El Niño’s Impact on European Agriculture: Crop Failures and Price Hikes
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El Niño, a climate phenomenon affecting the Pacific Ocean region, significantly influenced the economy and climate of Europe, resulting in widespread famine from 1500 to 1800.
During El Niño, the warming of ocean waters in the central and eastern Pacific disrupts trade winds, which leads to altered global rainfall patterns. The cooling phase, known as La Niña, and the oscillation between these two phases is referred to as the El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO).
This climatic variation poses severe risks in tropical and subtropical areas, notably in Australia, where it can lead to droughts and wildfires, and in the Americas, where it causes increased rainfall.
However, until recently, the focus on El Niño’s effects on Europe was minimal. Emil Esmaili from Columbia University and his research team studied records from 160 famines in early modern Europe, correlating them with El Niño and La Niña data derived from tree rings.
The findings revealed that over 40% of famines in Central Europe during this era were directly linked to El Niño events.
El Niño typically increases rainfall in the region, which can lead to excess soil moisture, resulting in crop failures. Though it did not directly trigger famine in other European areas, it raised the likelihood of famine occurrences by 24% across all nine regions studied.
To better understand this correlation, Esmaili’s team assessed grain and fish prices, discovering that El Niño significantly drove up food prices throughout Europe for several years.
Researchers, including David Yubilaba from the University of Sydney, indicate that ENSO events can still lead to food insecurity and malnutrition in low-income households in regions such as South Asia, Southeast Asia, Oceania, and parts of Africa.
While El Niño continues to influence the climate in Europe, its impact on food security is expected to be less severe today. “Modern agricultural practices are now more resilient, weather forecasting has greatly improved, and markets have become more consolidated,” says Ubilaba.
The El Niño Southern Oscillation, characterized by irregular shifts between unusually warm (El Niño) and cold (La Niña) conditions, has existed for at least 250 million years and is often of increasing magnitude, according to a new report. It is said that it has grown bigger. Studying modeling.
The El Niño Southern Oscillation, which occurs in the central and eastern equatorial Pacific Ocean, is a characteristic mode of interannual climate change and has significant impacts on the Earth's climate and ecosystems. Image credit: Li others., doi: 10.1073/pnas.2404758121.
Climate scientists are studying the El Niño phenomenon. That's because El Niño, a huge patch of unusually warm water on either side of the equator in the eastern Pacific Ocean, alters the jet stream and can dry out the northwest United States and soak the southwest with extreme rain.
The corresponding cold mass, La Niña, could push the jet stream northward, drying out the southwestern United States while also causing drought in East Africa and making South Asia's monsoon season more intense.
“Each experiment confirms an active El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO), most of which are stronger than the current one, some of which are somewhat stronger, and some of which are slightly stronger,” said Dr. Shinen Hu of Duke University.
Hu and his colleagues used the same climate modeling tools used by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) to project climate change into the future, except they looked back in time.
This simulation is so computationally intensive that researchers were unable to model it continuously every year for 250 million years. Instead, they made 10 million year “slices” – 26 of them.
“The model experiments were affected by various boundary conditions, including differences in land-sea distribution (on different continents), differences in solar radiation, and differences in carbon dioxide,” Dr. Hu said.
Each simulation was run over thousands of model years for robust results and took several months to complete.
“At times in the past, the amount of solar radiation reaching Earth was about 2% lower than it is today, but global warming carbon dioxide was much more abundant, and the atmosphere and oceans were much more dense than they are today. It was very warm,” Dr. Hu said.
During the Mesozoic Era, 250 million years ago, South America was located in the middle of the supercontinent Pangea, and an oscillation occurred in the Panthalas Ocean to its west.
Current research shows that historically the two most important variables in ENSO magnitude appear to be the ocean's thermal structure and the “atmospheric noise” of ocean surface winds.
“Previous studies have mainly focused on ocean temperatures, but this study has paid less attention to surface winds, which appear to be very important,” Dr. Hu said.
“So part of the point of our research is that in addition to the thermal structure of the ocean, we also need to pay attention to atmospheric noise and understand how those winds change. .”
“Atmospheric noise, or wind, can act to give this pendulum a random kick.”
“We find that both factors are important in understanding why El Niño was much stronger than it is now.”
“If we want to make more reliable predictions of the future, we first need to understand the past climate.”
of study Published in this week's Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.
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Shan Li others. 2024. El Niño Southern Oscillation has been active continuously since the Mesozoic era. PNAS 121 (45): e2404758121;doi: 10.1073/pnas.2404758121
Diagram of the end-Permian extinction event, where extreme temperatures may have caused forests to die off.
Richard Jones/Science Photo Library
The end-Permian extinction, 250 million years ago, may have been amplified by an El Niño event that was much stronger and longer-lasting than anything we see today.
These giant El Niño events caused extreme changes in the climate, wiping out forests and many land animals. Alexander Farnsworth At the University of Bristol, UK.
The El Niño also set off a feedback process that helped make this mass extinction so bad, he said: “There's a knock-on effect that's making these kinds of El Niños stronger and lasting longer.”
The end-Permian extinction is thought to have wiped out about 90 percent of all species living at the time, making it the worst mass extinction in history, and is widely thought to have been caused by a massive volcanic eruption in what is now Siberia.
These eruptions heated rocks rich in fossil carbon, releasing huge amounts of carbon dioxide, causing extreme global warming. Oceans became stagnant and oxygen-depleted, killing marine life.
But this doesn't explain the whole story: in particular, terrestrial species began to go extinct tens of thousands of years earlier than marine species.
A variety of ideas have been proposed to explain this, from volcanic winters to a disappearing ozone layer, but the idea that an extreme El Niño might be involved arose from studies of past ocean temperatures based on oxygen isotopes in fossils. Yadong Sun At China University of Geosciences in Wuhan.
Now, Farnsworth and his colleagues have run computer models to explore what might have happened at the end of the Permian period that could explain Sun's findings.
Currently, El Niño occurs when warm water in the western Pacific Ocean spreads eastward across the ocean surface, creating an area of anomalously warm water that heats the atmosphere and affects weather across the globe.
The researchers found that before the Permian extinction began, El Niño events were probably similar in strength and duration to today, meaning abnormally warm waters were about 0.5°C (0.9°F) hotter than average and the event lasted for several months.
But these events occurred in a huge ocean called the Panthalassa, which was 30 percent larger at the equator than the present-day Pacific Ocean. This means that the area of unusually warm water during El Niño was much larger than it is today, and its impact on the planet was much greater.
According to the team's model, rising carbon dioxide levels at the end of the Permian period caused El Niño events to become stronger and last longer. These events caused extreme weather changes on land and killed forests, which stopped absorbing carbon dioxide and started releasing it, leading to further warming and more extreme El Niño events.
In the ocean, the temperature changes would have been less drastic, and marine life would have had an easier time migrating to avoid them. This is why the marine extinctions occurred after more intense global warming. “The deadly extreme global warming that caused the marine extinctions was made worse by these El Niños because they stripped away carbon sinks,” says Farnsworth.
At the peak of the extinctions, El Niño temperature anomalies reached up to 4°C (7.2°F), and each event lasted for more than a decade, he says.
It's unclear whether a similar event will occur in the future — computer models vary in their predictions about how El Niño will change as the planet warms, Farnsworth said — but because El Niño occurs in a warmer world, it's already having big effects.
“The recent El Niño event has caused record temperatures and sparked a lot of wildfires,” he says, “and what worries me most is the signs of tree death in the Amazon during this El Niño event.”
Research shows that under certain climate conditions, El Niño could cause extinctions, Pedro Dinezio According to a team of researchers from the University of Colorado Boulder, such giant El Niño events don't occur today because the Pacific Ocean is smaller than the Panthalassa.
“These results are really interesting for understanding the past, rather than the near future,” Dinezio says. “To understand what El Niño will bring, we need to look at past periods when the continents were positioned similarly to the present.”
“I think this is a compelling study.” Phil Jardine Researchers at the University of Münster in Germany have discovered the first direct evidence that the ozone layer disappeared during the Permian mass extinction.
“I don't think this event and other extinction drivers, including ozone depletion, are mutually exclusive,” he says. “The scary thing about the end-Permian extinction is that a lot of things were happening at the same time, and they seemed to feed off each other in cascading ways throughout the Earth system.”
A map showing the expected surface temperature anomalies in 2024 if a strong El Niño event occurs.Blue dots indicate areas where record heat is expected
Ning Jiang et al., Scientific Reports
Climate models predict this year will be the hottest 12 months on record as El Niño conditions persist in the Caribbean, Bay of Bengal, South China Sea, Alaska and parts of the Amazon.
“These are places where the risk of extreme events is increased, and these extreme events are really harmful,” team members say. michael mcfaden NOAA Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory, Seattle, Washington.
“They negatively impact human health and increase the risk of wildfires. And in the ocean, they increase the risk of marine heatwaves, damaging marine ecosystems, fisheries and corals,” he said. Masu.
Earth’s surface temperatures are currently at record highs in many parts of the world. The main reason is global warming caused by carbon emissions from burning fossil fuels. However, in addition to this, the strong El Niño phenomenon that started in mid-2023 is causing temperatures to rise further.
When an El Niño event occurs, warm water spreads across the surface of the Pacific Ocean toward South America. This vast area of warm water transfers large amounts of ocean heat to the atmosphere, causing an increase in surface temperature.
The reverse phase, known as La Niña, reverses this process. Cold water spreads over the surface of the Pacific Ocean away from South America, absorbing heat from the atmosphere and lowering the surface temperature.
This means that the Earth’s average surface temperature typically reaches record levels during El Niño periods and then drops during La Niña periods.
McFadden and his colleagues used a computer model that took into account aerosol pollution and volcanic eruptions in addition to El Niño to try to predict where in the world record heat would occur. Their regional forecast is the average surface temperature for the period from July 2023 to June 2024.
“Even if it’s not exactly timed to a specific season, there’s real value in having this kind of warning,” McFayden says. “It gives us a grace period to prepare how best to protect life, property, marine resources and economic development.”
The research team considered two scenarios: a strong El Niño and a milder El Niño. It’s now clear that a strong El Niño is occurring, and in fact, it’s likely to be in the top five strongest El Niños since 1950, McFadden said.
In this strong El Niño scenario, the research team predicts that the global average surface temperature from July 2023 to June 2024 would be 1.1°C to 1.2°C warmer than the 1951-1980 average. Masu.
this is Equivalent to a temperature above 1.4-1.5 °C average from 1850 to 1900, new scientist This is considered a pre-industrial benchmark. This suggests that the model is underestimating the temperature since it is already above this level. From January 2023 to January 2024, the Earth’s average surface temperature was more than 1.5 °C above the 1850-1900 average, and in January 2024 it was 1.7 °C above this level.
Temperature records have already been broken during El Niño, especially in the tropics, he said. maximiliano herrera, an independent climatologist who tracks extreme temperatures. “This is amazing,” he says. “We are experiencing record heat and it is inevitable.”
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