Tag Archives: Occupation

How Roman Occupation Revolutionized Sanitation in Pompeii’s Public Baths

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The Stavian Baths in Pompeii, one of the first bathhouses built by the Samnites

Icas94/De Agostini via Getty Images

Visiting the public baths in Pompeii meant immersing in water that was often contaminated with sweat and urine, until Roman innovations in sanitation improved the experience.

Commonly perceived as a quintessential Roman city due to its proximity—about 240 kilometers southeast of Rome—Pompeii was predominantly inhabited by the Samnites for much of its history. It fell under Roman control after 80 BC, just 160 years before the catastrophic eruption of Mount Vesuvius buried the city in volcanic ash.

Much like the Romans, the Samnites valued bathing and constructed at least two public baths—the Stavian Baths and the Republican Baths—after 130 BC.

Dr. Gul Surmelihindi and a team from the University of Mainz analyzed mineral deposits within these ancient baths to better understand their water quality.

Interestingly, the water quality was subpar. “The water in the heated pool at the Republican Baths shows low stable carbon isotope values, indicating a high level of organic matter,” stated Surmelihindi.

Crucially, when examining deposits in the 40-meter-deep well supplying water to the pool, researchers found minimal organic matter. “This suggests that contamination likely happened within the pool itself, probably from sweat, oily skin secretions, or urine from bathers,” explains Surmelihindi.

Time and convenience were significant factors; drawing water from wells manually was labor-intensive, yielding only 900 to 5,000 liters per hour—sufficient to refill the baths once or twice daily.

The landscape changed dramatically under Roman rule. Within decades, an aqueduct was constructed to transport water from a natural spring about 35 km northeast of Pompeii. “Building an aqueduct symbolizes both prestige and priority; if one city has one, others will follow,” Surmelihindi remarked.

Inside the Water Castle, Pompeii’s aqueduct distribution structure

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Researchers estimate that Pompeii’s aqueduct was capable of supplying 167,000 liters of water each hour, allowing for much more frequent refills of the public baths and providing residents with a new, reliable source of drinking water.

This shift led to increased hygiene in the public baths, as shown by the significantly lower amounts of organic carbon found in the drain deposits of the Roman Stavian baths, indicating a reduced concentration of sweat and urine due to more frequent refills.

However, improved water infrastructure did not automatically guarantee public health. Prior to the aqueduct’s construction, many residents relied on rainwater collected from rooftops. Subsequently, drinking water was sourced from the aqueduct via a network of lead pipes. Lead can cause serious health issues, including brain damage according to the World Health Organization.

While mineral deposits over time could reduce lead contamination, researchers caution that each time a section of the city’s pipes is repaired, lead contamination could spike again.

“Pompeii’s elite likely enjoyed access to cleaner water due to their residences, which featured large atriums and roofs designed to collect rainwater in cisterns,” explains Duncan Keenan-Jones from the University of Manchester, UK. In contrast, poorer residents, potentially living above shops, depended on lead-contaminated water from public fountains.

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Delve into the historical richness of Mount Vesuvius, Pompeii, and Herculaneum, where the past and archaeology vividly intertwine.

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Source: www.newscientist.com

The Health of the Population Suffered Due to the Roman Occupation of Britain.

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Reconstruction of the city of Wroxeter in Roman Britain

Ivan Lapper/British Heritage/Heritage Images/Getty Images

During Roman rule, the health standards of Britain’s populace declined, particularly in city environments.

There’s a common conception that the Romans introduced civilization and its various advantages, exemplified by a scene in Monty Python’s Life of Brian, where Reg, portrayed by John Cleese, rhetorically asks, “Aside from hygiene, medicine, education, wine, security, irrigation, roads, freshwater systems, and sanitation, what have the Romans ever done for us?”

However, researchers have recognized health issues for at least a decade. A study titled Declining public health in Iron Age Britain indicates that after the Romans arrived in 43 AD, the population continued to thrive even after their departure.

Currently, Rebecca Pitt and her team at the University of Reading in the UK analyzed 646 ancient human bones, with 372 belonging to children under three and a half years at death, and 274 from adult women aged 18 to 45. These remains originated from 24 Iron Age and Romano-British sites in southern and central England, spanning from the 4th century before Roman arrival to the 4th century AD, coinciding with the Roman exit.

Pitt evaluated age based on the pelvic features of adults and the teeth of children. By studying both potential mothers and their infants, she aims to gain insights into the stressors that impacted different generations during Roman dominance.

“A mother’s health significantly affects her child’s well-being, and environmental factors during crucial developmental stages can have enduring effects on health,” remarks Pitt.

Pitt scrutinized the bones and teeth for irregularities such as lesions or fractures indicative of conditions like tuberculosis, osteomyelitis, or dental diseases. She utilized X-rays to investigate the internal bone structure, highlighting changes in development stemming from malnutrition or deficiencies in vitamins C and D.

Her findings suggest that the adverse health outcomes linked to Roman occupation were especially apparent in two major urban centers: the Roman administrative town of Venta Belgarum (now Winchester) and Corinium Duvennorm (Cirencester).

Overall, 81 percent of urban Roman adults exhibited bone abnormalities compared to 62 percent of Iron Age individuals, while no significant differences were noted between Iron Age and rural Roman populations. Furthermore, only 26% of Iron Age children presented such issues, in contrast to 41% from Roman rural areas and 61% in Roman urban settings.

“A notable issue among non-adults in urban settings was rickets, indicating insufficient vitamin D from sunlight,” states Pitt.

She proposes that these health challenges, which persisted across generations, were attributable to new diseases brought by the Romans, along with the class disparities and infrastructure they established, which led to restricted resource access and overcrowded, polluted living conditions for those of lower social standing.

“My father enjoys telling jokes. Life of Brian reveals, however, that the Romans had a significantly negative impact on our health, affecting numerous generations,” observes Pitt.

Martin Millett, a professor at Cambridge University, expressed that this discovery is fascinating, suggesting that the effects may be underestimated if the buried individuals belonged to higher social classes who might have experienced better health, although he does not believe the observations are strictly urban-related.

“These urban settings are not the vast medieval towns known for deep poverty and high population densities,” he notes. “What we may be witnessing is an expanding divide between the wealthy and impoverished, with the Roman Empire’s economic and social systems exacerbating this gap over time.”

Richard Maggwick, a professor at Cardiff University, also remarked that the Roman legacy did not equitably benefit everyone. “While we gained better sanitation, hygiene, and medical knowledge, accessibility remains a crucial question,” he states. “The truth is that not everyone benefited, and it took time for these advantages to reach various social strata.”

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Source: www.newscientist.com

Archaeologists uncover ancient human occupation of Saudi Arabia’s lava tube caves spanning 7,000 years

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New archaeological excavations show that the Umm Jirsan lava tubes in Halat Khyber, northwestern Saudi Arabia, have been repeatedly visited by humans from at least the Neolithic period to the Chalcolithic/Bronze Age (10,000 to 3,500 years ago). The stage of residence has become clear.

Photos of Umm Jilsan Cave and its interior.Image credit: Stewart other., doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0299292.

Intensified field research in northern Arabia over the past decade has highlighted the richness and diversity of the region's archaeological and paleontological record.

Human settlement in northern Arabia during the Pleistocene appeared to be sporadic and associated with periods of improved climate, but by the Holocene people had settled in the area more consistently through dry periods. I was able to.

“Our discoveries at Umm Jilsan provide a rare glimpse into the lives of the ancient peoples of Arabia, revealing repeated stages of human occupation and the pastoralism that once flourished here. It sheds light on people's activities,” said Griffith archaeologist Dr Matthew Stewart. University and the Max Planck Institute for Geoanthropology.

“This site probably served as an important transit point along pastoral routes, linking major oases and facilitating cultural exchange and trade.”

Rock art and animal records attest to the pastoral use of Umm Jilsan and the surrounding area, providing a vivid picture of an ancient way of life.

Depictions of cows, sheep, goats, and dogs confirm prehistoric livestock practices and herd composition in the area.

Isotope analysis of animal remains collected from lava tubes shows that livestock primarily grazed wildflowers and shrubs, while humans maintained a protein-rich diet and increased their consumption of C3 plants over time. has increased significantly, suggesting the emergence of oasis agriculture.

Professor Michael Petraglia, an archaeologist from Griffith University, the University of Queensland, and the Smithsonian Institution, said: “Subterranean localities are of global importance in archeology and Quaternary science, but our research is the first of its kind in Saudi Arabia. “This is the first comprehensive study.”

This discovery highlights the immense potential of interdisciplinary research in caves and lava tubes, providing a unique window into Arabia's ancient past.

“Umm Jilsan was probably not a permanent settlement, but a valuable transit point for people traveling between oasis settlements,” the authors said.

“Lava tubes and other natural shelters are valuable resources for communities surviving in difficult environments, and further research shows that they are important archaeological sources of information about the history of human occupation in Arabia. ”

“Our research into Arabia's hidden past uncovers thousands of years of human habitation in and around the Umm Jirsan lava tubes, revealing ancient lifestyles and environmental changes in this harsh desert environment. shed light on the adaptation of

team's paper Published in an online journal PLoS ONE.

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M. Stewart other. 2024. First evidence of human occupation of Arabia's lava tubes: Archeology of Umm Jirsan Cave and Surroundings, Northern Saudi Arabia. PLoS ONE 19 (4): e0299292; doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0299292

Source: www.sci.news

Earliest Human Occupation of Europe Marked by Discovery of 1.4-Million-Year-Old Stone Tools in Ukraine

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Archaeologists have dated ancient stone tools unearthed at the Korolevo site along the Tisza River in western Ukraine to 1.42 million years ago. Therefore, these artifacts are homo erectus — provides the earliest evidence of humans in Europe and supports the hypothesis that the continent was colonized from the east.

Stone tools from Korolevo I, Ukraine.Image credit: Garba other., doi: 10.1038/s41586-024-07151-3.

“To the east of Europe is the important site of Dmanisi, Georgia, where layers containing human skull remains and stone tools have been reliably dated to approximately 1.85 million to 1.78 million years ago.” said lead author and archaeologist Dr. Roman Garba. Institute of Archeology and Nuclear Physics of the Czech Academy of Sciences, and colleagues.

“The path from Africa to Dmanisi through the Levantine Corridor is consistent with Mode 1 stone artefacts recorded in Jordan's Zarqa Valley, dating back approximately 2.5 million years.”

“The earliest dated evidence of humans in Europe was found at two sites in the southwest: Atapuerca, Spain, the oldest hominin fossils at Sima del Elefante are dated to about 1.2 million years old. and 1.1 million years ago. And in the Valone Cave in southern France, stone artifacts are limited to about 1.2 to 1.1 million years ago.”

“However, the vast spatial and temporal gap separating the Caucasus from southwestern Europe leaves important aspects of the first human dispersal into Europe largely unresolved.”

The Korolebo website is first discovered It was discovered in 1974 by Ukrainian archaeologist Vladislav Gradylin.

It is located near where the Tisza River, a tributary of the Danube, emerges from the eastern Carpathians and spreads southwest across the Pannonian Plain.

“The layers of loess and paleosoil accumulated here are up to 14 meters deep and are known to contain thousands of stone artifacts. Korolevo is an important raw material for their production. ” said co-author Dr. Vitalij Usyk, an archaeologist at the Institute of Archeology of the Czech Academy of Sciences.

“We have identified seven epochs of human occupation in the stratigraphic strata, and at least nine different Paleolithic cultures have been recorded in the region. I lived here until a year ago.”

Selected stone tools from Korolevo I, Ukraine: (a) chopper core; (b) Flakes with double-sided treatment. (c) Multiplatform Core. (d) Combewa flakes. (e) Flakes with parallel scar patterns. Scale bar – 3 cm.Image credit: Garba other., doi: 10.1038/s41586-024-07151-3.

The stone tools of Korolevo are oldowan stylethe most primitive form of tool making.

“We applied two complementary dating methods to calculate ages from measured concentrations of beryllium-10 and aluminum-26 of cosmic origin,” said lead author, Czech Academy of Sciences Geophysical Research said Dr. John Jansen, a researcher at the institute.

“However, the most accurate age was obtained from our proprietary method based on mathematical modeling known as P-PINI.”

“This study is the first time our new dating approach has been applied to archeology.”

“We expect our new dating approach to have a major impact on archaeology, as it can be applied to highly fragmented deposits – deposits with lots of erosional voids.”

“In archaeology, we almost always find a fragmentary record, whereas the traditional long-distance dating method, magnetostratigraphy, relies on a more continuous record.”

The First Peoples of Europe: (a) Ruins and dispersal routes mentioned in the text. The maximum extent of the Eurasian ice sheet is indicated by the gray dashed line. Blue arrows indicate possible early human dispersal routes. (b) Korolevo I, Gostly Verv, Ukraine, seen from Beyvar Hill with excavation XIII (red box).Image credit: Garba other., doi: 10.1038/s41586-024-07151-3.

According to the research team, Korolevo is the northernmost known archaeological site. homo erectus.

“The radiometric dating of the first human presence at the Korolevo site not only bridges the large spatial gap between the Dmanisi and Atapuerca sites, but also shows that the first dispersal pulse of humans into Europe came from the east or southeast. This also supports our hypothesis,'' Dr. Garba said.

“Based on climate models and field pollen data, we identified three possible interglacial warm periods during which the first humans most likely followed the Danube migratory corridor to reach Korolevo. .”

a paperThe survey results were published in a magazine Nature.

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R. Garba other. 1.4 million years ago, humans dispersed from east to west across Europe. Nature, published online March 6, 2024. doi: 10.1038/s41586-024-07151-3

Source: www.sci.news