Here’s the rewritten, SEO-optimized content while maintaining the HTML tags:
Fossil vertebrae of a massive python, measuring nearly 4 meters long, were unearthed from the Chiting Formation in Taiwan, indicating its existence during the Middle Pleistocene.
An artistic reconstruction of a python and Toyotamafimia in Middle Pleistocene Taiwan. Image credit: National Taiwan University, Fossil Vertebrate Evolution and Diversity Laboratory / Cheng-Han Sun.
The Python genus comprises nearly 10 species of snakes within the Pythonidae family, found across tropical and subtropical regions of the Eastern Hemisphere.
In Africa, pythons inhabit tropical zones south of the Sahara, being absent from the southwestern tip of southern Africa and Madagascar.
In Asia, their range extends from Bangladesh, Nepal, India, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka, across Myanmar to Indochina, southern China, Hong Kong, Hainan, and throughout the Malay region of Indonesia, and the Philippines.
“There are currently no living members of the Python genus on the main island of Taiwan,” notes Yi Lu Liau and colleagues from National Taiwan University.
A recent study involved paleontologists who analyzed a large, single trunk vertebra found near Tainan, Taiwan.
This vertebra dates back to the Middle Pleistocene, approximately 800,000 to 400,000 years ago.
The researchers classified this specimen as belonging to the Python genus, marking the first discovery of python fossils on mainland Taiwan.
Using measurements from a 3D reconstruction of the specimen, researchers estimated that this ancient snake reached lengths of about 4 meters, surpassing the size of modern snakes in Taiwan.
While Taiwan is home to over 50 snake species, none match the size indicated by these fossils.
“This fossil is not only the largest but also the most surprising snake fossil discovered in Taiwan,” the researchers stated.
The fossil was recovered from the Chiting Formation, a geological unit rich in fossils from southern Taiwan, where large herbivores such as saber-toothed cats, massive crocodiles, mammoths, and extinct rhinos have also been found.
Collectively, these findings suggest a complex, predator-dominated ecosystem during the Middle Pleistocene, in stark contrast to Taiwan’s current fauna.
“A top predator has gone extinct, as shown by the discovery of this enormous Python. Alternatively, previously documented saber-toothed tigers and large crocodiles indicate rapid changes in Taiwan’s modern biodiversity,” the scientists concluded.
“We propose that the top predator niche in today’s ecosystems may have remained vacant since the Pleistocene extinction event.”
“Future discoveries and in-depth analyses should further explore this hypothesis and illuminate the origins of modern biodiversity in the Far East.”
For more details regarding this discovery, refer to the study published in the journal Historical Biology.
_____
Yi Lu Liau and colleagues. Unexpected snake fossil (Pythonidae, Python) discovered in Taiwan. Historical Biology, published online on January 16, 2026. doi: 10.1080/08912963.2025.2610741
This version enhances SEO by incorporating relevant keywords and phrases naturally, while maintaining the integrity of the original content.
Unearthed in 1958 by a young fossil hunter in Albion, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia, dinosaur footprints have been officially recognized as the continent’s oldest, dating back approximately 230 million years to the late Triassic period. This discovery indicates that dinosaurs inhabited the Brisbane region far earlier than previously thought by paleontologists.
Living fossils unearthed from Petrie Quarry, Albion, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia. Image credit: Anthony Romilio & Bruce Runnegar, doi: 10.1080/03115518.2025.2607630.
The 18.5 cm (7 in.) long dinosaur footprint was discovered at Petrie’s Quarry, part of the Aspley Formation, alongside a slab featuring narrow linear grooves interpreted as possible tail traces.
Both specimens were extracted before the quarry site was redeveloped, passing through several university collections since then.
“This is the only dinosaur fossil discovered in an Australian capital, highlighting how significant finds can remain hidden in plain sight,” stated Dr. Anthony Romilio, a palaeontologist from the University of Queensland.
“Urban development has rendered the original site inaccessible, leaving behind these footprints as the only evidence of dinosaurs in the area.”
The footprints show impressions of three forward-facing toes, with the central toe demonstrating a faint fan-shaped outline, characteristics typical of a bipedal dinosaur.
Advanced 3D modeling and morphometric analysis revealed that this footprint closely resembles the Ichnogenus Evazoum, commonly linked to early sauropod dinosaurs found elsewhere.
Based on the dimensions of the footprints, Dr. Romilio and Professor Bruce Rannegar estimated that the corresponding dinosaur stood about 78 centimeters (31 inches) tall at the waist and weighed around 144 kilograms (89 pounds).
Utilizing established scaling equations, researchers calculated the maximum potential running speed to be about 60 km/h (37 mph).
While no dinosaur skeletons have been found in the Aspley Formation, these footprints serve as the only direct evidence of dinosaur presence in this time and place.
“Dinosaurs may have walked along waterways, leaving their tracks preserved in sandstone that was later cut to build structures across Brisbane,” Dr. Romilio explained.
“If not for the foresight to conserve this material, the history of Brisbane’s dinosaurs would have remained completely unknown.”
“These footprints were made in sediment by large animals and exemplify a unique kind of trace fossil,” stated Professor Rannegar.
The associated tail print, approximately 13 centimeters (5 inches) long, aligns with structures interpreted as a dinosaur’s tail track. However, the authors caution that without preservation of the corresponding footprint in an appropriate location, its origin remains uncertain.
“The shallow linear grooves found in the tail block closely match reported tail drag traces, yet lack any remaining evidence of Manus or Pes. Their true identity remains ambiguous,” they noted.
“These grooves could have resulted from caudal contact in the orbits of prosauropods, but typically on-site and near the midline of such orbit, which isn’t applicable in this case.”
The team’s research paper has been published this week in The Alcheringa, Australian Journal of Paleontology.
_____
Anthony Romilio and Bruce Rannegar. Australia’s oldest dinosaur: Reproductive fossils unearthed from the Carnian Aspley Formation in Brisbane, Queensland, Australia. Alcheringa published online on February 1, 2026. doi: 10.1080/03115518.2025.2607630
Archaeologists have made a groundbreaking discovery, unearthing the “oldest known hand-held wooden tool” at a Middle Pleistocene site in Marathusa 1, Greece.
Impression of a Marathusa 1 female artist crafting a digging stick using small stone tools from an alder trunk. Image credit: G. Prieto / K. Harvati.
According to Professor Katerina Herberty from the University of Tübingen, “The Middle Pleistocene was crucial for human evolution, marking a period when complex behaviors emerged.”
“This era also showcases the earliest reliable evidence of the targeted use of plants for technological purposes.”
The 430,000-year-old wooden tools discovered at the Marathusa 1 site, led by Professor Harbati and his team, consist of worked alder trunks and small willow/poplar artifacts.
The primary tool is made from alder wood (Alnus sp.) and features engraving marks along with associated stop and chop marks, indicating intentional shaping.
This approximately 81 cm long artifact displays signs of usage consistent with a multifunctional rod likely employed for paleolakeshore excavation.
The second tool, a small piece of willow/poplar (Salix sp./Populus sp.), measures 5.7 cm and exhibits signs of rounding.
This object shows two signs of potential processing, suggesting that growth rings have been removed from one end.
Researchers hypothesize that this small wooden tool’s function remains uncertain but may have been utilized for modifying stone tools.
Alongside these wooden tools, scientists uncovered butchered remains of an elephant with straight tusks (Paleoloxodon Antique), as well as stone artifacts and processed bones.
Dr. Annemieke Milks, a researcher at the University of Reading, states, “Unlike stone artifacts, wooden objects need special conditions to survive over long durations.”
“We meticulously examined all tree remains, analyzing the surfaces under a microscope.”
“Our findings revealed clear evidence of cutting and carving on these two objects, strongly indicating that early humans intentionally shaped them.”
A multifunctional digging stick (top) and small wooden tools (bottom) from the Marathusa 1 site in Greece. Image credit: D. Michailidis / N. Thompson / K. Harvati.
Additionally, researchers found a large fragment of an alder trunk exhibiting deep carved stripes, interpreted as fossilized claw marks from a large carnivore. This suggests potential competition between early humans and carnivores at this site.
Evidence of cuts and damage on the elephant remains indicate that early hominins had access to the carcass, while gnawing marks reveal subsequent carnivorous activity.
Dr. Milks added, “Previous discoveries of ancient wooden tools have occurred in countries such as Britain, Zambia, Germany, and China, comprising weapons, digging sticks, and tool handles.” However, she noted that these finds date newer than the Marathusa 1 artifacts.
“The only evidence of ancient wood used by humans, dating to around 476,000 years ago, comes from the Kalambo Falls site in Zambia, where the wood served as structural material rather than tools.”
“We have now identified the oldest known wooden tools and the first of their kind from southeastern Europe,” emphasized Professor Herberty.
“This discovery highlights the exceptional conservation conditions at the Marathusa 1 site.”
“The concurrent evidence of human activity and large carnivores in the vicinity of the butchered elephant indicates a competitive dynamic between them.”
Details of these findings are published in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.
_____
A. Chemilux et al. 2026. The earliest evidence of human use of wooden hand tools, discovered at Marathusa 1 (Greece). PNAS 123 (6): e2515479123; doi: 10.1073/pnas.25154791
Reconstruction of a Paleolithic woman crafting wooden tools
Credit: G. Prieto; K. Harvati
Remarkably, some of the oldest known wooden tools have been unearthed in an open-pit mine in Greece, dating back 430,000 years. These artifacts were likely crafted by an ancient human ancestor, potentially related to Neanderthals.
Archaeologists note that prehistoric wooden artefacts are “extremely rare.” According to Dirk Leder from the Lower Saxony Cultural Heritage Office in Hannover, Germany, any new findings in this area are highly valued.
Evidence suggests our extinct relatives may have utilized wooden tools for millions of years. “This could be the oldest type of tool ever used,” states Katerina Harvati from the University of Tübingen, Germany. Unfortunately, the preservation of wooden artifacts is often poor, hindering our understanding of their use.
Harvati and her team discovered the tool at a site called Marathusa 1, originally confirmed in 2013 in the Megalopolis Basin of southern Greece. The open-pit lignite mine revealed sediment layers that are nearly a million years old, offering unprecedented access to date and research, as mentioned by researcher K. Harvati.
From 2013 to 2019, excavations yielded not only tools but also the skeleton of a straight-tusked elephant (Paleoloxodon antiquus), indicating a rich archaeological context with evidence of activity, including more than 2,000 stone tools and remains of varied flora and fauna, depicting an ancient lakeshore ecosystem.
To date Marathusa 1, researchers relied on various methods, including analyzing fossil footprints and historical changes in the Earth’s magnetic field. By 2024, they confirmed that the artefacts are around 430,000 years old, a time marked by challenging climatic conditions—the gravest ice age of the Pleistocene in Europe. The Megalopolis Basin likely provided refuge due to its relatively temperate climate.
The archaeological team identified two significant wooden tools among the 144 artifacts. The first, an 81 cm long pole made from alder, exhibits marks indicative of intentional shaping. One end appears rounded, possibly serving as a handle, while the other is flattened, hinting at potential use for digging underground tubers or perhaps for butchering elephant carcasses. Harvati admits uncertainty about its exact application.
Mysterious second wooden tool from Marathusa 1
Credit: N. Thompson; K. Harvati
The second tool remains enigmatic, measuring just 5.7 cm in length and made from willow or poplar. It also shows signs of intentional shaping after the bark was removed. According to Harvati, this represents a completely new type of wooden tool. While it might have served to modify stone tools, the specific purpose remains a mystery.
Reeder points out that while the first tool is a clear example of wooden craftsmanship, questions remain about the functionality of the second. “Is this a complete item or part of something larger?” he muses.
No hominid remains have been found at Marathusa 1. Given its age, it predates our species and is likely too early even for Neanderthals. “The prevailing hypothesis suggests this site might be associated with pre-Neanderthal humans or Homo heidelbergensis. However, Harvati cautions against making definitive conclusions, noting that Greece was frequented by various hominin groups.
Other ancient wooden tools, like the Clacton spear discovered in Britain, are estimated to be about 400,000 years old, while a wooden spear from Schöningen, Germany, has been dated using multiple methods to around 300,000 years. The only tools that predate those found at Marathusa 1 are from Kalambo Falls in Zambia, which date back 476,000 years and resemble remains of larger structures or buildings.
Discover Archaeology and Paleontology
New Scientist regularly covers extraordinary archaeological sites worldwide that reshape our understanding of human evolution and early civilizations. Consider joining us on this captivating journey!
In the last 25 years, the field of human evolution has witnessed remarkable growth, showcased by a significant increase in discoveries. Archaeologists have unearthed more fossils, species, and artifacts from diverse locations, from the diminutive “hobbits” to enigmatic creatures inhabiting Indonesian islands. Notably, Homo naledi is known solely from a single deep cave in South Africa. Simultaneously, advanced analytical techniques have enhanced our understanding of these findings, revealing a treasure trove of information about our origins and extinct relatives.
This whirlwind of discoveries has yielded two major lessons. First, since 2000, our understanding of the human fossil record has been extended further back in time. Previously, the oldest known human fossil was 4.4 million-year-old Ardipithecus, but subsequent discoveries in 2000 and 2001 unearthed even older species: Ardipithecus, Orrorin tugenensis from 6 million years ago, and Sahelanthropus tchadensis from 7 million years ago. Additionally, the Orrorin lineage was tentatively identified in 2022, suggesting it is slightly more recent than O. tugenensis.
According to Clement Zanoli from the University of Bordeaux, the discovery of these early human fossils represents “one of the great revolutions” in our understanding of evolution.
The second major lesson has enriched the narrative of how our species emerged from earlier hominins. By 2000, genetic evidence established that all non-Africans descend from ancestors who lived in Africa around 60,000 years ago. This revelation indicated that modern humans evolved in Africa and subsequently migrated, replacing other hominid species.
However, by 2010, the sequencing of the first Neanderthal genome opened a new chapter, along with the DNA analysis of several other ancient humans. These studies revealed that our species interbred with Neanderthals, Denisovans, and possibly other groups, creating a complex tapestry of human ancestry.
Skeletal research has long suggested interbreeding as many fossils exhibit traits that defy clear species categorization, as noted by Sheila Athreya at Texas A&M University. In 2003, Eric Trinkaus and colleagues described a jawbone excavated from Peștera cu Oase, Romania, as a Human-Neanderthal hybrid, based on its morphology. Later genetic testing in 2015 confirmed that individuals from Oase had Neanderthal ancestry, tracing back 4 to 6 generations ago.
This evidence highlights that our species did not merely expand from Africa; rather, our population absorbed genetic contributions from Neanderthals and Denisovans along the way. Genetically, we are a mosaic, a fusion of countless years of diverse human lineages.
A groundbreaking research team from the University of Wisconsin-Madison has successfully reverse-engineered a primitive nitrogen-fixing enzyme. This discovery sheds light on how life thrived before the Earth was transformed by oxygen and establishes reliable chemical markers for detecting extraterrestrial life.
Resurrection and characterization of an ancestral nitrogenase. Image credit: Rucker et al., doi: 10.1038/s41467-025-67423-y.
Led by Professor Betül Kaçar, the research focuses on an essential enzyme known as nitrogenase, which plays a pivotal role in converting atmospheric nitrogen into bioavailable forms.
“We selected an enzyme that significantly influences life on Earth and investigated its evolutionary history,” Professor Kaçar stated.
“Without nitrogenase, the existence of modern life as we know it would be impossible.”
Traditionally, scientists have depended on geological evidence to reconstruct Earth’s historical life.
However, significant fossils and rock samples are scarce and often require fortuitous discovery.
Professor Kaçar and his team view synthetic biology as a valuable tool to bridge these gaps, allowing them to construct specific ancient enzyme reconstructions, insert these into microorganisms, and study them in contemporary lab settings.
“The Earth of 3 billion years ago was vastly different from the world we recognize today,” remarked Dr. Holly Rucker.
“Before the Great Oxidation Event, the atmosphere was rich in carbon dioxide and methane, and life predominantly consisted of anaerobic microorganisms.”
“Understanding how these microorganisms accessed vital nutrients like nitrogen enhances our comprehension of how life persisted and evolved before oxygen-dependent organisms began to alter the planet.”
“Though fossilized enzymes are unavailable for study, these enzymes can leave discernible isotopic traces, measurable in rock samples.”
“Much of the prior research assumed ancient enzymes produced isotopic signatures akin to modern enzymes,” added Dr. Rucker.
“This holds true for nitrogenase; the isotopic traces we observe from ancient times correspond with modern signatures, providing deeper insights into the enzyme itself.”
The researchers discovered that ancient nitrogenase enzymes, despite having different DNA sequences, maintain the same mechanisms for isotopic signatures observed in the rock record.
“As astrobiologists, our understanding of Earth helps us comprehend the potential for life elsewhere in the universe,” Professor Kaçar emphasized.
“The quest for life begins right here on our 4-billion-year-old planet.”
“To grasp future possibilities and life beyond our planet, we must first understand our own history.”
The results were published today in the online journal Nature Communications, accessible here.
_____
Rucker et al. 2026. The revived nitrogenase reproduces the standard N isotope biosignature spanning two billion years. Nat Commun 17,616; doi: 10.1038/s41467-025-67423-y
Treponema pallidum Bacteria Linked to Syphilis and Related Diseases
Source: Science Photo Library / Alamy
New research reveals that traces of Treponema pallidum—the bacteria responsible for syphilis—have been identified in the bones of ancient inhabitants of Colombia, dating back over 5,000 years. This discovery suggests that syphilis was infecting humans far earlier than previously believed, prior to the advent of intensive agriculture, which many experts think may have facilitated its spread.
Currently, Treponema pallidum encompasses three subspecies that cause syphilis, bejel, and framboise. The origins and transmission pathways of these diseases remain topics of scientific debate. Although ancient DNA and infectious markers on bones offer insights, they are often limited and ambiguous.
In a groundbreaking study, researchers analyzed DNA from 5,500-year-old remains discovered in the Bogotá savannah. The unexpected finding of Treponema pallidum in a human leg bone provides critical evidence of its historical prevalence.
“This discovery was entirely unanticipated, as there was a lack of skeletal evidence indicating an infectious disease,” notes Nasreen Broumandkoshbacht from the University of California, Santa Cruz.
Many scholars have long posited that the majority of diseases affected humans only after the rise of intensive agriculture, which led to denser populations. However, this individual lived in a contrasting setting—small, nomadic hunter-gatherer bands that maintained close contact with wild animals.
“These results shed light on the extensive evolutionary history of these organisms,” states Davide Bozzi from the University of Lausanne, Switzerland. “They reveal longstanding relationships between the bacterium and human populations.”
As researchers, including Blumandhoschbacht and Bozzi, correlated ancient genomes with contemporary ones, they identified that the pallidum strain was part of a distinct lineage, separate from any known modern relatives. This indicates that early variants of syphilis were already diversifying and infecting humans in the Americas millennia ago, with many of the same genetic traits that make present-day strains particularly pathogenic.
The findings imply that these pathogens were not only early residents in the Americas but may have been affecting human populations globally for much longer than previously assumed.
Rodrigo Barquera, a researcher at the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology in Leipzig, Germany, suggests that this ancient strain might link to an elusive “missing” pathogen, Treponema carathaeum, known primarily for its physical characteristics rather than its genetic makeup.
Kertu Majumdar, a researcher at the University of Zurich in Switzerland, posits, “The genomes of even older organisms might provide insights into a variety of extinct lineages and diseases caused by these pathogens.”
For Bozzi, unearthing the evolutionary adaptations of pathogens like syphilis is crucial for understanding their genetic attributes that enhance their virulence in new hosts.
New bone analysis suggests even the colossal kangaroos of ancient Australia might have been capable of jumping.
During the Pleistocene, some kangaroos weighed over twice as much as today’s species. One subset, the Stenurines, reached such enormous sizes that their ability to jump was doubted, leading researchers to believe they primarily walked on their hind legs.
“When discussing giant kangaroos, the stenurines are a frequent topic,” says Megan Jones from the University of Manchester, UK. “These unique kangaroos feature very short, box-shaped skulls and one toe on each foot. The largest male red kangaroos today average around 90 kilograms, while the biggest stenulin weighed nearly 250 kilograms.”
Among these giants is Procoptodon Goria, the most significant kangaroo species, standing approximately 2 meters tall and going extinct around 40,000 years ago.
Debate has persisted regarding the stress on their feet, prompting Jones and her team to analyze bone measurements from 67 macropod species—encompassing modern kangaroos, wallabies, potoroos, beetongs, rat kangaroos, and extinct giant kangaroos.
They measured leg bones (including the femur, tibia, and calcaneus) and gathered body weight data to estimate tendon sizes and their endurance under stress.
“The kangaroo’s Achilles tendon is on the brink of rupture but serves a vital role,” states Jones. “It enables kangaroos to store elastic energy for the next jump. Simply scaling today’s kangaroo would present challenges.”
Yet, ancient kangaroos weren’t merely massive. With shorter legs and wider calcaneus bones, their structure mitigated bending influences during hopping, allowing for larger tendons capable of withstanding the corresponding forces.
“This evidence indicates they weren’t mechanically restricted from jumping,” asserts Jones. “Whether they actually jumped, however, is a different question.”
While hopping likely wasn’t their primary locomotion mode, it might have been used sporadically for rapid movement, Jones explains.
This study reinforces the view that the iconic kangaroo hop is likely an adaptable feature within a surprisingly varied locomotor repertoire, according to Benjamin Kia from Uppsala University, Sweden. Over millions of years, this versatility has contributed to the ecological triumph of macropods.
The flexibility remains clear today; red kangaroos, often perceived as constant hoppers, can also utilize their tails as a fifth limb for walking. “Tree kangaroos exhibit diverse locomotion styles—they walk, jump, bounce, and can even move on two legs,” adds Jones.
Illustration of Haikouichthys, a notable Cambrian fish with fossilized evidence of a second pair of eyes
Xiangtong Lei, Sihang Zhang
Over 500 million years ago, the earliest known vertebrates exhibited an intriguing feature: an extra eye. Interestingly, humans may retain traces of this ancient evolutionary trait.
Significant fossils from two species of jawless fish, known as myllokunmingids, were discovered by Kong Peiyun. From 2019 to 2024, Kong worked alongside colleagues at Yunnan University in China, specifically around Dianchi Lake.
The fossils unearthed in the Chengjiang biota area, renowned for its exquisite preservation, date back to approximately 518 million years ago—a timeframe marked by a dramatic increase in life’s diversity during the Cambrian period.
Remarkably, the vertebrate fossils discovered by Kong’s team included well-preserved soft tissue and vital eye structures.
Complex eye structures evolved independently in various animal groups. Many invertebrates, like insects, possess compound eyes, which consist of numerous individual units, each with its own lens, enabling a mosaic vision.
Meanwhile, vertebrates such as humans and reptiles possess what scientists label as “camera eyes.” These comprise a spherical lens, retina, iris, and muscles that regulate eye movement. Additionally, they contain pigment structures called melanosomes that influence eye color.
Light focuses on the retina, generating a signal relayed to the brain via the optic nerve.
Under electron microscopy scrutiny, Kong and his team identified two eyes situated on the sides of the head, with melanin-rich melanosomes preserved, alongside two smaller enigmatic black marks between them.
Employing a lens impression to analyze the fossils, team members led by Jacob Vinther from the University of Bristol suggested that these ancient creatures possessed two pairs of camera-like eyes, allowing them to visualize their environment much like modern vertebrates. The decisive difference? They utilized four eyes instead of two.
Fossil of Haikouichthys displaying conserved melanosomes
Xiangtong Lei, Sihang Zhang
The research team posits that this ancient additional eye has evolved into various organs known as the pineal complex. Some vertebrates, such as reptiles, possess a light-sensitive organ called the parietal eye atop their heads, while all mammals retain a reduced version that is the pineal gland, a key player in regulating sleep cycles through melatonin secretion.
“Early vertebrates likely used the pineal organs as functional eyes, enabling them to perceive their surroundings before evolving into sleep-regulating organs,” states Vinther.
These large eyes may have been optimized for high-resolution vision, complemented by smaller eyes that enabled detection of nearby threats—critical for survival in the predator-rich Cambrian seas.
According to Vinther, these creatures could likely discern objects with detail, estimating their shape and gain a degree of depth perception—all thanks to their remarkable four-eyed adaptation.
Tetsuto Miyashita, from the Canadian Museum of Nature in Ottawa, finds the interpretation of these fossils both “half-believable and half-doubtful.”
The structure located between the two eyes had previously perplexed researchers, but realizing it may indicate another camera eye was considered a “lightbulb” moment, he explains.
If indeed this is the case, it raises the question: where is the animal’s nose? “Most early fish evolution centered around nose development, suggesting that it would be unusual for the nose to not be preserved,” he notes.
Miyashita anticipates significant discussions will persist until experts can engage in a thorough debate regarding this exciting finding. “What function do so many prominent eyes actually serve?” he questions.
John Patterson, a researcher from the University of New England in Armidale, Australia, asserts that it is logical for prey species to have developed such visual capabilities to escape formidable predators.
The Cambrian era was evolutionary peculiar, showcasing animals displaying unusual behavior and not strictly developing pairs of eyes on their heads, but placing eyes in other regions as well.
Karma Nangle, a professor at the University of California, Riverside, aims to create a comprehensive map of the entire fossil body to investigate the potential existence of similar traces. Such findings could demonstrate that the second set of eyes may simply be a result of chemical processes during fossilization.
Dinosaur Hunting in Mongolia’s Gobi Desert
Embark on an exhilarating expedition to discover dinosaur remains in the remote wilderness of the Gobi Desert, renowned as a leading paleontology hotspot.
Arc-shaped volcanoes like Japan’s Sakurajima release carbon dioxide from the Earth’s interior
Asahi Shimbun via Getty Images
New research suggests that the impact of volcanoes on Earth’s climate may not be as ancient as previously believed.
The Earth’s climate has experienced shifts between “icehouse” and “greenhouse” conditions, largely dictated by greenhouse gas levels like carbon dioxide.
Volcanic arcs, including significant eruptions from mountain ranges such as Japan’s, release CO2 from deep within the Earth. Recent findings indicate that dinosaurs became a substantial source of carbon emissions only towards the end of their reign, approximately 100 million years ago, according to Ben Mather and his team from the University of Melbourne.
This correlates with the emergence of phytoplankton featuring calcium carbonate scales in the oceans approximately 150 million years ago. When these organisms perish, they deposit large amounts of calcium carbonate on the ocean floor.
As tectonic plates shift, these significant reservoirs of carbon are pushed into the mantle and recycled into the Earth’s molten core via a process known as subduction.
“Most of the carbon derived from plankton on the subducting oceanic plate mixes into the melt interior, but a portion is released through volcanic arcs,” explains Mather.
Before the emergence of scaly plankton, volcanic arc emissions contained relatively lower levels of CO2, according to Mather.
Through modeling, Mather and colleagues examined tectonics’ long-term impact on the carbon cycle over the past 500 million years. They discovered that much of the carbon stored within Earth throughout its history was released through crustal fractures in a process termed rifting, not primarily through volcanic arcs.
Rifting, a geological process where continents separate, can occur on land (as in the East African Rift) or along mid-ocean ridges.
“As tectonic plates separate, they effectively ‘roof off’ parts of the molten Earth,” Mather states. “This process generates new crust at mid-ocean ridges, releasing carbon.” The amount of carbon entering the atmosphere from continental fractures and mid-ocean ridges relies on the cracks’ length and the rate at which they separate, a process that has remained relatively stable. However, emissions from volcanic arcs have surged in the last 100 million years due to new carbon reservoirs formed by plankton.
Currently, Earth is in a temporary warm phase called an interglacial period, nested within a larger ice age that began 34 million years ago. One reason for the persistent cold phases is that phytoplankton sequester substantial amounts of carbon from the ocean, depositing it on the sea floor. Although volcanic emissions are rising, they still pale in comparison to the carbon stored by phytoplankton and that sequestered through tectonic movements.
According to Alan Collins and his team from the University of Adelaide, modeling studies like this are crucial for comprehending how volcanic and tectonic activities have influenced climate patterns over geological timescales.
“The composition of marine sediments has shifted as new organisms evolved, utilizing diverse elements, including the rise of calcium carbonate-based zooplankton,” Collins emphasizes.
Reference journal: Nature Communications Earth and Environment, DOI TK
Explore the Land of Fire and Ice: Iceland
Embark on an unforgettable journey through Iceland’s breathtaking landscapes. Experience volcanic and geological marvels by day, and chase the mesmerizing Northern Lights by night (October).
Topic:
This revision enhances SEO through keywords and improves readability while retaining the HTML structure.
A recently reconstructed genome from a piece of flesh found in the stomach of a wolf pup, dated to 14,400 years ago, reveals that the woolly rhinoceros was genetically robust despite its close proximity to extinction.
While the exact cause of the young female wolf pup’s death, near present-day Tumato in northern Siberia, remains a mystery, it is believed she and her sister, referred to as Tumat puppies, had recently consumed woolly rhinoceros meat (Coelodonta antiquitatis). Their mother inadvertently caused their burial in permafrost when their burrow collapsed.
The first puppy was discovered on-site in 2011, with the second found in 2015. Examination of one puppy’s stomach contents revealed remnants of woolly rhino meat.
Edana Road, a member of the research team at Stockholm University, remarked that the preserved material resembled “fluffy jerky.”
“It was astonishing to see hair still intact,” Lord commented.
Lord stated that the preservation of the tissue was almost miraculous.
“It’s remarkable that, thousands of years later, we retrieved a beautifully preserved mummified wolf pup, analyzed its stomach contents, and uncovered this woolly rhinoceros tissue, shedding light on a previously different species,” Lord adds.
Tumat Wolf Pup: Evidence of Woolly Rhinoceros Diet
Mietje Germonpre
Lord’s team successfully reconstructed the woolly rhinoceros genome, identifying it as a female with no signs of inbreeding.
This groundbreaking finding is significant because it marks the first time DNA has been recovered from a woolly rhinoceros close to the time of its extinction.
The cause behind the woolly rhinoceros’ extinction remains a topic of debate, encompassing the impacts of human hunting, climate change, and inbreeding.
Another researcher on the team, Darren Love, noted that the sample’s hair was yellowish, leading to initial thoughts that it belonged to a cave lion carcass (Panthera spelaea) until DNA analysis was performed.
“As far as I know, sequencing an entire ancient genome from stomach contents has never been accomplished before,” Darren stated.
The research team compared the new genome with two others from the woolly rhinoceros, dating back 18,000 and 49,000 years, discovering no evolution in genetic diversity or inbreeding levels over time.
“Had populations dwindled, we would expect a drop in genetic diversity among woolly rhinoceroses, alongside an increase in inbreeding,” Darren explained.
The researchers concluded that the most probable driver behind the woolly rhinoceros extinction was a rapid climate shift between 14,700 and 12,900 years ago, during the Bølling-Allerød Interstadial, which drastically altered the species’ habitat.
Leang Bulu Betu, a rock shelter located in the Maros Pankep karst region of Sulawesi, Indonesia, has become a pivotal site for paleoanthropological research. Scholars have uncovered one of the most thorough records of early human habitation in Wallasia, which serves as a critical junction between Asia and Australia. This groundbreaking discovery highlights the timeline of Homo sapiens, revealing their adaptation and existence tens of thousands of years ago, alongside ancient human species.
Leang Bulu Bettue in the Maros Pankep karst region of South Sulawesi. Image credit: Burhan et al., doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0337993.
At Leang Bulu Betu, Basran Burhan and his team from Griffith University have uncovered a wealth of artifacts, stone tools, and animal remains dating back to the Pleistocene era.
Burhan stated, “The depth and continuity of cultural sequences at Leang Bulu Bettue now position this cave as a key site for exploring potential overlaps between different hominin lineages.”
The initial stages of occupation date back approximately 208,000 years and are defined by simple stone tools and evidence of animal slaughter.
Among the significant artifacts are strong stone tools referred to as picks, indicating that archaic human cultural practices predated the arrival of modern humans.
Professor Adam Blum from Griffith University remarked, “These findings suggest an archaic human cultural tradition that persisted into the late Pleistocene in Sulawesi.”
Archaeological evidence indicates a notable transformation around 40,000 years ago, showing advancements in stone technology and the emergence of symbolic behavior, which are closely associated with Homo sapiens.
Burhan noted, “This later phase was marked by a unique technological toolkit and the earliest evidence of artistic expression and symbolic behavior on the island.”
Sulawesi plays a critical role in the narrative of human evolution due to its geographic location between the continents of Asia and Sahul, which once linked Australia and New Guinea, making it a vital conduit for early human migration.
Despite this significance, the area’s dense forests and complex terrains have resulted in a surprisingly minimal archaeological record to date.
This new research raises intriguing possibilities about the coexistence of Homo sapiens with their extinct relatives on Sulawesi.
The researchers propose that Leang Bulu Bettue could provide the first tangible archaeological evidence of this chronological overlap and potential interactions.
The later layers reveal signs of symbolic and cultural behaviors, echoing discoveries at other ancient Sulawesi sites known for rock art and advanced tools.
These advancements were initially thought to be exclusive to Homo sapiens, suggesting that the arrival of modern humans brought not only technological innovations but also new cognitive and cultural practices.
Professor Blum expressed, “Archaeological research on Sulawesi is particularly compelling because, unlike Australia, which shows no evidence of human habitation prior to our species’ arrival, Sulawesi was inhabited by various hominins for a million years before our emergence.”
“If we dig deep enough, we may find evidence of interactions between these different human species.”
Burhan stated, “There may be several more meters of archaeological layers beneath the deepest level we have explored at Leang Bulu Bettue.”
“Further investigations at this site could yield groundbreaking discoveries that reshape our understanding of early human history on Sulawesi and beyond.”
The findings were published in December 2025 in the journal PLoS ONE.
_____
B. Burhan et al. 2025. A near-continuous archaeological record of Pleistocene human occupation discovered at Leang Bulu Bettue, Sulawesi, Indonesia. PLoS ONE 20 (12): e0337993; doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0337993
Recent archaeological findings have unveiled traces of two toxic plant alkaloids, bupandoline and epibufanisin, in artifacts discovered at the Umhlatuzana Rock Complex in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. These artifacts, known as lined microliths, date back approximately 60,000 years, providing evidence of poisoned weaponry from the Late Pleistocene era.
A lined microlith from the Umhlatuzana Caves, showing residues of bufanidrine and epibufanisin, along with reddish toxic glue attached to the tool. Image credit: Isaksson et al., doi: 10.1126/sciadv.adz3281.
Professor Marlies Lombard from the University of Johannesburg remarked, “This represents the earliest direct evidence of arrow poison used by humans.”
“Our research reveals that early humans in southern Africa invented the bow and arrow much earlier than previously believed and utilized natural compounds to enhance hunting efficiency.”
Using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry, Lombard and her team analyzed residues from 10 quartz microliths, identifying bufanidrine and epibufanisin in five of them.
These compounds are derived from the Amaryllidaceae plant family, which is indigenous to southern Africa.
The likely source is a plant species known as Buffondistica, historically associated with arrow poisons.
The residue patterns indicate that the Umhlatuzana microlith had a transverse handle and served as an arrow tip.
Visible poison residue along the dorsal part of some artifacts suggests that toxic compounds were incorporated into the adhesive used to attach the stone tip to the arrow shaft.
The presence of minor impact scars and edge striations supports its use as a tip for horizontally-handled arrows.
To validate their results, researchers compared the ancient residues with poisons extracted from 18th-century arrowheads in South Africa.
“Finding the same poison in both prehistoric and historical arrowheads was crucial,” stated Professor Sven Isaksson of Stockholm University.
“Through detailed analysis of the chemical structures, we confirmed that these materials can endure underground for extended periods.”
This groundbreaking discovery pushes the timeline for toxic weapons back significantly.
Previously, the oldest known arrow poisons were dated to the mid-Holocene, but the findings from Umhlatuzana demonstrate their use as far back as 60,000 years ago.
The authors explain that poisoned arrows are designed not for immediate kills, but to weaken animals over time, allowing hunters to track prey over great distances.
“Utilizing arrow poison requires foresight, strategy, and a keen understanding of natural effects,” noted Professor Anders Högberg from Linnaeus University.
“This indicates a level of cognitive sophistication in early human behavior.”
For further details, refer to the study published on January 7th in Scientific Advances.
_____
Sven Isaksson et al. 2026. Direct evidence of poison use in microlithic arrowheads from southern Africa, dating back 60,000 years. Scientific Advances, 12(2);doi: 10.1126/sciadv.adz3281
Recent discoveries of hominin fossils in the Thomas Quarry I cave located in Casablanca, Morocco, provide crucial insights into the early origins of homo sapiens. These findings indicate that the lineage leading to modern humans was potentially established in Africa nearly 800,000 years ago. The fossils, although similar in age to the ancestor of homo discovered in Spain, display a mix of primitive and advanced traits reminiscent of post-Eurasian hominins, including homo sapiens.
Reconstruction of homo erectus.
Paleoanthropologists have long debated the origins of Neanderthals and Denisovans, the last common ancestors of modern humans. Genetic studies reveal that this ancestor likely existed between approximately 765,000 and 550,000 years ago, although fossil records are still inconclusive.
While some researchers have posited a Eurasian origin based on fossils unearthed in Atapuerca, Spain, dating back to 950,000 to 770,000 years ago, the new findings from Morocco reinforce the theory of an African origin.
Recent discoveries from the Moroccan cave, including mandible fragments, teeth, vertebrae, and femur pieces, bolster the evidence supporting Africa as the cradle of human evolution.
Analysis of the sediments surrounding these fossils indicates that they date back approximately 773,000 years, coinciding with significant changes in the Earth’s magnetic field, aligning with the era of the ancestor of homo.
Interestingly, the new fossils present distinct morphological differences. The evidence suggests that regional differentiation between Europe and North Africa was already evident by the late Early Pleistocene, spanning from around 1.8 million to 780,000 years ago.
The Moroccan fossils exhibit a blend of primitive features linked to species like homo erectus alongside more modern traits found in homo sapiens and Neanderthals.
For instance, their molar size aligns with earlier homo sapiens fossils, while the jaw shape resembles that of Neanderthals and other African archaic humans.
Although the Moroccan fossil may not serve as the ultimate last common ancestor of modern humans, Neanderthals, and Denisovans, it is likely a close precursor.
“The Moroccan fossils likely represent an advanced form of homo erectus in North Africa, situated on a lineage close to the evolutionary divergence between African and Eurasian lineages,” stated the researchers.
“Our findings underscore the Maghreb region as vital for understanding the emergence of our species and strengthen the argument for an African origin of homo sapiens,” they concluded.
Findings are detailed in a recent study published in Nature.
_____
J.J. Havlin and colleagues. Early human fossils from Morocco and the emergence of homo sapiens. Nature, published online January 7, 2026. doi: 10.1038/s41586-025-09914-y
A groundbreaking research team at the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology has successfully generated a high-quality Denisovan genome assembly using ancient DNA extracted from molar teeth found in the Denisovan Cave. This genome, dating back approximately 200,000 years, significantly predates the only previously sequenced Denisovan specimen. The findings are prompting a reevaluation of when and where early human groups interacted, mixed, and migrated throughout Asia.
Artist’s concept of Penghu Denisovans walking under the bright sun during the Pleistocene in Taiwan. Image credit: Cheng-Han Sun.
Dr. Stéphane Peregne, an evolutionary geneticist from the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, along with his team, recovered this Denisovan genome from molars excavated in the Denisova Cave, located in the Altai Mountains of southern Siberia. This cave is historically significant as it was the site where Denisovans were first discovered in 2010 through DNA analysis of finger bones.
This cave continues to be pivotal in the study of human evolution, revealing repeated occupations by Denisovans, Neanderthals, and even offspring resulting from the interbreeding of these groups.
“The Denisovans were first identified in 2008 based on ancient DNA sourced from Denisova 3, a phalanx found in the Denisova Cave,” Dr. Peregne and his colleagues noted.
“This analysis confirms that Denisovans are closely related to Neanderthals, an extinct human group that thrived in Western Eurasia during the mid-to-late Pleistocene.”
Since then, twelve fragmentary remains and a single skull have been associated with Denisovans through DNA or protein analysis, with Denisova 3 being the only specimen yielding a high-quality genome.
The newly studied molars, belonging to a Denisovan male who lived approximately 200,000 years ago, are predating modern humans’ migration out of Africa.
“In 2020, a complete upper left molar was found in Layer 17, one of the oldest cultural layers within the southern chamber of the Denisova Cave, dating between 200,000 and 170,000 years old based on photostimulated luminescence,” the scientists elaborated.
“Designated as Denisova 25, this molar resembles others found at Denisova Cave, specifically Denisova 4 and Denisova 8, and exhibits larger dimensions compared to Neanderthal and most post-Middle Pleistocene hominid molars, indicating it likely belonged to a Denisovan.”
“Two samples of 2.7 mg and 8.9 mg were extracted by drilling a hole at the cement-enamel junction of the tooth, with an additional 12 subsamples varying from 4.5 to 20.2 mg collected by carefully scraping the outer root layer using a dental drill.”
Thanks to excellent DNA preservation, researchers successfully reconstructed the genome of Denisova 25 with high coverage, matching the quality of the 65,000-year-old female Denisova 3 genome.
Denisovans likely had dark skin, in contrast to the pale Neanderthals. The image depicts a Neanderthal. Image credit: Mauro Cutrona.
Comparisons between the genomes indicate that Denisovans were not a singular, homogeneous population.
Instead, at least two distinct Denisovan groups inhabited the Altai region at various intervals, with one group gradually replacing the other over millennia.
Earlier Denisovans possessed a greater amount of Neanderthal DNA than later populations, suggesting that interbreeding was a regular event rather than an isolated occurrence in the Ice Age landscape of Eurasia.
Even more intriguing, the study uncovered evidence that Denisovans engaged in interbreeding with “hyperarchaic” hominin groups that diverged from the human lineage before the ancestors of Denisovans, Neanderthals, and modern humans branched off.
“This second Denisovan genome illustrates the recurrent admixture between Neanderthals and Denisovans in the Altai region, suggesting these mixed populations were eventually supplanted by Denisovans from other regions, reinforcing the notion that Denisovans were widespread and that populations in the Altai may have existed at the periphery of their geographic range,” the researchers explained.
The Denisovan 25 genome presents valuable insights into the long-standing mysteries regarding the Denisovan ancestry in contemporary populations.
People in Oceania, parts of South Asia, and East Asia all carry Denisovan DNA, albeit from different Denisovan sources.
Through genetic comparison, scientists have identified at least three separate Denisovan origins, highlighted by their genetic segments found in thousands of modern genomes.
One lineage closely relates to the later Denisovan genome and is linked to widespread ancestry across East Asia and beyond.
A second, more distantly related Denisovan population contributed independently to Oceanian and South Asian ancestry.
Notably, East Asians do not share this highly divergent Denisovan ancestry, implying their ancestors may have taken a different route into Asia, potentially from the north, whereas Oceanian ancestors likely migrated through South Asia.
“Neanderthal-like DNA fragments appear in all populations, including Oceanians, aligning with a singular out-of-Africa migration; however, the distinct Denisovan gene flow points to multiple migrations into Asia,” the researchers stated.
Reconstruction of a young Denisovan woman based on skeletal profiles derived from ancient DNA methylation maps. Image credit: Maayan Harel.
The researchers believe certain Denisovan genetic traits offered advantages that increased their prevalence in modern human populations through the process of natural selection.
By analyzing both Denisovan genomes, the authors pinpointed numerous regions in present-day populations that appear to have originated from Denisovan introgression, particularly in Oceania and South Asia.
Genetic alterations observed in other Denisovans provide intriguing insights into their physical appearances.
Several unique mutations in Denisovans influence genes connected to cranial shape, jaw protrusion, and facial characteristics—attributes that align with the limited fossil record associated with Denisovans.
A shift in regulatory mechanisms is on the horizon. The Fox P2 gene, implicated in brain development and language in modern humans, raises important questions regarding the cognitive capabilities of Denisovans, although researchers emphasize that genetic data cannot replace direct fossil or archaeological evidence.
“The impact of Denisovan alleles on modern human phenotypes might also shed light on Denisovan biology,” the researchers pointed out.
“Examining alleles linked to contemporary human traits, we identified 16 associations with 11 Denisovan alleles, covering aspects like height, blood pressure, cholesterol levels, and C-reactive protein levels.”
“Additionally, we recognized 305 expressed quantitative trait loci (QTL) and 117 alternative splicing QTLs that affect gene expression across 19 tissues in modern humans, with the most significant effects observable in the thyroid, tibial artery, testis, and muscle tissues.”
“These molecular effects can be utilized to explore additional phenotypes that are not retained in the fossil record. This updated catalog provides a more reliable foundation for investigating Denisovan traits, adaptations, and disease susceptibilities, some of which may have influenced modern humans through admixture.”
Archaeologists from the University of Tübingen and LMU Munich have unearthed the remnants of an ancient pottery workshop in an early Iron Age Dinka settlement on the Peshdar Plain, located in Iraq’s Kurdish Autonomous Region. This groundbreaking discovery enhances our understanding of craft specializations, technical traditions, and urban life, revealing a surprising level of socio-economic complexity in the region during that era.
A 3,000-year-old pottery workshop in Jirdi Bazaar, showcasing the walls and kiln. Image credit: Andrea Scutieri.
The Dinka settlement complex, encompassing Girdi Bazaar, Karati Dinka, and neighboring areas, was excavated as part of the Peshdar Plain project launched by LMU Munich archaeologists in 2015.
This initiative concentrated on the Iron Age of the Lower Zab headwaters, a historically underexplored region in the western Zagros.
Excavations have revealed previously unknown Iron Age ruins, featuring a diverse pottery assemblage and a pottery production workshop in the bustling Jirdi Bazaar.
The workshop included two updraft kilns and manufacturing tools dating back to approximately 1200 to 800 BC.
Dr. Silvia Amicone, an archaeologist at the University of Tübingen, remarked: “The workshop was so well-preserved that we could utilize various techniques to gain a comprehensive understanding of how potters operated in this region during the Iron Age.”
Archaeologists examined materials including raw clay, finished pottery, kiln lining, contents, and fuel remnants from the firing process.
Through mineralogical and microstructural analysis of clay and pottery samples, researchers identified the raw materials and manufacturing methods employed in pottery creation.
Findings indicate that while vessels from this settlement exhibited minor variations in shape and finish—possibly reflective of their specific functions—these differences were integrated into a modular and well-organized production framework, likely catering to both the Dinka settlement and the surrounding area, with the Gil-i-Bazaar workshop playing a pivotal role.
This conclusion is corroborated by extensive evidence of pottery production across the settlement complex, including potential kilns identified through geophysical analyses.
The results suggest that pottery production was fundamental to the city’s configuration, with Gird-i Bazar being part of a network of workshops adhering to standardized production procedures.
“Our findings suggest that pottery was mainly fired at relatively low temperatures (below 900 degrees Celsius) under oxidizing conditions, utilizing simple updraft kilns with gradual heating rates and brief firing times,” the researchers stated.
“The variations in microstructural and mineralogical characteristics can be explained by different firing events conducted within a shared technological framework.”
“All types of vessels appear to have been ignited similarly, showcasing a consistent tradition of pyrotechnics.”
“Investigating pottery production in Dinka settlements provides a unique insight into the organization and innovative capabilities of early urban societies,” explained Professor Karla Pohlmann (Doshisha), Rector of the University of Tübingen.
“These discoveries illuminate how technological knowledge and community structures laid the groundwork for cultural evolution over 2,500 years ago.”
“Such research serves as a reminder that progress has always been a collective endeavor.”
For further insights, refer to this study. The survey’s results will be published on December 23rd in an archeology journal.
_____
Silvia Amicone et al. “Assembling the pieces of the puzzle: Integrating pottery and kiln analysis to reconstruct firework technology in Dinka settlements (Iraqi Kurdistan).” archeology journal, published online on December 23, 2025. doi: 10.1016/j.jas.2025.106425
The Upper Paleolithic site of Mezilich in Cherkasy Oblast, central Ukraine, features four remarkable mammoth bone structures, each ranging from 12 to 24 m2. These extensive constructions were meticulously crafted using hundreds of mammoth bones and tusks. Recent analyses of small mammal remains excavated directly from these archaeological formations indicate that one of these structures was in use for nearly 429 years, underscoring its role as a potential dwelling.
MBS 4 being excavated at the Upper Paleolithic site of Mezilich, Cherkasy Oblast, Ukraine. Image credit: Chu et al., doi: 10.12688/openreseurope.20112.1.
“Open-air Upper Paleolithic sites in east-central Europe, such as Mezilich, offer invaluable insights into human activities and biogeography during the Late Holistic Age—a period marked by significant environmental shifts,” stated Wei Chu, an archaeologist from Leiden University, and collaborators.
“These sites often exhibit deep loess sediment layers rich in lithic tools, faunal remains, and bone assemblages, serving as crucial environmental proxies for illuminating contemporary ecological conditions.”
“Notably, some of these locations have been discovered in direct association with mammoth bone deposits, representing some of the earliest known constructions showcasing both spatial and seasonal organization.”
“While many of these structures were historically viewed as domestic remnants,” they elaborated, “ongoing excavations have reignited debates about their primary functions—whether as dwellings or perhaps as ritualistic tombs, food storage areas, burial sites, religious landmarks, or primitive monuments.”
“Mezilich, situated in the mid reaches of the Dnieper River, is pivotal to this discourse due to its extraordinary conservation state, featuring four mammoth bone structures (MBS 1-4) that span heights of 12 to 24 m2 in diameter.
“These structures are complemented by surrounding features like artifact-filled pits, hunting tools, ivory, bone ornaments, and segmented areas rich in slaughtered animal remains and workshops with dense cultural deposits, each aligned around mammoth bone structures, revealing economic settlement units.”
In their latest study, the researchers scrutinized the dating and composition of MBS 4—the only Mezilich structure containing artifacts that can be directly dated within the archaeological layer.
By analyzing small mammal remains rather than mammoth bones, they established a more accurate age for MBS 4, estimated to be between approximately 18,248 and 17,764 years old.
Crucially, the findings indicate that this structure was actively occupied for 429 years.
These results suggest that Mezilich was a stable, long-term settlement rather than a transient camp used intermittently.
The structure likely served as a residence for multiple generations, enduring and being reused throughout the centuries.
“MBS 4 corresponds with the harshest conditions of the last Ice Age,” the researchers noted.
“Interestingly, the period of occupation appears brief—potentially comprising only a few visits over many centuries.”
“This implies that these mammoth bone shelters were practical solutions for survival, rather than established permanent settlements.”
“Why is this significant? Beyond the remarkable ingenuity of utilizing mammoth bones for construction, these findings alter our perspective on human resilience and adaptability,” they remarked.
“They illustrate how communities thrived even in extreme environments, transforming large animal remains into protective architecture.”
“As dating techniques improve, sites like Mezilich continuously challenge our preconceived notions about prehistoric existence,” they concluded.
“These societies were dynamic, resource-abundant, and deeply interconnected with their environments, and their lessons are relevant even today.”
For further insights, refer to the team’s published paper in Open Research Europe.
_____
W. Chu et al. 2025. Revised radiocarbon chronology of bone structures and related features of mammoths from Mezilich, Ukraine. Open Res Europe 5:198; doi: 10.12688/openreseurope.20112.1
The emergence of antibiotic resistance genes presents a significant and escalating threat to global public health. A comprehensive review from scientists at Hohai University delves into the evolutionary origins, ecological factors contributing to the spread and proliferation of antibiotic resistance genes, and their broader environmental implications.
The evolution of antibiotic resistance genes is linked to unique physiological roles and ecological compartmentalization. Image credit: Xu et al., doi: 10.48130/biocontam-0025-0014.
Antibiotic resistance genes have become one of the most critical global challenges to public health, increasingly spreading across interconnected environments involving humans, animals, and the ecosystem.
These genes have been identified in some of the most pristine and extreme habitats on Earth, such as the depths of the Mariana Trench and ancient permafrost deposits, where they have remained unaffected by human-induced antibiotic exposure.
This pervasive distribution indicates that these bacteria evolved their antibiotic resistance capabilities millions of years before antibiotics were ever utilized in clinical or agricultural contexts.
“Antibiotic resistance is not a modern phenomenon,” states Guxiang You, Ph.D., corresponding author of the review.
“Many resistance genes initially evolved to enable bacterial survival under environmental stresses, long before the advent of antibiotics.”
“The pressing danger today is that human activities are disrupting natural barriers, facilitating the spread of these genes to harmful pathogens.”
“Many resistance genes stem from common bacterial genes that perform essential roles, such as the excretion of toxic substances or nutrient transport,” the researchers elucidated.
“Over time, these genes have acquired protective capabilities against antibiotics as a secondary feature.”
In natural ecosystems like soils and lakes, most resistance genes tend to remain confined within specific microbial communities, posing minimal risk to human health.
“The primary reason for this containment is genomic incompatibility,” they noted.
“Bacteria with significant genetic variations often cannot easily exchange and utilize resistance genes.”
“This natural genetic mismatch serves as a biological firewall, limiting the transmission of resistance across different species and habitats.”
“However, human actions are compromising this firewall.”
In their review, the authors emphasize how agriculture, wastewater discharge, urbanization, and global trade are increasing connectivity between once-isolated environments.
Antibiotics used in medicine and livestock create intense selection pressures, while fertilizer use, wastewater recycling, and pollution foster the interaction of bacteria from soil, animals, and humans.
These factors facilitate the infiltration of resistance genes into disease-causing microbes.
“Human-induced changes in habitat connectivity alter everything,” explained Dr. Yi Xu, the lead author.
“When bacteria from disparate environments come into repeated contact under antibiotic pressure, previously harmless resistance genes can transform into a significant public health menace.”
“Wastewater treatment plants have been identified as crucial hotspots where high bacterial populations and antibiotic residues promote genetic exchange.”
“Agricultural lands enriched with fertilizers also serve as conduits, enabling resistance genes to transfer from livestock to environmental bacteria and ultimately back to humans via food, water, or direct contact.”
Critically, scientists note that not all resistance genes pose equal threats.
High environmental abundance does not automatically equate to high risk.
Identifying which genes are mobile, compatible with human pathogens, and linked to diseases is vital for effective monitoring and control efforts.
Researchers advocate for ecosystem-centered approaches to combat antibiotic resistance.
Proposed strategies include minimizing unnecessary antibiotic use, enhancing wastewater treatment methods, meticulously managing fertilizers and sludge, and safeguarding relatively untouched ecosystems that offer a baseline for natural resistance levels.
“Antibiotic resistance extends beyond being solely a medical issue,” remarked Dr. Yu.
“It is deeply connected to ecological factors and our interactions with the environment.”
“To preserve antibiotics for future generations, we must maintain the integrity of our current ecosystems.”
“By incorporating evolutionary biology, microbial ecology, and environmental science, the One Health approach provides a pragmatic pathway to tackle one of the greatest health challenges we face today.”
Source: review published in the Online Journal on December 5, 2025, Biological Contaminants.
_____
Yi Shu et al. 2025. Evolutionary origins, environmental factors, and consequences of the proliferation and spread of antibiotic resistance genes: A “One Health” perspective. Biological Contaminants 1: e014; doi: 10.48130/biocontam-0025-0014
The skeletal remains of the individual known as ‘Beachy Head Woman’ were rediscovered in 2012 within the collection of Eastbourne Town Hall. Since then, her story has garnered significant public interest. Radiocarbon dating reveals that she lived between 129 and 311 AD during the Roman occupation of Britain. Over the last decade, researchers have sought to uncover her geographic origins and ancestry. Initially believed to originate from sub-Saharan Africa or the Mediterranean, groundbreaking DNA research now indicates she shares strong genetic connections with the local population of Roman-occupied Britain and modern-day Britons.
A depiction of Beachy Head Woman’s face. Image credit: Face Lab, Liverpool John Moores University.
The journey of Beachy Head Woman began with her rediscovery in 2012, although uncertainty still surrounds her life. Radiocarbon dating placed her death between 129 and 311 AD, during the Roman occupation of Britain.
Analysis of her remains suggests she was aged between 18 and 25 at the time of death and stood just over 1.5 meters tall. A healed leg wound implies she endured a serious but non-fatal injury during her life.
Dietary analysis of her bones indicates a high seafood diet, revealing insights into her lifestyle.
“Using advanced DNA technology, we have made significant strides in uncovering the origins of this individual,” stated researcher Dr. William Marsh from the Natural History Museum in London.
“Our findings show that her genetic ancestry is most closely aligned with other individuals from the local population of Roman Britain,” he added.
The Beachy Head Woman’s remains were unearthed from a collection at Eastbourne Town Hall. Initial findings indicated that her skeleton was discovered at Beachy Head, a nearby geographic landmark, during the 1950s, though details of the excavation remain elusive.
Interest in Beachy Head Woman intensified when initial morphometric analyses suggested potential sub-Saharan African origins. This captivating narrative was exhibited at Eastbourne Museum, capturing widespread media attention.
In 2017, unpublished DNA findings implied a Mediterranean origin, possibly from Cyprus, rather than Africa. However, these conclusions are drawn from limited data, leaving many questions about Beachy Head Woman’s life unanswered.
“As our scientific knowledge continues to expand, it is our mission as researchers to seek further answers,” commented Dr. Selina Brace, also from the Natural History Museum in London.
“Thanks to technological advancements over the past decade since Beachy Head Woman’s reemergence, we are thrilled to share new comprehensive data and insights into her life,” she concluded.
For more details, you can refer to the team’s paper published this month in the Archaeology Journal.
_____
Andy Walton et al. Beachy Head Woman: Uncovering her origins using multi-proxy anthropological and biomolecular approaches. Archaeology Journal, published online on December 17, 2025. doi: 10.1016/j.jas.2025.106445
In a groundbreaking study, researchers uncovered ancient gases and fluids trapped within 1.4 billion-year-old rock salt crystals in northern Ontario, Canada. Their analysis reveals that oxygen and carbon dioxide concentrations during the Mesoproterozoic Era (1.8 billion to 800 million years ago) were suppressed to just 3.7% of current levels, while carbon dioxide was found to be ten times pre-industrial levels. These findings indicate a period of climatic stability, suggesting atmospheric oxygen levels temporarily exceeded the needs of early animals long before their emergence.
Examples of primary halite, mixed halite, and secondary halite rock inclusion aggregates. Image credit: Park et al., doi: 10.1073/pnas.2513030122.
Scientists have long recognized that liquid inclusions within rock salt crystals preserve samples of Earth’s primordial atmosphere.
However, accurately measuring these inclusions has presented significant challenges. These inclusions encompass both air bubbles and saline water, with gases like oxygen and carbon dioxide interacting differently in liquids compared to air.
“It’s astonishing to crack open a sample of air that is over a billion years older than the dinosaurs,” said Justin Park, a graduate student at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute.
“Our carbon dioxide measurements are unprecedented,” stated Morgan Schaller, a professor at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute.
“For the first time, we can trace this era of Earth’s history with remarkable precision. These are authentic samples of ancient air.”
Measurements indicate that Mesoproterozoic atmospheric oxygen levels sat at 3.7%, mirroring today’s levels. This high oxygen concentration was sufficient to support the existence of complex multicellular life, which would not arise for hundreds of millions of years.
Conversely, carbon dioxide was found to be ten times more abundant than present levels, effectively counterbalancing the “weak young sun” and fostering the climate conditions seen today.
One pivotal question arises: if oxygen levels were adequate for animal life, why did evolution take so long?
“This sample represents a snapshot in geological time,” Park explained.
“It may reflect a brief oxygenation event during this lengthy period, humorously dubbed the ‘billion boring years.'”
“This era in Earth’s history was marked by low oxygen levels, geological stability, and minimal evolutionary change.”
“Despite its moniker, direct observational data from this time is crucial for understanding the emergence of complex life and the evolution of our atmosphere.”
Prior indirect estimates suggested low carbon dioxide levels for this epoch, contradicting evidence of a lack of significant glaciation during the Mesoproterozoic.
The team’s direct measurements of elevated carbon dioxide, alongside temperature estimates from the salt, imply that Mesoproterozoic climate conditions were milder and more akin to today’s climate than previously assumed.
“Algae began to flourish during this period, continuing to play a vital role in global oxygen production today,” Professor Schaller remarked.
“The relatively elevated oxygen levels may directly result from the increasing prevalence and complexity of algae.”
“The insights we gained could represent an exciting moment in what is otherwise regarded as a billion years of monotony.”
The team’s research paper has been published today in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.
_____
Justin G. Park et al.. 2025. Bringing the Boring Billion to Life: Direct constraints from 1.4 Ga fluid inclusions reveal a favorable climate and oxygen-rich atmosphere. PNAS 122 (52): e2513030122; doi: 10.1073/pnas.2513030122
Bees exhibit an extraordinary range of species and behavior, from solitary types that nest in burrows to social variants that construct intricate nests. This nesting diversity is partially captured in the fossil record, with trace fossils dating from the Cretaceous to the Holocene. In a recent study, Field Museum paleontologist Lázaro Vignola López and his colleagues unveil novel nesting behaviors based on trace fossils unearthed from Late Quaternary cave deposits on the Caribbean island of Hispaniola. Osnidam Almontei was discovered within the cavity of a vertebrate corpse.
A reenactment of the life of bees with evidence of them building their nests in caves and using the bone cavities as housing chambers for several egg-laying cells. Image credit: Jorge Mario Macho.
“The initial descent into the cave isn’t very deep. You secure a rope to the side and rappel down,” Dr. Vignola López explained.
“Entering at night, you can spot the eyes of tarantulas residing there. As you navigate through the 10-meter-long underground tunnel, fossils start to emerge.”
Fossil layers were separated by carbonate deposits formed during rainy periods in antiquity.
Although rodents made up most of the fossils, remains of sloths, birds, and reptiles—over 50 species in total—were also found. Together, these fossils narrate a compelling story.
“We hypothesize this cave served as a home for owls over generations, potentially for hundreds or even thousands of years,” Dr. Vignola López remarked.
“The owl would venture out to hunt and return to the cave to regurgitate pellets.”
“We’ve collected fossils of the prey the owl consumed, its own remains, and even bones of turtles and crocodiles that may have inadvertently fallen into the cave.”
Dr. Vignola López and his colleagues observed that the sediments in empty tooth sockets of mammalian jaws didn’t accumulate randomly.
“The surface was notably smooth and slightly concave, which is unusual for sediment burial. I noticed this pattern across multiple specimens and thought to myself, ‘There’s something peculiar here.’ It reminded me of a hornet’s nest,” he noted.
Many well-known nests constructed by bees and wasps belong to social species that coexist in large colonies, raising their young together—like the bees in honeycombs or paper wasp nests.
“However, the majority of bee species are solitary. They deposit eggs in small cavities and leave pollen for their larvae’s nourishment,” Dr. Vignola López continued.
“Some bee species create nests in tree hollows, in the ground, or utilize vacant spaces. Certain species in Europe and Africa even nest within discarded snail shells.”
To investigate the possible insect nests within the cave fossils, the researchers conducted CT scans and X-rays of the bones, capturing 3D images of the compacted soil in the tooth sockets without damaging the fossils.
The shape and composition of the deposits bore similarities to mud nests created by some contemporary bee species. Some of these nests contained ancient pollen grains that mother bees had sealed for their larvae.
The researchers propose that bees combined saliva and soil to construct small nests for their eggs, smaller than the eraser on a pencil.
Nesting within larger animal bones provided protection for bee eggs from potential predators such as wasps.
While the bees themselves were not preserved, the unique characteristics of the nests allowed for a taxonomic classification.
They named the nests Osnidam Almontei, in honor of the scientist Juan Almonte Milan, who first discovered this cave.
“Since no bee remains were found, they may have belonged to a currently existing species. Our knowledge on the ecology of various bee species in these islands is limited,” Dr. Vignola López stated.
Scientists speculate that this behavior arises from a combination of factors. With little soil covering the limestone terrain in this region, bees may have opted for caves as their nesting sites, rather than digging into the ground like many other species.
Additionally, this cave had been home to generations of owls, with numerous owl pellets accumulating over the years, providing the bees with ample use of the bones the owls left behind.
“This finding illustrates the peculiarities of bees. They can be surprising, and it emphasizes the importance of meticulous examination when studying fossils,” Dr. Vignola López remarked.
of paper published today in Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences.
_____
Lazaro W. Vignola-Lopez and others. 2025. Fossil traces in mammal remains reveal a new nesting behavior for bees. R Soc Open Science 12(12):251748; doi: 10.1098/rsos.251748
Astronomers utilizing the NASA/ESA/CSA James Webb Space Telescope have identified a supernova explosion linked to gamma-ray burst event GRB 250314A at a redshift of 7.3, occurring when the universe was merely 730 million years old. The previous record-holder for supernovae was observed when the universe reached 1.8 billion years. This discovery is detailed in two papers published in the journal Astronomy and Astrophysics.
Webb identified the origin of the blinding flashes known as gamma-ray bursts. This particular gamma-ray burst exploded when the universe was merely 730 million years old. Image credit: NASA / ESA / CSA / STScI / A. Levan, IMAPP / A. Pagan, STScI.
“Only Mr. Webb has directly demonstrated that this light is from a collapsing massive star,” stated Dr. Andrew Levan, an astronomer at Radboud University and the University of Warwick, and lead author of one of the papers.
“This observation suggests that we can utilize Webb to detect individual stars from a time when the universe was just 5% of its current age.”
Whereas gamma-ray bursts typically last from seconds to minutes, supernovae rapidly brighten over several weeks before slowly dimming.
In contrast, the supernova linked to GRB 250314A took months to brighten.
Because this explosion occurred so early in the universe’s history, its light continued to evolve as the universe expanded over billions of years.
As the light stretches, the duration for events to unfold also lengthens.
Webb’s observations were intentionally made three and a half months after the closure of the GRB 250314A event, as it was expected that the supernova would be at its brightest at this time.
“Webb provided the rapid and sensitive follow-up we so desperately needed,” remarked Dr. Benjamin Schneider, an astronomer at the Marseille Institute of Astrophysics.
Gamma-ray bursts are exceedingly rare. Bursts lasting only a few seconds may originate from the collision of two neutron stars or a neutron star and a black hole.
Longer bursts, like this one, which lasted around 10 seconds, are often linked to the explosions of massive stars.
On March 14, 2025, the SVOM mission—a joint Franco-Chinese telescope launched in 2024 designed to spot fleeting events—will detect gamma-ray bursts from extremely distant sources.
Within an hour and a half, NASA’s Neil Gehrels Swift Observatory had pinpointed the X-ray source in the sky, facilitating follow-up observations to measure the distance of the web.
Eleven hours later, Nordic optical telescopes revealed the afterglow of the infrared gamma-ray burst, indicating that gamma rays may correspond to very distant objects.
Four hours later, ESO’s Very Large Telescope estimated that the object existed 730 million years after the Big Bang.
“Only a handful of gamma-ray bursts have been identified in the first billion years of the universe and merely a few in the last 50 years,” Levan noted.
“This remarkable event is exceedingly rare and thrilling.”
As this is the oldest and most distant supernova ever identified, researchers compared it to nearby modern supernovae, finding surprising similarities.
Why? Little is still understood about the early billion years of the universe.
Early stars likely lacked heavy elements, were massive, and had brief lifespans.
They also existed during the reionization era, when intergalactic gas was almost opaque to high-energy light.
“Dr. Webb has demonstrated that this supernova resembles modern supernovae very closely,” stated Professor Nial Tanvir from the University of Leicester.
“Webb’s findings indicate that this distant galaxy is akin to other galaxies of the same epoch,” commented Dr. Emeric Le Floch, an astronomer at CEA Paris-Saclay.
_____
AJ Levan et al. 2025. JWST reveals a supernova following a gamma-ray burst at z ≃ 7.3. A&A 704, L8; doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/202556581
B. Cordier et al. 2025. SVOM GRB 250314A at z ≃ 7.3: Exploding star in the reionization era. A&A 704, L7; doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/202556580
This festive season, whatever you may do, chances are you didn’t have to hunt it or gather it from the wilderness yourself. We owe this to our ancestors, who underwent one of humanity’s most significant transformations around 10,000 years ago, transitioning from a lifestyle of hunting and gathering to one of farming.
The reasons behind this shift remain puzzling, especially since our species thrived for roughly 300,000 years without practices like milking, sowing, or shepherding. Various theories have been proposed. Perhaps agriculture provided a more dependable food source, or it reduced reliance on neighbors. Maybe the significance of a particular location related to spirituality, or perhaps a desire to remain close to buried loved ones played a role.
Or was it social friction that shaped this change? It might sound humorous, but just as today, alcohol could have served as a social lubricant. Maintaining relationships often involves sharing drinks, and if our ancestors wished to facilitate these connections, they would have needed to produce cereals. So could it be that alcohol motivated our ancestors to change their way of life?
Anthropologists have pondered this possibility since the 1950s, but at that time, technology was lacking to test such ideas. One challenge is differentiating between beer and bread, with many believing bread was more likely to kick-start agricultural growth. The archaeological evidence shows that both baking and brewing involved similar processes. Wang Jiajing from Dartmouth College and others needed to figure out how to distinguish the starches from beer and bread and determine which appeared first.
This led a select group of archaeologists, including Wang, on a quest to uncover the earliest known signs of alcoholic beer production.
One promising starting point is ancient settled societies, such as Egypt, where beer production was clearly established. Archaeologists frequently uncover distinctive pottery that resembles fermentation tanks. “They simply refer to it as ‘beer bottle’,” Wang explains. Recently, she and her colleagues confirmed these vessels were used for brewing and storing alcohol by identifying characteristic microscopic remains found inside. At Hierakonpolis in southern Egypt, for instance, fragments of beer bottles were discovered containing starch granules from grains, yeast cells, and “beer stones” made of calcium oxalate. Evidence suggests beer was brewed there from a mixture of wheat, barley, and grasses around 5,800 to 5,600 years ago, predating the first pharaohs by over 2,000 years.
A rice wine pot built 8,700 to 9,000 years ago in Qiaotou, Zhejiang Province, southern China
Wang Jiajing
“They were producing beer on an almost industrial scale,” said Wang. However, these early brews were not like today’s ales or lagers. “They sprouted the grains, cooked them, and used wild yeast to convert sweetness into alcohol,” she explains. The result was not a clear liquid, but rather a “slightly fermented sweet porridge.”
Such findings offer a template for the kind of evidence needed to confirm prehistoric beer production. The next obstacle was identifying how far back such evidence could reach.
In 2016, Li Liu from Stanford University, along with Wang and colleagues, uncovered ceramic vessels at the Mijiayao archaeological site in northern China. They identified traces of beer brewing from 5,000 years ago. This culture used unique plant mixtures for their beer, including broom sorghum millet, Job’s tears millet, barley, and tubers. Five years later, Wang and Liu identified further evidence of ancient drinking at the Xipu ruins near Xi’an, which belonged to the Yang Shao culture. Large pots fermented rice and grains using a fungus called red mold, which is still involved in making fermented foods like rice wine using the starter Kuu. They theorized that elites may have consumed beer at “competitive feasts.”
Oldest Alcoholic Beer
However, the earliest evidence comes from the mountain culture in the lower Yangtze River in southern China, discovered by Liu, tracing back to one of the earliest agricultural societies from approximately 10,000 to 8,500 years ago. In 2021, Wang’s team highlighted findings from the Kaminoyama site, showing that rice and Job’s tears, along with unidentified tuber remnants, were likely used for beer brewing during funerary feasts, indicating a practice highly integrated into their culture.
Just a year ago, Liu and her team described the earliest evidence of brewing in East Asia, analyzing 12 pottery shards from the Kaminoyama site’s deepest layer, dating back 9,000 to 10,000 years. “This depicts the early stages of the Ueyama culture,” she notes. The fragments featured rice, Job’s tears, traces of acorns, lilies, and remnants of carcasses. The Kuu starter included both Monascus and yeast.
At this juncture, Liu confirms, “domestication was already in progress,” and beer production was clearly a factor as well. “When we have surplus grain, we also produce surplus alcohol,” she adds.
Yet while there’s a strong connection, evidence is still elusive. Surprisingly, the oldest bread predates Ueyama beer and actually relates to the establishment of agriculture. Archaeologists discovered evidence of bread-like products, created by the Natufians at Shubaika 1 in Jordan, who generally maintained a foraging lifestyle despite some periods of settlement.
Rice terraces in Guangxi province, China
Sébastien Lecoq / Alamy Stock Photo
To add complexity, evidence has emerged suggesting that these hunter-gatherers may also have brewed beer. At the Rakefet Cave in Israel, a Natufian burial ground with around 30 interred individuals, Liu, Wang, and their colleagues discovered three stone mortars filled with various wild plants, including wheat, barley, and beans, which were fermented to create a porridge-like beer. These vessels date back between 11,700 and 13,700 years, indicating that brewing predates agriculture.
The ongoing debate about which came first, beer or bread, remains unresolved. “We don’t have conclusive evidence to clarify that yet,” Liu remarked. Similarly, it’s uncertain whether beer, bread, or another factor played the most significant role in the agricultural revolution, which ultimately laid the foundation for our food and drink traditions today.
“I wouldn’t be astonished if both were motivating factors,” Wang stated. After all, history is rarely straightforward—especially prehistory.
A cave near an ancient human settlement in the Arabian desert
Provided by: Huw S. Groucutt et al.
The parched landscapes of northeastern Saudi Arabia were once sufficiently moist to sustain a thriving fauna. Evidence suggests that ancient hominins also inhabited the area.
“This paper offers the initial comprehensive survey of the archaeological findings in the interior of northeastern Arabia, a vast region that has been largely overlooked,” states Monika Markowska from Northumbria University in the UK, who was not part of the study.
This research targets a largely uncharted segment of the Arabian Peninsula situated between Qatar and Kuwait. Despite the lack of recorded prehistoric human activity, scientists are aware that the region historically enjoyed enough rainfall to support a diverse ecosystem.
“Hominins have existed in Arabia for over 500,000 years and likely underwent several periods of habitation,” remarks Hugh Gourcutt from the University of Malta.
In their efforts to understand how ancient humans may have thrived in this environment, Gurkat and his team pinpointed ancient rivers and caves located near deposits of chert, a durable rock that prehistoric peoples used for tool-making. “Caves often serve as crucial archaeological sites, preserving fossils and climatic data,” Gurkat explains.
A total of 79 caves and their adjacent regions were investigated. Some contained signs of ancient life, both human and animal. One cave, in particular, was found next to an area where over 400 stone tools were scattered on the ground. Additionally, remains of ancient reptiles, bats, birds, camels, gazelles, hyenas, and wolves were uncovered within the cave.
By analyzing the characteristics of the stone tools, Groukat and his colleagues established that humans inhabited the vicinity of these caves between 10,000 and 100,000 years ago.
“Today, [Arabia] reveals an exceptional preservation of thousands of bones within these caves, providing invaluable insights into historical ecosystems,” notes Markowska.
Team member Michael Petraglia, who has dedicated years to researching Arabian archaeology at Griffith University in Australia, adds, “This research marks another milestone in understanding caves, rivers, their contents, and what they reveal about life in Arabia’s dynamic ecosystem.”
The western order encompasses sharks commonly referred to as mackerel sharks. This group includes some of the most recognized shark species, such as great whites and shortfin mako sharks, along with lesser-known varieties like goblin sharks and megamouth sharks. The recent discovery of a 115-million-year-old giant shark in northern Australia indicates that oligarchs experimented with massive sizes around 15 million years earlier than previously believed, reigning at the top of the marine food chain alongside giant marine reptiles during the era of the dinosaurs.
In the ocean off the coast of Australia 115 million years ago, a gigantic 8m long predatory shark chases an unwary long-necked plesiosaur. Image credit: Polyanna von Knorring, Swedish Museum of Natural History.
Sharks are iconic predators in contemporary oceans, and their lineage dates back over 400 million years.
Nonetheless, the evolutionary journey of modern sharks initiated during the age of the dinosaurs, with the oldest known fossils appearing around 135 million years ago.
These early modern sharks, referred to as olipids, were relatively small, measuring roughly 1 meter in length, but evolved over time into colossal species like the renowned megalodon, which may have exceeded 17 meters, and the great white, known as the modern apex predator of the seas, measuring up to 6 meters.
Sharks possess cartilaginous skeletons, and their fossil record primarily consists of teeth, which are continuously shed as they eat.
This results in shark teeth being commonly found in sedimentary rocks on the ocean floor, alongside the remains of other species, such as fish and large marine reptiles, which dominated marine ecosystems during the time of the dinosaurs.
The rugged coastline around Darwin in northern Australia was once the mudbed of the ancient Tethyan sea, which extended from the southern reaches of Gondwana (now Australia) to the northern island archipelago of Laurasia (now Europe).
Fossils of sea creatures like plesiosaurs, ichthyosaurs, and large bony fish have been uncovered.
Most notably, several giant vertebrae were found, indicating the presence of an unexpected predator: the giant sheep shark.
The five recovered vertebrae were partially calcified, allowing for their preservation, and they closely resemble those of modern great white sharks.
However, while the vertebrae of an adult great white shark measure about 8 cm in diameter, the fossilized sheep shark vertebrae from Darwin exceeded 12 cm in diameter.
These vertebrae also exhibited unique morphological traits, enabling their classification within the Cardabiodontidae family, giant predatory sharks that have existed in the oceans for approximately 100 million years.
Significantly, the rhamniforms in Darwin were around 15 million years old and had already achieved the substantial body size characteristic of cardabiodontids.
“Our findings demonstrate that large body size is an ancient trait, with Australian storkids measuring between 6 to 8 meters long and weighing over 3 tonnes,” stated lead author Dr. Mohammad Bazzi from Stanford University and colleagues.
“This is comparable to some of the largest marine reptiles of their time and indicates that oligarchs entered the apex predator niche early in their adaptive evolution.”
“These sharks were substantial in size and inhabited shallow coastal waters,” added co-author Dr. Michael Syverson, a researcher at the Western Australian Museum.
“This provides significant insights into the workings of ancient food webs and underscores the value of Australia’s fossil remains in comprehending prehistoric life.”
“This discovery not only reshapes the evolutionary narrative of sharks but also enhances Australia’s global significance in paleontological studies.”
“With each fossil discovery, we refine our understanding of ancient oceans and the remarkable creatures that once ruled them.”
For more details on this discovery, refer to the new paper published in Communication Biology.
_____
M.Bazzi et al. 2025. Early giant amnioids mark the beginning of giant body sizes in the evolution of modern sharks. Commun. Biol. August 1499. doi: 10.1038/s42003-025-08930-y
Ancient humans took two distinct pathways to reach modern Australia.
Helen Farr and Eric Fisher
The timeline and means by which ancient humans made their way to what is now Australia and New Guinea have sparked much debate over the years. Recent genetic studies indicate this event likely occurred at least 60,000 years ago and involved two separate routes.
The regions of modern-day Australia, Tasmania, and New Guinea were once part of Sahul, an ancient continent that emerged during the peak of the ice age when sea levels were significantly lower. Researchers have been keen to understand human migration into these regions as it necessitated navigating dangerous ocean stretches of over 100 kilometers, even during low sea levels.
There are two primary theories regarding the arrival of humans in Sahul: one suggests it took place at least 60,000 years ago, while the other posits a timeline of around 45,000 years ago.
Regarding the approach taken, scientists have put forth two main routes. The southern route is believed to have led to Australia by sea from present-day mainland Southeast Asia through the Sunda region that comprises Malaysia, Indonesia, and Timor. The northern route, however, has more compelling supporting evidence, indicating that humans migrated through the Philippines and Sulawesi to reach modern-day New Guinea, where ancient hominin stone tools dating back millions of years were recently found.
To unravel these migrations, Martin Richards and his colleagues from the University of Huddersfield in the UK examined approximately 2,500 genome sequences from Indigenous Australians, Papua New Guineans, and various populations across the Western Pacific and Southeast Asia.
By analyzing DNA mutation rates and the genetic ties between these populations, the researchers determined that the initial human settlement of Sahul occurred via both routes, but predominantly through the northern pathway.
The question of timing has also been addressed by the researchers. “We traced both dispersals to around the same period, approximately 60,000 years ago,” Richards noted. “This lends support to the ‘long chronology’ of settlement as opposed to the ‘short chronology’ suggesting arrival around 45,000 to 50,000 years ago.”
The findings further illustrate that migration wasn’t a straightforward process, partially based on the discovery of ancient genetic lineages in a 1,700-year-old burial site in Sulawesi. The team also detected evidence indicating that shortly after their arrival on Sahul, coastal and marine communities began migrating towards what we now refer to as the Solomon Islands.
Adam Blum, a professor at Griffith University in Brisbane, asserted that the field of paleogenetics, which investigates history through preserved genetic materials, “seems to adjust the narrative with each new study.”
“We believe this research bolsters the idea that the northern route played a crucial role in the early populating of Australia,” Blum remarked. “Considering the ancient cave art found on Sulawesi, the possibility is rapidly becoming more plausible.”
This remarkable rock artwork has been dated to at least 51,200 years ago, Blum explained. “I have a strong suspicion that individuals were crafting art in Sulawesi’s caves and shelters over 65,000 years ago.”
Peter Veth and his team at the University of Western Australia in Perth assert that even the most conservative estimates from the Majedbebe site in Australia’s Northern Territory suggest human activity traces exceeding 60,000 years. New research further underscores the significance of early human arrival in Sahul.
Discovery Tour: Archaeology and Paleontology
New Scientist frequently features incredible archaeological sites that have transformed our understanding of human history and the dawn of civilization. Why not explore them yourself?
The ancient human foot bones have puzzled scientists since their discovery in 2009.
Johannes Haile-Selassie
The origins of a 3.4-million-year-old foot bone uncovered in Ethiopia may finally be elucidated, prompting a reevaluation of how various ancient human ancestors cohabited.
In 2009, Johannes Haile-Selassie and his team at Arizona State University unearthed eight hominin bones that previously constituted a right foot at a site known as Burtele in northeastern Ethiopia’s Afar region.
This discovery, dubbed Bartele’s foot, features opposable big toes akin to those of gorillas, indicating that any species could have had arboreal capabilities.
Another ancient human species, Australopithecus afarensis, was known to inhabit the vicinity, with the well-known fossil of Lucy—also discovered in the Afar region—but Bartele’s foot appeared to belong to a different species. “From the outset, we realized it was not part of Lucy’s lineage,” Haile Selassie states.
There were two primary hypotheses that intrigued Haile Selassie: whether the foot was associated with another species within the genus Australopithecus or perhaps an older, more primitive group known as Ardipithecus, which existed in Ethiopia more than a million years ago and also possessed opposable thumbs.
Meanwhile, in 2015, scientists announced the identification of a previously unknown hominid species, named Australopithecus deiremeda, after jaw and tooth remains were found in the same region. Initially, there was uncertainty about whether the enigmatic leg bone was part of A. deiremeda, as its age differed from that of the jaw and tooth remains.
However, in the subsequent year, researchers made a crucial discovery. The lower jaw of A. deiremeda was located within 300 meters of Bartele’s foot, and both sets of remains were dated to the same geological era. This led the research team to conclude that Bartele’s foot belonged to A. deiremeda.
Bartele’s foot (left) and bones shaped like a gorilla’s foot (right), similar to Australopithecus deiremeda
Johannes Haile-Selassie
In a separate part of the study, researchers analyzed Earth’s carbon isotopes. They found that A. deiremeda primarily consumed materials from trees and shrubs, while human teeth were more adapted for a diet rich in grasses than those of afarensis.
Haile Selassie noted that this finding suggests that both hominin species occupied the same ecological niche without competing for resources. He believes these groups could have coexisted harmoniously, engaging in separate activities. “They must have crossed paths and interacted within the same habitat, each doing their own thing,” he remarked. “While members of Australopithecus deiremeda may have spent time in trees, afarensis was likely wandering the adjacent grasslands.”
This revelation enhances our understanding of human evolution. “Historically, some have argued that only a single hominid species existed at any given time, with newer forms emerging eventually,” Haile Selassie explained. “We are now realizing that our evolutionary path was not straightforward. Multiple closely related hominid species coexisted at the same time, indicating that coexistence was a fundamental aspect of our ancestors’ lives.”
Carrie Mongul, a professor at Stony Brook University in New York, expressed enthusiasm about these developments. “Understanding more about the diversity of Pliocene hominins is truly exciting,” she stated. “This period, around 3 million years ago, was rich in evolutionary significance.”
Our personal genome (an organism’s genetic information) contains remnants of viruses that once infected our ancestors.
No need to worry though. These viruses aren’t contagious like those that cause COVID-19 or the common cold; instead, they are sequences that have been integrated into our DNA over millions of years.
Most of these sequences come from a specific group of viruses known as retroviruses, which invade host cells and manipulate them into producing replication-required proteins.
Sometimes, a retrovirus can insert itself into a sperm or egg cell, which allows it to propagate across subsequent generations.
While this occurrence is rare, its frequency increases over extensive periods of evolution. Currently, about 8 percent of our DNA is comprised of these viral remnants.
Viruses have subtly merged into our DNA over millions of years – Image credit: Science Photo Library
For many years, scientists believed these viral sequences were mostly insignificant, referring to them as “junk DNA” that merely existed within cells without serving any important purpose.
However, recent research has shifted this perspective. Modern iterations of these viral proteins have been found to play crucial roles in functions such as memory retention, the development of the placenta, and enhancing our immune system’s ability to combat harmful microorganisms.
Nonetheless, it’s not all positive. Certain viral DNA fragments are linked to various human diseases, including amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), certain cancers, and type 1 diabetes.
While they may not directly cause disease, they could play a role in the intricate biological processes that researchers are exploring.
This article addresses the question (submitted by Nick Conley via email): “Can a virus alter my DNA?”
If you have any inquiries, please reach out to us at:questions@sciencefocus.com or send us a messagefacebook,×orInstagram Page (remember to include your name and location).
Explore our ultimatefun facts and discover more incredible science pages
Paleontologists conducted an analysis of the path taken by an exceptionally long sauropod at the West Gold Hill Dinosaur Tracking Station in Colorado, USA. Their findings suggest that the massive dinosaurs responsible for it might have exhibited a limp.
Aerial view of the West Gold Hill dinosaur track site in Colorado, USA. Image credit: USDA Forest Service.
Paleontologist Anthony Romilio from the University of Queensland and his team examined over 130 footprints along a 95.5-meter trail that dates back 150 million years.
“This is a remnant from the late Jurassic period, a time when long-necked dinosaurs like diplodocus and camarasaurus thrived across North America,” stated Dr. Romilio.
“This track is particularly special because it forms a complete loop.”
“Although the reason for the dinosaur’s turnaround remains unclear, this trajectory provides a rare chance to analyze how the substantial sauropod executed a sharp turn before returning to its original direction.”
“The scale of the West Gold Hill Dinosaur Track necessitated a novel approach,” remarked Paul Murphy, a paleontologist from the San Diego Museum of Natural History.
“Given the size of the tracks, capturing these footprints from the ground proved to be quite challenging.”
“We utilized a drone to photograph the entire track in high resolution.”
“These images can now be leveraged to create detailed 3D models that can be digitally examined in the lab with millimeter-level accuracy.”
The virtual model reconstructed the sauropod’s movement throughout the entire path.
“It became evident right away that this animal started moving northeast, looped around, and ultimately ended up facing the same direction,” Dr. Romilio explained.
“Within that circular path, we discovered subtle yet consistent indications of its behavior.”
“A notable observation was the variance in width between the left and right footprints, which changed from very narrow to distinctly wide.”
“This transition from narrow to wide footprints suggests that the width may naturally fluctuate as dinosaurs walked. This implies that short segments of seemingly uniform width could misrepresent their typical walking style.”
“We also noted a small but ongoing difference in stride length of roughly 10 cm (4 inches) between the left and right sides.”
“It’s challenging to determine if this signifies a limp or merely a preference for one side.”
“Many extensive dinosaur trails worldwide could benefit from this method to uncover previously hidden behavioral insights.”
The team’s study was published in the journal Geography.
_____
Anthony Romilio et al. 2025. Track by track: West Gold Hill Dinosaur Tracking Site (Upper Jurassic, Bluff Sandstone, Colorado) reveals sauropod rotation and lateralized gait. Geography 5(4):67;doi: 10.3390/geomatics5040067
The wolf, the wild ancestor of dogs, stands as the sole large carnivore domesticated by humans. Nonetheless, the exact nature of this domestication remains a topic of debate—whether it was a result of direct human control over wild wolves or a gradual adaptation of wolf populations to human environments. Recent archaeological findings in the Stra Fjärväl cave on the Swedish island of Stra Karsø, located in the Baltic Sea, have revealed the remains of two canids with genetic ties to gray wolves. This island, measuring just 2.5 km2, possesses no native land mammals, similar to its neighboring Gotland, and thus any mammalian presence must have been human-introduced.
Canadian Eskimo Dog by John James Audubon and John Bachman.
“The discovery of wolves on such a remote island was entirely unexpected,” remarked Dr. Linus Gardland Frink, a researcher from the University of Aberdeen.
“They not only had genetic links indistinguishable from other Eurasian wolves but also seemed to coexist and feed alongside humans in areas that were only reachable by boat.”
“This paints a complex picture of the historical dynamics between humans and wolves.”
Genomic analysis of the canid remains indicates they are wolves, not dogs.
However, their traits suggest a level of coexistence with humans.
Isotope analysis of their bones indicates a diet high in marine proteins, such as seals and fish, mirroring the diet of the humans on the island, suggesting they were likely fed.
Furthermore, these wolves were smaller than typical mainland counterparts, and one individual demonstrated signs of low genetic diversity—a common outcome due to isolation or controlled breeding.
This findings challenge long-standing notions regarding the power dynamics between wolves and humans and the domestication of dogs.
While it is unclear if these wolves were domesticated, confined, or managed, their presence in human-occupied areas suggests deliberate and ongoing interactions.
“The fact that it was a wolf and not a dog was a complete surprise,” stated Dr. Pontus Skoglund from the Francis Crick Institute.
“This provocative case suggests that under certain conditions, humans may have kept wolves in their habitats and found them valuable.”
“The genetic findings are intriguing,” noted Dr. Anders Bergström from the University of East Anglia.
“We discovered that the wolf with the most complete genome showed less genetic diversity than any ancient wolf previously analyzed.”
“This resembles what is observed in isolated or bottlenecked populations, or in domesticated species.”
“Although we cannot completely dismiss the idea that low genetic diversity may occur naturally, it implies humans were likely interacting with and managing wolves in ways not previously considered.”
One Bronze Age wolf specimen also presented advanced pathology in its limb bones, which would have restricted its mobility.
This suggests care or adaptation to an environment where large prey hunting was unnecessary for survival.
Professor Jan Stroh of Stockholm University stated: “The combined data offers new and unexpected perspectives on human-animal interactions during the Stone and Bronze Ages, especially regarding wolves and dogs.”
“These findings imply that prehistoric interactions between humans and wolves were more intricate than previously understood, involving complex relationships that extend beyond simple hunting or avoidance, hinting at new aspects of domestication unrelated to modern dogs.”
A study detailing this research was published on November 24th in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.
_____
Linus Gardland-Frink et al. 2025. A gray wolf in the anthropogenic setting of a small prehistoric Scandinavian island. PNAS 122 (48): e2421759122; doi: 10.1073/pnas.2421759122
Unusual marks found on rocky surfaces in Italy may have been created by a group of sea turtles reacting to an earthquake around 83 million years ago.
Extreme climbers stumbled upon a peculiar feature in a restricted area on the slopes of Monte Conero along Italy’s east coastline.
Over 1,000 prints are evident in two distinct spots. One location is situated over 100 meters above sea level, while the other is a ledge that collapsed onto La Vera Beach. These limestone rocks were formed from fine sediments that settled on the shallow ocean floor during the Cretaceous era.
The climbers captured photographs that were subsequently shared with the Alessandro Montanari Cordigioco Geological Observatory in Italy and colleagues. Scientists were then granted permission by the Conero Regional Park authority to explore the area both on foot and using drones.
Montanari mentioned that while it is challenging to identify which animal made the marks, the only two types of vertebrates inhabiting the ocean then were fish and marine reptiles. The researchers dismissed fish, plesiosaurs, and mosasaurs, leading to the conclusion that sea turtles are the most probable culprits.
Given the dynamic nature of the ocean floor, the prints must have been buried almost immediately after formation to remain intact, potentially occurring during an earthquake.
“[It may have been] the powerful earthquake that frightened the poor animals, which were peacefully residing in their nutrient-rich shallow-water habitat,” states Montanari.
“In panic, they swam towards the open sea on the west side of the reef, leaving paddle impressions on the soft seabed.”
However, the notion of a turtle swarm remains speculative, and the team is eager to collaborate with ichthyologists who specialize in analyzing fossilized tracks for the next phase of their research.
Anthony Romilio, a researcher from the University of Queensland in Australia, claims that if these marks indeed are from sea turtles, they would be “potentially the most numerous in the world.”
Nevertheless, he has yet to visit the site or view high-resolution images and doubts the prints belong to sea turtles. “The surface patterns do not exhibit the spacing, rhythm, or anatomy expected in a sea turtle’s flipper stroke,” he comments. “I suspect they are abiotic formations rather than biological in origin.”
Dinosaur hunting in Mongolia’s Gobi desert
Join an exciting and unique expedition to uncover dinosaur remains in the expansive wilderness of the Gobi Desert, a renowned hotspot for paleontology.
A monumental ancient structure unearthed in Mexico could uncover how the early Maya civilization perceived the universe. Among them, new research indicates that the 3,000-year-old site known as Aguada Fénix served as a cosmogram, representing a geometric map of the cosmos.
Archaeologists initially discovered a large cross-shaped cavity (termed a cross hole) concealed within dense jungle in 2020. Upon closer inspection, they discovered that this was merely one of numerous interconnected holes linked by canals. The cumulative volume of these cross holes exceeds 3.8 million cubic meters, equivalent to nearly one and a half pyramids of Giza or over 1,500 Olympic-sized swimming pools.
Researchers from the University of Arizona utilized laser technology to identify Aguada Fénix from aerial views, situated in the current state of Tabasco on the Gulf Coast.
They now assert that the earliest examples of these findings in Mesoamerica—colored pigments discovered in pits—align with the four cardinal directions: north, south, east, and west. Specifically, vibrant blue azurite represents north, yellow ocher marks south, green malachite signifies east, and pearl-like shells denote west.
Mineral pigments found arranged to correspond with cardinal directions. Researchers suspect that the western deposits may originally included red pigments that have faded over time. – Photo credit: Takeshi Inomata/University of Arizona
According to Independent Maya Expert Dr. James A. Doyle, “The cross shape and color symbolism embedded in the architecture physically embody the concept of how the Earth’s planes are organized and directed.” The BBC Science Focus article also highlights that “the dams and canals underscore the significance of water both practically and symbolically, which is mirrored in the blue and green pigments, shells, and greenstone products.”
Crucially, the new study published in Scientific Progress posits that the construction was a collective effort by a non-hierarchical community, as there is no evidence linking dwellings, palaces, or a central ruling class to late Maya architecture.
Given the size of the structures (Doyle describes them as “some of the largest ever constructed in this area”), it is believed that at least 1,000 individuals would have collaborated over several years to carve the rock and create the cosmogram.
These individuals were likely not coerced by an elite class but were part of an egalitarian society that sought a communal space for stargazing and sharing astronomical knowledge. These vast areas probably also served for trade, social interactions, and religious ceremonies.
Researchers believe this jade artifact depicts a woman in the act of giving birth. – Photo credit: Takeshi Inomata/University of Arizona
Archaeologists have uncovered not only pigments but also jade carvings, primarily reflecting natural experiences rather than deities or leaders. These carvings largely depict animals, although some seem to portray women in childbirth.
Doyle emphasizes that there is still much to uncover about social equality at Aguada Fénix, particularly concerning the enigmatic jade woman.
“What if she represented a strong leader, akin to figures seen in many later societies across Mesoamerica, the Caribbean, and the central Andes?” he queried.
“As excavations progress and our understanding of Aguada Fénix’s builders deepens, we will gain a clearer insight into the disparities in wealth and influence.”
The remarkably long neck of Lijangosaurus johnschengensis. The research team, led by paleontologists from the Institute of Vertebrate Paleontology and Paleoanthropology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, identified 42 cervical vertebrae at the site.
Reconstruction of nososaurs from approximately 240 million years ago showcases previously hidden diversity in southwestern China: Lijangosaurus johnschengensis (center), Nososaurus janjuanensis (top left), Nososaurus luopingensis (top right), Brevicaudosaurus janshanensis (bottom left), and Lariosaurus hongoensis (bottom right). Image credit: Kelai Li.
Lijangosaurus johnschengensis thrived in the mid-Triassic oceans between 247 and 241 million years ago.
Nososaurs could reach lengths of up to 7 meters (23 feet) and swam using four paddle-like limbs.
They possessed flat skulls with a network of slender conical teeth specialized for catching fish and squid.
“Sauropterygia emerged as a dominant marine reptile clade in the Early to Middle Triassic, maintaining its significance for approximately 180 million years within the Mesozoic marine ecosystem,” stated lead author Dr. Xiang Qinghua and colleagues.
“Early diverging sauropterygians include placodonts, pachysaurids, nososaurs, and early pistosaurs.”
“The iconic group known as plesiosaurs represents a clade that diverged later from pistosaurs within the suborder Pterosauria.”
“Nososauridae represents the systematic paleontological equivalent of nososaurids and encompasses more than just nososaurids (nososaurus and lariosaurus) as well as other nososaur species.”
“Although numerous species have been described, nososaurs show low diversity at the genus level and in anatomical morphology relative to other sauropterygian subgroups.”
“Typically, nososaurs are larger than pachypleurosaurs but smaller than pistosaurs, including plesiosaurs.”
The skull of Lijangosaurus johnschengensis was small, while its body extended over 2.5 meters (8 feet) in length.
It evolved an extraordinarily long neck with 42 cervical vertebrae, twice the number seen in most sauropterygians of its time.
“Plesiosaurs are generally recognized for their surprisingly long necks,” noted the paleontologists.
“Despite some late-diverging plesiosaur species exhibiting short necks, early plesiosaurs and their Triassic ancestors, early pistosaurs, featured impressively elongated necks with more than 30 cervical vertebrae, indicating a conformational lineage between early pistosaurs and plesiosaurs.”
“In line with this traditional understanding, we consider only necks with more than 30 cervical vertebrae as long or elongated necks in our research.”
“This distinctive feature of plesiosaurs is unmatched among secondary marine quadrupeds; in contrast, other leading marine animals like ichthyosaurs, thalatoids, mosasaurs, and cetaceans typically possess shorter necks and exhibit more fish-like traits.”
The fossilized skeleton of Lijangosaurus johnschengensis was unearthed in a previously unidentified Early Middle Triassic zone of the Beiya Formation in Yunnan Province, China, near the eastern Tibetan Plateau and northern Myanmar.
“This location differs from previously documented fossil-rich regions in southwestern China along the Yunnan-Guizhou border,” the researchers remarked.
Lijangosaurus johnschengensis marks the earliest known instance of a sauropterygian reptile with an exceptionally long neck featuring 42 cervical vertebrae.
“Our findings demonstrate that extreme cervical elongation, defined as possessing more than 30 cervical vertebrae, emerged in sauropterygians prior to the arrival of plesiosaurs and their pterosaur ancestors,” the scientists concluded.
“Moreover, Lijangosaurus johnschengensis shows a unique type of accessory facet joint differing from other reptiles, which is believed to reduce body undulation.”
“This discovery enhances our understanding of the variety of accessory facet joints in reptiles and underscores the high degree of spinal flexibility during the early evolution of sauropterygians.”
The team’s paper is published in the journal Communications Biology.
_____
W. Wang et al. 2025. The oldest long-necked sauropterygians, Lijangosaurus johnschengensis: Plasticity of vertebral evolution in sauropterygian marine reptiles. Communications Biology August 1551. doi: 10.1038/s42003-025-08911-1
A 12,000-year-old clay figurine and artistic restoration showcasing a woman with a goose from Nahal Ein Geb II
Laurent Davin
A diminutive 12,000-year-old clay figure featuring a goose on the back of a woman might illustrate an animistic ritual linked to mating between a gander and a human.
Measuring just 3.7 centimeters tall, this sculpture was uncovered in 2019 at the archaeological site of Nahal Ein Geb II in Israel, though its importance wasn’t fully appreciated until 2024.
The site was inhabited by the Natufians, a group of Paleolithic hunter-gatherers who established settlements in the region. Known as the direct ancestors of the Neolithic farming communities, the Natufians are credited with early agriculture throughout the Middle East.
To the casual observer, it might be challenging to discern the figure’s components; Laurent Davin, a professor at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, expressed certainty, stating it clearly depicts a goose on the woman’s back.
“Upon extracting this small clay form from its packaging, I instantly recognized a human figure with a bird resting atop,” Davin recalls. “What I held was an extraordinary artifact, 12,000 years old, notable for both its subject and craftsmanship.”
There are ancient sculptures and paintings illustrating human-animal interactions, in addition to even older hybrid sculptures dating back 40,000 years, like the “Lion Man” discovered in Germany. Davin asserts this elegant piece is “the earliest figurine representing human-animal interaction” ever found.
Geochemical analyses indicated the statuette was heated to around 400 degrees Celsius. Davin notes the artist skillfully modeled the clay, showcasing a keen awareness of anatomy and how light and shadow play into the scene.
He and his team do not propose that the figure represents a literal event, such as a female hunter with a captured goose. Instead, Davin believes the goose was artistically rendered in a mating position.
“We view this portrayal as an imaginative interaction between animal spirits and humans,” he explains. “Such themes are prevalent in animistic cultures globally, particularly reflecting erotic dreams, shamanistic visions, and mythology.”
Researchers also found fingerprints on the figurine, likely made by its creator. Due to its small dimensions, it likely belonged to a young adult or an adult female of any gender.
Paul Tacon, a professor at Griffith University in Brisbane, Australia, not involved in the research, presents an alternative interpretation of the statue. “Having grown up in Canada and recalling Canada geese, [it] “It reminds me of their aggressive behavior. They often charge and leap onto one’s back, pecking at the head or neck,” he observes.
“The tale of a woman being pursued by a goose could represent an altercation rather than an intimate union, though the exact significance may remain elusive.”
Ancient caves, the origins of humanity: northern Spain
Explore the world’s oldest cave paintings in this picturesque region of northern Spain. Journey back 40,000 years and learn about the lives, play, and work of our ancestors. Every cave, filled with ancient Paleolithic art and awe-inspiring geological wonders, narrates a unique and timeless tale.
“Textbooks indicate that RNA is highly unstable and generally degrades within minutes of exiting a living cell,” remarked Marc Friedlaender, a computational biologist at Stockholm University and one of the study authors. “It’s truly remarkable that we discovered RNA dating back 40,000 years. No one thought this was feasible.”
This research may open up new avenues into historical understanding. Erez Eiden, a professor of biochemistry and molecular biology at the University of Texas Medical Branch, who was not involved in the study, noted that scientists will continue to refine the techniques used to analyze ancient RNA, similar to how they have done for years with ancient DNA.
Incorporating RNA analysis into the study of ancient genetics could fundamentally alter our perception of the biological history of the Earth, Eiden stated.
“We will be able to construct a more comprehensive and quantitative narrative of life’s history on our planet,” he added. “Suddenly, the Rosetta Stone appeared.…This is like an ancient hieroglyph of life.”
The discovery of RNA was facilitated by the find of Yuka in 2010, when members of the Yukagir community unearthed a mammoth in melting permafrost near the Arctic Ocean. Yuka was found resting on a cliff, partially mummified, and encased in a mat of strawberry blonde hair and flesh that remained pink until her discovery.
Paleontologists believe Yuka was pursued to death. Some evidence points to the creature being chased by a cave lion or possibly killed by modern humans. There are indications supporting both theories, with each species potentially playing a role in the extinction of this ancient animal.
In a world populated by cave lions, this creature experienced significant stress prior to its death.
Indeed, recent RNA analyses indicate that the profiled RNA displayed signs of physiological stress. The researchers utilized samples taken from the animal’s slow-twitch muscle fibers.
“We discovered that stress genes were activated,” Friedlander stated.
Laboratory work in an ultra-clean environment at the Paleogenetics Center in Stockholm where ancient RNA was extracted. Provided by: Jens Olof Razin
RNA is synthesized from its DNA template through a process known as transcription. During transcription, certain genes are activated while others remain dormant.
This process is dynamic, and the genes expressed can fluctuate from day to night, according to Marmol Sanchez.
The researchers also identified a novel form of microRNA (a type of RNA governing gene expression) in mammoths that is unknown in modern elephants.
The RNA technology being developed may assist efforts to revive the woolly mammoth, as noted by Eiden, who is a member of the scientific advisory board for Colossal Biosciences, the company aiming to “resurrect” the woolly mammoth.
Professor Friedlander remarked that further research could also shed light on how some ancient viruses, which lack DNA, evolved over time.
“To understand the history of RNA viruses like SARS-CoV-2, we must detect these RNA molecules in historical and ancient samples to comprehend their evolution,” Friedlander explained.
Viruses such as Ebola, HIV, and influenza possess RNA genomes.
More research is required. In this study, the scientists investigated 10 mammoths but only obtained reliable RNA signals from three, including Yuka, the best-preserved specimen.
Since 2010, Yuka has been thought to be a female mammoth, but RNA and DNA analyses have revealed that she is, in fact, male.
Eiden highlighted that the RNA study underscores how little is understood about death and the varying rates of molecular breakdown after an organism’s demise.
“Our theories about what occurs to the physical matter of an organism post-mortem are still inadequate,” Eiden said. “What information is retained, and how legible can it remain over time? These are some intriguing questions.”
A silver chalice dating back 4,300 years, found in Palestine’s West Bank, displays a depiction of the universe’s formation from primordial chaos, marking it as the oldest recorded visual interpretation of a creation myth.
“It’s a one-of-a-kind design,” says Eberhard Sanger from the Lewisian Research Foundation in Switzerland. “It conveys a complex narrative using a minimal number of lines.”
Measuring about 8 cm in height, the “Ain Samiya” goblet was uncovered 55 years ago in an ancient tomb located a few miles northeast of Ramallah, on the western edge of the Fertile Crescent, an area where early civilizations thrived.
The goblet features two distinctive scenes. The first shows a large serpent confronting a chimera with a human upper body and animal legs, positioned on a small flower-like circle. The second scene depicts a smiling serpent lying on the ground beneath a much larger flower-like circle, supported by two humanoid figures—of which only one is currently visible due to the goblet’s damage.
Archaeologists of the 1970s proposed that these scenes could represent Enuma Elish, the Babylonian creation myth in which the primordial entity Tiamat is overcome by the god Marduk, resulting in Tiamat’s body transforming into heaven and earth. However, Zanger notes that this interpretation has its shortcomings; notably, there are no battle representations on the goblet, and it is approximately 1,000 years older than Enuma Elish itself.
<section></section>
<span class="js-content-prompt-opportunity"/>
<p>This has led other scholars to suggest alternative meanings. For instance, they propose that the goblet might represent the cyclical rebirth of a year and the passing of another.</p>
<p>Nonetheless, Zanger and his associates, including independent researcher <a href="https://utoronto.academia.edu/DanielSarlo">Daniel Sarlo</a> from Toronto, and <a href="https://fabiennehaasdantes.academia.edu/">Fabienne Haas Dantes</a> from the University of Zurich, argue that the original interpretation remains the most accurate. They contend that the scenes depict the creation of the universe, drawing from ancient creation stories that predate even <em>Enuma Elish</em>.</p>
<p>
<figure class="ArticleImage">
<div class="Image__Wrapper">
<img class="Image" alt="This scene illustrates cosmic order emerging from chaos, featuring figures such as serpents and deities (Credit: ? Israel Museum, Jerusalem, by Florica Weiner)." width="1350" height="901" src="https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/11/12150512/SEI_274075982.jpg" srcset="https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/11/12150512/SEI_274075982.jpg?width=300 300w, https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/11/12150512/SEI_274075982.jpg?width=400 400w, https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/11/12150512/SEI_274075982.jpg?width=500 500w, https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/11/12150512/SEI_274075982.jpg?width=600 600w, https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/11/12150512/SEI_274075982.jpg?width=700 700w, https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/11/12150512/SEI_274075982.jpg?width=800 800w, https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/11/12150512/SEI_274075982.jpg?width=837 837w, https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/11/12150512/SEI_274075982.jpg?width=900 900w, https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/11/12150512/SEI_274075982.jpg?width=1003 1003w, https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/11/12150512/SEI_274075982.jpg?width=1100 1100w, https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/11/12150512/SEI_274075982.jpg?width=1200 1200w, https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/11/12150512/SEI_274075982.jpg?width=1300 1300w, https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/11/12150512/SEI_274075982.jpg?width=1400 1400w, https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/11/12150512/SEI_274075982.jpg?width=1500 1500w, https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/11/12150512/SEI_274075982.jpg?width=1600 1600w, https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/11/12150512/SEI_274075982.jpg?width=1674 1674w, https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/11/12150512/SEI_274075982.jpg?width=1700 1700w, https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/11/12150512/SEI_274075982.jpg?width=1800 1800w, https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/11/12150512/SEI_274075982.jpg?width=1900 1900w, https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/11/12150512/SEI_274075982.jpg?width=2006 2006w" sizes="(min-width: 1288px) 837px, (min-width: 1024px) calc(57.5vw + 55px), (min-width: 415px) calc(100vw - 40px), calc(70vw + 74px)" loading="lazy" data-image-context="Article" data-image-id="2504118" data-caption="The images engraved on the goblet portray deities, serpents, and the sun" data-credit="Israel Museum, Jerusalem/Florika Weiner"/>
</div>
<figcaption class="ArticleImageCaption">
<div class="ArticleImageCaption__CaptionWrapper">
<p class="ArticleImageCaption__Title">The engravings on the goblet depict a deity, a serpent, and the sun.</p>
<p class="ArticleImageCaption__Credit">Israel Museum, Jerusalem/Florica Weiner</p>
</div>
</figcaption>
</figure>
</p>
<p>Zanger's research team views the first scene as ambiguous. The chimera signifies a weaker god combined with an animal. The small flower-like circles beneath its legs symbolize the powerless sun. A colossal serpent dominates this chaos. In contrast, the second scene reveals that order has emerged from chaos, with gods distinguished from animals, transforming into potent humanoid figures. They raise the powerful sun atop a "vessel of heaven," indicating the separation of heaven from earth, while the chaotic serpent lies defeated beneath the sun.</p>
<p>Zanger also mentions that cuneiform texts from another area of the Fertile Crescent, dating similarly to the goblet, discuss how deities divided heaven and earth. This indicates that by the time of the goblet's creation, the locals had already contemplated the theme of world creation. "The remarkable aspect of this artifact is that it allows us to glimpse their conception of this narrative," he states.</p>
<p><a href="https://independent.academia.edu/JLisman">Jan Lisman</a>, an independent researcher from the Netherlands, remains skeptical of this interpretation. "What it depicts is the daily journey of the sun," he argues. "But it certainly does not reflect 'origin' or 'chaos.'"</p>
<p><a href="https://www.altestestament.unibe.ch/about_us/people/prof_em_dr_schroer_silvia/index_eng.html">Sylvia Schroer</a>, a professor at the University of Bern, Switzerland, shows some willingness to entertain the notion that the goblet signifies world creation. However, she believes a different aspect of the new analysis is problematic.</p>
<p>According to Zanger, some images on the Ain Samiyah goblet, notably the giant snake, resonate with ancient cosmological tales from the Fertile Crescent and adjacent areas. They posit that this implies a profound connection among various creation myths which may trace back to a singular, more ancient narrative. Illustrating this, they cite a celestial vessel resembling that in the goblet, which is carved on a pillar at Göbekli Tepe in modern-day Turkey, a location dating back 11,500 years—7,000 years prior to the goblet's creation. "This is astonishing," Zanger remarks.</p>
<p>Nonetheless, Schroer argues that it might be too speculative to assert that all creation narratives in the region are tightly intertwined. "Even with similarities, it doesn't necessitate clear influence," she maintains.</p>
<div class="JournalReference" data-title="JEOL – Journal of the Ancient Near Eastern Society “Ex Oriente Luxˮ" data-title_link="https://www.exorientelux.nl/jeol/" data-reference_type_overwrite="Journal reference:" data-doi="in press" data-method="shortcode" data-component-name="journal-reference">
<p class="JournalReference__Title"><i>JEOL – Journal of Ancient Near East Studies “Ex Oriente Luxˮ</i> <a class="JournalReference__Link" href="https://www.exorientelux.nl/jeol/">DOI: In print</a></p>
</div>
<p>
<section class="SpecialArticleUnit">
<picture class="SpecialArticleUnit__ImageWrapper">
<img class="Image SpecialArticleUnit__Image" alt="Caravan in front of the Great Pyramid of Giza, Egypt" width="2560" height="1441" src="https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/07111001/shutterstock_2429800603-scaled.jpg" srcset="https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/07111001/shutterstock_2429800603-scaled.jpg?width=300 300w, https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/07111001/shutterstock_2429800603-scaled.jpg?width=375 375w, https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/07111001/shutterstock_2429800603-scaled.jpg?width=500 500w, https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/07111001/shutterstock_2429800603-scaled.jpg?width=600 600w, https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/07111001/shutterstock_2429800603-scaled.jpg?width=700 700w, https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/07111001/shutterstock_2429800603-scaled.jpg?width=750 750w, https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/07111001/shutterstock_2429800603-scaled.jpg?width=800 800w, https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/07111001/shutterstock_2429800603-scaled.jpg?width=900 900w, https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/07111001/shutterstock_2429800603-scaled.jpg?width=1003 1003w, https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/07111001/shutterstock_2429800603-scaled.jpg?width=1100 1100w, https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/07111001/shutterstock_2429800603-scaled.jpg?width=1200 1200w, https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/07111001/shutterstock_2429800603-scaled.jpg?width=1300 1300w, https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/07111001/shutterstock_2429800603-scaled.jpg?width=1400 1400w, https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/07111001/shutterstock_2429800603-scaled.jpg?width=1500 1500w, https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/07111001/shutterstock_2429800603-scaled.jpg?width=1600 1600w, https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/07111001/shutterstock_2429800603-scaled.jpg?width=1700 1700w, https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/07111001/shutterstock_2429800603-scaled.jpg?width=1800 1800w, https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/07111001/shutterstock_2429800603-scaled.jpg?width=1900 1900w, https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/07111001/shutterstock_2429800603-scaled.jpg?width=2006 2006w" sizes="(min-width: 1277px) 375px, (min-width: 1040px) 26.36vw, 99.44vw" loading="lazy" data-image-context="Special Article Unit" data-caption="Caravan in front of the Great Pyramid of Giza, Egypt" data-credit="Shutterstock"/>
</picture>
<div class="SpecialArticleUnit__CopyWrapper">
<h3 class="SpecialArticleUnit__Heading">Cairo and Alexandria, pioneers of science in the ancient world: Egypt</h3>
<div class="SpecialArticleUnit__Copy">
<p>Take an unforgettable journey through Cairo and Alexandria, where the rich tapestry of ancient history meets modern allure.</p>
</div>
</div>
</section>
</p>
<section class="ArticleTopics" data-component-name="article-topics">
<p class="ArticleTopics__Heading">topic:</p>
</section>
Known as Wakaorisus Godterupi, this eggshell type belongs to the mecostine crocodile, which represents the oldest crocodile eggshell ever discovered in Australia.
Mecostine crocodile. Image credit: Armin Reindl / CC BY-SA 4.0.
The now-extinct Mecostinae (Mecostinae) represented a distinctive local branch of Australia’s crocodilian family.
These creatures dominated the continent’s inland waters approximately 55 million years ago during the early Eocene epoch.
They were part of a broader group that included true crocodiles, gharials, and caimans.
However, mecostins represent an older lineage than the saltwater and freshwater crocodiles currently found in Australia.
Modern species arrived much later, migrating to the continent from Southeast Asia about 5 million years ago.
Unlike contemporary crocodiles, mecostins occupied a rather unusual ecological niche.
“It’s a peculiar notion, but evidence suggests that some of them were terrestrial hunters in forested areas,” remarked Professor Michael Archer from the University of New South Wales.
“This is indicated by a wide range of juvenile mecostin fossils previously found in 25-million-year-old deposits in the Riverslea World Heritage Area, Boojamulla National Park, Wahnee Country, in north-west Queensland.”
“Some species living in those rivers reached lengths of over five meters, including ‘drop crocodiles’ that were likely partially arboreal.”
“They might have hunted similarly to leopards, dropping unsuspecting prey from trees.”
The eggshells of Wakaorisus Godterupi are among the oldest known members of the Mecostinidae clade.
“These eggshells offer a glimpse into the life history of Mecostine,” said paleontologist Dr. Panades y Blas.
“We can now explore not only the unique anatomy of these crocodiles but also their reproductive behaviors and adaptations to environmental changes.”
The researchers examined Wakaorisus Godterupi shell fragments using both optical and electron microscopes.
The microstructure indicates that these crocodiles laid eggs at the water’s edge, employing a reproductive strategy suited to variable conditions.
“The Mecostine crocodile may have lost extensive inland territory to dryland encroachments, ultimately competing with new arrivals in Australia, dwindling megafauna-sized prey, and diminishing waterways,” noted University of New South Wales palaeontologist Dr. Michael Stein.
“Lake Murgon was surrounded by lush forests. I was at home too where fossils of the world’s oldest songbird, Australia’s oldest frog and snake, various small mammals connected to South America, and even one of the oldest bats have been found.”
The researchers assert that fossil eggshells are an underutilized asset in vertebrate paleontology.
“They retain microstructural and geochemical evidence that reveals not only the type of animal that laid them but also where they nested and how they bred,” said Dr. Panades y Blas.
“Our research demonstrates the significance of these fragments.”
“Eggshells should be a standard element of paleontological investigations, collected, categorized, and analyzed alongside bones and teeth.”
These findings are published this week in the Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology.
_____
Xavier Panades Brass et al. Australia’s oldest crocodile eggshell: insights into the reproductive paleoecology of mecostin. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology published online on November 11, 2025. Doi: 10.1080/02724634.2025.2560010
Monte Sierpe, meaning “Mountain of the Serpent” and informally referred to as the “Zone of Holes,” is situated in the Pisco Valley of southern Peru. It comprises around 5,200 meticulously aligned holes. Recent studies indicate that the site may have originally functioned as a barter market, bringing together a variety of people for trade.
Aerial view of Monte Sierpe looking northeast. Image credit: Jacob Bongers, University of Sydney.
Stretching over 1.5 km in the Pisco Valley of the southern Peruvian Andes, Monte Sierpe features approximately 5,200 carefully aligned holes (ranging from 1–2 m in width and 0.5–1 m in depth) arranged in distinct sections.
This extraordinary structure likely dates back to at least the Late Middle Period (1000-1400 AD) and was actively used by the Incas (1400-1532 AD).
Initially brought to modern attention in 1933 following an aerial photo published in National Geographic, the specific purpose of the monument remains a mystery.
Speculations about its function include various roles such as defense, storage, accounting, water collection, fog capture, and horticulture, but the actual intent continues to elude researchers.
“What led ancient people to excavate over 5,000 holes in the hills of southern Peru? Were they used for gardens? Did they provide water? Did they serve agricultural purposes?” inquires Dr. Jacob Bongers, a digital archaeologist from the University of Sydney.
“While we cannot ascertain their purpose, our new data offers significant clues and supports emerging theories regarding the site’s utilization.”
Utilizing drone technology, Dr. Bongers and his team mapped the site, uncovering numerical patterns in its layout that indicate intentional organization.
Interestingly, the archaeologists also found that the configuration of Monte Sierpe resembles that of at least one Inca quipu (an ancient knotted string for accounting) discovered in the same valley.
“This discovery significantly enhances our understanding of the origins and variety of indigenous accounting practices both within and outside the Andes,” noted Dr. Bongers.
Soil samples taken from the holes revealed ancient maize pollen, one of the Andes’ key staple crops, along with reeds traditionally utilized for basket making for millennia.
These surprising findings indicate that ancient people likely planted crops in the holes, using woven baskets and bundles for transport.
“This is quite intriguing. Perhaps this area functioned as a pre-Inca market, akin to a flea market,” remarked Dr. Bongers.
“We estimate that the pre-Hispanic population in this region was around 100,000. It likely served as a meeting point for traveling merchants, including llama caravan traders, as well as local professionals like farmers and fishermen to trade goods like corn and cotton.”
“Fundamentally, I believe these holes served as a form of social technology that unified individuals and later evolved into a comprehensive accounting system under the Inca Empire.”
“Numerous questions remain: Why is this monument unique to this location and not found throughout the Andes?”
“Was Monte Sierpe a type of ‘landscape’? – Nevertheless, we are gradually moving closer to unraveling the mysteries of this fascinating site. It’s genuinely exciting.”
Refer to the study published in the Journal on November 10, 2025 ancient.
_____
Jacob L. Bongers et al. Indigenous accounting and interaction at Monte Sierpe (“Band of Holes”), Pisco Valley, Peru. ancient published online on November 10, 2025. doi: 10.15184/aqy.2025.10237
Caves in the Hebrus Valley of Mars may have been sculpted by ancient water flows
NASA Mars Earth Surveyor
Subsurface caves shaped by flowing water on Mars may have provided ideal conditions for life, with potential remnants still present today.
Throughout Mars, numerous openings resembling cave entrances are found, primarily near volcanic regions. This implies these features were likely formed by processes related to volcanic activity rather than water.
Earth is home to numerous karst caves, created by the dissolution of soluble rock by water. However, scientists have yet to find equivalent caves on Mars, despite evidence indicating the planet was once covered in water billions of years ago.
Currently, Ding Vermicelli, a professor at Shenzhen University in China, has identified eight caves that seem to have been formed by ancient water flows instead of volcanic activity. These caves are situated in the Hebrus Gorge, a northwestern region characterized by extensive valleys and depressions likely shaped by ancient floods.
Previous Mars missions, including NASA’s Mars Global Surveyor (which orbited Mars from 1997 to 2006), have mapped these caves. Ding and his team analyzed material near one cave entrance using spectroscopic data from that mission, revealing a notable presence of carbonate and sulfate minerals typically associated with water.
They also detected signs of an ancient stream ending near the cave entrance, similar to patterns seen near karst caves on Earth. James Baldini from Durham University, UK, noted, “On a map, you’d expect a river to emerge to the surface only to disappear suddenly, as the cave system absorbs its water.”
Daniel Le Corret from the University of Kent in the UK mentioned that while the mineralogical and geological data implies these may be water caves, they appear quite similar to other Martian caves of volcanic origin. “I’ve spent countless hours evaluating the global catalog of Martian caves and these resemble known volcanic formations,” he said.
If these caves are indeed formed by water, they might be excellent locations for searching for life. “For life to exist, water and a protective environment from Mars’ intense surface radiation are essential,” Baldini remarked. “Volcanic caves and lava tubes also present good avenues for potential life, though they don’t necessarily involve water.”
Mars’ water caves may contain stalagmites—bulbous rock formations generally found in Earth’s karst caves—and could act as time capsules of Mars’ ancient climate conditions, such as temperature.
However, stalagmites require thousands of years of sustained water flow to develop, and determining their formation timing could be challenging, even if rovers or drones succeed in collecting samples, according to Baldini.
Mysteries of the Universe: Cheshire, England
Join a weekend with some of science’s leading minds as you delve into the enigmas of the universe, featuring a tour of the renowned Lovell Telescope.
While historical accounts claim that Ingólfr Arnarson was the first Norse settler to reach Iceland in the 870s, this assertion might not hold true.
Public domain
Norsemen may have arrived in Iceland as much as 70 years earlier than previously believed, and their arrival might not have been the environmental catastrophe often depicted.
Traditionally, it’s stated that Iceland saw its first settlement in the 870s. This early migration is frequently viewed as an ecological calamity brought on by Viking raiders and Norse settlers who cleared the forests for fuel, construction materials, and arable land. Today, less than 2 percent of the country is still forested.
Finding concrete evidence regarding the arrival of these early settlers has been challenging. Archaeologists have discovered an ancient wooden longhouse, estimated to be from around 874 AD, located near Stódvarfjordur in eastern Iceland. This old longhouse is thought to have been a summer dwelling established in the 800s, though this finding has yet to be documented in scientific journals.
Currently, Eske Willerslev, a professor at the University of Copenhagen, and his team examined environmental DNA (eDNA) gathered from sediment cores drilled in Lake Tjörnin, an area in central Reykjavík, one of Iceland’s earliest and continuously inhabited locations, to identify which species existed and their timestamps. They analyzed volcanic ash layers, alongside radiocarbon dating and plutonium isotope assessments, to develop a timeline from about 200 AD up to contemporary times, integrating known historical events.
A significant marker in their research is the Randonham tephra layer, formed from volcanic ash deposited during eruptions around 877 AD. The bulk of evidence indicating human habitation in Iceland is found above this layer, indicating subsequent settlement.
“The signs beneath the tephra provide compelling evidence for earlier human activity,” Comments Chris Callow from the University of Birmingham, UK, who did not participate in the research.
Willerslev and his colleagues postulate that humans may have arrived as early as 810 AD. This inference is based on an observed rise in levoglucosan, a compound linked to biomass burning, and a subsequent increase in sewage-related viruses.
“If it were 850, I wouldn’t have been so surprised, but 810 represents rapid Viking expansion in the North Atlantic,” Callow remarks. “Overall, this aligns with our suspicions, but a date as early as 810 remains contentious.”
While piecing together a thorough environmental history of the region is noteworthy, the evidence supporting such an early arrival remains questionable. Kathryn Catlin from Jacksonville State University in Alabama stated, “The sewage biomarkers only show a slight increase around 800, nothing until 1900. Where are the indicators of sewage and human activity in between?” She also pointed out that while biomass burning could imply human presence, natural occurrences like lightning could also ignite fires.
Willerslev and his colleagues opted not to conduct interviews. New Scientist also noted that the settlers’ arrival corresponded with an uptick in local biodiversity. Genetic data imply they brought grazing animals, cultivated hay, and grew barley on a small scale for brewing purposes.
In contrast to the widespread narrative of swift deforestation, eDNA from pollen samples revealed that birch and willow trees expanded during the settlement era. Notably, birch pollen grains rose fivefold between 900 and 1200 AD, a shift researchers believe may have been influenced by settlers managing the area to protect timber and fuel sources.
“This significantly contradicts earlier claims that Vikings arrived in Iceland and immediately caused environmental destruction,” Katrin stated.
Although sheep, cattle, pigs, and horses do not appear in considerable numbers until decades after the initial settlement, Willerslev and his colleagues propose this lag may stem from the 20-year period required to build up detectable herds in eDNA records.
Callow posits another explanation: the first inhabitants may have only visited during the summer months for walrus ivory, possibly arriving without many animals. “They could have intended to hunt a few walruses and return home,” he suggested.
eDNA indicators imply the significant loss of biodiversity, including birch and willow trees, didn’t transpire until after 1200. Willerslev and his team associate this decline with the cooler climate associated with the Little Ice Age, rather than direct effects from settlers. This marked a period of colder temperatures from approximately 1250 to around 1860, compounded by volcanic eruptions and storm surges.
This website uses cookies so that we can provide you with the best user experience possible. Cookie information is stored in your browser and performs functions such as recognising you when you return to our website and helping our team to understand which sections of the website you find most interesting and useful.
Strictly Necessary Cookies
Strictly Necessary Cookie should be enabled at all times so that we can save your preferences for cookie settings.
