Why Did Human Brains Evolve to Be Larger? Surprising Insights into Brain Size Evolution

Posted on July 6, 2026 by Igor Mitreski

Neanderthal skull (left) and Homo sapiens larger than early humans

Pascal Goetheruk/Science Photo Library

One of the defining features of our species is our notably large brain. However, a recent analysis of fossil skulls indicates that evolution hasn’t significantly favored larger brains during the past two million years of human evolution.

“Brain size has indeed increased over time, while face size has actually reduced,” states Katerina Harvati from the University of Tübingen, Germany. Yet, this development does not appear to be the result of natural selection.

Rather, the evolution of the human brain seems to have been influenced by various evolutionary pressures, which maintained brain size. Periodically, these constraints were relaxed, enabling the brain to grow larger.

Dr. Mark Hubbe from the University of Tennessee, Knoxville, along with Harvati, examined 87 hominin skulls, 24 of which belonged to modern Homo sapiens. The remainder were from extinct human species, such as Neanderthals (Homo neanderthalensis), Homo erectus, and Homo habilis. They gathered data on skull shape and size, concentrating on the braincase and facial features.

Over the past two million years, the human braincase has enlarged significantly, providing room for larger brains. Concurrently, human faces became flatter, characterized by reduced jaw prominence and smaller eyebrow ridges.

“There’s a pervasive hypothesis suggesting that increased cognitive ability drives selection,” says Harvati. This concept posits that intelligent individuals were favored, leading our ancestors to gradually develop larger brains over time.

To test this theory, Haverty and Hubbe employed a mathematical model that evaluated six different evolutionary scenarios influencing changes in skull shape and size. One scenario suggested gradual natural selection pressure favoring larger brains, while another scenario presented a more neutral approach. The remaining scenarios included fluctuating constraints around an optimal design and “punctuated equilibrium,” where long periods of stasis were punctuated by brief bursts of rapid evolution.

Findings indicated that changes in braincase size and shape are most effectively explained by neutral evolution, suggesting that random mutations impact brain size and shape without providing a significant advantage over previous designs. Evidence of stagnation further indicates that evolution exerts pressure on braincases to maintain similar dimensions.

While human faces underwent changes, the evolutionary constraint to preserve their shape appeared to be stronger.

This study provides insight into the mechanisms that have steered our evolutionary journey. Amelie Baudet at the French National Center for Scientific Research in Poitiers states, “This is precisely the kind of analysis we need right now.”

Although the study focused on skulls, it primarily addresses overall brain size and shape, which may not encapsulate the entire picture. Bode noted, “It’s not just about brain size; it likely involves brain reorganization.” She studies the imprints left by the brain within the skull, indicating that crucial areas like Broca’s area, associated with language, have evolved considerably over the last two million years.

Some researchers, like Gerhard Weber at the University of Vienna, argue that the sample size is insufficient for definitive conclusions. He remains skeptical about Harvati and Hubbe’s assertions that evolution kept our ancestors’ brains consistently sized. “As social animals, prehistoric societies likely featured varied divisions of labor,” he adds. In such contexts, exceptional intelligence may not have been a significant advantage.

Weber is intrigued by the notion that our brains grew not due to natural selection, but rather when constraints were lifted. “That’s a compelling idea,” he remarks.

Harvati suggests cooking may have played a critical role in this evolution. Since the brain demands substantial energy to function, and cooked food offers higher caloric value than raw, the advent of cooking could have provided the necessary energy boost for larger brains.

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Source: www.newscientist.com

Scientists Extract Ancient Human DNA from Cave Walls: A Breakthrough in Archaeological Research

Posted on July 2, 2026 by Igor Mitreski

For the first time in history, researchers have successfully extracted ancient human DNA directly from cave walls. While their findings do not definitively connect ancient DNA preservation to the creation of cave art, they reveal that traces of human DNA can persist on cave surfaces for thousands of years.

Representative rock art from 11 sites analyzed by Bossams Mesa et al. Image credit: Bossoms Mesa et al. 10.1038/s41467-026-74234-2.

A significant challenge in human prehistory research is linking cultural artifacts to the groups that created them.

Ancient DNA studies have bridged this gap by analyzing DNA from skeletons, sediments, and increasingly, from the artifacts themselves.

However, rock art—crucial to understanding human culture—has typically eluded paleogenetic analysis due to its lack of direct connection to excavated cave floors.

This limitation has hindered discussions about authorship, including debates on whether Neanderthals were responsible for rock art alongside early modern humans.

“Some of the art was applied to cave walls by spraying or rubbing pigments onto the surface,” explained Dr. Hipolito Collado Giraldo, an archaeologist and rock art expert for the Extremadura government in Spain.

“Given the extreme sensitivity of current DNA analysis techniques, we aimed to determine whether this contact could leave DNA traces in the rock art, potentially revealing the genetic profiles of its creators.”

Dr. Corrado Giraldo and a team from Germany, Spain, and Portugal assessed the DNA preservation of pigment samples collected from 24 rock art panels in 11 caves across Spain and Portugal.

The paintings, primarily in red ocher, featured simple marks (from nine locations), dots, hand-drawn stencils (Cave of Maltraviso, Spain), and figurative images (Cave of Altamira, Spain).

The team also analyzed unpainted sections of the cave walls, sediments, animal bones, and bird bone fragments used for spraying pigments.

The most promising results were found in the Escoural Cave in Portugal, where samples taken from colored calcite shells unexpectedly yielded genetic material from one or more humans, with no animal DNA detected.

Similar findings emerged from the uncolored wall samples taken in the same cave.

Considering that sediments and environmental sources typically contain diverse animal DNA, the researchers concluded that the human DNA found in Escoural Cave likely originated from direct contact rather than surrounding soil.

Samples from Escoural and three unpigmented wall samples from Covalón Cave in Asturias revealed mixed human and animal DNA, indicating indirect routes of contact, like people transporting sediment on their hands and feet.

In Cobaron, genetic analysis of two wall samples linked their DNA to Western hunter-gatherers who lived in Europe approximately 5,200 to 16,700 years ago, showing probable female origins. Another wall sample from Escoural Cave indicated a male source.

Despite extensive research, usable ancient human DNA was recovered from only one of the 24 painted panels, and none from the airbrushed pigment of Altamira’s bird bones. This suggests that protected pigmented cave surfaces hold minimal detectable genetic material over extended periods.

Consequently, the study could not substantiate who created the paintings, including whether the DNA near the Escoural pigments belonged to the artist or resulted from unrelated human activity in the cave.

“While we cannot conclusively link the ancient human DNA found to the creation of rock art, this is the first evidence that human DNA has been preserved on cave walls for thousands of years,” noted Alba Bossams Mesa, a postdoctoral researcher at the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology.

“It’s exciting to think we may have discovered a novel approach to studying prehistoric human existence.”

“This study fundamentally alters our understanding of where ancient DNA can be located,” said paleogeneticist Dr. Matthias Mayer of the Max Planck Institute.

“We were surprised to discover that ancient DNA is recoverable not just from pigment samples but also from cave walls with no visible evidence of prior human activity.”

“The preserved human DNA on cave walls exhibits significant diversity,” Bossams-Mesa shared.

“When this DNA survives, it tells a compelling narrative. While these initial findings are promising, our priority is to enhance our methods and identify conditions favorable for higher success rates.”

“This is just the beginning. We now understand that cave walls serve as genetic archives of past human existence,” Dr. Meyer confirmed.

“The next phase involves testing additional locations, art styles, and techniques that minimally invasive sampling allows, especially focusing on hand-painted stencils and figurative art in well-preserved caves.”

“With ongoing research, we may uncover the identities of some cave painting creators. It may even lead us to identify the faces, or at least the genetic profiles, of the artists behind these works.”

The findings were documented in a research paper published in Nature Communications on June 23rd.

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A. Bossams Mesa et al. 2026. Investigating ancient human DNA left on cave walls and rock paintings. Nat Commun 17, 5561;doi: 10.1038/s41467-026-74234-2

Source: www.sci.news

Exploring the Challenges of Childbirth in Primates: A Comparison with Human Experience

Posted on June 29, 2026 by Igor Mitreski

Unique Childbirth Method Among Golden Lion Tamarins

Credit: Edwin Giesbers/naturepl.com

Childbirth poses significant challenges across the primate family, notably for humans. Recent research into primate anatomy reveals that many species contend with narrow pelvises that hinder birthing larger-headed infants. This issue dates back to the earliest primates over 50 million years ago.

Traditionally, it was believed that the unique birthing challenges faced by humans emerged from evolution, particularly following the adoption of bipedal locomotion, which constrained pelvic width. As human brains evolved larger, so did infant head sizes, creating a mismatch with pelvis dimensions that couldn’t sufficiently accommodate safe delivery.

Earlier studies suggested that other primates had it easier. Anthropologist Adolf Schulz’s influential research in the 1940s claimed that infants in most primate species fit comfortably within the maternal pelvis.

However, Schulz’s analysis may have contained errors, according to Nicole Torres Tamayo at University College London. “The flaw lay in applying human pelvic measurements across all primate species,” she explains.

Schulz identified certain anatomical landmarks on the human pelvis, hypothesizing they could correspond to those in other primates. However, the human pelvis is uniquely shaped. His landmarks inaccurately defined an inclined plane above the actual birth canal, leading to an overestimation of its size.

In a groundbreaking re-examination, Torres-Tamayo and her research team analyzed the birth canals of 29 primate species while also assessing newborn skull sizes. Their findings indicated that some primate pelvises are ill-suited for childbirth, especially in smaller species like bushbabies and tamarins, where newborn heads can be nearly double the size of the birth canal.

“We were surprised by the high incidence of these size discrepancies across many primate species,” states research team member Leah Betti.

This challenge may even extend back to our primate ancestors, particularly given the small size of early primates, as noted by Betty.

“It’s fascinating to analyze such a diverse dataset,” adds Nicole Webb from the University of Zurich, Switzerland. “These species exhibit varied lifestyles, habitats, and anatomical diversity.”

Different primate species have developed adaptive strategies to cope with these complications. For instance, bush babies and tamarins can dislocate their pelvic bones, temporarily enlarging the birth canal. However, humans are unable to perform this adaptation, as it would make bipedal movement excruciatingly painful.

Interestingly, Torres-Tamayo, Betti, and their colleagues observed that larger great apes experience fewer birthing challenges. This might be due to their size compared to smaller tree-dwelling primates. As such, humans are further distinguished by their unique birth difficulties, making them the only great apes encountering these issues, as Betty noted.

Nonetheless, Webb casts doubt on this conclusion. A study she and her colleagues published in 2024 concluded that even chimpanzees face tight matches between birth canal dimensions and newborn head sizes. “This mismatch is curious and could indicate methodological flaws,” Webb states. “The findings from this new study provide compelling reasons to reassess our assumptions.”

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Source: www.newscientist.com

New Research Reveals Origins of Human Laughter: Insights into Its Evolution

Posted on June 29, 2026 by Igor Mitreski

Human laughter, characterized by rapid and rhythmically timed bursts, is not exclusive to humans. Recent research from the University of Warwick and the University of Portsmouth reveals that all great apes, including orangutans, gorillas, and chimpanzees, share the same fundamental timing structure for laughter. This finding indicates that our common ancestor with these great apes was capable of recognizable smiling at least 15 million years ago.

Analysis of laughter tempo in five great ape species: orangutans, gorillas, bonobos, chimpanzees, and humans. Points represent individual observations, with color coding for evolutionary distance. Image credit: De Gregorio et al., 10.1038/s42003-026-10499-z.

Chiara de Gregorio, a researcher at the University of Warwick, stated, “Sounds do not fossilize, complicating the traceability of song sounds, spoken words, and languages.”

She added, “Comparative studies of the behaviors of our closest living relatives, the (non-human) great apes, serve as the only extant model for the vocal abilities and adaptive features that our ancestors may have lost.”

“Although every major hominid lineage has developed unique vocalization repertoires shaped by their specific social ecologies, laughter remains a conserved vocalization across species and age-sex categories.”

This study recorded laughter in various tickle play and social play scenarios involving 17 individuals from all five great ape species.

The research comprised four orangutans, two gorillas, three bonobos, four chimpanzees, and four humans, including children aged 6 months to 7 years.

Analysis showed that laughter across all species is isochronous, meaning it occurs at regular, evenly spaced intervals. This rhythm mirrors those found in music and speech.

Scientists have confirmed that this fundamental rhythmic structure was already present in our common ancestor 15 million years ago and continues to be remarkably conserved across modern great apes.

However, they identified noteworthy differences along the evolutionary line. The closer a species is to humans on the evolutionary tree, the faster and more variable their laughter becomes, with increased sensitivity to social contexts.

Humans were unique in adjusting the tempo of their laughter depending on whether they were engaged in tickling or free play.

The researchers noted that variations in human laughter tempo are perceived as more emotionally warm and socially positive, indicating that rhythmic flexibility holds significant social implications.

Dr. Adriano Lamelia from the University of Warwick remarked, “Assessing the vocal forms of extinct ancestors directly is impossible.”

“Laughter is an evolutionarily ancient trait shared by all extant great apes, providing a valuable evolutionary perspective on vocal changes that occurred throughout human evolution leading to the emergence of the first humans.”

“This research counters the classical view that the first humans suddenly acquired distinct vocal control abilities; instead, the evolution of laughter illustrates the continuum of vocal control capabilities that developed cumulatively over 15 million years.”

For further details, refer to the findings published in the Journal on June 25, 2026, in Communication Biology.

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C. De Gregorio et al. 2026. The rhythm and timing of laughter reveal that human vocal plasticity is part of the hominid continuum. Comm Biol 9,824; doi: 10.1038/s42003-026-10499-z

Source: www.sci.news

First Discovery of Ancient Human DNA in Cave Paintings: Insights into Our Ancestry

Posted on June 26, 2026 by Igor Mitreski

Samples Collected from Rock Art in Tiberin, Spain

Avamia Archeos Alberto Martinez Villa

Ancient Rock Art Research — Samples Collected from Rock Art in Tiberin, Spain

Avamia Archeos Alberto Martinez Villa

A groundbreaking study conducted in the caves of Spain and Portugal reveals that ancient human DNA can persist for thousands of years on the surfaces of cave walls and rock art. This monumental discovery offers new insights into prehistoric humans and poses intriguing questions about whether Neanderthals engaged in cave painting.

“It’s the beginning of a new era,” says Genevieve von Petzinger, a researcher from the University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa. “This allows us to potentially connect with the actual artist who created these remarkable works. It’s truly extraordinary.”

From 2022 to 2025, the First Art Project focused on dating the oldest cave paintings, collecting samples from 11 caves across Spain and Portugal featuring rock art. These paintings, believed to be among the earliest known forms, include graphic images such as triangles, dots, and hand stencils executed with red ocher paint. Researchers extracted small shavings of paint and calcite layers formed on cave walls via mineral precipitation.

Given that cave art is typically crafted using tools like fingers or by spitting paint, the researchers aimed to determine if the DNA of the artists had been preserved. While ancient human DNA has been known to exist in cave sediments, its presence on cave walls was previously undocumented.

This changed with the significant discovery of ancient human DNA in red spots that resemble semicolons within Portugal’s Escur Cave.

“It was a pleasant surprise,” notes Alba Bossams Mesa, from the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig, Germany. “This is the first instance of ancient human DNA being identified on a cave wall. However, I cannot definitively conclude that this DNA belongs to the artist.” Bossams-Mesa adds, “It could be from someone who encountered the artwork at a later time, or perhaps even someone who merely sneezed.”

Nevertheless, this opens up exciting possibilities for identifying the creators of the artwork. “It’s as if the cave walls have transformed into the pages of an unfinished book, gradually filled with new discoveries,” states Hipolito Collado Giraldo, an Archaeologist from the government of Extremadura, Spain.

Pigment Samples Collected from Spain’s Altamira Cave Ceiling

Matthias Meyer

Another unexpected finding emerged when researchers sampled a control area of the cave wall devoid of artifacts, where they also discovered ancient human DNA. This genetic material likely originated from prehistoric visitors who touched the walls. “We were genuinely surprised,” says Corrado Giraldo. This suggests that even where cave paintings or archaeological items are absent, cave walls can unveil critical insights about ancient humans who frequented these sites.

Furthermore, the findings indicated that the DNA found on the walls of Escoral Cave came from direct contact with ancient humans, rather than sediment that had settled on the walls. In contrast to mixed animal DNA found in cave sediments, the genetic material on the Escoral walls solely consisted of human DNA.

The ancient DNA also provided intriguing insights into the individuals from whom it originated: three samples were primarily female and one was male. This genetic profile aligns closely with a group historically known as Western hunter-gatherers, dating from approximately 5,200 to 17,000 years ago.

Though the recovered DNA is insufficient for precise dating, it is known that Escoral Cave had been sealed off for the past 4,000 to 5,000 years, indicating the genetic material may be older.

This research marks only the beginning. Earlier this month, First Art researchers, including von Petzinger and Corrado Giraldo, conducted thorough sampling at various other caves in Spain, such as Nerja and Aldales, which are linked to Neanderthal art, although that connection remains contentious. “One question I am eager to explore is whether Neanderthals created art,” remarks Bossams-Mesa.

The potential of extracting ancient DNA from cave walls could revolutionize our understanding of ancient humans and their artistic expressions, asserts Francesco d’Errico from the University of Bordeaux, who was not associated with the study. “Did the artist identify as male, female, or perhaps even an animal? Were the drawings on the same panel crafted by the same individual? Will Neanderthal DNA eventually be discovered in the ancient paintings of the Iberian Peninsula, or does the hand stencil found in Indonesia contain Denisovan DNA? The possibilities are vast.”

However, ancient DNA was discovered in only one of the 24 rock art panels sampled, indicating that preservation may be more of an exception than a standard practice. “Currently, the success rate is quite low,” Bossams-Mesa observes. This may improve as researchers polish their methodologies for extracting minimal quantities of DNA from cave samples.

Corrado Giraldo expresses excitement about uncovering valuable information without the need for excavations, which can be destructive in nature. “Excavation inherently alters parts of the archaeological record,” he explains. “This groundbreaking discovery opens avenues for uncovering and reconstructing entirely new narratives without excavation—narratives that deepen our understanding of past peoples and societies.”

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Source: www.newscientist.com

Breakthrough Discovery: Master Gene Unveils Secrets of Human Development

Posted on June 25, 2026 by Igor Mitreski

Understanding Embryo Development to Enhance IVF Success Rates

Philip Prairie/Science Photo Library

Understanding Embryonic Development for IVF Success — Understanding Embryo Development to Enhance IVF Success Rates

Philip Prairie/Science Photo Library

Recent research has unveiled crucial master genes, specifically Nanog, that govern human fetal development. This discovery was achieved through targeted modifications of fertilized egg DNA utilizing advanced CRISPR base editing technology.

This breakthrough has the potential to significantly elevate success rates in in vitro fertilization (IVF) treatments. As noted by Kathy Niakan from Cambridge University, understanding the early stages of human development is essential not just for enhancing IVF but also for propelling stem cell biology forward. “Greater insights will have far-reaching benefits for regenerative medicine and stem cell research,” she adds.

While the involvement of Nanog in embryonic development has been established through animal studies, it is essential to note that its role differs significantly in humans compared to other species like mice. Once fertilization occurs, cells differentiate into three primary types: those that will become the placenta, the yolk sac, or the embryo itself. Disabling the Nanog gene in mouse fertilized eggs using base editing resulted in zero cells developing into yolk sac progenitors. Base editing is a nuanced version of CRISPR that modifies one DNA base at a time, reducing the risk of unintended genetic mutations compared to earlier CRISPR methods, clarifies Niakan.

Conversely, inactivity of the Nanog gene in human eggs donated from IVF patients led to no cells maturing into embryo-forming cells, underscoring its critical role in initiating human developmental processes.

Despite appearing normal under microscopic examination, embryos lacking Nanog fail to implant successfully. Niakan states, “Approximately half of the embryos that appear viable based solely on their shape still cannot implant.” Identifying vital markers or genes, such as Nanog, could potentially enhance IVF success rates, she notes.

Niakan’s research represents one of the pioneering studies utilizing base editing on human embryos. The initial endeavors began as early as 2017. However, previous studies focused on embryos discarded due to abnormalities, thereby limiting applicability to healthy embryos. Recently, Dieter Egli presented findings at Columbia University, detailing base editing in two-cell embryos in a preprint study.

Niakan clarifies, “Our goals were fundamentally distinct. We aimed to decipher the functions of critical genes in human embryos, setting a new precedent for this type of research.” In contrast, Egli’s work primarily seeks to correct mutations associated with diseases.

Yet, Egli expressed skepticism regarding Niakan’s findings, asserting that there is no substantial evidence of Nanog‘s functional importance in human embryogenesis. Niakan, however, argues that her team conducted further research to support their conclusions.

All three studies converge on the understanding that CRISPR-based editing techniques pose significantly fewer risks than traditional CRISPR methods previously employed. However, according to Mary Herbert, a collaborator with Niakan’s team, we remain distant from the ethical application of CRISPR base editing for creating genetically edited children due to current technological limitations. “The technology isn’t ready for that yet,” she emphasizes.

A significant challenge remains the phenomenon of mosaicism, where gene edits are inconsistently successful across various cells in an embryo. This implicates that even corrected mutations may not prevent potential diseases in the resulting child. For instance, Egli’s team faced an 80% mosaic rate in their embryos. Niakan’s team, by implementing edits earlier in the fertilization process, encountered a lower but still concerning mosaic rate of 50%.

Niakan morally cautions against attempts for child gene edits at this stage but remains open to future possibilities: “I advocate for more basic research that is accessible for public discussion.”

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Source: www.newscientist.com

New Research Disproves Longstanding Belief That Human Ancestors Simply Became Bigger Over Time

Posted on June 23, 2026 by Igor Mitreski

For decades, paleoanthropologists have posited that hominins, the ancestors of modern humans, evolved gradually over millions of years. However, new research from the University of Reading significantly complicates this narrative. The most notable increase in body size took place approximately 2 to 2.5 million years ago with species such as Homo rudolfensis and Homo erectus/ergaster. In contrast, Homo floresiensis and Homo naledi maintained smaller statures akin to early humans like Australopithecus, averaging 40 kg in weight and resembling the height of a child. Other branches of Homo exhibited a marked increase in size, with Homo erectus/ergaster being the first to commonly exceed 60 kg, aligning their weight more closely with that of modern humans.

Homo heidelbergensis, Neanderthals, and Cro-Magnons. Image credit: SINC / Jose Antonio Peñas.

Body size is a critical aspect of organismal biology, influencing various factors including ecology, life history, physiology, and neuroanatomy.

In hominin evolution, increased body size is correlated with larger brain capacity, enhanced bipedalism, and a greater range of mobility.

Despite this significance, a consensus on constant increases in hominin body size over time remains elusive.

Recent studies provide conflicting perspectives, with some challenging the general evolutionary trend while others highlight increases in overall weight and height.

The smaller-bodied species, Homo floresiensis and Homo naledi, are frequently cited as exceptions.

Moreover, some researchers propose that increases in size might be lineage-specific, occurring within certain Homo groups.

However, lineage-specific size changes have yet to be analyzed alongside general trends using a unified model.

“Over time, various studies have drawn different conclusions about whether our ancestors consistently increased in size or experienced rapid growth during pivotal moments in human evolution,” stated lead author Dr. Jacob Gardner, a researcher at the University of Reading.

“The disparity arises because each study has focused on different parts of a much larger puzzle.”

“By integrating all available fossils, considering multiple competing theories, and clarifying inter-species relationships, a clearer picture begins to emerge. The answer likely incorporates elements from these varying theories.”

“The narrative of human evolution is not solely one of continuous growth; it involves significant changes that occurred later within our own genus, alongside the development of other lineages that took distinct evolutionary paths.”

In their recent study, Dr. Gardner and colleagues assessed estimated body weights from 386 fossil specimens across 21 human species, ranging from ancient australopiths to modern Homo sapiens.

Employing advanced statistical models to elucidate evolutionary relationships between species, they discovered that the dynamics of human body size are far more intricate than a straightforward upward trajectory.

The most prominent trend identified indicates a considerable increase in size, particularly in the later members of the Homo genus—occurring after Homo habilis—rather than a consistent growth through all of history.

Species such as Homo ergaster and Homo erectus exemplified a notable size jump, coinciding with other key evolutionary advancements, including improved bipedalism and dietary shifts towards carnivory.

A widespread gradual increase in size across all hominins receives moderate backing and is heavily influenced by the fossil datasets and estimation approaches applied, which remain contentious areas within the field.

Two species notably stand out as consistent anomalies: Homo floresiensis from Indonesia and Homo naledi, both of which consistently fall below the average weight forecasts for their respective time frames.

“Our findings indicate that the evolution of human body size isn’t merely a tale of steady progress,” remarked co-author Dr. Thomas Pushell from the University of Oxford.

“While there has generally been an increase in weight throughout our evolutionary timeline, the majority of significant shifts occurred later within the Homo genus.”

“This transformation aligns with broader developments in how our ancestors navigated their environments and adapted to varying ecological niches, underscoring the close relationship between body size and major behavioral and ecological changes.”

For more insights, refer to the findings published today in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.

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Jacob D. Gardner et al. 2026. Competing models of human body size evolution. PNAS 123 (27): e2521732123; doi: 10.1073/pnas.2521732123

Source: www.sci.news

First Instance of Fully Autonomous Drone Engaging and Killing Human Soldier

Posted on June 11, 2026 by Igor Mitreski

Drones are prevalent on Ukrainian battlefields, typically operated by human pilots.

Frank Herman/Getty Images

Drones on Ukrainian battlefields — Drones are prevalent on Ukrainian battlefields, typically operated by human pilots.

Frank Herman/Getty Images

In a groundbreaking event, a fully autonomous drone has reportedly killed a soldier on the battlefield without any human oversight. This significant development, according to Ukrainian defense executives, signifies a pivotal moment in the ongoing conflict.

This unprecedented test involved deploying ten AI-operated Terminator drones along the front lines of the Ukraine war, resulting in the death of a Russian soldier.

“We tried it,” stated Alexander Kokhanovsky, the drone manufacturer responsible for the technology during an interview. New Scientist covered the remarks made at a press event held by the Embassy of Ukraine. “This was merely a test; we have never executed such an operation before.” [for broader perspective]

The test, conducted two years ago, involved a quadcopter drone programmed to advance towards the front lines, traversing 3 to 5 kilometers in roughly 10 minutes, before activating “terminator mode,” where an AI model identifies and engages targets.

“We simply launch the drone, and we know that everything in its vicinity will be neutralized. Everything the drone detects is targeted for destruction,” Kokhanovsky explained. “There’s no connection to the drone; you can’t view any video feed; whatever targets the drone identifies are eliminated.”

Due to the lack of visibility into the drones’ targeting systems, human-operated drones were later deployed to assess the area, which revealed casualties that included “several soldiers and a truck,” Kokhanovsky reported. Although there is no official record of the autonomous drones specifically targeting these victims, it was concluded they were responsible.

Kokhanovsky clarified that he did not directly participate in the tests, which were undertaken by unmentioned military units near Bakhmut and Chasiv Yar areas during a Ukrainian counteroffensive. The Ukrainian Ministry of Defense did not provide comments on the current legal status regarding testing and utilizing fully autonomous weapons.

While AI technology is increasingly adopted in military operations globally, enabling the efficient analysis of vast intelligence data and automating certain weapon functions, human involvement remains essential. Kokhanovsky’s admission represents the most concrete evidence to date indicating that combat-related deaths resulted solely from AI operations.

Officials from the defense industry stated at a press conference that despite current Ukrainian regulations forbidding the use of AI in critical target interception stages, numerous systems leverage AI throughout various phases of their operation. Kokhanovsky noted that the government acknowledges the rising potential of AI and is in discussions with defense manufacturers regarding possible regulatory changes.

A 2023 report indicated that some Ukrainian attack drones equipped with AI were autonomously identifying and striking targets, but these deployments primarily targeted vehicles rather than infantry. As of now, no human casualties have been confirmed.

Although an international ban on autonomous weapons capable of lethal actions without human oversight is not established, UN Secretary-General António Guterres expressed last year that: “There is no place in our world for autonomous lethal weapons systems.”

The United Nations has raised concerns regarding the potential of such weapons to eliminate human discretion from combat scenarios, potentially violating international humanitarian and human rights laws. There’s also a real possibility that autonomous systems might mistakenly engage friendly forces or civilians.

Numerous militaries have engineered technologies that automate various aspects of target engagement. The U.S. has developed software that compiles and evaluates extensive data to pinpoint battlefield targets for drone strikes, theoretically demanding human confirmation. There are also claims that the U.S. is advancing technologies for drones designed to autonomously identify and neutralize threats.

A 2021 United Nations report hinted that a Turkish-manufactured Kargu-2 quadcopter could have autonomously engaged human targets. This report noted an absence of specific details regarding the claims’ origins or confirmation of casualties, but did suggest that Libya’s Government of National Accord utilized drones against Haftar’s forces.

Major Danilo Polozhukno, an officer with Ukraine’s 21st Independent Unmanned Systems Regiment, who was unaware of or involved in the test, informed New Scientist that his battalion employs semi-autonomous systems, but human operators are consistently engaged.

“These drone systems and platforms ease the workload for operators by facilitating automatic target acquisition and tracking, along with autonomous guidance as they near the target. However, we do not incorporate fully autonomous systems that solely determine and engage targets without operator involvement,” Polozhukno remarked. “Ukraine is deeply committed to adhering to international humanitarian law and safeguarding the rights of all combatants, prioritizing decision-making that minimizes civilian casualties.”

Maria Rosalia Taddeo from the University of Oxford asserts that AI-assisted killings strip soldiers of their dignity and evade accountability for attackers, calling for a ban. “It’s more than just problematic; it’s alarming,” she commented. “Do we intend to foster a society where individuals can kill without human oversight, where the government permits such lethality?”

Anthony King, a researcher at the University of Exeter, stated that while fully autonomous attacks devoid of human participation are technologically feasible, their effectiveness may be overestimated.

“It’s entirely plausible that the government might endorse this for a military edge,” he noted. “Nevertheless, the actual usage of fully autonomous drones within the conflict remains minimal at best.”

“Thus, maintaining human oversight is not only morally imperative but militarily advantageous at this current juncture,” King asserted.

Kokhanovsky indicated that the Terminator project has stalled since the test due to Ukrainian regulations. As the CEO of Aerocenter, a Ukrainian drone manufacturing firm, he clarified that he was not involved in the tests as the company had not been established at that time. Aerocenter focuses on developing autonomous interceptor drones intended to target and neutralize incoming Russian Shahed suicide drones before they can reach populated areas and critical infrastructure.

The ALITA system developed by the company boasts 16 launch pads equipped with 64 drones. Set for completion by October, it aims to autonomously monitor and engage incoming threats at speeds of 450 kilometers per hour, capable of intercepting small drones and helicopters alike.

However, existing Ukrainian regulations restrict fully autonomous operations, necessitating human identification of targets during final interception phases. This protocol enables a minimal two-person crew to operate 64 drones seamlessly, significantly reducing manpower.

“All stages of this operation can be executed manually or automatically, but the final engagement must be manually conducted,” Kokhanovsky emphasized, advocating for a change in regulations. “I’d advocate for that shift,” he concluded.

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Source: www.newscientist.com

Unlocking Human Multitasking Potential: How Science Shows Practice Enhances Your Skills

Posted on June 4, 2026 by Igor Mitreski

Recent studies reveal that the human brain can learn to multitask effortlessly, often without our awareness.

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For years, experts believed that the brain couldn’t handle multiple tasks simultaneously. This was attributed to the prefrontal cortex, a key brain region responsible for logical planning and problem-solving, known for its rigidity.

“We are wired to focus on one task at a time, which is often beneficial,” explained Maximilian Riesenhuber, a neuroscience professor at Georgetown University and lead researcher of the study published in the Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience. “This allows individuals to maintain focus while managing other responsibilities effectively.”

Previous research suggested that when individuals multitask, their overloaded prefrontal cortex swiftly switches between tasks.

Riesenhuber’s experiments demonstrated that the brain uses alternative strategies that develop over time through practice and experience, enabling unconscious task execution and freeing the prefrontal cortex for other duties.

The study involved 11 participants aged 18-29, who spent several weeks using an app to categorize computer-generated car images based on shared characteristics, repeating the process over 30,000 times within 5 to 10 weeks.

Initially, imaging tools indicated high activation in the prefrontal cortex; however, after weeks of task repetition, participants utilized the temporal cortex, a region associated with long-term memory, for categorization.

Riesenhuber noted that the findings suggest the prefrontal cortex can forge connections to relay information to the temporal cortex more effectively.

“This represents a form of automation, liberating the brain’s front regions to engage in additional tasks that require attention,” he stated.

This ability to master multitasking without conscious effort explains several automatic functions in daily life.

Riesenhuber pointed out that while novice drivers must fully concentrate on operating a vehicle, seasoned drivers can engage in conversation or listen to music while driving.

Michael Schoenberg, a licensed psychologist and neurosurgery expert at the University of South Florida, not involved in the study, emphasized that this research sheds light on the development of specialized skills, like analyzing brain scans or performing at Olympic levels in gymnastics.

“I have colleagues proficient in EEG tests, while I struggle to interpret them,” Schoenberg remarked. “In sports, mastering activities like the balance beam demands considerable focus and concentration, but repetitive training fosters muscle memory.”

Riesenhuber believes this principle also applies to essential aspects of childhood development, including learning to recognize objects or names, enabling automatic responses throughout life.

“We don’t examine a tree and ponder if it’s a tree,” he noted. “People aren’t born with knowledge of objects; they learn to inherently associate meaning with their surroundings.”

Variability in brain rewiring capabilities suggests some individuals naturally excel at multitasking. The Georgetown experiment showcased significant differences in how quickly participants could engage their temporal cortex and relieve the prefrontal cortex for car categorization tasks.

“This prompts many new inquiries,” Riesenhuber said. “What triggers this variation? The answer remains elusive.”

Optimistically, Schoenberg asserts that everyone possesses the potential to optimize their multitasking abilities, regardless of the decline in learning speed often seen in older age.

Frustration Can Impede Progress

Beyond patience and perseverance, few shortcuts exist for enhancing task efficiency.

“The study required around four weeks,” he explained. “The essential takeaway is that multitasking necessitates consistent practice for efficiency. Rapid improvement isn’t realistic. It demands time to form new neural pathways.”

Dr. David T. Jones, a Mayo Clinic neurologist, cautions that the brain has processing limits, so self-frustration can hinder multitasking efforts.

“Managing emotions is as demanding as sorting numbers or identifying images,” Jones added. “Self-criticism just adds to your cognitive load, making performance suffer.”

A practical strategy for handling multiple pieces of information is to break them into smaller, manageable segments, akin to how we handle phone numbers.

“Memorizing lengthy strings of digits isn’t necessary; we categorize them using dashes,” he explained. “Thus, three numbers become a single item, making it easier to hold that chunk in your memory.”

How AI Influences Multitasking

Schoenberg warned against excessive reliance on technology for multitasking, like using AI for writing or data analysis, which may counteract our brain’s developed multitasking capabilities. A new study indicates that our multitasking proficiency only emerges after gaining a specific level of expertise, showing that prolonged dependence on AI could obstruct the acquisition of complex skills.

“Mastery depends on our ability to recognize patterns; over-reliance on AI prevents that,” Schoenberg stated. “Developing efficient pattern recognition enhances our capacity to multitask, enabling quicker decisions and simultaneous integration of various elements.”

Source: www.nbcnews.com

Ancient Human Habitation Uncovered at 2,000 Meters: Experts Stunned by Mountain Discovery

Posted on June 2, 2026 by Igor Mitreski

A mysterious ancient settlement has been uncovered in Spain’s Pyrenees, shedding light on prehistoric human life.

Documented in a groundbreaking study, the prehistoric cave known as Cova 338 is situated 2,235 meters (7,333 feet) above sea level in the Nuria Valley. This remarkable find is the highest dwelling of its kind ever discovered in the region.

For decades, archaeologists believed that elevations above 2,000 meters (6,562 feet) were only transient stops for roaming groups. However, new evidence reveals that between 5,000 and 1,000 years BC, several groups occupied these caves for extended periods.

Interestingly, the archaeological findings indicate that these occupations were not continuous. There were significant periods of abandonment, suggesting that the inhabitants returned intentionally rather than out of necessity.

The excavation of Cova 338 took place between 2021 and 2023, spearheaded by researchers from Spain’s Autonomous University of Barcelona (UAB) and the Institute of Paleoecology, Human Evolution and Society of Catalonia (IPHES-CERCA).

During their investigations, the team uncovered fire remains, animal bones, pottery shards, and even two unique pendants—one crafted from a sea shell and the other from a brown bear’s tooth.

This pendant made from a bear incisor recovered from Cova 338 is a rare find, believed to carry symbolic significance – Photo credit: IPHES-CERCA

The cave also contains a collection of green minerals, likely malachite, a copper carbonate mineral, indicating some of the earliest evidence of copper extraction in Western Europe.

This suggests that these materials were transported to the caves for processing, highlighting a systematic approach to resource exploitation in high-altitude settings.

Researchers believe that these activities were meticulously organized, implying that people inhabited this location at specific historical moments for designated purposes.

“Mountains were not barriers, but active sites in the economic and territorial organization of prehistoric communities,” stated Dr. Udaldo Carbonell, co-author of the study.

Main author Carlos Tornello remarked, “Historically, these mountainous locations were seen as peripheral. Our findings reveal repeated occupations accompanied by complex activities and deliberate exploitation of mineral resources,” said the professor from UAB’s Department of Prehistory.

This significant study was published in the journal Frontiers of Environmental Archeology.

Read more:

Source: www.sciencefocus.com

Leveraging Human Error as a Tactic Against Large-Scale Language Models

Posted on June 1, 2026 by Igor Mitreski

Typos are a sign of a human writer…for now.

Marc De Simone/Alamy

Recently, a friend shared over coffee some disheartening feedback she received: “They said it was good, but it looked like it was written by Artificial Intelligence (AI).” Knowing her, I quickly understood the situation. Her credibility was not in question due to poor quality work, but rather because her writing was exceptionally clear, fluent, and sophisticated.

The rapid evolution of AI tools is transforming our perceptions of effective writing. In today’s digital landscape, demonstrating that authentic individuals stand behind the words is increasingly crucial, rather than relying on ambiguous language models. Ironically, one of the ways to appear more human is to compromise the quality of your writing.

As Alan Turing suggested in the 1950s, intentionally introducing typos might enhance perceptions of authenticity. This advice was ironically directed at machines, yet it presents a paradox in human writing.

My friend’s experience is not unique; clear writing, once a hallmark of skill, is now met with skepticism by readers, reviewers, and recruiters alike. Skills that previously showcased intelligence—clarity, precision, and organization—are losing their value as indicators of competence.

One significant challenge is that AI-generated content is difficult to detect, leading to a rise in false positives, where human writers are incorrectly accused of using AI tools. A study found it difficult to distinguish between human-generated and machine-generated text, especially when they are mixed. Consequently, many universities have halted the use of traditional plagiarism detection tools for identifying AI content due to reliability issues.

In this environment of uncertainty, some writers have resorted to the only remaining signal: the cleverly named human error. Repeated words, minor grammatical mistakes, and awkward phrasing are no longer seen as carelessness but rather as signs of genuine human touch. Errors are strategically introduced as qualifications.

Intentional errors are emerging as a strategy in competitive scenarios, including university submissions and job applications, where recruiters now advise candidates to include one deliberate typo in cover letters to indicate a personal touch.

However, this practice is precarious; the value of imperfections as signals of authenticity may soon erode. As these characteristics become recognized, imitation will follow. Users may demand AI systems that mimic a less refined, more human touch, prompting a future where machines exhibit a coordinated fallibility.

The road ahead for restoring trust in authorship remains ambiguous. Some situations may require more direct evidence of authorship, including in-person assessments and handwritten submissions without AI intervention. Alternatively, in an AI-saturated world, the key skill may become the effective use of AI tools. Some universities now allow AI usage during exams as long as prompt submissions accompany the work.

Ultimately, the markers of authenticity and authorship are becoming increasingly elusive. Even when they are present, they arrive under a cloud of doubt.

Topic:

Source: www.newscientist.com

Mirror Review: Exploring AI’s Impact on Human Relationships Through an Enchanting Dance Performance

Posted on May 29, 2026 by Igor Mitreski

A scene from “Mirror” by Alexander Whitley Dance Company

Credit: Oskein

Alexander Whitley Dance Company, Miller performance — A scene from “Mirror” by Alexander Whitley Dance Company

Credit: Oskein

While traditional ballet featuring tutus and pointe shoes remains my favorite theater experience, I recently attended an engaging contemporary production at Sadler’s Wells East in London.

The performance, Mirror,
presented by the acclaimed Alexander Whitley Dance Company, is scheduled for another showing at the Royal Opera House on June 4. This innovative work draws inspiration from the thought-provoking book AI Mirror by Professor Shannon Valler, who explores the complex ethics surrounding data and artificial intelligence. Valler emphasizes the importance of finding a balance between viewing AI as a replacement for human agency and recognizing its potential existential threats.

As a science journalist, I appreciate the nuanced approach Valler takes in her writing; however, I found the same balance lacking in the choreography. The production’s captivating and slightly unsettling choreography and direction powerfully illustrate how our increasing interactions with AI and technology are shaping and distorting human relationships. I encourage you to experience it for yourself and form your own opinion.

Topics:

Artificial Intelligence/
Culture

Source: www.newscientist.com

Study Reveals Cows Can Identify Familiar Human Faces

Posted on May 25, 2026 by Igor Mitreski

A groundbreaking study from France’s National Institute for Agriculture, Food, and the Environment (INRAE) reveals that cattle (Bos taurus) can distinguish between familiar and unfamiliar people and are capable of matching a recognized voice to the correct face.

Research shows that cows can recognize human faces and associate them with familiar voices. Image credit: NeiFo.

“Cows are inherently social animals, having been domesticated 10,500 years ago,” explain researchers from INRAE, including Ocean Amishaw.

“They possess exceptional eyesight and a remarkably wide field of vision (330 degrees).”

“While the social cognitive abilities of cows regarding humans have remained largely unexplored, dairy cows, in particular, are often in close proximity to humans from birth, being bottle-fed and milked daily.”

“Emerging evidence indicates that domestic animals can recognize human faces, yet such abilities in cattle had not been previously validated.”

“Considering the variety of species capable of human recognition, it would be surprising if cows lacked this ability, warranting further investigation.”

To explore if cows can differentiate between familiar and unfamiliar faces, the research team studied 32 Prim Holstein cows.

The researchers presented the cows with silent videos of known and unknown male faces while tracking how long the cows gazed at each.

They conducted tests on cross-modal recognition, showing videos of familiar and unfamiliar faces while playing corresponding audio from two men, both reciting the same sentence.

Additionally, they monitored the cows’ heart rates during the video sessions to assess emotional responses.

The cows displayed less fear during silent videos, gazing longer at the images of unfamiliar faces, indicating their ability to differentiate between known and unknown individuals.

When combining visual and audio stimuli, cows spent more time observing videos when the audio matched the visual face, suggesting they could pair faces with familiar voices from their herd.

However, none of the familiar faces or voices appeared to significantly influence the cows’ emotional responses, as indicated by stable heart rates.

“Our findings indicate that cows can indeed differentiate between familiar and unfamiliar individuals and construct cross-modal representations of these individuals,” stated the authors.

“Future studies should investigate whether cows adjust their behavior based on the individual they are interacting with, reflecting their agency in human-animal relationships.”

These findings were published this month in the online journal PLoS ONE.

_____

O. Amishaw et al. 2026. Cows visually identify and cross-modally recognize familiar human faces in videos. PLoS One 21 (5): e0329529; doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0329529

Source: www.sci.news

Scientists Reveal the Largest Human Organ: What You Need to Know

Posted on May 16, 2026 by Igor Mitreski

Some scientists propose that the stroma is the largest organ in the human body, although this perspective is somewhat debated. Stay tuned for a detailed explanation.

The stroma, a recently discovered component of our anatomy, has only been identified in the last decade, leaving many unaware of its existence.

So, what exactly is stroma, where can it be found, and what functions does it serve?

Consider the stroma a vast network of channels that navigate around and between our cells and tissues, essentially the ‘spaces within spaces.’

These fluid-filled channels perform multiple functions: they buffer and support tissues, facilitate the transport of oxygen, nutrients, and waste, and play an integral role in our immune system.

Prior to 2018, this network was primarily viewed as simple interstitial fluid. While significant, researchers did not recognize it as a distinct organ or organized system. This notion changed when a groundbreaking paper compelled biologists to rethink their understanding.

Digital illustration depicting the interstitial network beneath the skin, showcasing fluid-filled channels interwoven among connective tissue scaffolds. – Photo credit: Getty

The study employed an advanced imaging method known as confocal laser endoscopy, which allows for real-time visualization of bodily functions. The importance of this real-time aspect underlines how we’ve historically overlooked crucial components of human anatomy.

During biopsies or autopsies, researchers often find that the tissues they evaluate are in a “disintegrated” state, as the interstitial fluid is typically expelled in laboratory settings.

Confocal laser endoscopy enables a three-dimensional view of bodily functions, revealing that this fluid doesn’t merely flow through compressed tissues. Instead, researchers observed open, interconnected channels supported by a scaffold of collagen and elastin fibers—a previously unseen aspect of anatomy.

Since the discovery of the stroma, discussions regarding its nature and function have intensified. For example, it could serve as a type of intracellular buffer.

These channels drain into lymph nodes, playing a significant role in waste removal and potentially acting as communication pathways within the body. They may also be involved in immune responses or serve as transport vehicles for white blood cells and cancer cells spread throughout the body. Additionally, they may contribute to swelling and inflammation.

Since the pivotal 2018 paper, debate has arisen about whether the stroma qualifies as an organ in its own right. Its spongy structure and multifunctionality contribute to this classification.

Estimates suggest that the stroma could encompass as much as 20% of the body’s volume.

Conversely, others argue that it is not a standalone organ but rather an intricate refinement of an existing network that carries out essential bodily functions.

Regardless, we are in the early stages of research, and scientists are just beginning to unravel how the stroma impacts our health and whether it might offer new avenues for treatments and medications.

This article answers the question posed by Joel Percival from Sutton Coldfield: “What is stroma?”

For inquiries, please contact us at: questions@sciencefocus.com or reach out via Facebook, Twitteror Instagram Page (please include your name and location).

Explore our ultimate collection of fun science facts and discover more amazing science content.

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Source: www.sciencefocus.com

Expert Review: Michael Bond Explores a Smart New Perspective on Human Exceptionalism in Animation – Recommended by New Scientist

Posted on May 16, 2026 by Igor Mitreski

Ancient Cave Art: “Internal Organs” in Lascaux, France

Photo by Tipijan/Getty Images

The Lascaux Caves: A Glimpse into Paleolithic Creativity — Ancient Cave Art: “Internal Organs” in Lascaux, France

Photo by Tipijan/Getty Images

Animate

By Michael Bond
Pan Macmillan UK | Pegasus USA (August)

Imagine capturing an animal, extending its lifespan, and filling its mind with knowledge, unsettling it with the concept of death. What would become of it? You may find a profoundly confused and anxious creature. I highly recommend Michael Bond’s thought-provoking novel, Animate: How Animals Shape the Human Mind, as a starting point for unraveling these complexities.

We are fundamentally animals, intertwined with nature, yet often we overlook this connection.

Animate delves into the intriguing and sometimes unsettling relationship between humans and animals that began after the last ice age. In the words of the former editor of New Scientist, the time was an Eden for ancient humans, filled with encounters with cave lions, wolves, bears, and more.

Witness the remarkable emotional art created in France’s caves like Lascaux, which embodies not just the essence of creatures but also their forms and movements. According to Bond, these representations are “essential and unadorned, more like reincarnation than art.”

Rarely do human figures appear in this cave art, and when they do, they are often ambiguous. This absence emphasizes the significance of animals; they were pivotal to survival, deeply embedded in human existence.

The Neolithic era marked a shift in human perception. Art evolved into abstract representations, stripping animals of their individuality. They became mere motifs on pottery as human exploitation of animals grew, resulting in a clear distinction between humans and animals.

Why this shift? Researcher Ernest Becker, in The Denial of Death, proposed that our acute awareness of mortality drives us toward irrationality, in contrast to animals, which merely exist without such existential baggage.

Human exceptionalism, while demarcating our species as superior, has had detrimental effects on countless non-human lives. Yet, it’s challenging to envision daily life without the comfort of this separation. Bond attempts to mend this divide but confronts the obstacles of our fear of death.

For centuries, writers have likened us to animals. Bond recalls David Hume, who noted that animals, like humans, utilize observation and experience to navigate their futures. This perspective evolved, particularly after Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution challenged human exceptionalism.

However, nearly 170 years post-Darwin, we continue our complex relationship with animals. Bond eloquently critiques our disconnect, especially in meat consumption, highlighting how social distance allows many to ignore the brutal realities of slaughter.

“
Bond does a good job of skewering my meat. Admittedly, I have never seen a pig being slaughtered, nor do I intend to.
“

Bond’s mission is to cultivate a kinder world. Unlike previous works where optimism prevails, Animate tackles profound themes with an unfiltered narrative.

Can a confused animal, burdened with the knowledge of its identity, find peace?

Simon Ings is a writer based in London

Explore More on Animal-Human Relationships

A Vast World
Written by Ed Yong

Every species perceives the world through unique lenses shaped by its own needs. In his bestselling book subtitled How Animal Senses Reveal Hidden Realms Around Us, science journalist Ed Yong illustrates the diverse ways animals engage with their environments.

Topics:

Source: www.newscientist.com

Himalayan Wolf-Dogs and Wolf-Dog Hybrids: A Growing Threat to Wolves and Human Safety

Posted on May 16, 2026 by Igor Mitreski

The hybrid known as the Kiptshan is larger than a wolf and smaller than a dog.

Molap Namgail

No doubt about it, the Kiptshan hybrid showcases grayish fur and moves effortlessly across soft snow. This incredible creature, similar to a wolf, makes its living by hunting marmots with precision.

Witnessing this spectacle at approximately 5,000 meters in the Indian-administered region of Ladakh, it’s clear that these wolves share their harsh habitat with other mammals such as snow leopards, Himalayan brown bears, and Tibetan foxes.

Adapted to the low oxygen levels and challenging conditions at high altitudes, Himalayan wolves belong to one of the oldest lineages of species (canis lupus). As the day shifts from blue to gray, witnessing the wolf’s swift kill reminds us of their survival struggles, which are increasingly jeopardized by climate change. The mountains are warming at twice the global average, impacted by urbanization, pollution, and cautious farming practices.

Recently, a surge in stray dogs has been noted, with roughly 25,000 dogs in Ladakh compared to merely a few hundred wolves. These dogs, both pets and strays, have been moving into the mountains, directly competing for the same prey as their wild cousins, leading to increased interbreeding and the emergence of hybrids.

“We refer to this hybrid as Kiptshan,” states Tsewang Namgail, director of the Snow Leopard Conservation India Trust, who studies mammals in Ladakh. The term is derived from kipt meaning dog in Ladakhi, and shang meaning wolf.

“The realization of this hybrid has become more prevalent over the last five to ten years,” Namgail explains. “It is neither a wolf nor a dog, but a significant hybrid.” This unique creature boasts a larger size than a dog yet smaller than a wolf, adorned with a tan coat, and possesses the potential to dominate other carnivores.

“They exhibit fearlessness towards humans,” adds Mohammad Imran, a Ladakhi filmmaker and naturalist.

These hybrids are bold enough to invade villages and prey on livestock. “They blend the fearlessness of dogs with the predatory instincts of wolves, creating a dangerous combination,” warns Namgail.

Dog attacks are rising, with hospitals in Leh reporting four to five dog bites daily. Tragically, at least four locals have been killed this year alone, raising concerns over the dangers posed by hybridization. Experts fear these hybrids threaten both wolves and humans, potentially decreasing wolf populations and endangering their future in the region, which covers approximately 60,000 square kilometers of Ladakh, India.

Since hybrids are a relatively new phenomenon, formal research on them is scarce, leaving much unknown beyond anecdotal evidence. What is clear is the rise of Kiptians correlates with the explosion of stray dogs. The sterilization of dogs is illegal in Ladakh, as the region’s Buddhist beliefs discourage harming animals. Additionally, due to border conflicts, dogs serve as a vital defense for military bases, often receiving food from soldiers, further complicating the ecosystem.

With an abundance of dogs and a dwindling number of wolves, man’s best friend may soon overshadow wild canids, similar to trends witnessed in Italy and North America, where hybridization is diluting red and eastern wolf populations.

As wolves and humans vie for resources, their interactions with stray dogs intensify. Carter Niemeyer, known for capturing Canadian wolves for reintroduction in Yellowstone and Idaho, emphasizes that wolf-dog hybrids must not be allowed to breed or roam free to preserve the genetic purity of wolves.

After observing the wolf, we encountered a pack of dogs lingering by the road. Some slept on the cold blacktop, while others begged for scraps as one remained watchful in the distance.

Wildlife photographer Molap Namgail, accompanying me, speculated that one might be a Kiptsian, as he has documented several sightings across Ladakh, even capturing a rare fox-dog hybrid.

Two years prior, Namgail and I witnessed a pack of dogs chase a snow leopard who had just killed an ibex. Observing a dog run down the road, I recalled my lead dog from that day, remembering his confident demeanor and lack of fear. Could it have been more than just a dog?

Namgail believes the Kiptshan symbolizes the rapid changes in these mountains. While no one can predict the future, the presence of true wolves remains critical. We need to learn about their behavior and take action. Namgail worries that the hybrid Kiptians might not only teach stray dogs hunting tactics but also become more dog-like, leading to conflicts with people.

“These hybrids, being new to the ecosystem, have fragile positions in the natural order, making them potentially hazardous,” states Namgail. “This places all of us at risk.”

Topics:

Source: www.newscientist.com

Evolution of Human Head Shape: Significant Changes Over the Last Century

Posted on April 30, 2026 by Igor Mitreski

Skull Morphology Changes Over 100 Years

Yoppisai/iStockphoto/Getty Images

Skulls from the early 20th century — Skull Morphology Changes Over 100 Years

Yoppisai/iStockphoto/Getty Images

Over the past century, the cranial structure of Japanese individuals has evolved significantly, resulting in rounder heads, narrower cheekbones, broader upper jaws, and thinner, more prominent noses.

Although variations outside Japan may exist, global trends suggest similar morphological changes are likely happening worldwide. Shiori Usui from the Chiba Prefectural Science Police Research Institute emphasizes that this is a natural progression as lifestyles modernize globally.

Scientists traditionally use measurements from human remains from the 19th and early 20th centuries to establish baseline comparisons for “modern” humans. Usui explains that today’s populations are generally taller and larger due to advancements in health, diet, and environmental factors, which may also provide insights into head shape changes.

To investigate these changes, researchers utilized CT scans to analyze skulls from 34 men and 22 women who died of natural causes between 1900 and 1920, with their remains donated to Kyoto University School of Medicine for research purposes. They also examined 29 men and 27 women who passed away between 2022 and 2024. Autopsy imaging is increasingly common in Japan, contributing to extensive “virtual skeleton collections,” notes Usui.

Using 3D skull images, researchers identified subtle yet consistent shifts over time. Notably, contemporary individuals are becoming more brachycephalic, as the oval-shaped skulls of the early 20th century are being replaced by rounder forms. While earlier hypotheses suggested these trends, CT scans revealed unexpected differences, including changes in cheekbone structure, nose shape, and forehead contour, which has become shorter and slightly concave over time.

Additionally, the mastoid process, located behind the ear, has increased in size and prominence. Usui emphasizes that these changes are too recent to be attributed to genetic evolution; rather, they likely result from lifestyle factors, such as improved childhood nutrition and the consumption of softer foods requiring less chewing.

Interestingly, the disparities between male and female skulls have intensified compared to a century ago, with male skulls exhibiting stronger brow ridges, larger mastoid areas, and more pronounced facial features than female skulls. “This finding was unexpected,” Usui admits. The team assumed that similar lifestyles between genders would diminish physical differences, leading them to anticipate more “androgynous” facial features, yet their analysis revealed increasing sexual dimorphism.

A recent 2024 US survey indicates that both men’s and women’s facial structures evolve similarly over time. However, a 2000 US study noted a contrasting trend, with head shapes becoming more oval than round, potentially due to earlier studies’ technical limitations, as well as significant changes in the ethnic makeup of the U.S. population due to immigration.

“We aspire to conduct more global research to comprehend how different populations uniquely adapt to rapid environmental modernization,” Usui adds.

Francesco Capello from the University of Palermo highlights that even relatively recent human populations are not fixed; they continue to evolve. “This invites crucial questions regarding the interplay between genetics and environment, especially for traits like bone structure that were once considered stable,” he notes.

The findings underscore the need for scientists to reassess the criteria used for identifying human remains, says Kimberly Plomp from the University of the Philippines Diliman. “The significant changes in modern human skull morphology suggest that existing identification methods may no longer be as reliable as previously thought,” she warns. “This has vital implications for biology and forensic anthropology.”

Topics:

Source: www.newscientist.com

J. Craig Venter, Pioneering Scientist Behind Human Genome Breakthrough, Passes Away at 79

Posted on April 30, 2026 by Igor Mitreski

J. Craig Venter, a groundbreaking scientist renowned for his pivotal role in decoding the human genome and a trailblazer in modern genomics, passed away on Wednesday, as announced by his institute.

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He was 79 years old.

The J. Craig Venter Institute shared a statement on Wednesday confirming that he died in San Diego after being hospitalized due to cancer complications.

Venter was a pioneering scientist who significantly influenced the field of genomics. His institute asserted that he championed the idea that scientific advancements should provide “real-world impact.” He also played a crucial role in establishing synthetic biology.

Venter served as a naval officer in Vietnam from 1967 to 1968. He later earned his BS in biochemistry and PhD in physiology and pharmacology from the University of California, San Diego.

His influential research primarily focused on genomics. Venter stated that his institute “moved genome science from a slow, gene-by-gene discovery process to scalable, data-driven science, paving the way for demonstrated genome design and construction.”

Venter led efforts to create one of the first draft sequences of the human genome. His team published the first “high-quality” diploid human genome, emphasizing the importance of measuring genetic variations inherited from parents.

The human genome is a comprehensive set of genetic information, stored as DNA within nearly every cell nucleus in the body, as described by the J. Craig Venter Institute.

In the 1990s, Venter and his team at the National Institutes of Health developed expressed sequence tags (ESTs), which facilitated the rapid discovery of new genes.

In 1995, Venter and colleagues utilized “whole-genome shotgun sequencing” to sequence the DNA of Haemophilus influenzae, marking it as the first free-living organism analyzed.

In 1998, Venter co-founded Celera Genomics.

His team at Celera competed against the National Institutes of Health-supported Human Genome Project, which received funding from the US government and UK research partners.

As president of Celera in 2000, Venter and the public consortium announced they had compiled the first draft of the human genome, a landmark achievement in biological science.

Beyond genomics, Venter directed the Global Ocean Sampling Expedition in Metagenomics, revealing remarkable microbial diversity.

Scientists globally paid tribute to Venter, acknowledging his remarkable contributions to the field.

“Craig Venter was a force of nature, a controversial yet profoundly impactful figure,” remarked Sir John Hardy, a neuroscience professor at University College London. He stated in a press release. “The race to finish sequencing the human genome was marked by competition between American and British consortia. This rivalry undeniably accelerated the process, but ultimately, both teams published their findings simultaneously in Science and Nature.”

Dr. Roger Highfield, scientific director at the Science Museum Group, commented that Venter was an “adventurous and tireless pioneer” in genome sequencing and synthetic biology.

“I was in correspondence with him only weeks ago about a new writing project,” Highfield shared. He mentioned a recent diagnosis, but the news came as a shock. While Craig was a polarizing figure, he was undeniably passionate and driven by science.”

Throughout his illustrious career, Venter received numerous accolades, including the 2008 National Medal of Science, the 2002 Gardner Foundation International Award, the 2001 Paul Ehrlich and Ludwig Darmstaedter Awards, and the King Faisal International Science Award.

Source: www.nbcnews.com

Study Reveals How Malaria Shaped 74,000 Years of Human Settlement Patterns

Posted on April 23, 2026 by Igor Mitreski

Recent research from the Max Planck Institute for Geoanthropology and the University of Cambridge reveals that malaria significantly impacted early humans, not just as a disease, but as a factor that influenced habitat selection, population fragmentation, and the genetic evolution of our species.

Colucci et al. investigated how Plasmodium falciparum-induced malaria influenced habitat selection among early human societies from 74,000 to 5,000 years ago.

“Malaria, a significant global health issue caused by the Plasmodium parasite, affects approximately 263 million people annually,” stated lead author Dr. Margherita Colucci and her team.

“Genetic evidence indicates that malaria posed a serious challenge during both recent prehistory and the Pleistocene epoch, with sickle cell anemia mutations linked to malaria emerging in Africa between 25,000 and 22,000 years ago.”

Archaeological findings also suggest that early humans developed tactics to minimize exposure to mosquitoes, such as using aromatic leaves with insecticidal properties in their surroundings.

The new study highlights how Plasmodium falciparum malaria played a crucial role in shaping human history in sub-Saharan Africa from 74,000 to 5,000 years ago.

Researchers discovered that malaria affected where early human populations settled, pushing them away from high-risk areas and leading to increased dispersal across various landscapes.

Over thousands of years, this demographic fragmentation influenced how groups intermingled and exchanged genetic material, ultimately shaping the genetic landscape of modern humans.

These findings suggest that malaria was more than just a health threat; it was a key factor in shaping human history.

“We utilized species distribution models for major mosquito groups alongside paleoclimate data,” explained Dr. Colucci.

“By integrating these findings with epidemiological insights, we estimated malaria transmission risks throughout sub-Saharan Africa.”

The researchers then compared these risk estimates with independent reconstructions of human ecological niches in the same regions during that time frame.

The results indicated that humans actively avoided high-risk malaria areas or could not survive in them.

Professor Andrea Manica remarked, “These decisions have significantly influenced human demographics over the past 74,000 years—and possibly beyond.”

“Malaria has played a pivotal role in shaping the structure of human societies.”

“Factors like climate and geographical barriers were not the only determinants of human habitation,” he added.

Professor Eleanor Seri noted, “This study opens new avenues in the exploration of human evolution, as disease has rarely been considered a driving force in our ancestry. Without ancient DNA from this period, verification would have been challenging.”

“Our research redefines this narrative and provides a new perspective on the role of disease in early human history.”

The findings are published in today’s edition of Scientific Advances.

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Margherita Colucci et al. 2026. Malaria’s impact on human spatial organization over 74,000 years. Scientific Advances 12(17); doi: 10.1126/sciadv.aea2316

Source: www.sci.news

Monkeys Uncover Unique Natural Supplement to Combat Human Junk Food Diet

Posted on April 22, 2026 by Igor Mitreski

Gibraltar monkeys have recently been observed engaging in a surprising behavior: eating dirt. This habit may be a response to the adverse effects of human junk food, as detailed in a study published in Scientific Reports.

This unusual eating behavior seems to help the monkeys manage digestive issues caused by tourist treats, particularly when lactose-intolerant individuals consume ice cream.

According to Dr. Sylvain Lemoine, a biological anthropologist at the University of Cambridge, “Food consumed by Gibraltar’s monkeys is often high in calories, sugar, salt, and dairy, which is starkly different from their natural diet of herbs, leaves, seeds, and occasional insects.”

“Eating dirt may enable them to indulge in these unhealthy yet appealing foods, similar to how humans enjoy them,” he added.

A research team studied 230 monkeys in Gibraltar, finding that each monkey consumed dirt approximately 12 times per week.

Interestingly, geophagy (the act of eating soil) decreased by 40% during winter compared to the tourist-heavy summer months.

Furthermore, researchers noted that monkeys with a higher frequency of human interaction—and consequently junk food consumption—exhibited more geophagy. In fact, three groups of eight macaque monkeys residing in tourist areas accounted for 72% of geophagy incidents.

Conversely, the only group of monkeys without access to tourist-provided snacks was also the group that did not eat soil.

The study concluded that geophagy is directly linked to junk food, suggesting that it acts as a gut health supplement, mitigating the negative effects of cookies, ice cream, and other snacks on the monkeys’ microbiomes.

“Macaques may have developed this behavior to protect their digestive systems from the high-energy, low-fiber snacks that can lead to stomach issues in primates,” explained Dr. Lemoine.

“Soil can serve as a barrier in the gastrointestinal tract, reducing the absorption of harmful substances, and may even provide beneficial bacteria that assist in gut health.”

Different groups of monkeys showed distinct soil preferences; while most favored red clay, one group preferred tar-rich soils from potholes – Credit: Martin Nicourt/Gibraltar Macaques Project

Such geophagy isn’t unique to Gibraltar’s monkeys; ring-tailed lemurs consume dirt an average of 16 times a week, while East African chimpanzees do so about 14 times. This behavior is also observed in human cultures, particularly during pregnancy.

Geophagy is notably rare among Barbary macaques of North Africa, the ancestral population of Gibraltar’s monkeys.

Remarkably, a group of monkeys at Hong Kong’s Jamshan Country Park has been documented eating dirt over 33 times a week, likely due to their high consumption of human junk food.

Dr. Lemoine emphasized the study’s implications regarding human influence on animal behavior and culture.

“Gibraltar’s monkeys represent a unique case of human-primate interaction, offering valuable insights into how anthropogenic environments impact primate behavior and culture,” he noted.

Read more:

Source: www.sciencefocus.com

Study Reveals Parrots Use Flexible Naming: Mimicking Human Communication Styles

Posted on April 21, 2026 by Igor Mitreski

A comprehensive study involving nearly 900 parrots living alongside humans has unveiled groundbreaking insights. Researchers from the University of Northern Colorado, the University of Vienna, the Acoustical Institute of the Austrian Academy of Sciences, and the University of Pittsburgh Johnstown discovered evidence that certain parrots don’t just imitate human speech but may also create and utilize names to identify specific individuals.

Gray parrot (Psittacus erithacus) named John munching on a cucumber. Image credit: Papuga.

The question of whether animals can employ proper names for themselves and others has intrigued both scientists and the general public for years.

Significant evidence indicates that numerous animals can recognize and respond to names assigned by humans, and some can even invent and utilize unique vocal traits.

Despite this, previous research has failed to demonstrate that a variety of animal species can create and use names that conform to human language conventions.

“While many animals respond to human language cues, only a select few are capable of learning language-like sounds and using them correctly,” stated Professor Lauryn Benedict of the University of Northern Colorado and her team.

“Parrots excel in vocal learning, including human words, and can accurately apply those words as labels for individuals.”

“This capacity for vocal production learning allows researchers to delve into whether and how animals employ vocal labels, rather than merely responding to them. This enriches our understanding of the cognitive processes behind word usage and labeling.”

In this study, the authors scrutinized data from over 889 captive parrots as part of the ManyParrots project, designed to explore vocal learning and cognition in parrots through survey responses and vocal recordings.

Moreover, many survey participants shared additional details that assisted researchers in comprehending how these birds utilize their names.

Nearly half of the respondents provided examples of parrots using names creatively.

Of the 413 audio clips analyzed, 88 instances demonstrated birds using their names as labels for humans or other animals.

The findings also revealed strong evidence that some parrots refer to specific individuals rather than general categories like ‘human.’

Interestingly, many parrots employed these labels in ways typically unrecognized by humans. For example, parrots might vocalize their names to attract attention.

This study suggests that parrots possess the cognitive and vocal abilities to use names flexibly, ranging from social communication with humans to conversing about individuals who are not present.

Nonetheless, due to variations among species and individual birds, numerous questions persist regarding when, why, and how animals utilize these skills to call out the names of other beings.

“Our research indicates that parrots frequently learn names from humans and apply them in diverse contexts, aligning with their cognitive ability to associate names with specific individuals,” the researchers asserted.

“Although the parrots in our study primarily used human-given names, unanswered questions linger about their capacity for self-naming.”

“Nonetheless, our findings clearly illustrate that animals can learn and employ unique names in appropriate social contexts.”

“Future studies need to investigate this behavior in controlled settings to comprehend the cognitive foundations behind it in parrots and other animal species.”

“The capability to label individuals is expected not only in captive animals but also extends to those in the wild.”

“We anticipate that forthcoming research will unveil effective methods to identify animal names independent of human language.”

For more details, refer to the study published this month in the online journal PLoS ONE.

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L. Benedict et al. 2026. Name use by companion parrots. PLoS One 21 (4): e0346830; doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0346830

Source: www.sci.news

780,000-Year-Old Charcoal Sheds Light on Early Human Fire Mastery

Posted on April 17, 2026 by Igor Mitreski

The Acheulian hominins at Gesher Benot Ya’akov, an archaeological site in Israel, utilized driftwood from lake shores for their hearths, according to groundbreaking research led by archaeologists from the Catalunya Institute for Human Evolution and Society and Bar-Ilan University. A 780,000-year-old charcoal fragment discovered at the site highlights that survival hinges not on the perfect wood but on a profound understanding of the surrounding landscape.

The ancient inhabitants of Israel’s Gesher Benot Yacob site likely used earthen ovens to cook fish at temperatures below 500 degrees Celsius. Image credit: Ella Maru / Tel Aviv University.

“The substantial charcoal assemblage from Gesher Benot Yaakov offers invaluable insights into the daily lives of early humans who harnessed fire, as few similar remains exist at other prehistoric sites,” explained Professor Nama Goren Inbar from the Hebrew University of Jerusalem.

“While many ancient locations show only scant traces of fire, this Acheulian site reveals a detailed record of repeated fire use over tens of thousands of years.”

“Gesher Benot Yaakov offers a layered history of human settlement along the paleo-shores of Lake Hula, documenting the return of generations of Acheulian hunter-gatherers across more than 20 archaeological horizons.”

At Gesher Benot Ya’aqov, researchers unveiled an active environment, discovering the remains of hunted animals along with a variety of plant foods including fruits, nuts, and seeds gathered from the lake shore.

“One striking layer captures a pivotal moment. Alongside stone tools and plant remnants, an elephant skull and associated bones were found, providing evidence of large-scale hunting,” the researchers noted.

“The spatial layout of these remains indicates that the animals were disposed of on-site.”

“Fire was central to this ancient camp life.”

Charcoal fragments analyzed under an ESEM microscope. Image credit: M. Moncusil, PHES.

The study focused on a single human strata dating back approximately 780,000 years, analyzing 266 charcoal pieces using microscopy to identify their botanical origins.

The findings revealed a remarkable array of plant species, including ash, willow, grapes, oleander, olive, oak, pistachio, and the earliest known evidence of pomegranate in the Levant.

Interestingly, the charcoal assemblages indicated greater plant diversity compared to other excavated plant remains, such as seeds and unburned wood, suggesting a broader sampling of the surrounding ecosystem by firewood collection.

These findings illuminate ancient landscapes, showcasing a mix of lush lakeside vegetation and open Mediterranean forests while revealing early human interactions with their environment.

The hominins of Gesher-Benot-Yakov likely relied on driftwood naturally accumulating along shorelines, rather than selectively gathering certain wood types. Fallen branches and logs, carried by water to the shore, provided a ready source of fuel.

The charcoal composition closely reflected the surrounding wood availability, implying a practical strategy to utilize natural resources.

This suggests that firewood availability may have influenced early human settlement choices. Lake shores offered fresh water, edible plants, animals, and tools, all essential for sustaining fires.

Spatial analyses showed that dense charcoal clusters corresponded with fish carcass concentrations, particularly the teeth of large carp, adding substantial evidence for controlled cooking fires at this site approximately 800,000 years ago.

These discoveries enhance our understanding of early hominin cognitive abilities, indicating that they could control fire, organize their surroundings, and develop complex survival strategies.

However, while hunting and tool-making demanded careful organization, firewood collection seems to have been a more routine activity based on availability rather than specific preferences.

This provides a glimpse into skilled communities closely attuned to their environments, who repeatedly returned to resource-rich habitats.

“The charcoal assemblage at Gesher Benot Yakov offers a unique dataset to examine the relationship between fire use, environmental conditions, and human behavior,” the authors concluded.

“This discovery refines current models of early fire practices and underscores the importance of local resources in shaping Middle Pleistocene behavior and lifeways.”

For more insights, see their study published in Quaternary Science Review.

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Ethel Allue et al. 2026. Paleoenvironmental and behavioral insights into firewood selection by early Middle Pleistocene hominins. Quaternary Science Review 38: 109973; doi: 10.1016/j.quascirev.2026.109973

Source: www.sci.news

Neanderthal Infants: Much Larger Than Modern Human Babies

Posted on April 16, 2026 by Igor Mitreski

Exploring the Neanderthal Family Reconstruction

P. Prairie/E. Daines/Science Photo Library

Recent research indicates that Neanderthal infants were likely physically smaller than their homo sapiens counterparts. A study analyzing the remains of an ancient Neanderthal infant supports this finding.

“We still have limited knowledge about the developmental milestones of Neanderthal babies,” explains Ella Bean, a researcher at Ono Academic College, Israel. “We don’t understand if their milestones, like walking, differed from modern humans,” she adds, noting that while they were larger than expected, they were “not necessarily chubby.”

Bean and her team conducted an in-depth anatomical study of a nearly complete Neanderthal skeleton discovered in Israel, dating back approximately 51,000 to 56,000 years.

The infant, dubbed Amdo 7, was excavated in 1992, about 4 kilometers from the western shores of the Sea of Galilee in Israel. Its sex remains undetermined, making Amdo 7 one of the rare young Neanderthals documented.

Neanderthals thrived as the predominant human species across Eurasia for hundreds of thousands of years until climate changes and competition from modern humans contributed to their extinction approximately 40,000 years ago.

According to Bean, Amdo 7 was roughly six months old at its time of death, as determined through tooth eruption patterns and internal microstructural analyses.

Interestingly, the skull and bone measurements show that Amdo 7 is comparable to a 12- to 14-month-old modern human, indicating discrepancies in dental and skeletal maturation.

Bean highlights that findings from Amdo 7 matched those of two other Neanderthal infants: a two-year-old from Syria and a three-year-old from Roque de Marsal in France, revealing consistent trends among these ancient children.

“The prevalent patterns in three distinct Neanderthal infants indicate that these differences are significant,” Bean asserts.

Attempting to align these Neanderthal growth markers with those of homo sapiens proves challenging, she contends.

Further, Bean suggests that Neanderthal infants had varying growth rates compared to modern humans, potentially driven by higher energy needs. However, by age seven, the growth trajectories align more closely between both species.

Bean believes that Amdo 7’s dental development suggests an estimated age of around seven, contrasting with skeletal indicators.

Excavation of Amdo Cave, Israel: The Discovery of Amdo 7

Professor Herrera Hovers

“I estimate Amdo 7 to be nearly six months old,” Bean notes. “Neanderthal infants exhibited faster growth rates during their early years compared to modern humans.”

According to Bean, smaller bodies lose heat more rapidly, indicating that Neanderthals were likely adapted to the severe environments they inhabited.

Chris Stringer, a prominent researcher at London’s Natural History Museum, emphasizes that Amdo 7 plays a pivotal role in illuminating Neanderthal development.

“Compiling all the evidence, we’ve identified three distinct growth stages characteristic of young Neanderthals,” he states. In newborns, dental development is harmonized with overall physical growth, while in infants like Amdo 7, rapid physical growth occurs alongside slower tooth development. However, as children mature, these growth patterns eventually synchronize.

Bean concludes that Neanderthals were roughly comparable in size to adult homo sapiens, though the latter tended to be taller.

Topics:

Neanderthal Man /
Ancient Humans

Source: www.newscientist.com

How Large-Scale Language Models Analyze and Judge Human Behavior

Posted on April 14, 2026 by Igor Mitreski

Recent findings from the Hebrew University of Jerusalem reveal that large-scale language models (LLMs) establish structured “trust” ratings akin to humans. However, they tend to apply these ratings more mechanically, often exhibiting stronger and more consistent demographic biases.

Research indicates that large-scale language models exhibit a rigid and sometimes biased approach to interpersonal trust that only partially aligns with human judgment.

As LLMs and AI agents increasingly interact with humans in decision-making contexts, understanding the dynamics of trust between humans and AI is paramount.

While human trust in AI has been extensively researched, the mechanisms through which LLMs foster trust in humans remain largely unexplored.

In an innovative study conducted by scientists Valeria Rahman and Yaniv Dover from the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, five LLMs were compared to human participants across five scenarios and 43,200 simulations.

“We placed both humans and AI in familiar contexts—such as assessing loan amounts for a small business owner, evaluating a babysitter’s trustworthiness, rating a boss, and deciding on donations to a nonprofit,” they stated.

“A striking pattern emerged: both humans and AI favored individuals who demonstrated competence, honesty, and goodwill.”

“In essence, machines appear to recognize the core components of trust—competence, honesty, and benevolence—similar to humans.”

“AI evaluates individuals based on these components, much like scoring in a spreadsheet, resulting in a more rigid, systematic, yet impersonal judgment style.”

“In contrast, humans often make more subjective and chaotic judgments,” notes Dr. Rahman.

“AI’s approach is cleaner and more organized, which can lead to notably different results.”

“However, a concerning trend of amplified bias was identified. In financial contexts, such as loan or donation decisions, AI systems displayed consistent, and sometimes pronounced, discrepancies based solely on demographic factors.”

“For instance, (i) older adults frequently enjoyed more favorable outcomes, although the contrary pattern also emerged; (ii) religious affiliation significantly influenced results, particularly in financial matters; and (iii) gender also played a role in certain models and scenarios.”

“Such discrepancies appeared even when all other aspects of the individual were identical.”

“Humans inherently possess biases, yet we were surprised to find that biases in AI could be more structured, predictable, and occasionally stronger,” Professor Dover remarked.

Another key insight is the variability in AI judgment.

Different LLMs often provide varying assessments of the same individual. In some cases, one system may reward traits that another may penalize, indicating that your choice of LLM could subtly influence real-world outcomes.

“Selecting which LLM to use is crucial,” asserts Dr. Rahman.

“While these systems might appear similar superficially, their decision-making processes about individuals can be vastly different.”

“AI is increasingly being deployed to screen job applications, evaluate creditworthiness, recommend medical treatments, and guide organizational strategies.”

As these LLMs transition from mere assistants to decision-makers, comprehending their reasoning processes becomes essential.

This study underscores that while LLMs can emulate the structure of human judgment, they do so in a more rigid and less nuanced fashion, with biases that could be elusive.

The researchers emphasize that their findings are not an indictment of AI, but rather a call for heightened awareness.

“These systems wield substantial power,” concludes Professor Dover.

“They can model human reasoning aspects in a consistent manner.”

“However, they lack humanity, so we should not presume they perceive individuals as we do.”

“As AI becomes more embedded in daily life, the pressing question shifts from whether we trust machines to whether we comprehend how machines trust us.”

For further details, see the findings published in this month’s Proceedings of the Royal Society A.

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Valeria Rahman and Yaniv Dover. 2026. A closer look at how large-scale language models “trust” humans: Patterns and biases. Procedure A 482 (2335): 20251113; doi: 10.1098/rspa.2025.1113

Source: www.sci.news

Explore Human Organs in 3D: A Detailed Mapping Experience Down to the Cellular Level

Posted on March 13, 2026 by Igor Mitreski

A groundbreaking new Human Organ Atlas (HOA) portal empowers scientists, healthcare professionals, and curious individuals to explore intact human organs like never before. This innovative platform allows users to investigate everything from entire organs to individual cells in stunning detail, potentially transforming our understanding of human anatomy and disease.

Referred to as the “Google Earth of Human Organs,” the HOA currently features 307 3D datasets spanning 56 organs from 25 donors, including vital organs such as the brain, heart, and lungs, as well as others like the placenta and prostate. This cutting-edge resource is easily accessible through any standard web browser.

The implications of the HOA for the field of medicine are significant. “Human organs possess a three-dimensional, hierarchical structure,” explains Dr. Claire Walsh, Associate Professor and Director at University College London’s Human Organ Atlas Hub in an interview with BBC Science Focus.

“This is the only database I know of that provides 3D hierarchical images of real human organs that are accessible to anyone in the world.”

Early findings showcase the atlas’ potential. Previously, scientists could only estimate the number of nephrons (the kidney’s filtration units) in human kidneys and their locations. With access to HOA data, researchers can now visualize and count individual nephrons throughout the kidney, providing crucial insights into kidney function.

This data is also being applied in the brain, enhancing the precision of surgical placements for deep brain stimulation electrodes. Furthermore, research is underway to uncover congenital heart defects.

In regard to lung health, the atlas aids scientists in understanding the effects of COVID-19 and pulmonary fibrosis on the vascular network.

https://c02.purpledshub.com/uploads/sites/41/2026/03/HOA-Purple-resize.mp4

The Human Organ Atlas features 11 organ types, including the brain, heart, lungs, kidneys, liver, colon, spleen, placenta, uterus, prostate, and testes.

The HOA was constructed using Hierarchical Phase Contrast Tomography (HiP-CT), a revolutionary technique developed at the European Synchrotron in Grenoble, France. This method uses a light source up to 100 billion times brighter than conventional hospital CT scanners, enabling researchers to non-destructively image entire organs and zoom in to about 50 times smaller than a human hair.

“We are opening a new window into the inner workings of the human body,” stated Paul Tafforeau, an ESRF scientist involved in the project. “After six years of development, we are just beginning. Currently, we focus on isolated organs, but future plans include imaging entire human bodies at resolutions 10 to 20 times greater than today. Such data could revolutionize the study and understanding of anatomy.”

Read more:

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Source: www.sciencefocus.com

Startup Innovates with First Data Center Powered by Human Brain Cells

Posted on March 11, 2026 by Igor Mitreski

Exploring Biological Computers

Floriana/Getty Images

Close-up of an artificial brain illustrating neural activity and orange light dots, representing artificial intelligence. Synapses and neurons are crafted from cubic particles rendered in 3D format. — Exploring Biological Computers

Floriana/Getty Images

As energy demands soar in data centers and the need for chips intensifies, could biological cells offer a solution? Australian startup Cortical Labs is pioneering this concept by establishing two innovative biological data centers in Melbourne and Singapore. These facilities will utilize chips populated with reproducible neurons for data processing.

Cortical Labs stands out as a leader in the emerging field of biological computing, using nerve cells linked to microelectrode arrays to both stimulate and record cellular responses during data input. Recently, the company showcased its flagship computer, the CL1, demonstrating its ability to learn to play games like Doom within a week.

The Melbourne data center is set to feature approximately 120 CL1 units, while a collaboration with the National University of Singapore will launch with 20 units, aiming for a total of 1,000 CL1s, pending regulatory approval. This ambitious expansion is designed to enhance their cloud-based brain computing services.

Michael Barros from the University of Essex remarks, “Biological computers like CL1 have been developed by multiple research teams globally but pose construction challenges for widespread adoption.” He continues, “Cortical Labs is making biocomputers more accessible, set to be the first company to do this at scale.”

These biological systems can be trained for tasks like playing Doom, although understanding the optimal training methods for neurons remains a complex issue. Reinhold Scherer, also from the University of Essex, notes, “Having access can facilitate explorations in learning and programming, yet neurons cannot be programmed as traditional computers.”

Moreover, Cortical Labs asserts that its biological data centers are significantly more energy-efficient than conventional computing systems, with each CL1 unit consuming just 30 watts compared to thousands of watts used by state-of-the-art AI chips.

Paul Roach from Loughborough University highlights that scaling up these systems to function like traditional data servers could lead to remarkable energy savings, even if they require nutrients to sustain the neuron chips. However, the cooling requirements are expected to be much lower than in traditional setups, indicating considerable power conservation according to Cortical Labs’ estimates.

Yet, the technology is still nascent. Tjeerd Olde Scheper, who has collaborated with a competitor, FinalSpark, poses questions about efficacy, stating, “We’re still in early development stages.” He emphasizes that transitioning from a small network managing simple tasks to a larger-scale language model is a substantial leap.

A primary challenge remains: the capacity to save training outcomes and utilize these neurons for computational algorithms beyond specific tasks like gaming. Retraining these neurons after their life cycle is another hurdle, as Scherer points out, “If retraining is needed every month, longevity of use becomes an issue.”

Topics:

Source: www.newscientist.com

Revolutionary Startup Develops First Data Center Powered by Human Brain Cells

Posted on March 10, 2026 by Igor Mitreski

A small number of companies are developing biological computers

Floriana/Getty Images

Close-up of an artificial brain showcasing neural activity and orange light dots, illustrating the concept of artificial intelligence. 3D rendering of synapses and neurons made up of cubic particles. — A small number of companies are developing biological computers

Floriana/Getty Images

Data centers consume vast amounts of energy while the demand for computer chips continues to soar. Could utilizing brain cells be the solution?
Australian startup Cortical Labs is pioneering this field, planning to establish two innovative “biological” data centers in Melbourne and Singapore. These cutting-edge data centers will feature chips integrated with reproducible neurons.
Pon vs. Doom.

Cortical Labs stands out as one of the few firms creating biological computers that link nerve cells to microelectrode arrays, enabling the stimulation and measurement of cell responses during data input. Recently, the company successfully showcased that its primary model, the CL1, can learn to play games like Doom within just a week.

The first data center in Melbourne is set to accommodate around 120 CL1 units, while a second facility in collaboration with the National University of Singapore will initially support 20 CL1 systems, with plans to expand to 1,000 pending regulatory approval. This initiative aims to enhance cloud-based brain computing services.

According to Michael Barros from the University of Essex, UK, while biological computers have been constructed and tested globally, they remain challenging to build and use. He states, “We invest a lot of time and resources developing these systems.”

Barros further elaborates that Cortical Labs is democratizing access to biocomputers at scale, pioneering an accessible approach in the industry.

These systems can be trained for simple tasks, such as playing Doom, yet there are challenges in understanding how neurons function and training them for more complex tasks like machine learning. Reinhold Scherer, also from the University of Essex, notes, “When you access this technology, it opens doors to exploration in learning, training, and programming, but neurons cannot be programmed like standard computers.”

Cortical Labs asserts that its biological data centers use significantly less energy than traditional computing systems, with each CL1 requiring only 30 watts compared to thousands needed by leading conventional AI chips.

Paul Roach from Loughborough University, UK, emphasizes that scaling biocomputers into entire rooms, akin to traditional data servers, could yield substantial energy savings. Notably, while biological data centers may necessitate nutrients to sustain neuron chips, they require less cooling energy than conventional computing infrastructures, suggesting significant potential for energy conservation.

Nevertheless, experts like Tjeerd Olde Scheper, who holds a PhD from Oxford Brookes University, recognize that the technology remains nascent. “Will it perform as expected? We are still in the early developmental phase,” he comments.

Although direct comparisons between the sizes of biological and silicon AI systems remain complex, it’s notable that the envisioned biological data center would integrate hundreds of biological chips in contrast to the hundreds of thousands of GPUs typically found in large-scale AI data centers.

“We have a long way to go before these systems are production-ready. Transitioning from a small network playing games to a large language model is a substantial leap,” says Steve Furber from the University of Manchester, UK.

A pressing concern is the lack of clarity on how to store training outcomes within neurons as memory, or how to execute computational algorithms beyond specific tasks, such as video gaming.

Additionally, retraining neurons post-task completion poses challenges, as their training and learning may be lost upon the end of their lifespan. “Proper retraining is essential,” Scherer states. “If retraining is required every 30 days, it may hinder technological continuity.”

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Source: www.newscientist.com

How Farming Transformed Human Evolution: The Impact of Agriculture on Our Development

Posted on March 10, 2026 by Igor Mitreski

The Advent of Agriculture and Evolutionary Pressures on Humans

Christian Jegou/Science Photo Library

Evolution and Agriculture Impact — The Advent of Agriculture and Evolutionary Pressures on Humans

Christian Jegou/Science Photo Library

The comprehensive analysis of ancient genomes has revealed significant insights into human evolution over the last 10,000 years. This research indicates that various populations worldwide have experienced similar evolutionary changes, particularly following the introduction of agriculture.

“Similar traits and genes are being selected in diverse populations,” says Laura Colbran from the University of Pennsylvania.

Evolution happens when genetic variation becomes prevalent in a population—often because it confers an advantage. By comparing genomes, we can identify recent signs of human evolution.

Colbran notes that ancient DNA is exceptionally valuable for this research, stating, “Using ancient genomes allows us to witness genetic history directly, as opposed to relying solely on inferential methods.”

Much of the recent research has primarily focused on European genomes, but Colbran’s team leveraged an increasing collection of genomes from outside Europe, analyzing over 7,000 ancient and contemporary genomes. Ancient genomes mainly originate from the last 10,000 years, while modern genomes are derived from living populations.

The research team utilized ancient genomes to predict possible modern genetic profiles without evolutionary influence, highlighting differences known as selection signals. They identified 31 selection signals, many of which were shared among varied populations, likely due to the independent rise of agriculture around the same era globally.

For instance, less than 25% of ancient individuals possessed the FADS1 gene, which encodes an enzyme that aids in converting short-chain fatty acids (common in plants) into long-chain fatty acids (predominant in meats). Increased production of this enzyme is thought to benefit individuals who adopt a plant-heavy diet. Currently, over 75% of people in Europe, Japan, and northern China carry advantageous FADS1 variants. The strength of selection for this gene has remained stable over the last 300 generations in Europe while intensifying in East Asia over the last century.

The genes impacting the alcohol dehydrogenase 1B enzyme, encoded by ADH1B, have also been critically analyzed. Variants of ADH1B are prevalent in East Asia and are associated with quick alcohol metabolism, leading to symptoms like facial flushing. Colbran stated, “This showcases the strongest selection signal we’ve observed in East Asia,” suggesting that this variant was favored to curb excessive alcohol consumption.

Even though this variant was absent in ancient Europeans, strong selection signals related to the ADH1B enzyme were identified. Colbran emphasized the need for further investigation to discern the involved variants and their specific impacts, indicating a likely adaptation to evolving alcohol consumption patterns.

The research team also explored traits influenced by multiple genetic variations, such as waist-to-hip ratios, often correlated with fertility. Surprisingly, they found a robust selection process stabilizing women’s waist-to-hip ratios within certain limits. “This is intriguing as it suggests a stabilization of selection,” Colbran remarked, emphasizing that while waist-to-hip ratios can differ across various populations, the ideal measurement likely exists in a balanced range.

As noted by Alexander Gusev at Harvard University, this study is remarkable for its analysis of ancient DNA that has yet to be thoroughly examined. Gusev explained, “The authors found enriched variants being selected within one population compared to others, indicating parallel selection across populations, previously hypothesized but not empirically demonstrated.”

Yashin Souilumi, from the University of Adelaide, emphasized that their novel approach reveals regions of the genome newly identified as subject to selection, complementing previously known areas. “Their innovative method optimally utilizes the vast amounts of available ancient DNA,” Souilumi stated.

Colbran concluded that these findings are merely the initial discoveries. As more non-European genomes are sequenced, we will uncover even more evidence of recent human evolution.

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Source: www.newscientist.com

How Ancient Mating Preferences Shaped the Human Genome: Insights from Recent Study

Posted on March 3, 2026 by Igor Mitreski

A groundbreaking study from the University of Pennsylvania reveals that prehistoric humans and Neanderthals interbred with a notable sexual bias, with male Neanderthals mating more often with female modern humans. This pattern may explain the scarcity of Neanderthal DNA in the human X chromosome and highlight the impact of social behaviors on our genetic lineage.

Prehistoric mating preferences help explain why modern humans carry small amounts of Neanderthal DNA in their genomes, particularly absent from the X chromosome. Image credit: Gemini AI.

“In addition to the X chromosome, there’s a significant gap in Neanderthal DNA referred to as the ‘Neanderthal desert’,” stated lead author Dr. Alexander Pratt, a researcher at the University of Pennsylvania.

“Historically, we believed these gaps resulted from certain Neanderthal genes being biologically harmful to humans, leading to their removal through natural selection,” he added.

New genomic analyses indicate that long-standing mating preferences, not genetic incompatibilities, influenced which Neanderthal DNA sequences were retained in modern human genomes.

This research illustrates how social interactions have shaped the human genome and challenges the notion that evolution is solely driven by the “survival of the fittest.”

“Our findings indicate a distinct sexual bias, with gene flow predominantly occurring from male Neanderthals to anatomically modern human females, which explains the limited presence of Neanderthal DNA on modern human X chromosomes,” remarked Dr. Platt.

“Approximately 600,000 years ago, anatomically modern humans and Neanderthals diverged, creating two separate evolutionary paths,” added Professor Sarah Tishkoff, the study’s senior author.

“While our ancestors evolved in Africa, Neanderthals adapted to life in Eurasia, yet this separation was not permanent.”

“Over millennia, human groups migrated into and out of Neanderthal territories, resulting in genetic exchanges during their encounters.”

To assess whether Neanderthal X chromosomes contained modern human alleles, researchers analyzed conserved DNA in three Neanderthal samples: Altai, Chagyrskaya, and Vindija.

They compared this data with that of a diverse genome from Africa, which hadn’t historically interacted with Neanderthals.

“Our analysis revealed a significant discrepancy,” noted co-author Dr. Daniel Harris from the University of Pennsylvania.

“While modern humans lack the Neanderthal X chromosome, the Neanderthal X chromosome contained 62% more modern human DNA compared to other chromosomes.”

This mirrored result indicates that if reproductive incompatibility existed, modern human DNA would also be absent in Neanderthal X chromosomes.

However, the presence of modern human DNA in Neanderthal X chromosomes rules out biological incompatibility as a barrier to reproduction.

The lingering explanation lies in the sexual bias in mating practices.

Given that women possess two X chromosomes and men only one, the direction of mating plays a crucial role.

If Neanderthal males mated more frequently with modern human females, fewer Neanderthal X chromosomes would integrate into the human gene pool, while more human X chromosomes would enter the Neanderthal population.

Mathematical models verified that this bias adequately explains the observed inheritance patterns.

While other factors such as gender-biased migration could lead to similar results, these scenarios are often complex and vary over time and geography.

“Our findings suggest that mating preferences offer the simplest explanation for these patterns,” concluded Dr. Platt.

For more details on this research, refer to the journal Science.

_____

Alexander Pratt et al. 2026. Interbreeding between Neanderthals and modern humans showed significant sexual bias. Science 391 (6788): 922-925; doi: 10.1126/science.aea6774

Source: www.sci.news

Adorable Seal Pups Mimic Human Speech and Accents: Discover Their Unique Sounds!

Posted on February 28, 2026 by Igor Mitreski

Recent studies reveal that seal pups produce more human-like sounds than previously believed, often taking turns “communicating” by adjusting their calls to match their neighboring pups. This fascinating behavior sheds light on the evolution of complex communication, including human language.

Harbor seals, also known simply as seals, are among the few animal species capable of learning and altering their vocalizations.

“They can learn to create new sounds or modify existing ones,” explains Dr. Cohen de Reus from Radboud University and Vrije Universiteit Bruxelles. His research is part of his Ph.D. dissertation, as noted by BBC Science Focus.

Every talkative harbor seal has its own distinct calls, which mothers utilize to locate their pups on busy beaches. This study examines how seals modify their calls based on social contexts.

https://c02.purpledshub.com/uploads/sites/41/2026/02/Seal-pup-conversation.mp4

During testing, Jenny the seal’s responses were monitored as recordings of other pups were played.

Dr. de Reus found that the calls of pups sitting together became increasingly similar over time. “This phenomenon resembles regional accents in humans,” he stated. “Despite their visual similarities, each pup can be recognized individually, just as in humans.”

Additionally, akin to polite human conversation, the pups engage in turn-taking without overlapping in communication.

To conduct his research, Dr. de Reus analyzed thousands of hours of audio from numerous harbor seal pups at the Peterburen Seal Center in the Netherlands.

“After spending extensive time with the pups, I could identify at least half of their calls,” he shared.

This study aims to uncover the subtleties of communication shared across species and those unique to humans, potentially revealing the intricate history of human language development.

“Language is often regarded as a unique trait that sets us apart from other species, yet our findings indicate the existence of advanced communication systems in various animals,” Dr. de Reus continued. “Consider this research a foundational step for future comparisons.”

This seal was recorded at a rehabilitation center that cares for orphaned and injured seals until their release back into the wild – Credit: Getty

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Human Fratus Atlas: Measuring the Explosive Power of Flatulence

Posted on February 26, 2026 by Igor Mitreski

Feedback is the New Scientist’s platform for engaging with our readers, especially those passionate about the latest in science and technology news. If you have insights or suggestions for articles that might interest our audience, please reach out via feedback@newscientist.com.

It’s Gas

Our feedback feels bold, so here’s a prediction: the research discussed here is likely to win an Ig Nobel Prize within the next decade. This project aims to objectively measure human flatulence using innovative biosensors, affectionately dubbed “smart underwear.”

We learned about this intriguing study from a press release featuring Carmela Padavik Callahan, a professor at the University of Maryland and a physics reporter. She noted, “Certainly we could do something with this feedback.”

The main challenge is that, unlike established biomarkers such as blood sugar, we lack a benchmark for bloating. Most existing studies depend on self-reporting, which is unreliable since individuals often forget their flatulence events and can’t accurately judge their frequency or size. Additionally, it’s “impossible to record gas while sleeping.” Anyone who has shared a bed with another person knows that everyone farts during slumber.

This is where smart underwear comes in, developed by Brantley Hall and colleagues. According to the press release, it’s a compact device that discreetly fits over standard underwear and utilizes electrochemical sensors to track intestinal gas production around the clock. Curious about the size? The sensor measures just 26 x 29 x 9 millimeters—pretty small, though participants may want to steer clear of skinny jeans during testing.

Initial research revealed that “healthy adults fart an average of 32 times per day,” approximately double previous assumptions. However, this varies widely, with reported farts per day ranging from 4 to 59.

As smart underwear becomes more widely adopted, data will contribute to the larger initiative known as the Human Flatus Atlas. Interested participants can register at flatus.info to track their gas output. This exciting project invites users to discover whether they are hydrogen over-producers, or if they’re more like Zen digesters who barely fart after a meal of baked beans.

Feedback raises questions about the sensor’s durability regarding substantial flatulence. Notably, we recently heard about an individual who ended up in a French hospital after attempting to hide unexploded ordnance from World War I, necessitating bomb disposal assistance. We can’t help but wonder if Smart Underwear was overwhelmed by such an incident.

On a brighter note, the principal researchers are keen to enhance technology in this field. Their website is minimalist, featuring a gas animation, a motivating slogan (“Measure. Master. Thrive.”), and the promise that “the future of gut health is just around the corner.” Feedback suggests a monthly subscription app might be on the horizon.

Ghost in the Machine

As AI companies integrate cutting-edge technology into our daily lives, many find it challenging to grasp its implications. With most people lacking a deep understanding of AI, we often rely on metaphors and analogies to conceptualize these advancements.

A particularly insightful analogy comes from a user on Bluesky, who described AI as “a hungry ghost trapped in a bottle.” This serves as a guideline to help us assess our use of AI wisely. If substituting “AI” with “starving ghost in a jar” still makes sense in your context, you’re likely employing AI appropriately.

“Think of it this way: ‘I have a bunch of hungry ghosts in a bottle. They’re mainly writing SQL queries for me.’ That’s reasonable,” the user elaborates. “But ‘My girlfriend is a hungry ghost in a bottle’? Definitely not okay.”

Equally concerning is the flood of unsolicited AI-generated content we encounter. From fake romance novels to AI summaries of searches and conferences, it’s overwhelming. We need an effective way to summarize our responses to such texts.

In this context, the popular internet abbreviation “tl;dr,” meaning “too long to read,” evolves into “ai;dr,” conveying similar sentiments about AI-generated material.

With countless anecdotes highlighting spectacular failures when using AI for critical tasks, one can only marvel at the mishaps. We’ve heard tales of venture capitalists asking AI tools to organize desktops, only to end up erasing 15 years’ worth of photos with a mere “oops” message (luckily, those files were later recovered). Other accounts reveal AI hallucinating entire months’ worth of analytical data.

Reflecting on this, author Nick Pettigrew shared a compelling perspective on Bluesky: “I believe that AI is the radium of our generation. While it has genuinely useful applications in controlled settings, we’ve carelessly infused it into everything from children’s toys to toothpaste, leading to unforeseen complications that future generations may question.”

There’s certainly more to unpack on this topic, but perhaps the AI will humorously eliminate those thoughts as well—definitely a modern twist on the classic “the dog ate my homework” excuse.

Qubit

It seems the feedback has gone years without acknowledging the contributions of quantum information theorists—a notable oversight on our part.

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Debunking the Biggest Myths About the Human Tongue: What You Need to Know

Posted on February 24, 2026 by Igor Mitreski

Can I Swallow My Tongue? Debunking the Myth

No, you cannot swallow your tongue. This common myth persists, but the truth is that your tongue is anchored to the base of your mouth, which limits its movement.

During events such as seizures, while the throat may retract, other muscles kick in to keep the airway open, preventing the tongue from obstructing breathing.

Tragically, this misconception has resulted in fatalities. A 2025 survey revealed that attempts to stop athletes from “swallowing their tongue” during heart attacks led to death in two-thirds of cases.

In contrast, 74% of individuals will survive a heart attack if they receive defibrillation within 3 minutes.

This article was inspired by the inquiry: “Can I swallow my tongue?” submitted via email by Johnny Norris.

If you have further questions, feel free to reach out to us at: questions@sciencefocus.com or connect with us on Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram (please include your name and location).

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The Shocking True Story: When a Python Swallowed a Human Whole

Posted on February 23, 2026 by Igor Mitreski

Here’s some good news: snakes rarely consume humans. However, there have been alarming reports, particularly in Indonesia, where several incidents over the last decade involved people being killed or swallowed by pythons. A notable case included a 45-year-old woman discovered fully clothed inside a 5-meter (16-foot) bloated python.

Nonvenomous snakes like pythons and boas typically use an ambush technique to capture prey. They grip their victims using backward-curved teeth and kill them by constricting their powerful bodies, which cuts off blood supply to vital organs, including the brain. This causes the prey to lose consciousness and die within mere minutes.

After immobilizing their prey, snakes swallow them whole, headfirst. Their unique skull structure allows them to consume animals significantly larger than their heads. For instance, the lower jaw is comprised of two halves connected by elastic ligaments, enabling the snake to stretch. Muscles in the digestive tract then aid in moving the prey to the stomach, where strong acids and enzymes break it down, allowing it to linger for days or even weeks.

The diet of a snake is closely linked to its size, ranging from insects, rodents, birds, and lizards, to monkeys, pigs, deer, and even crocodiles. Humans can pose a challenge due to their wider shoulder blades, which makes it difficult for snakes to constrict their jaws. Nevertheless, even small adults and children may fall victim to larger species.

Digestion of a human can take up to a month, including teeth and bones. Recent research has identified specific intestinal cells in pythons that effectively process substantial amounts of calcium and phosphorus from dissolved bone. However, snakes can’t digest keratin protein, so hair and nails remain intact. Additionally, clothing can complicate ingestion, leading to further challenges if a snake attempts to consume a human.

This article addresses a question posed by Southampton resident Lillian Hart: “What happens if I get eaten by a python?”

To submit your questions, please email questions@sciencefocus.com or connect with us on Facebook, Twitter, or Instagram (please include your name and location).

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Discovering the Pioneers of Tool and Art Creation: Uncovering Human Innovation

Posted on February 20, 2026 by Igor Mitreski

Recent findings highlight the emergence of early mining and hunting tools.

Raul Martin/MSF/Science Photo Library

Subscribe to Our Human Story, a monthly newsletter exploring revolutionary archaeology. Sign up today!

In headlines about human evolution, terms like “oldest,” “earliest,” and “first” dominate. I’ve authored numerous articles featuring these phrases.

This isn’t just an attention-grabbing tactic; it serves a purpose. When researchers identify evidence suggesting a species or behavior predates previous estimates, it elucidates our understanding of timelines and causations.

For instance, it was once believed that all rock art originated no earlier than 40,000 years ago, attributed solely to Homo sapiens, as Neanderthals were thought to have vanished by then. New evidence suggests that some prehistoric art predates this threshold, indicating Neanderthal artistic expression.

The past month has unveiled a flurry of “earliest” discoveries, prompting reflections on the reliability of such timelines. How can we ascertain the true age of early technologies?

Let the Exploration Begin!

During excavations in southern Greece, archaeologists unearthed two wooden tools estimated to be about 430,000 years old—possibly the oldest known wooden tools. One is believed to be a drilling rod, while the function of the other remains uncertain.

These tools are closely dated to the previous record holders, including the Clacton spear from Britain, approximated at 400,000 years old, and wooden spears found in Schöningen, now reassessed to nearly 300,000 years old.

Bone tools also emerged in Europe during this epoch. For instance, in Boxgrove, England, remnants from an elephant-like creature, possibly a steppe mammoth, were fashioned into hammers. These elephant bones date back 480,000 years, marking the oldest known utilization of elephant bone in Europe. However, in East Africa, ancient humans were crafting tools from elephant bones over 1.5 million years ago—perhaps much earlier.

Shifting our chronological lens, a recent discovery in Xigou, central China, reported a collection of 2,601 stone artifacts dating between 160,000 and 72,000 years ago, featuring composite tools attached to wooden handles—possibly the earliest evidence of such technologies in East Asia.

Moreover, an archaeological revelation in South Africa indicated that 60,000 years ago, early humans employed poisoned arrows for hunting, as evidenced by five arrowheads lined with toxic plant fluids.

Each of these findings carries deeper implications.

Examining the Past

Traces of plant toxins discovered on arrow points

Marlize Lombard

The oldest verified wooden tools we have may not represent the absolute earliest. Preservation issues plague prehistoric wooden artifacts; they tend to decay, leading to gaps in the historical record.

According to Katerina Harbati, who directs the wooden tools excavation, people likely used such tools well before 400,000 years ago, but prior examples remain undiscovered.

Woodworking is simpler than stone crafting, and since chimpanzees can fashion rudimentary wooden tools, it is plausible that wooden tools represent humanity’s earliest technological forms. An unexpected finding of a million-year-old wooden tool, though astonishing, would not be entirely improbable.

Consequently, significant narratives on human technological advancements shouldn’t solely pivot on the age of the earliest wood tools. Confidence in tool usage timelines necessitates rigorous investigation into various age groups.

As for poisoned arrows, these are recognized as the earliest validated forms of poisoned arrowheads. Nonetheless, designs akin to contemporary poisoned arrows have been identified from tens of thousands of years ago. Like wood, poison’s organic nature leads to rapid decay.

We should be cautiously assured. Poison arrows exemplify composite technological advancements and emerged later in the evolutionary timeline, possibly not even tracing back to early hominids such as Ardipithecus or Australopithecus.

Turning to prehistoric art, we find a wealth of complexity.

Exploring Prehistoric Graffiti

Hand stencils from a cave in Indonesia

Ahdi Agus Oktaviana

While cave paintings are iconic, other forms like carvings and engravings offer their own challenges in dating. If a sculpture is buried in sediment, its age can usually be determined based on sediment analysis. However, dating cave art proves trickier. Charcoal-based works that are less than 50,000 years old offer more reliable carbon dating, whereas those beyond this window yield inconclusive results.

Recently, hand-painted stencils found in caves on Sulawesi island were dated to at least 67,800 years, competing with a similar stencil in Spain attributed to Neanderthals, arguably the oldest rock art known.

Notably, the phrase “at least” matters significantly in this context. Dating relies on surface rock layers created through mineral deposits, which are only minimally informative. The artworks beneath could be much older.

The goal here isn’t to assert that we lack all knowledge, but rather, we possess a wealth of understanding, much of it newly uncovered in the last two decades. We must strive for a coherent timeline in human evolution and cultural development while acknowledging uncertainties.

In paleontology, having numerous specimens enhances reliability. Instead of studying charismatic prehistoric animals like dinosaurs, paleontologists often focus on smaller organisms that leave abundant fossil records, enabling deeper insights into their evolutionary progress.

However, in human evolution, the fossil record is uneven. Individual hominid species may number in the dozens, yet the early specimens remain scarce, hindering our understanding of their longevity and geographical spread. The relationship between evolved species also eludes clarity amidst possible complicated derivations.

Conversely, stone tool records are extensive, dating back to the 3.3 million-year-old Lomekwean stone tools in Kenya. We might encounter even older tools. Early humans like Ororin (6-4.5 million years ago) and Ardipithecus (5.8-4.4 million years ago) likely spent most time in trees, making their tool-making unlikely.

Wooden tools present their own challenges. Our knowledge remains limited and fragmented, largely due to preservation issues. A reliable timeline for the evolution of wooden tools seems elusive.

When it comes to ancient art, the challenges are primarily technical. Preserved artworks are available, yet accurate dating techniques are limited. Creating a chronology for artistic development poses immense challenges, although advancements in technology may facilitate progress over time. With any luck, by retirement, I hope to have a clearer understanding of the evolution of ancient human artistic practices.

In essence, all narratives about human evolution are, to some degree, provisional. This holds true across paleontological studies, especially for narratives with more uncertainty. The timeline of non-avian dinosaur extinction is quite clear-cut; however, human evolution allows for more variability. Further excavations and improved dating methods should refine our understanding, but some uncertainties may remain.

Neanderthals, the Origins of Humanity, and Cave Art: France

From Bordeaux to Montpellier, embark on a fascinating journey through time as you explore southern France’s significant Neanderthal and Upper Paleolithic sites.

Topics:

Ancient Humans /
Our Human Story

Source: www.newscientist.com

How Controlled Fire Use Paved the Way for Human Evolution

Posted on February 5, 2026 by Igor Mitreski

New research reveals that burn injuries have significantly influenced the rapid evolution of humans.

Scientists from Imperial College London assert that our close relationship with fire has made our ancestors more resilient to burn injuries compared to other animals. This ongoing exposure to fire may have fundamentally shaped our wound healing processes and immune responses, leaving an indelible impact on our genetic makeup.

Study author Professor Armand Leroy, an evolutionary biologist at Imperial’s School of Life Sciences, states, “The concept of burn selection introduces a novel form of natural selection that is influenced by cultural factors.” He emphasizes, “This adds a new dimension to the narrative of what defines humanity, something we were previously unaware of.”

While minor burns typically heal swiftly, severe burns that take longer to mend can permit bacterial invasion, escalating the risk of infection.

Researchers hypothesize that these challenges prompted crucial genetic adaptations, leading evolution to favor traits that enhance survival after burn injuries. For instance, this includes accelerated inflammation responses and enhanced wound closure mechanisms.

Published in the journal BioEssays, the study contrasts human genomic data with that of other primates. Findings indicate that genes related to burn and wound healing exhibit accelerated evolution in humans, with increased mutations observed in these genes. These evolutionary changes are believed to have resulted in a thicker dermal layer of human skin and deeper placement of hair follicles and sweat glands.

However, the study suggests a trade-off; while amplified inflammation is beneficial for healing minor to moderate burns, it can exacerbate damage in cases of severe burns. More specifically, extreme inflammation from serious burns can lead to scarring and, in some instances, organ failure.

This research may shed light on why some individuals heal effectively while others struggle after burn-related injuries, potentially enhancing treatment methodologies for burns and scars.

According to Prince Kyei Baffour, a burn specialist and lecturer at Leeds Beckett University who was not part of the study, “This field remains underexplored and represents a burgeoning area of research regarding burn injury responses.” BBC Science Focus.

Baffour recommends further investigations into various forms of fire exposure, including smoke inhalation.

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Neanderthal and Early Human Interbreeding Across Wide Regions: What the Evidence Shows

Posted on February 2, 2026 by Igor Mitreski

Artist’s Impression of Neanderthal Life

Christian Jegou/Science Photo Library

Homo sapiens and Neanderthals likely interbred across a vast region, extending from Western Europe to Asia.

Modern humans (Homo sapiens) and Neanderthals (Homo neanderthalensis) exhibited mixed ancestry, with most non-Africans today possessing Neanderthal DNA, approximating 2% of their genome. Neanderthals also engaged in interbreeding, leading to a lineage shift in the Y chromosome influenced by Homo sapiens.

Despite increasing knowledge about the timing of this hybridization, the specific regions and scales of these interactions long remained a mystery. Ancestors of Neanderthals departed Africa around 600,000 years ago, migrating toward Europe and Western Asia. The first evidence of Homo sapiens moving from Africa includes skeletal remains from sites in modern-day Israel and Greece, dating to approximately 200,000 years ago.

Evidence suggests that Homo sapiens contributed genetically to the Neanderthal population in the Altai Mountains around 100,000 years ago. However, the primary wave of migration from Africa occurred over 60,000 years ago. Recent studies utilizing ancient genomic data indicate that significant gene flow between Homo sapiens and Neanderthals began around 50,000 years ago, with findings documented in studies of 4000 and 7000 gene transfers.

This interaction is thought to have primarily taken place in the eastern Mediterranean, although pinpointing the exact locations remains challenging.

To investigate, Matthias Karat and his team from the University of Geneva analyzed 4,147 ancient genetic samples from over 1,200 locations, with the oldest dating back approximately 44,000 years. They studied the frequency of genetic mutations (introgression alleles) originating from Neanderthal DNA that were passed down through hybridization.

“Our objective was to use Neanderthal DNA integration patterns in ancient human genomes to determine the sites of hybridization,” Carlat explains.

Findings revealed that the proportion of transferred DNA increased gradually as one moved away from the eastern Mediterranean region, plateauing approximately 3,900 kilometers westward into Europe and eastward into Asia.

“We were surprised to identify a distinct pattern of increasing introgression rates in the human genome, likely linked to human expansion from Africa,” Carlat notes. “This increase toward Europe and East Asia allows us to estimate the parameters of this hybrid zone.”

Computer simulations showed a hybrid zone potentially spanning much of Europe and the eastern Mediterranean, extending into western Asia.

Interbreeding Zone between Neanderthals and Homo sapiens

Lionel N. Di Santo et al. 2026

“Our findings suggest a continuous series of interbreeding events across both space and time,” notes Carlat. “However, the specifics of mating occurrences in this hybrid zone remain unknown.”

This hybrid zone encompasses nearly all known Neanderthal remains found across Western Eurasia, with the exception of the Altai region.

“The extensive geographical breadth of the putative hybrid zone suggests widespread interactions among populations,” states Leonard Yasi from the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology in Leipzig, Germany.

Notably, the Atlantic periphery—including western France and much of the Iberian Peninsula—was not part of the hybrid zone, despite the established presence of Neanderthals in these regions. Currat suggests that interbreeding may not have occurred here or may not be reflected in the analyzed genetic samples.

“This study reveals ongoing interactions between modern humans and Neanderthals over extensive geographical areas and extended periods,” adds Yasi. The hybrid zone may extend further, though limited ancient DNA sampling in regions like the Arabian Peninsula complicates assessment of its reach.

“This pivotal research challenges the notion that interbreeding occurred only in one area of West Asia with a singular Neanderthal population (not represented in existing genetic samples). Homo sapiens appear to have dispersed from Africa in increasing numbers across expanding territories, likely outcompeting smaller Neanderthal groups they encountered throughout most of the recognized Neanderthal range,” comments Chris Stringer from the Natural History Museum in London.

Topics:

Neanderthal Man/
Ancient Humans

Source: www.newscientist.com

How Human Activity is Impacting Sex Change in Animals

Posted on January 31, 2026 by Igor Mitreski

Approximately 2% of the world’s fish species, or about 500 species, are known to change sex at some point during their adult life.

Some species, like the black-spotted fish (as shown above), switch from female to male periodically. Others, such as clownfish, can change from male to female, while species like coral-dwelling gobies switch genders based on environmental conditions.

This phenomenon is distinct in fish because, unlike mammals and birds, many fish species do not have their sex determined by sex chromosomes.

Environmental cues trigger changes in gene activity, influencing the production of essential hormones and enzymes. A key enzyme, aromatase, plays a critical role by converting male hormones into female ones and changing gonads into ovaries.

Social dynamics can also act as environmental signals. Clark clownfish, for instance, live among sea anemones in small groups during the breeding season. If a breeding female passes away, the largest subordinate male is known to change sex and assume her role.

Changes in water quality can signal a shift in gender as well.

Research indicates that pollutants entering rivers can induce male fish to exhibit female traits, such as spawning behaviors.

Furthermore, a 2008 study found that a mere 1 to 2 degrees Celsius increase in water temperature could skew the sex ratio of certain fish towards a higher male count.

Some sex changes are advantageous; for example, clownfish evolve to switch genders as a survival strategy to enhance reproduction. However, human activities are disrupting natural sex change processes.

Polluting rivers or warming oceans presents severe risks to future aquatic species.

This article addresses the question posed by Alex Jackson via email: “How can animals switch gender?”

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Love Machine Review: Exploring the Impact of Chatbots on Human Relationships

Posted on January 16, 2026 by Igor Mitreski

Imagine forming a deep bond with a chatbot that suddenly starts suggesting products.

Maria Kornieva/Getty Images

A woman with hearts in her eyes, representing the rise of AI relationships. — Imagine forming a deep bond with a chatbot that suddenly starts suggesting products.

Maria Kornieva/Getty Images

Love Machines
by James Muldoon, Faber & Faber

Artificial intelligence is becoming an inescapable reality, seamlessly integrating into our lives. Forget searching for chatbots; new icons will soon appear in your favorite applications, easily accessible with a single click, from WhatsApp to Google Drive, and even in basic programs like Microsoft Notepad.

The tech industry is making substantial investments in AI, pushing users to leverage these advancements. While many embrace AI for writing, management, and planning, some take it a step further, cultivating intimate relationships with their AI companions.

In James Muldoon’s Love Machine: How Artificial Intelligence Will Change Our Relationships, we delve into the intricate connections humans form with chatbots, whether they’re designed for romantic encounters or simply companionship. These AI systems also serve as friends or therapists, showcasing a broad range of interactions we’ve often discussed. New Scientist dedicates 38 pages to this topic.

In one interview, a 46-year-old woman in a passionless marriage shares her experience of using AI to explore her intricate sexual fantasies set in an 18th-century French villa. This opens up broader conversations about utilizing AI in more practical life scenarios, such as during a doctor’s visit.

Another participant, Madison, recounts uploading her late best friend’s text messages to a “deathbot” service, which generates a way for her to maintain communication.

Muldoon’s anecdotes often carry an element of voyeuristic intrigue. They reveal the diverse ways individuals navigate their lives, some paths being healthier than others. What works for one person might prove detrimental for another.

However, a critical question remains. Are we naïve to think that AI services won’t evolve like social media, cluttered with advertisements for profit? Envision a long-term relationship with a chatbot that frequently pushes products your way. What happens if the company collapses? Can you secure backups of your artificial companions, or migrate them elsewhere? Do you hold rights to the generated data and networks? Moreover, there are psychological risks associated with forming attachments to these indifferent “yes-men,” which may further alienate individuals lacking real social connections.

Nonetheless, there are positive applications for this technology. In Ukraine, for instance, AI is being harnessed to help individuals suffering from PTSD, far exceeding the current availability of human therapists. The potential to revolutionize customer service, basic legal operations, and administrative tasks is immense. Yet, Muldoon’s narrative suggests that AI often functions as an unhealthy emotional crutch. One man, heartbroken over his girlfriend’s betrayal, envisions creating an AI partner and starting a family with her.

This book appears less about examining the social impacts of innovative technology and more like a warning signal regarding pervasive loneliness and the critical lack of mental health resources. A flourishing economy, robust healthcare system, and more supportive society could reduce our reliance on emotional bonds with software.

Humans are naturally inclined to anthropomorphize inanimate objects, even naming cars and guitars. Our brain’s tendency to perceive faces in random patterns—pareidolia—has been a survival mechanism since prehistoric times. So, is it surprising that we could be deceived by machines that mimic conversation?

If this provokes skepticism, guilty as charged. While there’s potential for machines to gain sentience and form genuine relationships in the future, such advancements are not yet realized. Today’s AI struggles with basic arithmetic and lacks genuine concern for users, despite producing seemingly thoughtful responses.

Topics:

Source: www.newscientist.com

Simulating the Human Brain with Supercomputers: Exploring Advanced Neuroscience Technology

Posted on January 12, 2026 by Igor Mitreski

3D MRI Scan of the Human Brain

K H FUNG/Science Photo Library

3D MRI scan of human brain — 3D MRI Scan of the Human Brain

K H FUNG/Science Photo Library

Simulating the human brain involves using advanced computing power to model billions of neurons, aiming to replicate the intricacies of real brain function. Researchers aspire to enhance brain simulations, uncovering secrets of cognition with enhanced understanding of neuronal wiring.

Historically, researchers have focused on isolating specific brain regions for simulations to elucidate particular functions. However, a comprehensive model encompassing the entire brain has yet to be achieved. As Markus Diesmann from the Jülich Research Center in Germany notes, “This is now changing.”

This shift is largely due to the emergence of state-of-the-art supercomputers, nearing exascale capabilities—performing billions of operations per second. Currently, only four such machines exist, according to the Top 500 list. Diesmann’s team is set to execute extensive brain simulations on one such supercomputer, named JUPITER (Joint Venture Pioneer for Innovative Exascale Research in Germany).

Recently, Diesmann and colleagues demonstrated that a simple model of brain neurons and their synapses, known as a spiking neural network, can be configured to leverage JUPITER’s thousands of GPUs. This scaling can achieve 20 billion neurons and 100 trillion connections, effectively mimicking the human cerebral cortex, the hub of higher brain functions.

These simulations promise more impactful outcomes than previous models of smaller brains such as fruit flies. Recent insights from large language models reveal that larger systems exhibit behaviors unattainable in their smaller counterparts. “We recognize that expansive networks demonstrate qualitatively different capabilities than their reduced size equivalents,” asserts Diesmann. “It’s evident that larger networks offer unique functionalities.”

Thomas Novotny from the University of Sussex emphasizes that downscaling risks omitting crucial characteristics entirely. “Conducting full-scale simulations is vital; without it, we can’t truly replicate reality,” Novotny states.

The model in development at JUPITER is founded on empirical data from limited neuron and synapse experiments in humans. As Johanna Cenk, a collaborator with Diesmann at Sussex, explains, “We have anatomical data constraints coupled with substantial computational power.”

Comprehensive brain simulations could facilitate tests of foundational theories regarding memory formation—an endeavor impractical with miniature models or actual brains. Testing such theories might involve inputting images to observe neural responses and analyze alterations in memory formation with varying brain sizes. Furthermore, this approach could aid in drug testing, such as assessing impacts on a model of epilepsy characterized by abnormal brain activity.

The enhanced computational capabilities enable rapid brain simulations, thereby assisting researchers in understanding gradual processes such as learning, as noted by Senk. Additionally, researchers can devise more intricate biological models detailing neuronal changes and firings.

Nonetheless, despite the ability to simulate vast brain networks, Novotny acknowledges considerable gaps in knowledge. Even simplified whole-brain models for organisms like fruit flies fail to replicate authentic animal behavior.

Simulations run on supercomputers are fundamentally limited, lacking essential features inherent to real brains, such as real-world environmental inputs. “While we can simulate brain size, we cannot fully replicate a functional brain,” warns Novotny.

Topics:

Source: www.newscientist.com

New Research Reveals How Gut Microbes Influence Human Brain Evolution

Posted on January 6, 2026 by Igor Mitreski

Humans have larger brains relative to body size compared to other primates, which leads to a higher glucose demand that may be supported by gut microbiota changes influencing host metabolism. In this study, we investigated this hypothesis by inoculating germ-free mice with gut bacteria from three primate species with varying brain sizes. Notably, the brain gene expression in mice receiving human and macaque gut microbes mirrored patterns found in the respective primate brains. Human gut microbes enhanced glucose production and utilization in the mouse brains, suggesting that differences in gut microbiota across species can impact brain metabolism, indicating that gut microbiota may help meet the energy needs of large primate brains.

Decasian et al. provided groundbreaking data showing that gut microbiome shapes brain function differences among primates. Image credit: DeCasien et al., doi: 10.1073/pnas.2426232122.

“Our research demonstrates that microbes influence traits critical for understanding evolution, especially regarding the evolution of the human brain,” stated Katie Amato, lead author and researcher at Northwestern University.

This study builds upon prior research revealing that introducing gut microbes from larger-brained primates into mice leads to enhanced metabolic energy within the host microbiome—a fundamental requirement for supporting the development and function of energetically costly large brains.

The researchers aimed to examine how gut microbes from primates of varying brain sizes affect host brain function. In a controlled laboratory setting, they transplanted gut bacteria from two large-brained primates (humans and squirrel monkeys) and a smaller-brained primate (macaque) into germ-free mice.

Within eight weeks, mice with gut microbes from smaller-brained primates exhibited distinct brain function compared to those with microbes from larger-brained primates.

Results indicated that mice hosting larger-brained microbes demonstrated increased expression of genes linked to energy production and synaptic plasticity, vital for the brain’s learning processes. Conversely, gene expression associated with these processes was diminished in mice hosting smaller-brained primate microbes.

“Interestingly, we compared our findings from mouse brains with actual macaque and human brain data, and, to our surprise, many of the gene expression patterns were remarkably similar,” Dr. Amato remarked.

“This means we could alter the mouse brain to resemble that of the primate from which the microbial sample was derived.”

Another notable discovery was the identification of gene expression patterns associated with ADHD, schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, and autism in mice with gut microbes from smaller-brained primates.

Although previous research has suggested correlations between conditions like autism and gut microbiome composition, definitive evidence linking microbiota to these conditions has been lacking.

“Our study further supports the idea that microbes may play a role in these disorders, emphasizing that the gut microbiome influences brain function during developmental stages,” Dr. Amato explained.

“We can speculate that exposure to ‘harmful’ microorganisms could alter human brain development, possibly leading to the onset of these disorders. Essentially, if critical human microorganisms are absent in early stages, functional brain changes may occur, increasing the risk of disorder manifestations.”

These groundbreaking findings will be published in today’s Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.

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Alex R. Decassian et al. 2026. Primate gut microbiota induces evolutionarily significant changes in neurodevelopment in mice. PNAS 123(2): e2426232122; doi: 10.1073/pnas.2426232122

Source: www.sci.news