to paint a fascinating picture of prehistoric Britain.”
“Transporting such a large amount of cargo over land from Scotland to southern England would have been extremely difficult, so it is more likely that it was transported by sea along the English coast.”
“This suggests the existence of longer-distance trade networks and more advanced social organisation than is widely understood to have existed in the Neolithic in Britain.”
“We have succeeded in determining the age and chemical signature of perhaps one of the most famous stones from any world-famous ancient site,” said Professor Richard Bevins, from Aberystwyth University.
“We can now say that this iconic rock is Scottish rather than Welsh, but further research is needed to establish exactly where in the north-east of Scotland the Altar Stone came from.”
“The discovery is truly shocking, but if plate tectonics and atomic physics are correct, the altar stone is Scottish,” said Dr Robert Iksar, from University College London.
“This work raises two important questions: why and how was the altar stone transported from the far north of Scotland, over 70 kilometres away, to Stonehenge?”
The Altar Stone is located within the two large stone rings of Stonehenge.
Gavin Hellyer/Robert Suding/Getty Images
A study of the six-tonne altar stone at the heart of Stonehenge has revealed that it was almost certainly brought from northeast Scotland, much further away than any of the other stones in the megalithic structure.
“We were all in shock, we couldn't believe it,” the geologist said. Anthony Clark Curtin University, Perth, Australia.
It's unclear how the altar stone got from Scotland to southern England, but it was probably by sea, Clark said, because there is evidence people at the time traveled by sea.
Stonehenge is thought to have been begun about 5,100 years ago and constructed over a period of about 1,500 years. The outer circle is made of large stones called sarsens, weighing about 25 tons, while the inner circle and altar are made of small stones called bluestones, weighing about 3 tons. Bluestones are any rock that is not a sarsen. Bluestones are made of many different types of rock.
“What's unique about Stonehenge is the distance the stones were transported,” the geologist says. Richard Bevins Bevins, a researcher at Aberystwyth University in the UK, said most of the stone circles were made from rocks found within one kilometre of the site.
But the sarsens' source has been identified as West Woods in Wiltshire, about 15 miles (25 km) from the site, and Bevins' team has found that almost all of the bluestones came from the Preseli Hills in Wales, about 175 miles (280 km) away. One theory is that they were part of an even older Welsh stone monument that had been moved.
Stonehenge's Altar Stone is different to other bluestones: “By the end of 2021, we had concluded that the Altar Stone does not match any known geology in Wales,” team members said. Nick Piercealso at Aberystwyth University.
The five-metre-long stone is set into the ground with only one side exposed and partially covered by two other stones. It is thought to have been placed there around 4,500 years ago.
Stonehenge's altar stone (which is embedded beneath the other stones) was brought from north-east Scotland.
Nick Pearce, Aberystwyth University
Clark is currently analyzing samples of the altar stone using sophisticated equipment commonly used in the mining industry. The altar stone is made of sandstone, which means grains of rock that were deposited on the floor of an ancient sea eroded away and eventually stuck together to form new rock. The age of each grain varies depending on when the eroded rocks first formed, so each sandstone is a mix of grains of different ages.
Clark analyzed the zircon, apatite, and rutile crystals in the rock sample. These minerals contain uranium, which slowly decays into lead, so the ratio of uranium to lead can be used to determine the age of the rock. For example, the zircon in the rock is between 500 million and 3 billion years old.
The dating pattern indicates with more than 95 percent certainty that the altar stone is made from ancient red sandstone from the Auckland Basin in northeast Scotland, team members say. Chris Kirkland Located at Curtin University, the basin was once a huge ancient body of water called Lake Orcadie.
The nearest older red sandstone sites to Stonehenge are near Inverness, 750 kilometres (470 miles) away, and the furthest are in the Shetland Islands, up to 1,000 kilometres (620 miles) away, so the team believes the altar stone was probably transported by sea.
Glaciers can carry rocks long distances, and there's evidence that during the last ice age, ice in the Orkney region flowed north rather than south, Kirkland said.
So why was the altar stone transported so far? “That's a big question that's impossible to answer,” Clark says. “All we know is that it's a six-tonne rock that was transported from 750 kilometres away. That alone tells us an enormous amount about Neolithic societies and their connections.”
“What they did was pretty rigorous.” David Nash A team from the University of Brighton in the UK has pinpointed the exact source of Wiltshire sarsens: “This is really solid research.”
Nash said pinpointing the source of the altar stone more precisely would be difficult because the Orkney Basin spans a vast area and is up to five miles deep. “It's a huge task, because there's a huge amount of old red sandstone in the north of Scotland.”
In contrast, finding the exact source of the sarsens was easier because there were fewer possible sources, he said.
Genetic studies have shown that the people responsible for much of Stonehenge's construction were largely replaced by new waves of immigrants by about 4,000 years ago, likely after a major epidemic wiped out much of Europe's population.
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