A community of approximately 200 chimpanzees in Uganda’s Kibale National Park has fractured into two rival factions, leading to a years-long, deadly conflict.
The Ngogo chimpanzees have been under continuous study for three decades, yet scientists have recently observed the violent split unfold in slow motion.
Starting around 2015, this previously unified group began to polarize. Social bonds weakened, neighborhoods within the community solidified into distinct factions, and once-shared territory became hotly contested. By 2018, this division had become permanent.
What transpired next was both surprising and alarming. The smaller faction, known as the western chimpanzees, initiated targeted raids on the territory of their larger rivals, the central group. Over the following six years, they killed at least seven adult males and 17 young children.
This count is likely an underestimate. An additional 14 adolescent and adult male chimpanzees went missing or died unexpectedly between 2021 and 2024, none showing any prior signs of illness.
Today, the Western group has emerged as the dominant force within the jungle.
Recent findings, published in Science, have drawn comparisons to civil wars. Unlike conflicts between strangers, the events at Ngogo involved former allies, groomers, and long-term social partners turning against one another.
Researchers involved in this study estimate that such conflicts occur only once every 500 years.
“One of the most intriguing aspects of this conflict is the so-called ‘friend-to-foe’ transformation,” stated Professor Aaron Sandel from the University of Texas at Austin in an interview with BBC Science Focus. “This provides a rare glimpse into the minds of chimpanzees.”
This research supports the notion that group identities can change, undermining long-held social bonds without the ethnic, religious, or ideological markers typically associated with collective violence.
“It almost facilitates wars between factions,” Sandel commented. “But we remain troubled by civil strife, as it’s often neighbors turning against neighbors.”
He added that insights from chimpanzee behavior could help researchers formulate hypotheses about the factors that drive humans toward or away from similar conflicts.
“By focusing on human interactions and conflict resolution, we may uncover more effective avenues for promoting peace,” he concluded.
Archaeologists from Colorado State University have uncovered evidence that Native Americans were crafting dice and engaging in games of chance as far back as 12,000 years ago, predating similar practices believed to have originated solely in the Old World.
Prehistoric Native American dice from various locations: (a, d) Signal Butte, NE (mid-Holocene); (b) Agate Basin, WY (early Holocene); (c, f) Agate Basin, WY (Late Pleistocene); (e, g) Lindenmeyer, CO (Late Pleistocene); (h) Irvine, WY (Late Holocene). Image credit: Department of Anthropology, Smithsonian Institution, American Museum of Natural History/University of Wyoming.
“Historians often regarded dice and probability as innovations unique to the Old World,” explains Colorado State University’s Robert Madden, a doctoral student and author of the study.
“Our findings reveal that ancient Native American societies were deliberately producing objects designed for random outcomes, utilizing these results in organized games much earlier than previously believed.”
The earliest artifact identified by Madden originates from the Folsom site, dating between 12,800 and 12,200 years ago.
Unlike modern cubic dice, these were double-sided devices known as binary lots, crafted from bone, either flat or slightly rounded, and typically oval or rectangular in form, designed for easy handling and tossing onto a surface.
Each side of these binary lots was marked differently, distinguished by surface treatments, colors, or other visible alterations, similar to heads or tails on a coin, with one side designated for scoring.
When tossed, these dice would always land with one side facing up, yielding a binary (two-outcome) result.
Scores were determined by the numbers displayed when thrown together.
“These tools are simple yet purposeful. They are intentionally made for generating random outcomes, not mere leftovers from bone processing,” Madden stated.
This study also introduces a new morphological test for identifying North American dice in archaeological contexts, moving beyond subjective comparisons.
The test was developed through an analysis of 293 historical Native American dice sets cataloged by ethnologist Stewart Culin in his 1907 work, North American Indian Games.
The research reexamines previously collected artifacts, assessing whether they meet the new, objective criteria for dice, allowing for a systematic evaluation of the archaeological record.
Most of these artifacts had been excavated prior but lacked a clear standard for identification, which hampered their inclusion in broader analyses.
By applying this novel approach, Madden identified over 600 probable and diagnostic dice from sites that span significant periods in North American prehistory, from the late Pleistocene through to European contact and beyond.
“Most of these items had already been discovered and documented,” Madden noted.
“What was lacking was a standardized method to recognize these artifacts.”‘
“Our research does not claim that Ice Age hunter-gatherers practiced formal probability theory,” Madden clarified.
“However, they intentionally made, observed, and utilized random outcomes in repeatable, rule-based scenarios, tapping into probabilistic principles like the law of large numbers. This insight reshapes our understanding of the global evolution of probabilistic thought.”
The study further highlights the extensive range and sustainability of Native American dice games.
Dice artifacts were discovered at 57 sites across 12 regional areas, reflecting diverse cultures and survival strategies from Paleoindian to Archaic and late prehistoric periods.
“The versatility and endurance of these games underscore their cultural significance,” Madden stated.
“Games of chance provided structured, neutral environments for ancient Native Americans, facilitating interactions, trade, alliances, and the management of uncertainty. In this context, they served as essential social tools.”
The study has been published in Ancient History of America.
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Robert J. Madden. Pleistocene Probability: The Origins and Antiquity of Native American Dice, Games of Chance, and Gambling. Ancient History of America published online on April 2, 2026. doi: 10.1017/aaq.2025.10158
Major Verdict Against Meta and YouTube: The Impact on Social Media
Last week, a Los Angeles jury delivered a groundbreaking verdict, holding Meta, the parent company of Facebook, and YouTube accountable for creating an addictive social media platform that negatively impacted the mental health of young women. The jury determined that the companies had irresponsibly developed a platform that caused harm to a 20-year-old individual, awarding him £4.5 million ($6 million) in damages. This ruling has potential implications for how products are designed in Silicon Valley moving forward.
In response to the verdict, a spokesperson for Meta remarked, “Teen mental health is very complex and cannot be attributed to a single app.” They emphasized their commitment to defending their practices and expressed confidence in their efforts to protect teens online.
A recent analysis by a US jury revealed that Facebook and YouTube are intentionally designed to be addictive, with reports of teenagers spending up to 16 hours a day using these platforms (Photo credit: Getty).
Understanding Addiction in Social Media
What does it truly mean for something to be addictive, and does social media fit that definition? To explore this, we consulted Pete Etchells, Professor of Psychology and Science Communication at Bath Spa University and author of Unlocked: The Real Science of Screen Time. He discusses the need to redefine our relationship with technology and offers insights on social media’s potential benefits.
The Flaws of “Screen Time”
“Screen time” is a term many of us are familiar with, but its broad and vague nature often leads to misunderstandings. It refers to the amount of time spent on different screen-based technologies over a specific period—be it 24 hours or a week. This simplicity makes it appealing but ultimately ineffective in addressing the complexities of online engagement.
The obsession with screen time overlooks significant factors affecting mental health and can lead to misguided conclusions. Rather than providing meaningful insights, it often offers superficial correlations that hinder deeper understanding.
Healthy vs. Unhealthy Screen Usage
There are undoubtedly healthy and unhealthy ways to engage with screens. However, framing the conversation around addiction may limit our understanding. Social media, at its core, is about connection, and its positive aspects are often overshadowed by concerns about excessive use.
During the pandemic, many relied on social media to stay connected with loved ones, demonstrating its utility. Yet, it’s crucial to maintain a balanced perspective, recognizing both the challenges and benefits that these platforms offer.
Reframing Our Technology Use
Instead of viewing technology through the lens of addiction, consider it through the lens of habit. As Etchells notes, behaviors like checking your phone can be neutral. The context determines whether they become positive or negative habits. For instance, checking your phone to connect with friends can enhance well-being, while excessive usage during critical tasks can be detrimental.
On Banning Smartphones for Youth
Discussions about banning smartphones for individuals under 16 can be controversial. Such bans may alienate vulnerable youth who rely on technology for support. Promoting digital literacy is vital, preparing young individuals to navigate their online environments responsibly.
This condensed interview with Professor Pete Etchells encourages a more nuanced approach to technology. Understanding the real science behind our relationship with screens will help us engage in more productive conversations about digital well-being. To explore the full conversation, listen to Instant Genius.
About Pete Etchells
Pete Etchells is a Professor of Psychology and Science Communication at Bath Spa University, as well as the author of Unlocked and Losing a Good Game. His research focuses on the impacts of video game play and digital technology on behavior and mental health. He also serves as a scientific consultant for the BBC’s Horizon program.
A virus traditionally affecting marine life is causing glaucoma-like symptoms in humans.
Virginie Vaes/Getty Images
A newly identified virus typically affecting marine animals has led to alarming glaucoma-like symptoms, including irreversible vision loss, in a handful of individuals in China. This marks the first documented instance of an aquatic virus infecting humans and resulting in serious health complications. The infections are believed to have occurred through consumption of raw seafood or handling aquatic creatures, with some evidence suggesting possible human-to-human transmission.
“It’s astonishing that this virus is capable of infecting invertebrates, fish, and mammals,” says Edward Holmes, a researcher at the University of Sydney. “I cannot recall any virus exhibiting such a broad host range.”
Cases of persistent ocular hypertension viral anterior uveitis (POH-VAU), characterized by inflammation and increased eye pressure leading to optic nerve damage, are escalating in China. To delve into the triggers behind this spike, researchers from the Chinese Academy of Fisheries Sciences in Qingdao evaluated 70 patients diagnosed with the condition between January 2022 and April 2025.
The research team tested these individuals for the latent and lethal nodavirus, which commonly infects various marine species; remarkably, all 70 tests returned positive. “Up to this point, viruses from aquatic animals have not been shown to cause illness in humans directly,” the researchers stated, though they declined to provide further commentary. Despite treatment aimed at reducing inflammation, a significant portion of subjects required surgical intervention, with one case resulting in irreversible vision loss.
In an effort to better understand the virus, the research team infected mice, which exhibited marked pathological changes in the cornea, iris, and retina within a month. They also observed that the virus could spread among mice sharing water.
Of those studied, more than half owned aquatic animals, highlighting a potential source for the infection. However, approximately 16% reported consuming raw seafood or had close ties with high-risk groups.
While there is no definitive proof of human-to-human transmission, an epidemiological study revealed a distinct subgroup of urban POH-VAU patients with no direct contact with aquatic animals or other risk factors, apart from close interactions with family members. These relatives, who are at a heightened risk for the latent nodavirus, have experienced hand injuries during handling of aquatic animals, implying that the virus may transmit within households, potentially via shared utensils.
To gauge the virus’s prevalence, researchers evaluated 523 captive and wild aquatic animals across Asia, the Americas, Europe, Antarctica, and Africa, concluding the global presence of this hidden and deadly nodavirus. They identified it in 49 species, including shrimp, crabs, fish, and barnacles, resulting in symptoms like lethargy and color loss; yet the reasons behind its ocular effects in humans remain unclear.
Holmes emphasized the potential ubiquity of this pathogen: “I suspect it is much more prevalent than currently recognized. I wouldn’t discount the possibility it first passed through another species, possibly a mammal.”
The virus may also propagate among marine organisms consuming infected animals. For instance, researchers found that farmed shrimp often consume frozen brine shrimp or Antarctic krill, potentially resulting in infections. Moreover, the introduction of this virus into warmer waters has led to increased infections in marine life, suggesting that Antarctic species may serve as reservoirs for pathogens without displaying illness themselves.
Researchers warn that the transmission of this elusive and deadly nodavirus from marine life to humans presents new biosecurity threats. Nonetheless, Holmes reiterates the absence of clear evidence for human-to-human transmission, stating, “This is not regarded as a contagious disease.”
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Paleontologists have recently uncovered a groundbreaking genus and species of fossil monkey known as Maslipithecus mograensis, which inhabited northern Egypt approximately 17 to 18 million years ago. This discovery challenges previous notions, indicating that the evolutionary ancestors of modern apes and humans may have emerged at the intersection of Africa and Eurasia, rather than in East Africa.
Reconstruction of the life of Maslipithecus mograensis. Image credit: Mauricio Anton.
The current consensus among scientists is that the earliest great apes, known as pedunculated hominids, originated in the Africa-Arabia region during the Oligocene epoch over 25 million years ago. These species diversified and migrated into Eurasia by the Miocene epoch, approximately 14 to 16 million years ago.
However, the origin of modern apes, encompassing all existing species and their last common ancestor, remains elusive due to the scarcity and wide dispersion of relevant fossils from this period.
This uncertainty is compounded by the fragmented fossil record in Africa, where significant discoveries are predominantly localized to a few areas, leaving numerous potential ancient habitats of Miocene apes unexplored.
“Historically, the early Miocene fossil record documenting the evolution of hominids was mainly derived from sites in East Africa, with only long-tailed macaque fossils identified in contemporary North African locations,” stated Showrouk al-Ashkar, a paleontologist from Mansoura University, along with collaborating researchers from Egypt and the United States.
The newly discovered fossil, which dates back to 17 to 18 million years ago, was found in the Wadi Mogra region of northern Egypt.
Named Maslipithecus mograensis, this species significantly enhances our comprehension of the diversity and evolution of early apes during a crucial period when Afro-Arabia began to connect with Eurasia, facilitating the species’ dispersal from Africa.
“Although the fossil remains consist mainly of the lower jaw, they exhibit a unique combination of features not found in other known apes from this era,” the research team reported.
“These features include notably large canines and premolars, molars characterized by rounded and finely textured chewing surfaces, and exceptionally robust jaws,” they continued.
“Collectively, these traits indicate that Maslipithecus mograensis was adapted for dietary versatility,” they added.
Researchers interpreted the masticatory anatomy of this species as indicative of a flexible diet, largely comprising fruits, but capable of processing harder food items like nuts and seeds when necessary.
To ascertain the position of Maslipithecus mograensis within the human evolutionary lineage, scientists employed a modern Bayesian “advanced dating” method, combining both anatomical features and fossil ages to estimate evolutionary relationships and divergence times.
The findings imply that this new species represents a stem hominin closely linked to the lineage that ultimately led to all modern apes.
This discovery reinforces the hypothesis that the origins of modern apes may lie within northern Afro-Arabia, the Levant, or the eastern Mediterranean.
“We dedicated five years to searching for fossils of this nature, as an in-depth examination of the early ape family tree revealed significant gaps, with North Africa serving as that missing piece,” remarked Hesham Salam, a paleontologist at Mansoura University.
Shoruk F. Al Ashkar et al. 2026. An early Miocene ape living at the biogeographic crossroads of African and Eurasian hominids. Science 391 (6792): 1383-1386; doi: 10.1126/science.adz4102
Scientists are gearing up to inject thousands of tons of carbon dioxide into the Amazon rainforest in a groundbreaking experiment addressing one of the most pressing questions in climate change. Will increased CO2 emissions stimulate tree growth and help absorb atmospheric carbon? Or is this optimistic outlook misguided?
AI-Induced Scary Stories: A Cautionary Tale
Always think twice before heeding advice, especially if it originates from an AI. This issue uncovers seven notable failures, including an AI that opted to deceive and hide its errors.
Procrastination: Beyond a Simple Delay
Using procrastination tactics to dodge your to-do list might indicate deeper issues at play. Psychologists suggest that stress could be the underlying cause, but there are effective methods to help reduce procrastination.
The New Space Race: A Contest for Cosmic Control
The universe has never truly been at peace. Now, nations are no longer pretending otherwise. Space is on its way to being recognized as a domain that demands active defense and competition.
Plus: Discoveries and Insights
Oral Microbiome: New studies bridge the gap between dentistry and medicine, confirming the essential link between oral health and overall well-being.
Fart Walk: Exploring the surprising benefits of a post-meal “fart walk,” which extend beyond mere comfort.
Q&A: Our experts tackle your burning questions: What’s the worst online action for the planet? Should you try an ice roller? What spans the world’s longest oil spill? Is my dog manipulating me for treats? Why do we empathize with villains in cinema? What is the “returnee effect”? Discover the most secretive locations where scientists work, and… much more!
Issue No. 431: Released on Thursday, March 26, 2026
Don’t forget that BBC Science Focus is available across all major digital platforms. Find the magazine on Android, Kindle Fire and Kindle e-readers, and on the iOS app for iPad and iPhone.
Evidence of Neanderthal hunting: Elephant bones from Lehringen, Germany
Credit: VOLKER_MINKUS
In the back room of the modern Schöningen Research Museum in Germany, old cardboard boxes house a fascinating discovery: remnants from Rehringen, a village 150 kilometers away.
In 1948, 125,000-year-old Paleoloxodon antique bones were excavated from an ancient lake’s bed in Rehringen. While such bones are not uncommon, this particular set contained a remarkable 2.3-meter-long spear embedded between the ribs.
This yew spear is recognized as the oldest complete spear ever discovered. The Rehringen Spear stands as the only known spear found alongside the skeleton of an extinct species. Since Neanderthals were the only humans in Europe at the time, this spear provides critical evidence that they hunted large game rather than scavenged. This was a groundbreaking discovery.
However, challenges arose. The excavation led by Alexander Rosenbrock, a local school principal and amateur archaeologist, revealed that around half of the bones were removed before he, his daughter, and volunteers arrived at the scene.
By the time Rosenbrock reached the site, some bones had already been stolen, and without a camera, he couldn’t sketch the crucial positions of the bones and spear. A lengthy legal battle ensued over the discovery, ultimately allowing Rosenbrock to keep the findings in Verden, which contributed to their obscurity. Sadly, the teacher passed away in the 1950s without publishing his findings.
Over the next 75 years, skepticism around Rehringen emerged. Were the spear and bones truly found together, or was it mere coincidence? Researchers accessed the findings twice but concluded that the elephant bones lacked evidence of butchery.
Excavation at Rehringen, 1948
Credit: Archives of the Cultural Heritage Office of Lower Saxony
Fast forward to 2025. Ivo Verheijen, the bone expert at Schöningen, began investigating the Rehringen finds.
“We were informed of just a few boxes,” Verheijen noted. “But upon reaching the museum, we discovered truckloads stored in the attic.”
The Schöningen Center, located 300 meters from an active excavation site since the mid-1990s, previously uncovered 10 spears around 300,000 years old from a nearby quarry. The Rehringen spear, alongside the Clacton spear, represents one of the oldest weapons from the Paleolithic era.
In 2017, the Schöningen team made headlines by discovering a complete ancient elephant, granting Verheijen substantial experience with these bones before switching his focus to Rehringen.
As he examined the artifacts, Verheijen removed an old box containing a freshwater shell from Rehringen and metadata from the excavation. He revealed that the label was a 50-million-mark banknote from the post-World War I inflation era, pointing out, “It used to be printed on one side only.”
This project resembled a cold-case investigation for Verheijen and his team. Fortunately, the box contained not just elephant bones but also flint tools and documentation of Rosenbrock’s work, preserved by his daughter Waltraut Deibel-Rosenbrock after his passing.
It didn’t take long for Verheijen to determine that the Lehringen elephant was slaughtered. “I quickly spotted distinct cut marks,” he stated. “It’s surprising that they weren’t previously noted.”
Cut marks found on an elephant rib
Credit: Ivo Verheijen
The elephant’s remains belonged to a young male, over 3.5 meters tall at the shoulder. Verheijen noted that solitary males are often easier targets for hunters.
Examination revealed that not only had the animal been butchered externally, but internal organs had also been removed, indicating that it was freshly dead when Neanderthals approached. It is highly probable that it died with the spear embedded in its side, suggesting a direct correlation between the bones and the weapon found on-site.
Early humans utilized simple flint tools to extract as much as possible from the carcass, leaving behind bones for scavengers. Interestingly, not every bone displayed signs of butchery—bear, beaver, and aurochs remains were also present, indicating that Neanderthals regularly hunted near the lake.
Verheijen suggested that modern elephants often head towards water when injured. Therefore, after being speared, the elephant likely made its way toward the lake, where it may have been pursued until it collapsed. One spear ultimately broke underneath it, which could explain some of the scene’s findings. The research team plans to further analyze the spear.
Even in its initial phases, the project has already painted a vivid picture of Neanderthal hunting behavior.
Verheijen aims to preserve Rehringen’s bones for exhibition, emphasizing, “This site is among the most significant Neanderthal locations in Germany. Despite being previously overlooked, we are dedicated to giving it the recognition it deserves.”
Explore the Discovery Tour: Archeology, Human Origins, and Paleontology
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It’s astonishing that we have more detailed maps of the moon than of our deep ocean floor. The moon’s surface is easier to observe, as it lacks the vast deep ocean that obscures our view of Earth’s underwater terrain.
With a telescope on a clear night, anyone can glimpse the moon’s features, especially on the side visible from Earth. Interestingly, the moon is roughly one-tenth the size of the deep ocean floor, which encompasses two-thirds of our planet’s surface.
The deep ocean covers an extensive area of over 335 million square kilometers (approximately 129.3 million square miles). Its inaccessibility, combined with the vastness of the ocean, explains why, despite our advanced technology, only a fraction has been explored.
Recently, a dedicated team of scientists compiled a comprehensive dataset containing data from around 44,000 dives into the deep ocean. These dives were conducted using submarines, remotely operated vehicles (ROVs), and autonomous underwater robots.
These deep-diving vehicles have collectively documented less than 0.001% of the deep-sea floor, comparable to the area of Rhode Island, the smallest U.S. state. If we applied similar statistics to terrestrial exploration, our entire understanding of ecosystems would come from an area only as large as the London metropolitan region.
Moreover, the minuscule part of the ocean floor studied is a highly biased sample. In fact, 65% of deep-sea exploration dives happened within 200 nautical miles of the United States, Japan, or New Zealand. Nearly all deep-seafloor observations (around 97%) were conducted by these three countries, in addition to France and Germany.
ROVs map the landscape from above, revealing the terrain and its inhabitants – Photo credit: NOAA Ocean Exploration
Additionally, explorers have mainly concentrated on a narrow spectrum of deep-sea features, dedicating significant research to rugged marine landscapes such as deep canyons and cliffs while neglecting regions like the expansive abyssal plains.
The Global Dive Dataset also highlights a critical limitation: dive depth. While the number of dives has increased over the decades, the depths have generally become shallower. In the 1960s, over half of dives surpassed 2 km (about 1.2 miles) deep, but by the 2010s, only a quarter of dives reached that depth.
This is concerning because approximately 75% of the ocean lies between 2 km and 6 km (1.2 miles and 3.7 miles) beneath sea level, indicating that significant portions of the ocean floor remain uncharted.
Clearly, contemporary deep-sea explorations overlook vast areas, leaving much of the ocean unexplored and unknown. Various initiatives are underway to enhance access to deep-sea tools and dive into less-known locations to discover what lies beneath the global deep ocean.
This article responds to Charlotte Preston of Southampton, who asked: “How much of the ocean floor have we actually explored?”
For more fascinating science insights, check out our Ultimate Fun Facts page.
The concern over sleep quality has become a common fixation for many. This is largely due to the booming sleep industry, which provides everything from wearable trackers that monitor sleep patterns to melatonin supplements designed to enhance your sleep experience. But is our anxiety over sleep justified?
Conventional wisdom suggests aiming for approximately 8 hours of uninterrupted sleep. This advice conveys that insufficient sleep can lead to serious health issues such as dementia and diabetes. However, as highlighted in this week’s cover story, adhering strictly to these sleep norms can be detrimental. Many individuals may adopt an “insomniac identity,” even if they do not genuinely suffer from insomnia. In fact, at least one-third of self-identified insomniacs report satisfactory sleep.
Recent studies reveal that our perceptions about sleep significantly influence cognitive performance. Beliefs about sleep quality can impact our abilities more than actual sleep data. Furthermore, the rigid 8-hour guideline is more flexible than commonly believed. Research shows that consistently getting over 6 hours of sleep does not lead to documented adverse effects, while 7 hours of sleep may actually contribute to longevity, with no additional benefits derived from longer sleep durations. It’s crucial to recognize that worrying about sleep often exacerbates the problem rather than alleviates it.
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The sleep industry might help us realize that most people are sleeping better than they think. “
There are solutions available. The sleep industry has the potential to shift its focus toward technology that tracks and shares individual sleep data, which could help those mistakenly believing they suffer from insomnia understand their actual sleep quality. This may lead to more achievable sleep goals set by health organizations and medical professionals, while also clarifying that occasional sleep deprivation is manageable.
On a personal note, knowing that the difficult standards imposed on us may not be as absolute as we perceive can provide relief. Your preoccupation with sleep might have become more of a hobby than a concern, but perhaps it’s time to explore new interests.
The ice deep beneath Greenland’s surface is beginning to show intriguing signs of movement, manifesting as unusual plume-like swirls. According to recent studies, understanding this phenomenon is crucial for scientists aiming to predict the behavior of Greenland’s ice as it rapidly melts into the ocean.
The initial discovery of this formation was made in 2014 through radar imaging, although the underlying mechanism remained unclear.
Recent research indicates that thermal convection, a process driving movements within Earth’s molten mantle, may explain these unique formations.
“People often consider ice as a rigid, cold substance,” stated Professor Andreas Birth from the University of Bergen, Norway. “Finding that certain areas of the Greenland ice sheet experience heat convection—similar to boiling pasta—is remarkable and intriguing.”
Convection reflects a gradual, cyclical movement where warmer sections of a material rise while cooler sections descend.
In this instance, researchers believe the plume has formed from solid ice over millennia due to heat emanating from deep within the Earth.
“It’s counterintuitive to think that thermal convection could happen within ice sheets,” remarked Dr. Robert Law, a glaciologist at ETH Zurich in Switzerland. “But since ice is significantly softer than Earth’s mantle, these physical principles actually hold up.”
To explore whether convection could lead to the creation of these enigmatic plumes, Dr. Law and his research team constructed a digital model of the Greenland ice sheet, employing a simulation typically used for Earth’s mantle convection.
After adjusting parameters like ice thickness, softness, and movement, the model successfully generated rising ice columns that mirrored the shapes observed in Greenland.
Law elaborated to BBC Science Focus that the relatively stable, low-snow environment in northern Greenland likely provides the perfect insulation, fostering the creation of these structures over thousands of years.
Greenland’s ice is melting at an alarming rate. Research from the University of Barcelona indicates water production has surged more than sixfold since 1990, escalating from 12.7 gigatons per decade to 82.4 gigatons per decade – Credit: Getty
This study enhances scientists’ understanding of ice properties that are challenging to measure directly.
“Acquiring data on ice properties, especially within deep ice sheets, is exceptionally difficult,” Dr. Law explained.
“This innovative approach yields invaluable insights that are not accessible through other means. Our findings suggest that ice is softer and more sensitive to stress than previously assumed. However, further exploration is necessary to confirm these conclusions.”
This discovery is critical because Greenland’s ice sheet, spanning over 1.7 million square kilometers (approximately 650,000 square miles), holds significant implications for global sea levels. If it were to melt entirely, sea levels could rise by as much as 7.4 meters (24 feet), according to estimates from the U.S. National Snow and Ice Data Center.
In another recent study, the University of Barcelona revealed that the ice is melting at an unprecedented pace.
Dr. Josep Bonsams, a geography researcher from Barcelona, stated in BBC Science Focus, “The Greenland Ice Sheet is experiencing more frequent, larger, and more intense extreme melt events than in previous decades. Most of the top 10 extreme melt years have occurred since 2000. Melting in Greenland, one of the largest reservoirs of frozen water on Earth, significantly contributes to global sea level rise, making urgent international climate action essential.”
Dr. Law mentioned to BBC Science Focus that his research insights will influence the future outlook for both Greenland and global climate patterns.
“The plume itself does not indicate that we should expect the ice sheet to collapse sooner than current predictions suggest,” he clarified.
“These formations resemble ancient artifacts: thicker, colder, and more stable ice sheets that originated from the last ice age. Nonetheless, the physics of ice remains poorly understood. With every advancement in physical comprehension, we can better forecast the rate of ice sheet melting and the implications for sea level rise.”
Dr. Law expressed his hope that those who engage with his research will share the same wonder for nature and the Greenland ice sheet that inspired his team during their studies.
Approximately 40,000 years ago, early humans in Europe created a sophisticated system of geometric symbols. These symbols are believed to represent an intentional, repeatable form of communication that transcends mere decoration. Discover more in a recent study published in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.
Movable artefact featuring geometric symbols from the Swabian Aurignacian culture. Image credit: Christian Bentz & Ewa Dutkiewicz, doi: 10.1073/pnas.2520385123.
According to researchers Christian Benz from the Universities of Saarland and Passau, and Eva Dutkiewicz from the National Museum in Berlin, “Around 45,000 years ago, modern humans migrated into eastern and central Europe.”
During this migration, they encountered Neanderthals, their distant relatives.
In a period of rapid population turnover, modern humans produced a variety of movable artifacts, including tools and figurines crafted from materials such as ivory, bone, and antler.
These artifacts date back to the early Upper Paleolithic and are part of the Aurignacian technocomplex.
Numerous objects adorned with geometric symbols have been discovered, particularly in France’s Dordogne region, Germany’s Swabian Jura, and Belgian archaeological sites.
The researchers examined a collection of 260 mobile Aurignacian artifacts found in caves in the Swabian Jura.
These remarkable items, made from mammoth ivory, bone, and horn, date between 43,000 and 34,000 years ago.
Artifacts include tools, beads, musical instruments, and figurines representing both animals and humans, many etched with sequences of geometric signs—dots, lines, crosses, and more.
The scientists emphasized, “The inhabitants of these caves produced specialized tools for cutting meat, processing animal hides, and crafting clothing and ropes during this period.”
They also pioneered the flute, the first musical instrument made from bone and ivory.
Utilizing information theory and quantitative linguistics, the authors analyzed over 3,000 geometric symbols from the artifacts.
They assessed characteristics like repetition, diversity, and overall information density within the engraved symbols.
Dr. Benz noted, “While many theories exist, there has been minimal empirical research on the measurable properties of these symbols.”
The results revealed intriguing findings. Statistically, these Paleolithic symbols differ significantly from modern writing, which usually favors less repetition and denser information.
However, they bear a resemblance to Protocuneiform, the earliest known accounting symbols from Mesopotamia, used about 5,500 years ago.
This similarity doesn’t indicate that Ice Age Europeans had a writing system, as true writing encodes spoken language, while the Aurignacian symbols do not.
Instead, these artifacts illustrate a stable, traditional system for visually storing and conveying information without language.
The placement of symbols matters; figurines, particularly ivory ones, display a greater complexity and denser arrangement than everyday tools.
Specific symbols were exclusive to certain subjects, with dots frequently appearing on human and feline figures, while crosses were found on mammoths and horses, but never on human forms.
This pattern indicates a shared set of rules passed down through generations.
Researchers noted that unlike precuneiform, which evolved into a comprehensive script as ancient societies grew more complex, the structure of the Aurignacian symbol system remained remarkably consistent over roughly 10,000 years.
Dr. Benz stated, “Our analysis reveals that these symbol sequences have no correlation to contemporary writing systems, which represent spoken language and feature high information density.”
In contrast, the symbols found in archaeological artifacts often showcase repetitive patterns: cross, cross, cross, line, line, line, a hallmark absent in spoken language.
“Our findings also indicate that Paleolithic hunter-gatherers developed symbols with an information density statistically akin to the earliest proto-cuneiform tablets from ancient Mesopotamia, which emerged 40,000 years later.”
Proto-cuneiform symbols exhibit a similar repetitive quality, with individual symbols appearing at consistent rates, showcasing comparable complexity.
This discovery supports the growing consensus among archaeologists that symbolic communication likely evolved gradually through systems aimed at recording numbers, events, or social knowledge, rather than emerging suddenly as writing.
Some symbols may have tracked seasonal patterns, hunting data, or ritual concepts, though their precise meanings remain elusive.
Dr. Dutkiewicz added, “Modern humans have the benefit of thousands of years of accumulated knowledge that was unavailable to our ancestors. However, anatomically, Stone Age humans may have possessed cognitive abilities akin to ours.”
“The capacity to record and share information was crucial for Paleolithic humans, possibly enhancing their ability to coordinate groups and improve survival strategies.”
“They were adept craftsmen, evident in the portability of many of these artifacts, which often fit seamlessly in the palm of the hand, reminiscent of proto-cuneiform tablets.”
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Christian Benz and Eva Dutkiewicz. 2026. Early humans developed a traditional symbol system 40,000 years ago. PNAS 123 (9): e2520385123; doi: 10.1073/pnas.2520385123
Have you ever wondered why fossilized marine life, including trilobites, crinoids, and brachiopods, can be found on the summit of Mount Everest? These astonishing discoveries provide significant insights into the history of our planet.
The presence of these fossils indicates the formation of the Himalayas approximately 50 million years ago, serving as vital evidence supporting the theory of plate tectonics.
Around 200 million years ago, when the supercontinent Pangea began to fragment, the Indian plate started its journey northward, ultimately colliding with the Asian continent.
This monumental geological event caused the Indian plate to collide with the Eurasian plate, elevating land that included remnants of the ancient Tethyan Sea floor.
The impact resulted in the creation of the Himalayan mountain range and the Tibetan Plateau, pushing marine fossils more than 8,000 meters (26,000 feet) above sea level.
This article answers the question posed by Sonia Carroll of Brighton: “Why are there marine fossils on the top of Mount Everest?”
For any inquiries, please contact us at:questions@sciencefocus.com or reach out via Facebook,Twitter, or Instagram(please include your name and location).
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Beneath the Earth’s surface lies a largely unexplored ecosystem known as the critical zone. This unique area of soil stretches from the Earth’s surface to the base of the groundwater zone, acting as a dynamic interface where rock, water, air, and life converge. Despite their low content of carbon and nutrients compared to surface soils, the microbial communities found in these deep soils are remarkably diverse. Scientists are still uncovering how these microorganisms manage to thrive under such nutrient-scarce conditions.
To explore how microbes survive in the critical zone, researchers focused on a little-known group of bacteria identified globally in deep soils. Known as CSP1-3 Gate, these bacteria were first discovered in 2006 within a geothermal system in Yellowstone National Park. Since then, they have been found in various oxygen-limited and nutrient-poor environments, yet their exact role and characteristics remain mysterious.
Researchers collected soil samples from seven deep soil cores spanning 20 meters (approximately 65 feet) in Shaanxi province, China, and western Iowa, USA. By extracting and sequencing environmental DNA from these samples, they pieced together draft genomes of the microorganisms inhabiting these depths. Through metagenomic analyses, they aim to uncover where CSP1-3 microbes live, their dietary habits, their nutrient cycling processes, and the adaptations that facilitate their survival.
Analysis revealed CSP1-3 bacteria were abundant in deeper soils, comprising over 10% of all microorganisms found in 30 out of 86 soil layers below 5 meters (16 feet). In some layers, such as those at 17 meters (56 ft) and 22 meters (72 ft) deep, CSP1-3 accounted for up to 60% of the microbial population. Using DNA copy-counting methods, researchers estimated that nearly 50% of CSP1-3 cells in these deep soils were actively replicating.
Based on the assembled metagenomes, the research indicated that CSP1-3 bacteria utilize a flexible metabolism to thrive in deep soils. They identified genes that allow these bacteria to alternate between two methods of obtaining energy: autotrophy, which involves producing their own food, and heterotrophy, which entails consuming organic matter from their environment. This adaptability, referred to as mixotrophy, allows them to respond to varying nutrient availability.
Additionally, researchers uncovered genes enabling CSP1-3 bacteria to utilize diverse energy sources such as carbon monoxide (CO) and diatomic hydrogen (H2), both prevalent in deep soils. They also identified genes allowing these microbes to generate energy under varying oxygen conditions, providing an advantage in environments where oxygen levels fluctuate. Genes related to sugar synthesis, such as trehalose, contribute further to their endurance in resource-limited conditions, alongside genes linked to carbon, nitrogen, and sulfur management.
The team analyzed 521 genomes from diverse environments globally, including aquatic habitats, topsoil, and deep soil, to trace the evolutionary lineage of CSP1-3. Genome analysis indicated that these bacteria’s ancestors originated in aquatic settings before transitioning to topsoil and ultimately to deep soil, with significant genomic changes that augmented their carbohydrate and energy metabolism to facilitate adaptation to terrestrial ecosystems.
The researchers concluded that CSP1-3 bacteria are evolutionarily suited to thrive in deep, nutrient-poor soils due to their specialized metabolism and low-energy survival strategies. They posited that CSP1-3 plays a crucial role in energy and nutrient cycling, potentially influencing global environmental processes by enhancing soil fertility and nutrient availability, thereby stabilizing deep soil ecosystems. The ability of these microorganisms to utilize gaseous energy in nutrient-deficient environments offers compelling insights into their survival strategies under extreme conditions, contributing to ongoing planet protection efforts. However, further investigations are necessary to fully comprehend how these deep soil microbes impact soil chemistry and ecosystem functions over time.
Recent findings highlight the emergence of early mining and hunting tools.
Raul Martin/MSF/Science Photo Library
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In headlines about human evolution, terms like “oldest,” “earliest,” and “first” dominate. I’ve authored numerous articles featuring these phrases.
This isn’t just an attention-grabbing tactic; it serves a purpose. When researchers identify evidence suggesting a species or behavior predates previous estimates, it elucidates our understanding of timelines and causations.
For instance, it was once believed that all rock art originated no earlier than 40,000 years ago, attributed solely to Homo sapiens, as Neanderthals were thought to have vanished by then. New evidence suggests that some prehistoric art predates this threshold, indicating Neanderthal artistic expression.
The past month has unveiled a flurry of “earliest” discoveries, prompting reflections on the reliability of such timelines. How can we ascertain the true age of early technologies?
Let the Exploration Begin!
During excavations in southern Greece, archaeologists unearthed two wooden tools estimated to be about 430,000 years old—possibly the oldest known wooden tools. One is believed to be a drilling rod, while the function of the other remains uncertain.
These tools are closely dated to the previous record holders, including the Clacton spear from Britain, approximated at 400,000 years old, and wooden spears found in Schöningen, now reassessed to nearly 300,000 years old.
Bone tools also emerged in Europe during this epoch. For instance, in Boxgrove, England, remnants from an elephant-like creature, possibly a steppe mammoth, were fashioned into hammers. These elephant bones date back 480,000 years, marking the oldest known utilization of elephant bone in Europe. However, in East Africa, ancient humans were crafting tools from elephant bones over 1.5 million years ago—perhaps much earlier.
Shifting our chronological lens, a recent discovery in Xigou, central China, reported a collection of 2,601 stone artifacts dating between 160,000 and 72,000 years ago, featuring composite tools attached to wooden handles—possibly the earliest evidence of such technologies in East Asia.
Moreover, an archaeological revelation in South Africa indicated that 60,000 years ago, early humans employed poisoned arrows for hunting, as evidenced by five arrowheads lined with toxic plant fluids.
Each of these findings carries deeper implications.
Examining the Past
Traces of plant toxins discovered on arrow points
Marlize Lombard
The oldest verified wooden tools we have may not represent the absolute earliest. Preservation issues plague prehistoric wooden artifacts; they tend to decay, leading to gaps in the historical record.
According to Katerina Harbati, who directs the wooden tools excavation, people likely used such tools well before 400,000 years ago, but prior examples remain undiscovered.
Woodworking is simpler than stone crafting, and since chimpanzees can fashion rudimentary wooden tools, it is plausible that wooden tools represent humanity’s earliest technological forms. An unexpected finding of a million-year-old wooden tool, though astonishing, would not be entirely improbable.
Consequently, significant narratives on human technological advancements shouldn’t solely pivot on the age of the earliest wood tools. Confidence in tool usage timelines necessitates rigorous investigation into various age groups.
As for poisoned arrows, these are recognized as the earliest validated forms of poisoned arrowheads. Nonetheless, designs akin to contemporary poisoned arrows have been identified from tens of thousands of years ago. Like wood, poison’s organic nature leads to rapid decay.
We should be cautiously assured. Poison arrows exemplify composite technological advancements and emerged later in the evolutionary timeline, possibly not even tracing back to early hominids such as Ardipithecus or Australopithecus.
Turning to prehistoric art, we find a wealth of complexity.
Exploring Prehistoric Graffiti
Hand stencils from a cave in Indonesia
Ahdi Agus Oktaviana
While cave paintings are iconic, other forms like carvings and engravings offer their own challenges in dating. If a sculpture is buried in sediment, its age can usually be determined based on sediment analysis. However, dating cave art proves trickier. Charcoal-based works that are less than 50,000 years old offer more reliable carbon dating, whereas those beyond this window yield inconclusive results.
Recently, hand-painted stencils found in caves on Sulawesi island were dated to at least 67,800 years, competing with a similar stencil in Spain attributed to Neanderthals, arguably the oldest rock art known.
Notably, the phrase “at least” matters significantly in this context. Dating relies on surface rock layers created through mineral deposits, which are only minimally informative. The artworks beneath could be much older.
The goal here isn’t to assert that we lack all knowledge, but rather, we possess a wealth of understanding, much of it newly uncovered in the last two decades. We must strive for a coherent timeline in human evolution and cultural development while acknowledging uncertainties.
In paleontology, having numerous specimens enhances reliability. Instead of studying charismatic prehistoric animals like dinosaurs, paleontologists often focus on smaller organisms that leave abundant fossil records, enabling deeper insights into their evolutionary progress.
However, in human evolution, the fossil record is uneven. Individual hominid species may number in the dozens, yet the early specimens remain scarce, hindering our understanding of their longevity and geographical spread. The relationship between evolved species also eludes clarity amidst possible complicated derivations.
Conversely, stone tool records are extensive, dating back to the 3.3 million-year-old Lomekwean stone tools in Kenya. We might encounter even older tools. Early humans like Ororin (6-4.5 million years ago) and Ardipithecus (5.8-4.4 million years ago) likely spent most time in trees, making their tool-making unlikely.
Wooden tools present their own challenges. Our knowledge remains limited and fragmented, largely due to preservation issues. A reliable timeline for the evolution of wooden tools seems elusive.
When it comes to ancient art, the challenges are primarily technical. Preserved artworks are available, yet accurate dating techniques are limited. Creating a chronology for artistic development poses immense challenges, although advancements in technology may facilitate progress over time. With any luck, by retirement, I hope to have a clearer understanding of the evolution of ancient human artistic practices.
In essence, all narratives about human evolution are, to some degree, provisional. This holds true across paleontological studies, especially for narratives with more uncertainty. The timeline of non-avian dinosaur extinction is quite clear-cut; however, human evolution allows for more variability. Further excavations and improved dating methods should refine our understanding, but some uncertainties may remain.
Neanderthals, the Origins of Humanity, and Cave Art: France
From Bordeaux to Montpellier, embark on a fascinating journey through time as you explore southern France’s significant Neanderthal and Upper Paleolithic sites.
The ancestors of Britain’s Bell Beaker people inhabited wetlands and heavily relied on fishing.
Sheila Terry/Science Photo Library
Analysis of ancient DNA has meticulously unveiled the origins of a fascinating group that emerged in Britain around 2400 B.C., nearly displacing the builders of Stonehenge within just a century.
This group is associated with the Bell Beaker culture, which emerged in Western Europe during the Early Bronze Age, named after the distinctive pots they left behind. While previously thought the culture stemmed from Portugal or Spain, recent research indicates that the people who populated Britain originated from the delta regions of Northwest Europe, across the North Sea. Remarkably, this resilient group maintained aspects of their hunter-gatherer lifestyle and ancestry for thousands of years, despite the spread of early farming communities across Europe.
David Reich and his team from Harvard University analyzed the genomes of 112 individuals who lived in present-day Netherlands, Belgium, and western Germany throughout the period of 8,500 to 1,700 BC.
“The Netherlands was once considered a mundane place, with every square inch traversed millions of times. Yet, it reveals itself as one of the most intriguing areas in Europe.”
The DNA sequenced in Reich’s lab indicates that this population emerged from the Rhine-Meuse delta, bordering the Netherlands and Belgium. This group derived from resourceful hunter-gatherer communities, thriving on fish, waterfowl, game birds, and diverse plant life found in the flooded wetlands surrounding these expansive rivers.
Originating in Anatolia, Neolithic farmers began to expand throughout Europe around 6500 BC, likely due to their agricultural advantage, allowing for larger family units compared to hunter-gatherers. This led to the near disappearance or significant dilution of hunter-gatherers’ genetic ancestry in regions where farmers settled.
However, research reveals that these wetlands served as zones where farmers’ genetic influx remained minimal for thousands of years. The dynamic, often flooded environments of rivers, swamps, dunes, and peat bogs posed significant challenges for early farmers, yet offered abundant opportunities for those adept at surviving in such terrains, as noted by Luc Amkreutz at the National Archaeological Museum in Leiden, Netherlands. “These hunter-gatherers charted their course from a position of strength.”
Genetic testing indicates that, despite their enduring hunter-gatherer lifestyle, the people of the wetlands engaged in gradual integration with farmers through intermarriage. While their Y chromosomes passed through male lineages, their mitochondrial DNA and X chromosomes displayed a steady influx of genetic contribution from farmers’ daughters. “This revelation was unexpected for us,” remarks Evelyn Altena of Leiden University Medical Center. “Without DNA, this knowledge would remain elusive.”
Reich posits that this interaction was likely peaceful, characterized by men remaining at homesteads while women migrated. Nonetheless, an aspect of conflict cannot be dismissed, although the extent of reciprocal exchange remains uncertain due to the preservation challenges of DNA from arid farmer regions.
Bell Beaker Pottery from Germany
Peter Endig/DPA Picture Alliance/Alamy
Archaeological findings indicate that, over time, these hunter-gatherers adopted pottery techniques, cultivated grains, and domesticated animals, yet they retained core aspects of their original way of life.
Then, circa 3000 BC, a nomadic group known as the Yamuna, or Yamnaya, began migrating west from the vast steppes of modern Ukraine and Russia. Their interactions with Eastern European farmers birthed the cord-shaped pottery culture characterized by decorative cord patterns. Although their descendants spread throughout much of Europe, they had minimal influence on the delta region.
Excavations revealed a skeleton from this era that bore the Yamnaya Y chromosome alongside pots, some evidently used for cooking fish. This exemplifies how wetland inhabitants creatively integrated foreign objects into their traditional practices, though overall, very few people bore steppe ancestry.
The dynamics shifted with the arrival of the Bell Beaker culture around 2500 BC. This group, characterized by a hybrid of steppe and farmer ancestry, introduced steppe genes into the DNA of the wetland peoples while retaining notable portions of both hunter-gatherer and early farmer genetics, approximately 13 to 18 percent. They may have begun to fade into history from that point onwards, yet the saga was far from over.
Human remains analyzed from Oostwoud, Netherlands
North Holland Archaeological Depository (CC by 4.0)
Recent studies reveal that those who arrived in Britain around 2400 BC bore an almost identical genetic mixture of Bell Beaker and wetland community ancestry. Within a century, they were largely or entirely replaced by Neolithic farmers who constructed Stonehenge. “Our model shows that at least 90 percent, and up to 100 percent, of original ancestry has vanished from Britain,” observes Reich.
It remains uncertain if this transition commenced with the influx of the Bell Beaker culture or if other groups preceded them. Before their arrival, Britons commonly cremated their deceased, resulting in minimal DNA preservation.
Regardless, the extent of change was “so dramatic that it defies belief,” according to Reich. The rapid populace replacement has captured archaeologists’ attention since its initial suggestion in a 2018 study. Reich theorizes that a plague-like disease, possibly affecting individuals in continental Europe, may have played a role. Conversely, the native population in the UK might have been more susceptible to such ailments.
Team members contend that religious fervor likely did not influence the transition, as indicated by Harry Fockens from Leiden University. “Monuments like Stonehenge and Avebury continued to see use and expansion even after their creators disappeared.”
Michael Parker Pearson from University College London is intrigued by the ways in which the new inhabitants adopted British monument styles, like henges and stone circles, whilst simultaneously introducing new lifestyles, including different pottery and clothing styles.
The Bell Beakers also introduced metalworking to Britain, with certain gold ornaments discovered in Beaker tombs in England bearing striking similarities to those found in Belgium.
Discover the Origins of Humanity: A Gentle Walk Through Prehistoric Times in South-West England
Immerse yourself in the fascinating early human eras of the Neolithic, Bronze Age, and Iron Age on this special walking tour.
Recent MRI studies reveal that yawning is not simply a sign of fatigue or boredom; it reorganizes fluid flow in the brain, indicating that yawning is unique for each individual.
Yawning is observed in most vertebrates, yet its precise purpose remains largely unclear. Theories suggest that yawning enhances oxygen intake, regulates body temperature, boosts fluid circulation in the brain, and modulates cortisol hormone levels.
“Crocodilians yawn, and even dinosaurs likely did too. This behavior has evolutionary significance, but why does it persist today?” queries Adam Martinac from Neuroscience Research Australia, a non-profit medical organization.
To understand yawning’s mechanisms and its impact on the body, Martinac and his team involved 22 healthy participants, evenly divided by gender, in their study.
Participants underwent MRI scans while performing four distinct breathing actions: regular breathing, yawning, voluntarily suppressing yawns, and deep breathing.
The data analysis revealed surprising findings. The initial hypothesis was that yawning and deep breathing would similarly facilitate the movement of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) out of the brain.
“However, yawning caused CSF to flow in the opposite direction compared to deep breathing,” states Martinac. “We were genuinely surprised by this outcome.”
Specifically, the study discovered a strong directional coupling between CSF and venous blood flow during yawning, both moving away from the brain toward the spine. This stands in contrast to deep breathing, where CSF and venous blood typically travel in opposing directions—CSF flows in while venous blood flows out.
The specific mechanisms governing CSF movement during yawning, including the volume expelled, remain unclear. Current estimates suggest a mere few milliliters of CSF are moved per yawn. Future research aims to quantify this further.
“It’s likely that neck, tongue, and throat muscles collaborate to facilitate this fluid movement,” he adds.
Another noteworthy finding is that yawning augmented carotid artery inflow by over one-third compared to deep breathing. This is presumably because yawning clears CSF and venous blood from the cranial cavity, allowing for increased arterial inflow.
Each participant exhibited a distinct “yawn signature,” showcasing variability even in tongue movements. “It seems that everyone has a unique pattern to their yawns,” says Martinac.
One intriguing area for future research is the physiological benefits arising from CSF movement during yawning.
Theories suggest that this could relate to thermoregulation, waste removal, or potentially other unexplored functions. “It is possible to live without yawning, but there are several subtle effects that likely assist in waste management, temperature control, and even the social dynamics of yawning,” he explains.
The contagious nature of yawning adds another layer of mystery and proved essential for this study, as video footage of yawns was shown to participants while they were inside the MRI scanner.
“In our lab meetings, I always have to speak last because my discussion of this research triggers yawning in everyone else,” Martinac shares.
Researchers like Andrew Gallup from Johns Hopkins University highlight the significant findings of the study, emphasizing its contributions to our understanding of yawning. He also noted that some of the findings have been understated, particularly those affirming yawning’s role in temperature regulation.
“The observed 34% increase in internal carotid artery flow during yawning is a critical finding that deserves more attention,” Gallup asserts.
He further noted that the study focused on contagious yawns versus spontaneous yawns, indicating that spontaneous yawns may induce even greater changes in CSF and blood flow.
“The video suggests contagious yawns are shorter than the average spontaneous yawn, which lasts about six seconds,” he notes.
Professor Yossi Rathner from the University of Melbourne agrees the team may have underestimated certain findings but opposes some claims concerning thermoregulation.
“Increased sleep pressure can elevate levels of a compound called adenosine that accumulates in the brain stem. Yawning seems to facilitate fluid movement in the brain stem, helping to flush out adenosine, temporarily alleviating sleep pressure and boosting alertness,” Rathner explains. “While this isn’t a direct conclusion from the study, the data strongly implies this relationship.”
El Niño’s Impact on European Agriculture: Crop Failures and Price Hikes
Public Domain
El Niño, a climate phenomenon affecting the Pacific Ocean region, significantly influenced the economy and climate of Europe, resulting in widespread famine from 1500 to 1800.
During El Niño, the warming of ocean waters in the central and eastern Pacific disrupts trade winds, which leads to altered global rainfall patterns. The cooling phase, known as La Niña, and the oscillation between these two phases is referred to as the El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO).
This climatic variation poses severe risks in tropical and subtropical areas, notably in Australia, where it can lead to droughts and wildfires, and in the Americas, where it causes increased rainfall.
However, until recently, the focus on El Niño’s effects on Europe was minimal. Emil Esmaili from Columbia University and his research team studied records from 160 famines in early modern Europe, correlating them with El Niño and La Niña data derived from tree rings.
The findings revealed that over 40% of famines in Central Europe during this era were directly linked to El Niño events.
El Niño typically increases rainfall in the region, which can lead to excess soil moisture, resulting in crop failures. Though it did not directly trigger famine in other European areas, it raised the likelihood of famine occurrences by 24% across all nine regions studied.
To better understand this correlation, Esmaili’s team assessed grain and fish prices, discovering that El Niño significantly drove up food prices throughout Europe for several years.
Researchers, including David Yubilaba from the University of Sydney, indicate that ENSO events can still lead to food insecurity and malnutrition in low-income households in regions such as South Asia, Southeast Asia, Oceania, and parts of Africa.
While El Niño continues to influence the climate in Europe, its impact on food security is expected to be less severe today. “Modern agricultural practices are now more resilient, weather forecasting has greatly improved, and markets have become more consolidated,” says Ubilaba.
Set against the vastness of space, our blue planet emerges above the desolate lunar landscape. This iconic photograph, “Earthrise,” was captured by Apollo 8 astronaut Bill Anders on Christmas Eve 1968.
Nearly six decades later, we regard this image as part of our narrative. Yet, envision a different earthrise where space is not a dark backdrop, but a vivid blue, akin to a sunny sky. Odd as it may appear, this was the vision held by many Europeans for centuries.
Our comprehension of the cosmos has evolved significantly over time, influencing how we perceive our place within it. The shift from an earth-centered to a sun-centered universe, along with the transition from a finite to an infinite cosmos, prompted a profound reevaluation of humanity’s role in the grand scheme. The change from a vibrant to a dim universe is equally crucial, yet it remains largely overlooked in our historical narratives.
Recently, through my scholarly work in literary and scientific history, I have sought to trace the timeline of this transformation. At what point did our universe metaphorically turn dark? What did this shift imply for humanity?
Earthrise—a photograph from the moon’s surface in 1968 showcasing the notion that space is dark.
NASA
Reflect on the account given by Domingo González, the hero of Francis Godwin’s 1638 science fiction novel, The Man in the Moone. González travels to the moon in a swan-powered vehicle and notes a scarcity of stars. Even those he does see are dim. He observes, “It was always daytime for some reason, yet the stars appeared faint, similar to the moon’s glow in daylight.” Why are there fewer stars in his experience? Why do they appear washed out? Because, in his narrative, space is akin to the daytime sky, where the sun drowns out the luminosity of stars.
From our viewpoint, González’s reality seems inverted. In his portrayal, daytime reveals our true nature, while night conceals us within Earth’s shadow. Yet, ascending to space at midnight, we would eventually emerge from darkness into eternal daylight.
In Francis Godwin’s The Man in the Moone, protagonist Domingo González embarks for the moon in a swan-powered craft.
Houghton Library
While González omits mention of a shadow, we glimpse it in another early space narrative by John Milton, Paradise Lost. As Milton’s Satan nears Earth, he remarks upon “a whirling canopy / a spreading shadow of the night.” If you visualize pre-modern eras, adding this shadow to your image of earthrise transforms it. A dark cone emerges from the jagged globe, plunging into the azure sky and vanishing beneath the lunar horizon.
Additional authors elucidate why the Universe is imagined as not merely bright, but blue-hued. The prevalent rationale is that the “firmament” was envisioned as blue. Walter Charlton, a contemporary of Milton, remarked this notion was widely shared “by many transcendental thinkers, as well as the average populace.” Observing the daytime sky, they believed they were witnessing the universe’s limit.
The Path to Earthrise
This luminescent universe also manifests in visual art. A comparison with Apollo 8 is particularly pertinent. Hours after capturing earthrise, the crew transmitted radio messages from lunar orbit to Earth. Commander Frank Bowman extended Christmas wishes and recited the biblical creation tale. For the first time, humanity achieved a god-like vantage point of the radiant blue planet glistening against the abyss. In contrast, when pre-modern artists portrayed these scripture moments, they often rendered a dim planet against a bright celestial expanse. To reimagine earthrise, picture one of these shadowed Earths ascending above the lunar surface instead of the iconic “blue marble.”
It was not just poets and artists who envisioned such a realm. Philosophers and scientists also entertained the concept. Aristotle remarked on “the shadow of the earth (termed night).” Two millennia later, Copernicus similarly wrote, “While the rest of the universe is illuminated and radiant, the night signifies nothing but the shadow of the Earth, extending in a cone and culminating at a point.”
This perspective was not unreasonable; early European scholars lacked compelling evidence to argue otherwise, particularly concerning the light-refracting properties of the universe and Earth’s atmosphere. Without such evidence, why suspect that night predominates and day a rarity? What led pre-modern Christians to diverge from millennia of tradition and perceive heaven—not as eternal brightness, but infinite darkness?
A 13th-century manuscript depicting a gray Earth casting a black shadow against a blue universe (left) and a 15th-century manuscript showcasing the newly created Earth as a black marble surrounded by blue cosmos (right).
Heritage Image Partnership Ltd/Alamy; National Library of France
This does not imply that luminous spaces were universally accepted in pre-modern thought. For instance, scholars within the Islamic tradition favored the concept of dark spaces starting in the 9th century, yet this perspective seems to have been less influential in the West. In any case, the notion of a dark universe had to be re-established among 17th-century European thinkers.
During this period, significant advancements in atmospheric science emerged. Notably, the term “atmosphere” was coined in the 17th century, with Walter Charlton among the first to utilize it in English. His view of the universe acts as a transitional development in this narrative: a universe that oscillates between brightness and darkness based on an observer’s orientation towards the sun. Although Charlton described a dark universe, he noted that it was “not nearly as deep blue as many presume,” and filled with countless tiny particles or “atoms,” which he speculated could impact visibility. In contrast, Otto von Guericke, who endorsed the infinite universe and conducted pioneering vacuum experiments, postulated that in an “unblemished” and “void” space, devoid of illuminated objects, we would perceive “nothing but shadows.”
Thereafter, dark space gained traction among European scientists and thinkers informed by these scientific advancements. However, this marks only part of the narrative, as visions of bright spaces lingered in cultural imaginations for centuries.
Fast forward to 1858, when astronomer James Gall envisioned his foray into the void for a Victorian audience, exclaiming, “As I look around me, how peculiar! The heavens are pitch black.” While Gall acknowledged the darkness of space, he doubted the audience’s awareness of this fact. It wasn’t a naive child or uninformed individual believing in a “giant blue sphere,” but the renowned literary historian David Masson in 1880 who clung to this isolated imagery, which persisted well into the 1920s, right at the brink of the Space Age.
Thus, we confront a dual narrative of a decline in our cosmic imagination alongside the unexpected evolution of these ideas. Some of the most striking evidence is found in literature, especially in space travel narratives, which were initially recognized by literary scholars such as C.S. Lewis and more recently John Leonard. Nevertheless, this aspect has yet to receive thorough investigation, and its cultural ramifications remain largely unexamined.
The implications are significant, often concealed in plain sight. Prominent images such as earthrise have reshaped our perceptions of our planet and its environmental context. The view of Earth as “perfect” and “blue” has also rendered it “fragile,” symbolizing the perils of nuclear conflict and climate change, as well as underscoring the call for political unity and ecological stewardship. What is less acknowledged, however, is that this transformation arose not only from a fresh perspective on Earth, but importantly on the vastness surrounding it.
For millennia, the entirety of Earth has been envisioned, represented, and contemplated. Yet, much of it was depicted within brilliant space, eliciting markedly different responses. Hence, the influence of earthrise was indeed more profound than commonly appreciated. The mass circulation of such imagery has obliterated even the faintest remnants of a once-bright universe and firmly imprinted its inversion into collective consciousness. The Earth stands not merely as “blue” or “fragile.” While it may appear thus against the cold, dark expanse surrounding it, it has transitioned into both a scientific reality and a cultural perception.
Investigation into naked mole rats may unveil novel anti-aging methods
Janissimo/Shutterstock
Naked mole rats can live for up to 37 years, significantly outliving other rodents of a similar size. So, what accounts for their remarkable lifespan? Research indicates that variations in immune proteins that enhance DNA repair may play a role, among other elements.
This discovery suggests the potential for developing treatments aimed at increasing human longevity, according to Mao Jiyong from Tongji University in Shanghai, China. This finding also supports the notion that the accumulation of mutations and the inability to repair damaged DNA are primary contributors to aging.
The immune protein in focus is called cGAS, found in many organisms. It is primarily thought to function as an alert mechanism in response to DNA detected outside the nucleus, which could indicate cancer or viral invaders.
Interestingly, cGAS is also found within the cell nucleus. In both humans and mice, it has been shown to hinder DNA repair while elevating mutation rates and cancer risk. The precise reasons for this are still unclear and might be an unintended consequence rather than a beneficial adaptation.
Mao and his team have demonstrated that the cGAS variant present in naked mole rats exhibits the opposite behavior in the nucleus, actively promoting DNA repair. This is linked to differences in four amino acids that constitute the cGAS protein. When these amino acids are altered in a mole rat’s cells, their cGAS loses its ability to facilitate DNA repair. Conversely, modifications to the human cGAS can remove its inhibitory effect on DNA repair.
Additionally, when the researchers genetically modified fruit flies to express the naked mole rat version of cGAS, those flies lived nearly 70 days, in contrast to the approximate 60 days lifespan of the unaltered flies.
So, could we enhance our lifespans by introducing naked mole rat cGAS into human cells? “Yes, employing gene editing and mRNA delivery might provide avenues to enhance DNA repair and increase human longevity,” Mao asserts. However, achieving sufficient levels of the crucial cells to produce the modified cGAS poses a challenge.
Alternatively, researchers could seek small-molecule drugs that can interact with the human cGAS protein, prompting it to act more like its mole rat counterpart, Mao suggests.
This study indicates that cGAS does have an impact on lifespan. Additionally, Vera Gorbunova and her research team at the University of Rochester in New York have discovered that a molecule known as hyaluronic acid also plays a role in the notable longevity of naked mole rats. “[Thus,] altering cGAS activity through pharmacological or genetic strategies could yield beneficial outcomes for health and longevity,” she concludes.
Since the inception of brain organoids by Madeline Lancaster in 2013, these structures have become invaluable in global brain research. But what are they really? Are they simply miniaturized brains? Could implanting them into animals yield a super-intelligent mouse? Where do we draw the ethical line? Michael Le Page explored these questions at Lancaster’s lab at the MRC Institute of Molecular Biology in Cambridge, UK.
Michael Le Page: Can you clarify what a brain organoid is? Is it akin to a mini brain?
Madeline Lancaster: Not at all. There are various types of organoids, and they are not miniature brains. We focus on specific parts of the human brain, and our organoids are small and immature. They don’t function like developed human brains with memories. In scale, they’re comparable to insect brains, lacking the necessary tissue present in those brains. I would categorize them closer to insect neural structures.
What motivated you to create your first brain organoid?
I initiated the process using mouse embryonic brain cells, cultivating them in Petri dishes. Some cells didn’t adhere as expected, leading to a fascinating outcome where they interconnected and formed self-organizing cell clusters indicative of early brain tissue development. The same technique was then applied to human embryonic stem cells.
Why is the development of brain organoids considered a significant breakthrough?
The human brain is vital to our identity and remained enigmatic for a long time. Observing a mouse brain doesn’t capture the intricacies of the human brain. Brain organoids have opened a new perspective into this complex system.
Can you provide an example of this research?
One of our initial ventures involved modeling a condition called micropathy, where the brain is undersized. In mice, similar mutations don’t alter brain size. We tested whether we could replicate size reduction in human brain organoids, and we succeeded, enabling further insights into the disease.
Madeline Lancaster in her lab in Cambridge, UK
New Scientist
What has been your most significant takeaway from studying brain organoids?
We are gaining a better understanding of what distinguishes the human brain. I’m fascinated by the finding that human stem cells which generate neurons behave differently from those in mice and chimpanzees. One key difference is that human development is notably slower, allowing for more neurons to be produced as our stem cells proliferate.
Are there practical outcomes from this research?
Much of our foundational biology research has crucial implications for disease treatment. My lab primarily addresses evolutionary questions, particularly genetic variances between humans and chimpanzees. Specific genes that arise are often linked to human disorders, implying that mutations essential for brain development could lead to significant damage.
What types of treatments might emerge from this work in the future?
We’re already utilizing brain organoids for drug screening. I’m especially optimistic about their potential in treating mental health conditions and neurodegenerative diseases, where novel therapies are lacking. Currently, treatments for schizophrenia utilize medications that are five decades old. Brain organoid models could unveil new approaches. In the longer term, organoids might even provide therapeutic options themselves. While not for all brain areas, techniques have already been developed to create organoids of dopaminergic neurons from the substantia nigra, which are lost in Parkinson’s, for potential implantation.
Are human brain organoids already being implanted in animal brains?
Yes, but not for treatment purposes; rather, these practices enhance human organoid research. Organoids usually lack vascularity and other cell types from outside the brain, especially microglia, which serve as the brain’s immune cells. Thus, to examine how these other cells interact with human brain matter, various studies have implanted organoids into mice.
Should we have concerns regarding the implantation of human organoids in animals?
Neurons are designed to connect with one another. So, when a human brain organoid is inserted into a mouse brain, the human cells will bond with mouse neurons. However, they aren’t structured coherently. These mice exhibit diminished cognitive performance after implantation, akin to a brain malfunction; hence, they won’t become super-intelligent.
Images of the color of brain organoids, showing their neural connections
MRC Institute of Molecular Biology
Is cognitive enhancement a possibility?
We’re quite a distance from that. Higher-level concepts relate to how different brain regions interlink, how individual neurons connect, and how collections of neurons communicate. Achieving an organized structure like this could be possible, but challenges like timing persist. While mice have a short lifespan of about two years, human development toward advanced intelligence takes significantly longer. Furthermore, the sheer size of human brains presents challenges; a human-sized brain cannot fit within a mouse. Because of these factors, I don’t foresee such concerns emerging in the near future.
Regarding size, the main limitation is the absence of blood vessels. Organoids start to die off when they exceed a few millimeters. How much headway has been made in addressing this issue?
While we’ve made strides and should acknowledge our accomplishments, generating brain tissue is relatively straightforward as it tends to develop autonomously. Vascularization, however, is complex. Progress is being made with the introduction of vascular cells, but achieving fully functional blood perfusion remains a significant hurdle.
When you reference ‘far away’…
I estimate it could take decades. It may seem simple, given that the body accomplishes this naturally. However, the challenges arise from the body’s integrated functioning. Successfully vascularizing organoids requires interaction with a whole organism; we can’t replicate this on a plate.
If we achieve that, could we potentially create a full-sized brain?
Even if we manage to develop a large, vascularized human brain in a lab, without communication or sensory input, it would lack meaningful function. For instance, if an animal’s eyes are shut during development and opened later, they may appear functional, but the brain can’t interpret visual input, rendering it effectively blind. This principle applies to all senses and interactions with the world. I believe that an organism’s body must have sensory experiences to develop awareness. Certain patients who lose sensory input can end up experiencing lock-in syndrome, an alarming condition. But these are individuals who have previously engaged with the world. A brain that has never engaged lacks context.
As brain organoid technology progresses, how should we define the boundaries of ethical research?
The field closely intersects with our understanding of consciousness, which is complex and difficult to measure. I’m not even certain I have the definitive answer about consciousness for myself. However, we can undoubtedly assess factors relevant to consciousness, like organization, sensory inputs and outputs, maturity, and size. Mice might meet several of these criteria but are generally not recognized to possess human-like consciousness, largely due to their size. Even fully interconnected human organoids won’t achieve human-level consciousness if they remain small. Establishing these kinds of standards offers more practical methods than attempting to directly measure consciousness.
As we age, it’s common to perceive others as more content, as revealed by a recent study.
Researchers have discovered that older adults often exhibit a “positive bias” in interpreting facial expressions. This suggests they are more inclined to classify neutral or negative faces as happy rather than sad or angry.
“This indicates they tend to interpret vague or ambiguous expressions as ‘happy’ instead of ‘sad’ or ‘angry,'” noted Dr. Noham Wolpe in an interview with BBC Science Focus. “Crucially, this bias correlates with subtle cognitive decline and alterations in the specific brain circuits responsible for emotional processing and decision-making.”
Using data from over 600 adults, the research team examined this phenomenon through emotion recognition tasks along with brain imaging techniques.
They found structural variations in the hippocampus and amygdala—key regions for memory and emotion—and changes in connectivity with the orbitofrontal cortex, which plays a role in weighing emotional information and guiding decisions.
“These regions form crucial networks that aid in interpreting emotional signals and informing decisions,” Wolpe explained, highlighting how the relationship between the orbitofrontal cortex and amygdala strengthens in adults facing cognitive decline.
“This enhancement may lead them to perceive ambiguous or neutral emotional signals as positive, a phenomenon known as positive bias,” he remarked, noting that the reason behind this increased connectivity associated with cognitive decline is still unknown.
Researchers remain uncertain why the interamygdala connectivity and orbitofrontal cortex, highlighted in red, strengthen in individuals with cognitive decline – Trust: Getty
Although this research is in its nascent stages, its implications are significant. Positive biases might one day serve as early indicators of dementia, as changes in emotional processing frequently precede memory impairment.
“While emotion recognition tests are not yet ready to replace current cognitive assessments, in the future they could be combined with standard screening methods to enhance early detection,” Wolpe stated.
Wolpe and his team are already investigating innovative approaches, such as immersive virtual reality tasks, to better understand how people instinctively respond to emotional signals.
The next objective is to determine if this positive bias can actually forecast cognitive decline. The team has recently concluded a follow-up evaluation of participants in the Cambridge Aging and Neuroscience Research, approximately 12 years after the original assessments. Participant data is also being linked to GP records to monitor dementia diagnoses.
“A crucial takeaway,” Wolpe mentioned, “is that subtle biases in how we perceive others’ expressions can signal early brain changes, long before the typical signs of dementia manifest.”
“Grasping these connections could pave the way for quicker detection and ultimately more effective interventions.”
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About our experts
Noham Wolpe is a senior lecturer at the Sagol School of Neuroscience at Tel Aviv University. His research focuses on understanding the interplay between cognition, mental health, and behavior, both in health and disease.
A dramatic reconstruction of early modern Homo sapiens in Africa
BBC/BBC Studios
human Available on BBC iPlayer (UK); US PBS (September 17)
Based on my observations, science documentaries often fall into two categories, akin to French and Italian cuisines. (Hear me out before you judge that comparison.) The first category employs intricate techniques for a deep experience. The second is more straightforward, allowing the content to shine naturally.
Both documentary styles can yield impressive results in their own ways. human, a five-part BBC series exploring the roots of our genus, Homo, undoubtedly fits into the latter category. It weaves together compelling stories, stunning visuals, and the charismatic presence of paleontologist Ella Al Shamahi, inviting viewers to embark on a heartfelt journey through six million years of our human history. No flashy add-ons are necessary.
The first episode delves into complex inquiries. When exactly did our species emerge? Multiple perspectives yield varying answers. Was it 300,000 years ago when humans began to exhibit features resembling ours? Was it when our skulls, according to Al Shamahi, transformed to become softer and more spherical? Or, more poetically, when we developed remarkable traits like intricate language, abstract thought, and cooperative behavior?
“
The series intertwines fascinating narratives, stunning visuals, and the captivating presence of Ella Al Shamahi. “
It’s an engaging episode, particularly when the narrative shifts to other extinct human species. For instance, Al Shamahi’s exploration of Indonesia introduces us to Homo floresiensis, a meter-tall human uniquely adapted to life on Flores. The discovery of these “hobbits” in the Liang Bua Caves two decades ago reshaped our understanding of ancient human biology. Their small brains provide insights into tool use, with their long arms and short stature diverging from other human species.
Episode three highlights the fate of our most famous relative, the Neanderthals. As we spread into Europe and Asia, they adapted to colder climates but ultimately faced extinction.
Throughout the series, Al Shamahi showcases amazing paleontological discoveries made over recent decades (many of which you may have read about in New Scientist). For instance, rainbow feathers from birds like the red kite have garnered interest regarding their significance to Neanderthals. Meanwhile, the perikymata—a growth line in tooth enamel—affirms that H. sapiens experienced extended childhoods, leveraging our cognitive capacity.
Over just five episodes, human cannot cover every aspect of our evolutionary story. Yet, it illuminates how H. sapiens has been shaped by climate influences, the flora and fauna that provide for us, other human species, and collaborative nomadic groups that shared skills, knowledge, and DNA, allowing us to thrive and eventually build cities.
This dimension of H. sapiens portrays humanity as the ultimate survivor, capable of progression and dominance over the Earth. In contrast, human offers a more humble narrative, emphasizing our species alongside our ancient relatives.
Tracking Human Evolution Gain insights behind the scenes of the new BBC series human with Ella Al Shamahi on NewsCientist.com/Video
In a captivating and poignant narrative, Ella Al Shamahi addresses the inadequate frontline science conducted in regions perceived as inhospitable to Western researchers. Discover Neanderthal skeletons exhibiting severe disabilities unearthed in present-day Iraq—a striking reminder of the discoveries we’ve overlooked.
Bethan Ackerley is a sub-editor at New Scientist. She has a passion for science fiction, sitcoms, and all things eerie. Follow her on Twitter @inkerley
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The early human migration through mainland Southeast Asia (SUNDA) marks the oldest evidence of humans crossing marine barriers to access secluded land. Previously, the earliest indication of Wallacea, an area of oceanic islands east of Sunda, comprised flakestone tools found at Wallosea, Flores Island, dating back at least 152 million years. Excavations in Sulawesi, the largest island, have uncovered stone artifacts at Talep’s open site dating to at least 194,000 years ago. Presently, researchers from Griffith University have identified stone tools at locations close to the fossil-rich cario strata that date back at least 104 million years, possibly extending to 1.48 million years. This information hints that Sulawesi was occupied by humans around the same period as Flores.
Old-fashioned humanity. Image credit: Ninara / CC by 2.0.
Professor Adam Blum of Griffith University and his team discovered seven stone artifacts within the sedimentary layers at the Cariosite.
During the early Pleistocene, this area would have been near river channels, facilitating activities such as tool-making and hunting.
The artifacts from Cario are small sharp stones (flakes) created by larger pebbles, likely sourced from local riverbeds by early human inhabitants.
“This findings enhance our understanding of extinct human migrations across the Wallace Line, a transitional area where unique animal species have evolved independently,” said Professor Blum.
Reconstruction of Homo floresiensis. Image credit: Elizabeth Daines.
Utilizing paleomagnetic dating of the sandstone and direct dating of excavated pig fossils, researchers confirmed that the Cario artifacts are at least 1.04 million years old.
Previously, evidence of human habitation in Warasea had been found dating back at least 102 million years in Talep, Sulawesi, based on stone tools located in Warosea, Wolosage, Flores.
Luzon, located in the Philippines and north of Wallacea, has yielded human evidence dating back approximately 700,000 years.
“This is a critical piece of the puzzle, yet the Cario site has yet to reveal any human fossils,” commented Professor Blum.
“We now recognize that a toolmaker existed in Sulawesi a million years ago, but their identity remains unknown.”
Stone artifacts from the site of Cario in Sulawesi, Indonesia. Image credit: Hakim et al., doi: 10.1038/s41586-025-09348-6.
The initial discovery of Homo floresiensis and subsequent fossils from Flores, similar in size and dating back 700,000 years, implied that it may have been linked to Homo erectus, which managed to bypass substantial marine barriers between the mainland of Southeast Asia to inhabit this smaller island and underwent island dwarfism for eons.
“The revelation of Sulawesi prompts us to consider the fate of Homo erectus on an island more than 12 times larger than Flores,” Professor Blum noted.
“Sulawesi is an unpredictable variable. It’s almost like a mini continent.”
“If hominins were isolated on this expansive, ecologically diverse island for over a million years, would they have evolved in ways similar to the Hobbits of Flores?”
“Or could there have been an entirely different evolutionary path?”
The study was published yesterday in the journal Nature.
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B. Hakim et al. Human presence in Sulawesi during the early Pleistocene. Nature Published online on August 7th, 2025. doi:10.1038/s41586-025-09348-6
Physical activity is recognized for its role in cancer prevention and in inhibiting the growth of existing tumors. It’s also linked to alterations in gut microbiota. Recent research illustrates how these alterations can empower exercise in the battle against cancer.
Marlies Meisel from the University of Pittsburgh and her team administered an aggressive form of melanoma to two groups of mice. One group followed a four-week exercise program, while the other remained inactive.
As anticipated, the active mice showed smaller tumors and better survival rates. However, in mice treated with antibiotics, exercise provided no benefits to those that were completely sterile. The findings revealed a significant role of microorganisms, with the beneficial molecules known as metabolites playing a crucial part.
Given that the microbiome generates thousands of metabolites, the researchers employed machine learning to analyze potential molecules, ultimately pinpointing a particular bacterial metabolite that surged with exercise. This metabolite enhances the effectiveness of CD8 T cells within the immune system, making it vital in the fight against cancer.
Furthermore, the team studied 19 individuals with advanced melanoma, discovering that those with higher levels of this metabolite exhibited longer survival rates compared to those with lower levels.
“This study underscores the significance of evaluating the metabolites produced by bacteria, rather than merely identifying the bacteria involved,” Meisel emphasizes.
Ken Lau, who studies the influence of the intestinal microenvironment on conditions like colorectal cancer and inflammatory bowel disease at Vanderbilt University in Tennessee, shares excitement for this type of research, as it offers insights into how to leverage specific molecular pathways to enhance the immune response. However, he cautions that further research is necessary. “What occurs when a patient stops exercising? Will the effects diminish or persist in some manner? There is still much to learn,” he states.
Meisel and her team are exploring whether the exercise-induced alterations in gut microbiota may influence other health conditions.
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Satellite perspective of coral reefs in New Caledonia
ShutterStock/Best-Backgrounds
The decline of coral reefs might come with unexpected advantages. Research suggests that this deterioration allows the oceans to absorb up to 5% more carbon dioxide by 2100, which may decelerate the buildup of this greenhouse gas in the atmosphere.
“If your primary concern is the CO2 concentration in the atmosphere, this could be viewed as a beneficial effect,” states Lester Kwiatkowski from Sorbonne University in Paris, France. However, he cautions that the loss of coral also leads to diminished biodiversity, jeopardizes fisheries, and heightens the vulnerability of coastal regions to rising sea levels.
The extent of global warming is heavily influenced by atmospheric CO2 levels. To date, land and oceans have collectively absorbed around half of the surplus CO2 we’ve emitted. Thus, elements that affect these so-called land or marine carbon sinks can significantly influence future climate scenarios.
Corals are often believed to sequester CO2 from seawater while they develop their calcium carbonate structures. In reality, this process—known as calcification—actually releases CO2 as a net byproduct.
“Corals typically take in inorganic carbon from the ocean in forms like carbonate and bicarbonate ions, converting them into calcium carbonate, which results in CO2 being expelled back into seawater.”
This suggests that if the growth of coral reefs slows or halts, there will be a reduction in CO2 emissions from these reefs, thereby allowing the ocean to absorb more of this greenhouse gas from the atmosphere—a factor currently absent from climate models.
Current studies indicate that coral reef calcification has already declined due to rising ocean temperatures, leading to extensive coral bleaching. Additionally, increased CO2 levels have caused ocean acidification, which complicates the formation of carbonate structures and can even trigger dissolution.
Kwiatkowski and his research team have published estimates detailing how corals are susceptible to warming and ocean acidification. They utilized computer models to project how these changes could affect marine carbon sinks under various emission scenarios. Their findings indicate that by 2100, the ocean may sequester an additional 1-5% more carbon, which could escalate to up to 13% by 2300.
This prediction may be conservative, as Kwiatkowski notes it overlooks additional factors contributing to coral reef degradation, such as overfishing and the spread of coral diseases.
Conversely, the research assumes that corals lack the capacity to adapt or acclimate. Chris Ju judge from the University of Hawaii at Manoa, who was not part of this study, remarks on this perspective.
“If we encounter the worst-case or medium-case outcomes outlined in this study, it portends significant destruction of coral reefs globally,” says Ju judge. “I believe the authors could arrive at different conclusions by considering potential adaptability in corals and other reef organisms under moderate levels of climate change.”
If Kwiatkowski’s team’s projections hold true, the amount of CO2 that leads to a certain degree of warming—the so-called carbon budget—may actually be larger than current estimates.
“Even if we’re facing dire outcomes, it’s critical to refine our understanding of the carbon budget to ensure its accuracy,” asserts Kwiatkowski.
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As President Donald Trump took office, the wildfires in Los Angeles were still burning, prompting a return to previous Biden-era directives for federal agencies addressing the climate crisis. Flip
January’s fire conditions, exacerbated by climate change, played a significant role in igniting wildfires in Palisades and Eton. Nearly 40,000 acres were affected. By March, Adam Smith, the chief investigator of the $1 billion weather and climate disaster program at the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), was still assessing the severe impact of the LA wildfires when he received informal orders to cease all work-related communications.
Each month, Smith’s team maintained an extensive online database tracking losses from over 400 natural disasters since 1980, all causing more than $1 billion in damages. Following the LA wildfire, Smith reported having received restrictions that prevented him from updating this database and sharing initial findings with the public. The wildfire incurred damages amounting to at least $50 billion.
In early May, Smith resigned due to concerns about the agency’s plans for the future. The billion-dollar weather and climate disaster online database Smith had developed over 15 years at NOAA was subsequently shut down. Days later, NOAA confirmed it would cease updates for this important resource, which provides essential data for scientists, citizens, and insurance firms evaluating climate risk.
A NOAA spokesperson stated that the database would no longer be updated “due to changing priorities and staffing adjustments.” The White House did not provide any comments regarding the matter.
According to Smith, the database’s economic losses are particularly vital, as billion-dollar disasters like hurricanes and widespread wildfires are increasingly common. In 2023, the US set new records for billion-dollar disasters, with the database indicating a staggering $28 billion event. Over the past five years, the US has averaged about $24 billion in disasters annually, a significant rise from just $3 billion average during the 1980s.
“We need to be more prepared than ever,” Smith told NBC News. “Some have access to the data and insights for better preparation. Unfortunately, discontinuing resources like these creates a gap in knowledge.”
Researchers have identified rising global temperatures as a key driver in these changes over recent decades. Long-term droughts and increased wildfire risks are affecting regions across the western United States, where warming atmospheres retain more moisture, resulting in more intense storms and hurricanes.
This increase in extreme weather events presents significant challenges for insurance policyholders in areas susceptible to natural disasters. Rates in hurricane-prone states like Louisiana and Florida have surged, with some homeowners facing nearly $10,000 in annual insurance premiums. In California, major insurance firms, including State Farm, have rescinded policies due to escalating fire risks.
A study from the National Bureau of Economic Research revealed that the heightened risk of disasters would drive up annual insurance costs for households affected by climate issues by an estimated $700 over the next three decades. On a global scale, reports from German insurance giant Munich RE indicated that natural disasters resulted in record insurance losses of $140 billion worldwide in 2024.
“You cannot conceal the costs of climate change from those who are already incurring those costs through their insurance premiums,” stated Carly Fabian, a civic policy advocate from a consumer rights nonprofit. “The insurance and reinsurance sectors are built to withstand a limited number of major multi-billion dollar disasters, but are not equipped for consecutive disasters occurring with such frequency.”
Data compiled in the multibillion-dollar disaster database illustrates the financial toll of hurricanes, severe storms, and wildfires across the nation, serving as a critical resource for private insurers modeling climate risks and establishing rates for homeowners in vulnerable areas. Although insurance companies utilize various datasets for their climate risk assessments, the scale of NOAA’s database remains unmatched.
Jeremy Porter, a climate risk expert at the First Street Foundation, emphasized that the database is one of the most effective tools for illustrating the economic impact of climate-related disasters. First Street utilizes the $1 billion disaster database for its national risk assessment reports.
The NOAA database also serves as an essential resource for homeowners facing rising rates, non-renewals, and cancellations in home insurance.
“We are navigating an industry where insurers have extensive access to private data while the average consumer lacks insight into that data,” remarked the policy director for Americans for Financial Reform, a nonprofit advocating for stricter regulations. “The removal of public data sources exacerbates this imbalance, hindering individuals’ ability to understand their risks and the challenges they face from financial service providers.”
Madison Condon, an environmental law professor at Boston University, highlighted that the cuts to NOAA’s $1 billion disaster database are part of a broader trend involving rollbacks of national climate assessments and data resources, including the annual report detailing the impacts of climate change in the US released in late April. The Trump administration notably rejected numerous scientific contributions to these reports.
Additionally, the Trump administration has eliminated data products related to melting Antarctic glaciers and sea ice cover, marking yet another setback for US Antarctic research. Leaked documents obtained by ProPublica indicated that Trump intended to reduce NOAA funding by 27%, particularly for innovative climate-related initiatives, and proposed nearly 75% cuts to the Bureau of Ocean and Atmospheric Research, responsible for maintaining global climate models essential for insurers’ climate risk assessments.
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Today, the Sahara desert is one of the least popular places on our planet. But that wasn’t always the case.
Returning the clock to 7,000 years, the Sahara is a lush green savanna filled with wildlife and dotted with lakes containing one of the sizes of modern Germany. In other words, it was the perfect place for our ancient ancestors to settle down.
But who were they? We may finally know.
Scientists analyzed the DNA of two naturally occurring mummy individuals from a shelter in Takalkori rock in what is now southwestern Libya. Their discoveries reveal something extraordinary. These ancient people belonged to previously unknown branches of human family trees.
The two women belonged to the so-called “ghost population.” This is something that modern humans have only seen glimpses of as faint genetic echoes, but they have not been seen in the body.
“These samples come from some of the oldest mummies in the world.” Professor Johannes Krause senior author of the new study said BBC Science Focus. He explained that it is surprising that genomic sequencing is absolutely possible because high-temperature conditions tend to decompose such information.
View from the Takalkolilock Shelter in southern Libya. – Archaeological mission at the Sahara University of Sapienza, Rome
Genomic sequencing is the process of reading a complete set of genetic instructions found in the DNA of an organism, a type of biological blueprint.
Previous studies have examined mitochondrial DNA in mummies, which is much more limited. It is passed only through the maternal line and is much shorter than the complete genome found in the cell nucleus.
“There are about 16,000 base pairs in mitochondrial DNA,” Klaus said. “It may sound a lot, but compared to the entire 3.2 billion genome, it’s just a small portion.”
So what have the team discovered from this new, unlocked genetic treasure trove?
First, they discovered that this lost lineage had split from sub-Saharan African ancestors about 50,000 years ago.
Surprisingly, this group remained genetically isolated from other human groups for tens of thousands of years.
“It’s incredible,” Klaus said. “When they were alive, these people were like most fossils, like things they shouldn’t be there. If I had said these genomes were 40,000 years old, I would have believed it.”
View of the Takarkoli rock shelter under excavation in southern Libya. – Archaeological mission at the Sahara University of Sapienza, Rome
This long-term quarantine reveals two key insights. First, the “Green Sahara,” which continued 15,000 to 5,000 years ago, was a lush human habitat, but as many scientists had previously envisioned, it was not useful as a moving corridor between the north and sub-Saharan Africa.
Second, there was genetic mixing with northern populations, including Neanderthals. But it was limited – much less than the non-African population, carrying about 10 times more Neanderthal DNA than the Takalkori people.
We know that these people were idyllics and meant that they kept livestock like cows. But they
Genetic segregation suggests that this lifestyle was adopted by exchanging knowledge and practice with neighbouring groups rather than moving or subsequent genetic mixing. Again, this is a surprise to scientists.
Unsolved puzzles
The whole mummy genome sequence revealed much about this lost human lineage. Still, there are many more mysteries left.
“The Sahara greening only happened 15,000 years ago. Before that, it was once again desert,” Klaus said. “So we don’t really know where they were strolling around 50,000 years ago, when they split from the population of Africa’s southern Africa, and 15,000 years ago.”
Wherever they went, they must have remained isolated for tens of thousands of years. Perhaps the lost Eden? We may never know.
Johannes Kraus is the director of the Max Planck Institute of Evolutionary Anthropology at the Ministry of Archaeology’s Institute of Evolutionary Anthropology in Leipzig, Germany. He is also a professor of archaeology at the Institute of Zoology and Evolution at Jena, University of Friedrich Schiller, Germany. Krause is a predominantly peer-reviewed journal, with over 250 publications. Nature, Science, Cells, Nature reviews genetics. In 2010 he was awarded the AAAS Newcomb Cleveland Award and the 2017 Thuringian Research Award for Top Performance in Basic Research.
“Brain corruption” was named the term Oxford’s year 2024. This is defined as the “degradation of a person’s mental or intellectual state” that arises from seeing “trivial” content online, such as a Tiktok video.
It’s a term that is often joked about, but what If there is a grain of truth? This is the seemingly scary implications of a new study published by a large team of brain scientists based at Tianjin Division University in China.
What did this study find?
They scanned the brains of over 100 undergraduates and completed a survey on their habits of watching short online videos. The survey included statements such as “My life will be empty without a short video” and “Not able to watch a short video will be as painful as losing a friend,” indicating how much they agreed.
Interestingly, researchers found that those who felt most obsessed with short videos had significant differences in brain structure. These participants had more gray matter in the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC). This is an area near the front of the brain that is involved in decision-making and emotional regulation. Similarly, they had more gray matter in the cerebellum – the small cauliflower-shaped structures behind the brain play a role in movement and emotions.
The team concluded that this is bad news, as for Tiktok enthusiasts, having an oversized OFC could be a sign that it is described as “an increased sensitivity to rewards and stimuli associated with short video content.” They speculated that watching too many Tiktok videos could have led to this nerve distension.
Similarly, they suggested that enhanced cerebellum could help the brain process short video content more efficiently – perhaps the result of frequent rampages. This can create a reinforcement cycle. In this cycle, watching more videos strengthens these brain pathways and habits become even more ingrained.
Over 23 million videos are uploaded to Tiktok every day – Photo Credit: Getty
But that’s not all. The team also performed a second brain scan to track participants’ brain activity while participants were resting with their eyes closed.
They found a greater synchronization of activity within multiple regions of the brain. These include the dorsal prefrontal cortex (areas involved in self-control), the posterior cingulate cortex (areas involved in thinking about oneself), the thalamus (a type of relay station for brain signals), and the cerebellum.
The researchers suggested that these functional brain differences could reflect a variety of issues among addiction participants. The issues include the tendency to overly social comparisons while having trouble leaving the video and watching them.
They also asked participants to fill out a survey on “promising temperament.” This is a factor measured by agreeing to statements such as “I strive to reach other people’s outstanding results.”
Interestingly, scientists have found that many links between video addiction and brain differences are also linked to a higher level of envy. This suggests that feeling of envy can make someone more likely to watch a short video. And over time, this habit can lead to potentially harmful changes in the brain.
Does Tiktok cause brain decay?
If you are an avid consumer of fun online videos, or a related parent, the idea that seeing habits can reconstruct brain structures is no surprise.
However, it is important to consider this study in a broader historical context in which new technologies and media have long been causing exaggerated neurological claims. It is also important to understand the deep limitations of research.
It’s been nearly 20 years Atlantic Ocean The magazine ran a cover function that asked, “Is Google making us stupid?” And, in a nutshell, the answer that was asserted was “Yes!” Author Nicholas Kerr lamented that he was once a “scuba diver in the sea of words,” but now, thanks to Google, he zipped “along the surface like a jet ski man.”
Countless brain imaging studies of questionable quality were also published in the same era. Many aim to demonstrate the disaster effect of the World Wide Web on our vulnerable minds.
A few years later, Professor Susan Greenfield, a neuroscientist professor of Baronness, launched a media campaign claiming that “mind change” (the impact of the internet and video games on the brain) is just as serious threat to humanity as climate change.
She even wrote dystopian novels about the dehumanizing effects of the internet, but received mixed reviews (One critic (I questioned whether this was one of the worst science fiction books ever written).
Scientists still don’t know how much Tiktok affects the brains of young people, but research is still underway. – Photo credit: Getty
Almost 20 years later, we’re fine. At least I don’t think our brains have been transformed into mash. But of course, these previous horrors were before the appearance of Tiktok. Perhaps there is something uniquely damaging about the types of short, scrollable, meaningless content available today.
I asked Professor Peter Etchellsif this is plausible, expert on the psychological impact of digital technology at Bathspa University. “As far as I know, there is no good science to support the idea that short videos are either tangible or uniquely bad in terms of their impact on the brain,” he says.
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Is short video brain research a good science? Not so, but the evidence suggests that it is not.
What is wrong with this research?
Let’s take a look at some of the limitations of the research. If the goal was to prove that seeing tiktok is harmful to the brain, a more effective approach would be to scan participants’ brains and then consume different amounts of harmful content.
However, this study is completely cross-sectional, meaning that only a single snapshot was captured in time. This was not a pre- and post-comparison of causes and effects.
Or, as Etchell says: “[From this study] I can’t say anything about whether watching a short video will cause brain changes, or whether certain types of brain structures precede certain types of video consumption.
“This research doesn’t really add anything that will help us understand how digital technology affects us.”
Even if we accept the speculative leap of researchers that Tiktok’s videos may have caused the brain changes they observed, there are still some issues to consider.
First, the researchers searched the entire brain for differences that correlated with the scores on the video addiction scale. This approach is a common problem in brain imaging studies as it increases the risk of finding false positives. In other words, the more comparisons you make, the more likely you will stumble over random differences that seem important but are actually just a coincidence.
Second, even if we accept that the observed brain differences are real and caused by seeing Tiktok, interpreting them involves a lot of speculation. Researchers enveloped an increase in brain synchronization (known as regional homogeneity (Reho). However, Rejo itself is not inherently a good or bad thing. In fact, other studies have associated with an increase in Reho in certain brain regions. positive Results such as results observed during meditation training.
Perhaps the biggest flaw in the study relies on questionable survey-based measures of short video addiction that lacks strong scientific validity.
As Etchells put it, “Short video addiction is essentially an invented term, not a formal diagnostic clinical disorder.”
Taken together, these issues suggest that we should not be overly concerned that Tiktok fundamentally shapes the brains of young people in harmful ways.
That said, the excessive amount of time spent watching frivolous videos can still be a problem for some. However, it is more productive to focus on developing healthy media habits rather than worrying about brain changes or addiction.
“In many cases, when research like this hits the news, it’s a good opportunity to pause and reflect on whether we’re happy with the use of the technology,” says Etchells.
“If there’s concerns there, it’s worth thinking about what you can do to eliminate your frustration, knowing that you’ll benefit a lot from these technologies.”
About our expert, Professor Pete Etchell
Pete is a professor of psychology at Bath Spa University. His research focuses on how playing video games and using social media affects our mood and behavior. He is the author of I got lost in a good game We are currently investigating whether game mechanics can promote gambling behavior in other parts of our lives.
We are constantly detecting lies in our daily interactions. This could be a change in our partner’s tone of voice indicating hidden emotions, a child repeatedly looking at a forbidden present, or a colleague’s implausible story about missing petty cash at work.
Despite our ability to detect some lies, there are still instances where we fail to see through deception. Researchers have been investigating this phenomenon for over a century, with the latest studies offering new insights into the complexities of deception.
One recent significant study conducted by Associate Professor Timothy Luke and his team at the University of Gothenburg focused on analyzing the behaviors associated with lying. By delving into the nuances of deceit, they aimed to uncover the underlying processes of deception.
One key aspect highlighted by Luke is the distinction between “white” lies and deception, emphasizing that not all lies are equal. Deception involves deliberate attempts to mislead others, with various psychological factors influencing the complexity of deceit. Factors like communication style and length play crucial roles in distinguishing lies from truth.
While conventional beliefs suggest that liars exhibit behaviors like avoiding eye contact and nervousness, research findings from the Gothenburg study challenge these assumptions. Experts in the field of lie detection agree that gaze aversion and nervousness are not reliable indicators of deception.
Photo courtesy of Getty Images, Alamy. Image manipulation: Andy Potts.
Instead, experts suggest that the level of detail in the information provided can be a more reliable indicator of deception. People who lie tend to offer less detailed explanations compared to truth-tellers. Linguistic cues, such as inconsistencies in statements and evidence, also play a significant role in detecting deception.
When it comes to distinguishing truth from lies, researchers recommend employing a strategic approach that challenges inconsistencies in suspects’ narratives without direct accusations of lying. By presenting contradictory evidence and observing the suspect’s responses, investigators can uncover potential deception.
Photo courtesy of Getty Images, Alamy. Image manipulation: Andy Potts.
While traditional approaches to lie detection based on behavioral cues may be unreliable, focusing on individual characteristics and personal deceit patterns can offer more effective ways of uncovering lies. By examining linguistic patterns and analyzing personal deception models, researchers are improving their ability to detect deception effectively.
Ultimately, trust in one’s own investigative skills and evidence-based analysis is crucial in detecting lies. Fixed cues and generalizations may not always be accurate, emphasizing the importance of caution and critical thinking when assessing deceptive behaviors.
On November 13, 2024, four witnesses appeared before the Joint Subcommittee. US Congressional Oversight and Accountability for a testimony session on so-called “Unidentified Anomalous Phenomena (UAP).” This is a necessary rebranding of the term “UFO.” The people who spouted these three letters in the past were rarely seen as trustworthy or worthy of testifying before the U.S. government.
The four witnesses were Rear Adm. Tim Gallaudet, former commander of the U.S. Navy’s Meteorological and Marine Command; Luis Elizondo, former director of the Defense Department’s Advanced Aerospace Threat Identification Program; investigative journalist Michael Shellenberger; Former NASA Deputy Administrator Michael Gold.
4 people submitted written testimony before the hearing. Shellenberger also allegedly original document An anonymous whistleblower report regarding a program called “Immaculate Constellation,” an “unauthorized special access program” for top-level monitoring of UAP-related activities.
The document referred to an extensive database of high-quality evidence collected over several decades, all of which had previously evaded democratic oversight by Congress and most executive branches.
Ann early hearing Held on July 26, 2023, former U.S. Navy pilots testified about events such as encounters with the famous “tic-tock object” and 2004 FLIR (forward-looking infrared) video from the USS. Nimitz Encounters, and GoFast and gimbal videos from the 2015 USS roosevelt Incident.
Previous reports of UAP/UFO sightings date back to the 1940s, and some even centuries earlier. There also seemed to be waves of UFO sightings.
Suspicions of a government cover-up have been floating since the Roswell incident in 1947, but the latest surge in interest in government secrets was sparked in 2017. new york times article About the Department of Defense’s alleged UAP program.
This has led to a bipartisan interest in Congress to uncover the extent to which the U.S. government and intelligence community covered up the sightings. They promised to provide transparency to the American people.
read more:
So far, it’s safe to say that attempts at transparency have been a total failure. Witnesses have refused to disclose classified material that could violate confidentiality oaths, and the government’s refusal to declassify the material (or even acknowledge its existence) has created obstacles. This had an impact on the full-scale discussion on UAP disclosure.
The hearing on November 13, 2024 was no exception. Chairman Nancy Mace began the cover-up game by saying she had no intention of “revealing names.” She also said there were people trying to influence her not to hold this hearing.
Nancy Mace speaks at a House Oversight and Accountability Committee hearing in Washington, D.C. – Photo courtesy of Getty
All witnesses except Gold are not allowed or unwilling to discuss certain questions in public session, or are not allowed or unwilling to discuss them completely. (Shellenberger claimed it was to protect his journalistic sources). They also reported being subject to threats or outright intimidation not to disclose confidential material.
close encounter
If Mr. Gold had confidential information, he never disclosed it. He simply, and rightly, emphasized the need for independent scientific and academically rigorous investigation of the phenomenon.
However, that did not stop witnesses from claiming knowledge of the crash recovery program and encounters with underwater UAPs and USOs (Unidentified Submersible Objects). They also implied that staff were being treated for injuries sustained from contact with the UAP, and that humanity was already dealing with non-human intelligence (NHI).
Information that, if true, would fundamentally change our view of our place in the universe. This also shows that there is still a lot of sensitive material hidden away.
Witnesses are allowed to speak to some extent about facts that are usually considered “official secrets,” but are prohibited from releasing confidential material that supports their claims. This means you can never really know if what they say is true.
Two senior members of the Eighth U.S. Air Force have identified metal fragments found by a farmer near Roswell, New Mexico as debris from a weather balloon. This is the basis for the 1947 Roswell Incident, which was the alleged crash of an alien spacecraft.
Their testimony is always subject to ample doubt. They may all be sincere in their beliefs or have access to relevant evidence, but it is this personal editing that inevitably leads the witness to failure and, at worst, ridicule. It will be done.
But in many previous hearings, they have only presented what they were told, or in legal parlance, “hearsay evidence”, a type of evidence that legal systems around the world consider to be questionable. I haven’t.
This makes it easy for so-called “falsifiers” to point out that evidence is always announced to be released soon, but is never actually released.
And unfortunately, not all of the witnesses who appeared before Congress on November 13th have impeccable reputations for due diligence and fact-checking information.
His response was to congratulate those who realized his mistake and to say that he is always happy to see false evidence removed from a serious UAP story.
This “non-human” alien corpse was presented to Mexican politicians in 2023. Experts around the world have labeled the corpse a hoax. – Photo credit: Getty
Regardless, former U.S. officials should reconsider their blind allegiance to secrecy and consider whether there is really any benefit to complying with the government’s demands for silence. Their current reluctance to disclose information only further fuels the US government’s quest to obfuscate the democratic process.
If the witnesses’ claims are true, this knowledge should be shared with the world, not held by one country’s government.
battle of words
The question of whether we are alone in space or even here on Earth is not, by definition, a national security issue. This myopic view, currently held by domestic intelligence agencies, is not appropriate for future policy principles.
It is inevitable that at some point someone will have to make the drastic decision to release or publish confidential material to which they have access, and have to impose their name and risk the consequences.
In fact, the threat of legal consequences not only lends greater credibility to the whistleblower’s character, but also increases the credibility of their testimony. Why risk making confidential documents public unless you are 100% sure they are true?
Even if the truth becomes public, it is unlikely to have any real impact. Steals Jack Ryan’s line, “If a bomb goes off, there’s no use trying to defuse it.” A clear and present danger.
Until then, the meaningless show of unchecked hearsay testimony will continue to be repeated on the floor of Congress. It is better to ignore the protests of witnesses that no real information can be revealed and to actively prevent the spread of unverifiable claims than to remain in a perpetual state of limbo of alien gossip and innuendo. Probably.
Keeping their mouths shut will ultimately do great damage to the truth behind UAP.
read more:
For more fact-checked news, visit the BBC. confirm website of bit.ly/BBCVerify
Recent archaeological findings indicate that smoking not only stains teeth but also has a literal impact on bones. Additionally, new research suggests that the prevalence of smoking among women in Georgian and Victorian England may have been underestimated compared to men.
In a study conducted by Dr. Sarah Inskip, it was discovered that many women in historical records showed traces of tobacco use, contradicting common beliefs about smoking habits. This finding highlights the importance of considering smoking as a significant health risk for both men and women.
The survey results published in a scientific journal suggest that advancements in analyzing bones for historical information can also aid in modern criminal investigations. By identifying smoking patterns and other lifestyle aspects from bone samples, researchers can create biological profiles to assist in identifying individuals in forensic cases.
Researchers have identified specific molecular markers in bones that indicate smoking habits. By analyzing skeletal remains from different time periods, they found evidence of tobacco use in a significant portion of individuals, including those dating back to the 12th century.
These findings provide valuable insights into the historical prevalence of smoking and its impact on individuals’ health. The research team’s work opens up new possibilities for understanding past health issues and potentially improving modern health outcomes.
About our experts
Dr. Sarah Inskip, a researcher at the University of Leicester and a UKRI Future Leaders Fellow, has published her research in prestigious journals such as nature communications, archaeology and anthropology, and American Journal of Physical Anthropology.
year: It was founded in 2009 by former Harvard rowers Michael Horvath and Mark Gainey.
What exactly is that? fitness app.
How does it work? It is popular among cyclists and runners who use GPS data to track their activities and record their activities to share with the community. Also useful for jackals…
Like “The Day” of … ‘'?Why?Investigation by French newspaper Le Monde We’ve used it to track the movements of Joe Biden, Donald Trump, Kamala Harris, and other world leaders.
trump doesn’t do that Looks like a typical Strava user… Well, not specifically them, but their bodyguards. Le Monde found that some US Secret Service agents have been using the app since the Trump assassination attempt. They also used the bodyguard’s Strava profile to track the movements of Jill Biden and Melania Trump.
Perhaps they realized that Melania is no longer close to her husband? It’s not that kind of investigation. In another example, an agent’s Strava tracked jogging route was used to identify the San Francisco hotel where Joe Biden was meeting with Chinese President Xi Jinping.
Seems very lax, but are agents even allowed to use personal phones? Although prohibited during work hours, the U.S. Secret Service told Le Monde that personal use of social media outside of work hours is not prohibited. But they also said that “affected personnel have been notified” and that “this information will be reviewed to determine if additional training or guidance is required.”
It’s like he’s worried. Is it just Americans? Mysnon. The paper also identified 12 members of the French security group GSPR and six members of Russia’s FSO.
President Putin will probably tell us to be more careful in the future.. There has been no communication from the Kremlin. Mr Macron’s office said it had not affected his security but had instructed agencies not to use the app.
IIs this the first time you’ve had security concerns regarding Strava? It’s interesting so you should give it a listen. In 2018, students discovered they had created maps of US military bases in Syria and Afghanistan, as well as the Royal Navy’s Faslane base. Another security flaw in 2022 revealed the identity and movements of: Israeli military base security guard. And things got very serious last July…
Oh please continue. Rental runner in Singapore hit the news It offers a service that lets you log on to someone else’s ID, run on their behalf, and charge them per kilometer.
So can people pretend to exercise when they don’t? that’s right. I became known as the Strava Jockey.
But that would defeat the whole purpose. No praise! Well, some people will do anything to get a better PB.
Please say: “Strava It means effort in Swedish, don’t you know? “
Please don’t say things like: “Oh, that’s the layout of Camp David…”
The 34th Ig Nobel Prize was awarded today for 10 unexpected things – all so surprising that, in keeping with the Prize's long tradition, it makes people laugh and makes them think.
of Award Ceremony The event took place at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, where the lecture hall was filled with paper airplanes thrown by audience members honoring the Ig Nobel tradition of bringing in pieces of paper to be transformed into disposable aircraft.
Peaceful Dove
This year's Ig Award winners cover a wide range of subjects, including humans, plants and other behaviours, including some birds.
Before deciding to use live pigeons to guide the flight path of a missile, you might want to conduct an experiment to see if it's feasible to house a pigeon at the nose of a missile. Such an experiment was conducted in the 1940s by psychologist B.F. Skinner, who was posthumously awarded this year's Ig Nobel Peace Prize.
Skinner's daughter Julie attended the ceremony and accepted the award on his behalf. B.F. Skinner was a giant in the field of behaviorism. A few years after his experiment with putting pigeons on missiles, he Written“Something happened in the short time frame of the Pigeon project that took a long time to be understood. The practical challenges before us have led to new ways of thinking about organismic behavior.”
A botanical sense of style
A similar rethinking of attitudes could come from the work of Jacob White and Felipe Yamashita, two 2024 Ig Nobel Prize laureates in Botany. They found evidence that some real plants mimic the shapes of their artificial plastic neighbors. For more information, see their study,Bochyra trifoliata Mimicking the leaves of an artificial plastic host plant“
Marjolaine Willems and her colleagues won the anatomy prize for investigating whether the hair of most people in the Northern Hemisphere curls in the same direction (clockwise or counterclockwise) as the hair of most people in the Southern Hemisphere.
Countless metaphors and phrases are associated with the work that earned Takebe Takanori and his colleagues the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. Found Many mammals can breathe through their anus.
The tenacity of the Probability Prize winners František Bartos, Erik Jan Wagenmakers, Aleksandra Sarafoglu and Henrik Godman, along with around 50 colleagues, many of them students, has paid off. ShowedWe know, both in theory and from 350,757 experiments, that when you flip a coin, it tends to land on the same side as you started with.
Painful placebo
Lieven Schenk, Tahmin Fadai and Christian Büchel won the medicine prize for demonstrating that a placebo that causes painful side effects can be more effective than a placebo that does not cause painful side effects.
(Their study It reminds me of the prize-winning paper by Dan Ariely and his colleagues, but doesn't explicitly cite it. 2008 Medicine Award They demonstrated that expensive counterfeit medicines are more effective than cheaper counterfeit medicines.
Jimmy Liao won the Physics Prize for demonstrating and describing the swimming ability of dead trout. series ofpaper He writes about his discovery of this unexpected aspect of fluid mechanics.
Drunken Bug
Earthworms can stay drunk and can become drunk when they consume alcohol. Tess Heremans, Antoine Debray, Daniel Bon and Sander Woutersen method Chromatography is used to separate drunk and non-drunk bugs.
The research award for demography (the statistical study of population) went to Saul Justin Newman for his research exploring whether demographers notice important details: Newman found that many of the people famous for having lived the longest lived in places where birth and death records were poorly kept.
This year's gathering of Ig laureates ended with a flourish: Fordyce Ely and William E. Petersen were posthumously awarded the biology prize. experiment That's just what they did in the 1940s: They exploded a paper bag next to a cat standing on a cow's back to see when and how the cow would spill milk.
Eli's daughter Jane and grandson Matt were also in attendance to accept the award and watch demonstrations including a toy cat, a man in a cow costume and five Nobel Prize winners making an exploding paper bag.
Marc Abrahams is the founder of the Ig Nobel Prize ceremony and co-founder of the journal Annals of Improbable Research. He previously worked on unusual uses of computers. His website is Impossible.
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You can submit articles for Feedback by emailing feedback@newscientist.com. Please include your home address. This week's and past Feedback can be found on our website.
Dinosaurs ruled the earth for around 180 million years. But fossils that are at least 65 million years old are incredibly hard to decipher, so we know very little about what these iconic prehistoric creatures lived. Finding out more has long seemed impossible, but not anymore.
Over the past few decades, new techniques and new specimens have provided previously unimaginable insights into the behavior and ecology of dinosaurs. Combined with insights from modern animals, this has finally enabled paleontologists to understand dinosaur biology, from parental care, migration, and hunting styles to communication, sociality, and combat.
David Horne is one of the researchers trying to find out more about life during the time of the dinosaurs: the paleontologist at Queen Mary, University of London, is soon to publish a book about his latest findings. Revealing dinosaur behavior: What they did and how we know. New Scientist From mobile herbivores and semi-aquatic predators to why ostriches are problematic for understanding which dinosaurs doted on their young, here’s some of what’s been discovered so far.
Collin Barrass: Some of the biggest dinosaurs were Diplodocus or BrachiosaurusFor example, dinosaurs were not at all similar to living animals, so how do we figure out how they behaved?
David Horne: One of the most important things we can do as paleontologists is to better utilize our knowledge of the biology and behavior of modern animals. Mouth shapes are a good example. People with small mouths usually target nutritious food, such as shoots and leaves, one by one. If…
With the abundance of news stories, one might believe that humanity is on a path to self-destruction due to pollution, microplastics, and harmful chemicals. Reports of decreasing sperm counts have led to discussions about a possible “Spermageddon,” with politicians even considering incentivizing women to have children (source).
However, after speaking with experts like Professor Alan Pacey, a male infertility researcher, and Professor Sarah Harper, director of the Oxford Institute of Population Ageing, it seems that while there is reason to be concerned, we are not currently in a crisis.
Why are some people concerned about “Spermageddon”?
The concern dates back to a study from 1974 that showed a decrease in sperm counts among American men compared to the data from the 1950s (source). While various factors like climate change, genetic defects, and microplastics have been suggested as causes for declining sperm counts, not all experts are convinced about the severity of the issue.
Recent studies, including those conducted in Denmark, have not shown significant declines in sperm quality, leading to doubts about the extent of the problem. While concerns about microplastics and chemicals are valid, they may not be directly linked to infertility as some believe.
Recent research published in the journal Nature also suggests that semen quality worldwide may not be declining significantly.
Is global infertility on the rise?
While birth rates are indeed falling, experts argue that there is no concrete evidence of a widespread increase in infertility. Factors like delayed childbearing, improved access to fertility treatments, and reduced stigma around infertility may be contributing to more people seeking assistance at fertility clinics.
Why are populations declining in many areas?
The declining birth rates in countries like South Korea, China, and the United States are influenced by various factors, including economic growth and changing societal norms. While it may seem like an “infertility epidemic,” some experts see it as a demographic outcome of broader trends.
Should we be concerned?
Experts have differing perspectives on the issue. While some, like Professor Harper, believe that falling birth rates are not a cause for alarm, others, like Professor Pacey, are concerned about the barriers to fertility treatment and the impact on individuals facing infertility. Both emphasize the need for a nuanced approach to addressing the complex factors affecting fertility rates.
About our experts
Professor Alan Pacey MBE is a renowned researcher in male fertility and sperm biology at the University of Manchester, with over 30 years of experience in the field.
Professor Sarah Harper CBE is a gerontology expert at the University of Oxford, focusing on population aging and fertility trends.
BBefore the era of thumb-typing emails and text messages, typing was a manual skill reserved for those who could type 40 words per minute in the ’80s. If you’re reluctant to attend an in-person class, you can opt for a software program like Mavis Beacon Teaches Typing for $50. This application was the Typing class at the Catholic high school I attended when the priests just introduced the use of computers.
Mavis Beacon, launched in 1987, gamified typing exercises and carefully tracked typing progress. The software featured an elegant black woman on the cover, but it would take years to realize the implications of using one’s image for corporate gain.
The documentary “Searching for Mavis Beacon” sheds light on this lesson and the filmmakers’ struggle with the irony of their pursuit. The filmmakers embarked on a quest to uncover the woman behind Mavis Beacon: Haitian-born model Renée L’Esperance.
The film delves into Beacon’s influence as a pioneer of “obedient female robot assistants” and the challenges faced in exposing her true identity. The narrative unfolds like a detective story, drawing parallels to contemporary online identity politics and queer culture.
The filmmakers uncover L’Esperance’s background working in a department store perfume department where she was paid to pose as Mavis Beacon. Despite legal battles with the software company, her impact remains profound.
The documentary explores themes of privacy, representation, and cultural appropriation while honoring L’Esperance’s legacy. It concludes with a hint at future projects to explore the lives of those who followed in Beacon’s footsteps.
Ultimately, the film serves as a heartfelt tribute to Mavis Beacon’s legacy and the complexities of her story. It aims to provoke thought and reflection on the intersection of race, gender, and technology in society.
Many people experience uncomfortable sensations like abdominal bloating or pressure.
You may notice your stomach feeling bloated or tighter than usual, hear strange noises, or feel the need to pass gas more often. While bloating is usually harmless, it can be unpleasant.
There are numerous causes of abdominal bloating, from dietary habits to underlying medical conditions. Excess gas in the digestive tract, which occurs when air is swallowed along with food or drink, is a common cause.
Moreover, certain foods and beverages can lead to gas formation during digestion, such as carbonated drinks, beans, broccoli, sprouts, and cabbage. This gas accumulation in the digestive system can result in bloating, exacerbated by factors like chewing gum, sweeteners, alcohol, caffeine, and protein supplements.
Digestive issues like constipation or irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) can also contribute to abdominal bloating. When stool becomes trapped in the colon, it can cause discomfort and bloating. Similarly, individuals with IBS may experience bloating in conjunction with abdominal pain, diarrhea, and constipation.
To address bloating, start by identifying trigger foods through a food diary and eliminating them from your diet. Opt for a fiber-rich diet consisting of whole, unprocessed foods like fruits, vegetables, whole grains, and legumes. Probiotic-rich foods like yogurt and kefir can aid digestion and reduce gas.
In addition to dietary changes, consider incorporating herbs and spices like ginger, peppermint, and fennel to alleviate bloating. Lifestyle adjustments such as eating smaller meals, chewing food slowly, staying hydrated, and engaging in regular exercise can also help combat bloating.
If bloating persists, especially with accompanying symptoms, it is advisable to consult a doctor as it could rarely indicate ovarian cancer, particularly in women over 50.
Written by Natasha Reid of Lincoln, this article addresses the question of why individuals may feel bloated.
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Kestrels have been trained to fly in a wind tunnel, revealing how they can hover in turbulent air while keeping their heads almost completely still.
Two Chinese kestrels (Falco cenchroides) says it took three years Abdulgani Mohammed The study was carried out at RMIT University in Melbourne, Australia. To make it even more challenging, each bird was fitted with 52 reflective markers to create the same 3D models that would be used in the computer-generated images.
Hovering is crucial for birds, allowing them to keep their heads completely still while they focus on prey on the ground. “It's a hunting behavior, and the bird's life depends on it,” Mohammed says. “They have an incredible sense of stability.”
In the wind tunnel, the researchers were able to create repeatable and measurable turbulent conditions that allowed them to study the specific movements and reactions of the kestrels. In total, the team recorded 58 hours of hovering over a period of five years.
The researchers found that the birds' hovering motion was extremely stable, with their heads never moving more than two millimeters in any direction.
“It's an amazing sight to see every time I see the birds hovering in the wind tunnel,” Mohammed says. “It's truly amazing to see how effortlessly and gracefully they hover.”
A Chinese kestrel flying in a wind tunnel
RMIT University
Unlike conventional aircraft with fixed wings and limited control over wing area, kestrels have transformable wings that can adjust their wing area almost instantly, which is key to them being able to remain stationary, Mohammed said.
The kestrels did this best by using clever wrist movements and subtle extensions and retractions of their elbows, and their tails also played a key role in providing stability, Mohammed said.
Based on their findings, the team is now building an unpowered drone prototype for testing in a wind tunnel.
“It's very difficult to accurately recreate all of the kestrel's anatomy, so we narrowed our findings down to the wrist and tail movements that contribute most to stability, and built a robotic version of the kestrel,” Mohammed says.
The artificial kestrel is currently being tested, with results expected later this year.
A recent study published in July suggests that Egypt’s oldest pyramid, the Step Pyramid of Djoser, may have been constructed using advanced technology. The study proposes that a hydraulic lift system was used during the construction of the pyramid to raise the massive blocks needed for its construction.
The Step Pyramid of Djoser was built as the final resting place of King Djoser, the first or second pharaoh of Egypt’s Third Dynasty during the Old Kingdom, around 4,700 years ago. The pyramid rises in six tiers to a height of 62 meters above the Saqqara plateau, equivalent to the height of a 14-storey building.
If proven true, the existence of this hydraulic lift system would offer an explanation for how the ancient Egyptians were able to construct such monumental structures with the technology available at the time. The study also suggests that a nearby enclosure, known as Gisr el-Mudir, may have served as a “check dam” to capture water and sediment, supporting the hydraulic system.
Map of the Saqqara plateau showing the waterway from the Gisr el-Mudir Dam to the water treatment facility near the Pyramid of Djoser. The water is then routed to the pyramid’s pipe network to power the hydraulic elevators. – Image courtesy of Paléotechnique, Paris, France
The study proposes that a sophisticated system of water treatment plants outside the pyramid combined with the Gisr el-Mudir and a ditch controlled water quality and flow. Water would flow into a shaft inside the pyramid where a float system potentially carried building stones to their needed locations. A plug system at the base of the shaft could then drain the water for the process to start again.
Xavier Landreau, president of Paleotechnique and lead author of the study, emphasizes the importance of this discovery in questioning established historical narratives and the technical knowledge possessed by the ancient Egyptian architects. The study also raises the intriguing question of whether the same hydraulic system used to construct the pyramid could have been used to bury the king in his final resting place within the pyramid.
About the Experts
Xavier Landreau: President of Paleotechnique and lead author of the study. Paleotechnique is a research practice that combines hydrology, geotechnical engineering, physics, mathematics, materials science, and history to explore the origins of civilization.
No turning point in the history of the universe surpasses the birth of the first stars. As stars flickered into existence some 200 to 400 million years after the Big Bang, the energy they emitted ripped apart the atoms of the gas that had cooled the universe, reheating it in a process called reionization. Then, as the stars burned out and died, they created a cocktail of chemical elements that prepared the universe to give rise to galaxies, planets, and eventually life itself.
It's no wonder astronomers are itching to get a glimpse of this first generation of stars. To start with, they were spectacular: huge and blisteringly bright, thought to be 300 times more massive and 10 times hotter than the Sun. But observing them could also tell us a lot about the mysterious early stages of the Universe, particularly how the universe came to be flooded with supermassive black holes in an incredibly short space of time.
Now we may finally be on the brink. Earlier this year, astronomers reported that the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST), by fixing its excellent field of view on the outer edges of very distant galaxies, may already have seen evidence of the first stars. “The observations we can now make really expand our knowledge,” says Hannah Ubler of the University of Cambridge.
The signal may turn out to be a false alarm, but what's interesting right now is that other researchers are starting to look at different features of the light from the early universe, even suggesting that it might be the first stars.
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