Paulsepia mazonensis has captivated the scientific community as a cephalopod species first identified in 2000 from a remarkable 300-million-year-old specimen. This fascinating creature has earned a spot in the Guinness Book of World Records for being the world’s oldest octopus. Recent research has led to its reclassification as a distant relative of the nautilus, offering new insights into the timeline of octopus evolution, according to paleontologists.
Depiction of old cadmus collapse in the Mason Creek Basin, highlighting various Mason Creek fauna, including the polychaete Esconites zelus and the elasmobranch shark Bandringa rayi. Image credit: Franz Anthony.
Originally described from isolated siderite concretions, Paulsepia mazonensis has been recognized as the oldest known octopus, predating earlier estimates by over 150 million years. This revelation raises significant questions regarding our comprehension of cephalopod evolution, according to Dr. Thomas Clements, a paleontologist from the universities of Leicester and Reading.
This intriguing fossil from the Late Carboniferous Maisonkrieg Lagerstätte (311 to 360 million years ago) possesses distinct features, including a ‘sack-like’ fused head and mantle, symmetrical fins, and a pair of eyespots, alongside arms and specialized tentacles, yet lacks evidence for an inner or outer shell.
In a recent comprehensive study, researchers revisited this enigmatic fossil alongside several new specimens.
Employing advanced analytical methods, they uncovered a previously unrecognized radula, the toothed tongue characteristic of most molluscs.
Analysis of the alveolar bone suggests that Paulsepia mazonensis is more aligned with the shelled nautilus than previously thought.
This organism experienced significant decomposition prior to fossilization, leading to its ambiguous classification for decades.
“We conclude that Paulsepia mazonensis is synonymous with the Old Cadmus poli, based on morphological evidence,” the researchers confirmed.
This reinterpretation resolves a longstanding mystery regarding octopus evolution and unveils the oldest preserved nautilus soft tissue ever documented.
Through synchrotron micro-X-ray fluorescence elemental mapping, the team identified dental ossicles concealed within the concrete matrix of Paulsepia mazonensis.
The morphology of radial elements indicates that Paulsepia mazonensis does not correspond to coronal octamers but represents the oldest soft-tissue nautilus fossil discovered to date.
This reclassification challenges the Paleozoic origin of octopuses, further supporting a mid/late Mesozoic origin for crown octopuses while diminishing the credibility of the colloid affinity related to controversial Cambrian soft-bodied fossils like Nectocaris pterix.
The findings accentuate the complexities in interpreting exceptionally preserved soft tissue at the Masonkrieg Lagerstätte and underscore the necessity for thorough reevaluation of enigmatic consolidated soft-bodied fossil materials.
The team’s research paper has been published today in Proceedings of the Royal Society B.
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Thomas Clements et al. 2026. Synchrotron data reveals characteristics of nautiloids Paulsepia mazonensis refuting the Paleozoic origin of octopods. Proc Biol Sci 293 (2068): 20252369; doi: 10.1098/rspb.2025.2369
Archaeologists from Colorado State University have uncovered evidence that Native Americans were crafting dice and engaging in games of chance as far back as 12,000 years ago, predating similar practices believed to have originated solely in the Old World.
Prehistoric Native American dice from various locations: (a, d) Signal Butte, NE (mid-Holocene); (b) Agate Basin, WY (early Holocene); (c, f) Agate Basin, WY (Late Pleistocene); (e, g) Lindenmeyer, CO (Late Pleistocene); (h) Irvine, WY (Late Holocene). Image credit: Department of Anthropology, Smithsonian Institution, American Museum of Natural History/University of Wyoming.
“Historians often regarded dice and probability as innovations unique to the Old World,” explains Colorado State University’s Robert Madden, a doctoral student and author of the study.
“Our findings reveal that ancient Native American societies were deliberately producing objects designed for random outcomes, utilizing these results in organized games much earlier than previously believed.”
The earliest artifact identified by Madden originates from the Folsom site, dating between 12,800 and 12,200 years ago.
Unlike modern cubic dice, these were double-sided devices known as binary lots, crafted from bone, either flat or slightly rounded, and typically oval or rectangular in form, designed for easy handling and tossing onto a surface.
Each side of these binary lots was marked differently, distinguished by surface treatments, colors, or other visible alterations, similar to heads or tails on a coin, with one side designated for scoring.
When tossed, these dice would always land with one side facing up, yielding a binary (two-outcome) result.
Scores were determined by the numbers displayed when thrown together.
“These tools are simple yet purposeful. They are intentionally made for generating random outcomes, not mere leftovers from bone processing,” Madden stated.
This study also introduces a new morphological test for identifying North American dice in archaeological contexts, moving beyond subjective comparisons.
The test was developed through an analysis of 293 historical Native American dice sets cataloged by ethnologist Stewart Culin in his 1907 work, North American Indian Games.
The research reexamines previously collected artifacts, assessing whether they meet the new, objective criteria for dice, allowing for a systematic evaluation of the archaeological record.
Most of these artifacts had been excavated prior but lacked a clear standard for identification, which hampered their inclusion in broader analyses.
By applying this novel approach, Madden identified over 600 probable and diagnostic dice from sites that span significant periods in North American prehistory, from the late Pleistocene through to European contact and beyond.
“Most of these items had already been discovered and documented,” Madden noted.
“What was lacking was a standardized method to recognize these artifacts.”‘
“Our research does not claim that Ice Age hunter-gatherers practiced formal probability theory,” Madden clarified.
“However, they intentionally made, observed, and utilized random outcomes in repeatable, rule-based scenarios, tapping into probabilistic principles like the law of large numbers. This insight reshapes our understanding of the global evolution of probabilistic thought.”
The study further highlights the extensive range and sustainability of Native American dice games.
Dice artifacts were discovered at 57 sites across 12 regional areas, reflecting diverse cultures and survival strategies from Paleoindian to Archaic and late prehistoric periods.
“The versatility and endurance of these games underscore their cultural significance,” Madden stated.
“Games of chance provided structured, neutral environments for ancient Native Americans, facilitating interactions, trade, alliances, and the management of uncertainty. In this context, they served as essential social tools.”
The study has been published in Ancient History of America.
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Robert J. Madden. Pleistocene Probability: The Origins and Antiquity of Native American Dice, Games of Chance, and Gambling. Ancient History of America published online on April 2, 2026. doi: 10.1017/aaq.2025.10158
Excavations at the Dide West 1 site in eastern Senegal have revealed a remarkably preserved iron smelting workshop, which was constructed between the 4th century BC and the 4th century AD and was active for nearly eight centuries.
A pile of tuyeres discovered at Dide West 1 in Senegal. Image credit: Ann Mayer.
In Europe, the Iron Age is typically defined as spanning from approximately 800 BC to the conclusion of the 1st century AD, but these timeframes vary significantly across the globe.
The earliest indications of iron production are believed to trace back to the second millennium BC in regions like Anatolia (present-day Türkiye) and the Caucasus.
“The iron smelting workshop at the Dide Ouest 1 site in Senegal provides valuable insights into the development of iron metallurgy in West Africa,” stated UNIGE archaeologist Melissa Morel and her research team.
The workshop features a substantial accumulation of nearly 100 tons of slag, around 30 used tuyeres (earthen pipes that channel air into the furnace) semicircularly arranged, and 35 circular furnace bases approximately 30 cm deep.
This iron production likely catered to local demands, particularly for crafting agricultural tools.
“Due to its exceptional preservation, historical significance, duration of use, and unique technical characteristics, this site stands out,” remarked Dr. Morel.
“This offers a rare opportunity to analyze the continuity and evolution of iron smelting technologies over time.”
“At Dide West 1, the layout, furnace structure, and waste materials reveal a tradition identified as FAL02.”
“This type of furnace includes a small circular design with a removable chimney and large clay tuyeres.”
“A significant feature of these tuyeres is their multi-outlet design, which connects small openings to the main channel via vertical side ducts, enabling optimal air distribution to the furnace base.”
“Another notable aspect is the innovative use of palm kernel seeds as packing at the furnace bottom—a method not previously documented.”
“Despite its prolonged operation, this workshop’s traditions have shown remarkable stability, with only minor technical modifications,” said Dr. Anne Mayol, archaeologist at UNIGE and the Institute for Global Studies.
“This continuity stands in contrast to metallurgical practices in other African contexts, underscoring the importance of understanding the technical and cultural decisions made by early iron producers.”
The team’s research paper was published in the African Archaeology Review.
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M. Morel et al. Early and long-term evolution of iron smelting technology at Dide West 1, Fareme Valley, eastern Senegal. African Archaeology Review, published online March 25, 2026. doi: 10.1007/s10437-026-09653-z
Evidence of Ancient Human Butchery on Lehringen Elephant Bones
Image Credit: VOLKER_MINKUS
In the backroom of the distinguished Schöningen Research Museum in Germany, a collection of mismatched cardboard boxes reveals archaeological treasures. Discovered in Rehringen, a village located 150 kilometers away, these boxes hold invaluable artifacts.
In 1948, researchers uncovered 125,000-year-old bones from the Paleoloxodon antiquus species in the bed of an ancient lake at Rehringen. While elephant bones from this period are somewhat common, this particular find included a 2.3-meter-long spear lodged between the ribs, marking a significant archaeological milestone.
This yew spear, identified as the oldest complete spear ever discovered, provides powerful evidence suggesting that Neanderthals were skilled big game hunters rather than mere scavengers. However, this remarkable discovery faced challenges. Alexander Rosenbrock, a dedicated school principal and amateur archaeologist, led the excavation, but a series of complications arose during the retrieval of the bones.
After digging began, a portion of the bones was improperly extracted before Rosenbrock and his team could arrive. Some bones were even reported stolen, and without a camera, he struggled to document their positions accurately. This led to a lengthy seven-year legal battle over the remains. Ultimately, Rosenbrock secured rights to keep the artifacts in Verden, where they unfortunately faded into obscurity before his passing in the 1950s.
Over the following 75 years, doubts lingered regarding the circumstances surrounding Rehringen’s find. Were the spear and bones simply coincidentally located together? Despite two examinations, researchers initially found no clear signs of butchery on the elephant bones.
The 1948 Excavation of Rehringen
Credits: Archives of the Cultural Heritage Office of Lower Saxony
Fast forward to 2025, Ivo Verheijen, Schöningen’s resident bone expert, began a meticulous examination of the Rehringen findings.
“We were informed there were just a few boxes,” Verheijen explained. “Upon arrival at the museum to collect them, we discovered numerous boxes piled in the attic!”
The Schöningen Center, located merely 300 meters from an active archaeological excavation site, has been operational since the mid-1990s. This site is notably home to 10 spears, around 300,000 years old, along with the Clacton and Rehringen spears, forming part of a limited collection of discovered spears from the Paleolithic era.
In 2017, the Schöningen team further solidified their expertise when they discovered a complete elephant. As a result, Verheijen was well-versed in handling ancient elephant bones before teaming up with Rehringen.
As Verheijen rummaged through the boxes, he uncovered a freshwater shell along with an excavation label, which intriguingly turned out to be an old 50 million mark banknote from the post-World War I inflation period. “It’s fascinating to have such unique labels,” he remarked.
This initiative resembled a cold-case investigation for Verheijen and his team. Thankfully, the collection comprised not only bones of elephants and other species but also invaluable records of Rosenbrock’s pioneering work, preserved and shared by his daughter Waltraut Deibel-Rosenbrock after his passing.
Verheijen quickly deduced that the Lehringen elephant had been intentionally slaughtered. “I immediately identified some distinct cut marks,” he stated. “It’s astonishing that these were overlooked for so long.”
Evidence of Cut Marks on Elephant Bones
Image Credit: Ivo Verheijen
The elephant, likely a solitary male standing over 3.5 meters tall at shoulder height, may have also been over 30 years old. It is suspected that he had been slaughtered both externally and internally, with organs removed shortly after death. This implies that the elephant likely perished with the spear embedded in its side, making the proximity of the bones and weapon no mere coincidence.
Neanderthals utilized flint tools to extract what they could from the carcass, leaving behind the rest for scavengers. While some bones showed signs of butchering, remains of bears, beavers, and aurochs were also discovered, indicating that Neanderthals frequently hunted and processed animals in proximity to the lake.
Verheijen speculates that modern elephants tend to move toward water when injured. Thus, after sustaining an injury from a spear, the elephant probably made its way towards the lake. This suggests that multiple spears may have been involved, and the hunters pursued the wounded creature until it collapsed, potentially breaking one spear in the process. The investigation will continue as the team plans to re-examine the spear.
Even at this early stage, the project has painted a vivid picture of what could be one of the most detailed Neanderthal hunting scenes ever documented.
Verheijen is also working diligently to preserve the Rehringen bones for future display. “This site holds great importance in Neanderthal history in Germany,” he emphasizes. “For reasons unknown, it has been largely forgotten, and our goal is to restore its rightful recognition.”
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Evidence of Neanderthal hunting: Elephant bones from Lehringen, Germany
Credit: VOLKER_MINKUS
In the back room of the modern Schöningen Research Museum in Germany, old cardboard boxes house a fascinating discovery: remnants from Rehringen, a village 150 kilometers away.
In 1948, 125,000-year-old Paleoloxodon antique bones were excavated from an ancient lake’s bed in Rehringen. While such bones are not uncommon, this particular set contained a remarkable 2.3-meter-long spear embedded between the ribs.
This yew spear is recognized as the oldest complete spear ever discovered. The Rehringen Spear stands as the only known spear found alongside the skeleton of an extinct species. Since Neanderthals were the only humans in Europe at the time, this spear provides critical evidence that they hunted large game rather than scavenged. This was a groundbreaking discovery.
However, challenges arose. The excavation led by Alexander Rosenbrock, a local school principal and amateur archaeologist, revealed that around half of the bones were removed before he, his daughter, and volunteers arrived at the scene.
By the time Rosenbrock reached the site, some bones had already been stolen, and without a camera, he couldn’t sketch the crucial positions of the bones and spear. A lengthy legal battle ensued over the discovery, ultimately allowing Rosenbrock to keep the findings in Verden, which contributed to their obscurity. Sadly, the teacher passed away in the 1950s without publishing his findings.
Over the next 75 years, skepticism around Rehringen emerged. Were the spear and bones truly found together, or was it mere coincidence? Researchers accessed the findings twice but concluded that the elephant bones lacked evidence of butchery.
Excavation at Rehringen, 1948
Credit: Archives of the Cultural Heritage Office of Lower Saxony
Fast forward to 2025. Ivo Verheijen, the bone expert at Schöningen, began investigating the Rehringen finds.
“We were informed of just a few boxes,” Verheijen noted. “But upon reaching the museum, we discovered truckloads stored in the attic.”
The Schöningen Center, located 300 meters from an active excavation site since the mid-1990s, previously uncovered 10 spears around 300,000 years old from a nearby quarry. The Rehringen spear, alongside the Clacton spear, represents one of the oldest weapons from the Paleolithic era.
In 2017, the Schöningen team made headlines by discovering a complete ancient elephant, granting Verheijen substantial experience with these bones before switching his focus to Rehringen.
As he examined the artifacts, Verheijen removed an old box containing a freshwater shell from Rehringen and metadata from the excavation. He revealed that the label was a 50-million-mark banknote from the post-World War I inflation era, pointing out, “It used to be printed on one side only.”
This project resembled a cold-case investigation for Verheijen and his team. Fortunately, the box contained not just elephant bones but also flint tools and documentation of Rosenbrock’s work, preserved by his daughter Waltraut Deibel-Rosenbrock after his passing.
It didn’t take long for Verheijen to determine that the Lehringen elephant was slaughtered. “I quickly spotted distinct cut marks,” he stated. “It’s surprising that they weren’t previously noted.”
Cut marks found on an elephant rib
Credit: Ivo Verheijen
The elephant’s remains belonged to a young male, over 3.5 meters tall at the shoulder. Verheijen noted that solitary males are often easier targets for hunters.
Examination revealed that not only had the animal been butchered externally, but internal organs had also been removed, indicating that it was freshly dead when Neanderthals approached. It is highly probable that it died with the spear embedded in its side, suggesting a direct correlation between the bones and the weapon found on-site.
Early humans utilized simple flint tools to extract as much as possible from the carcass, leaving behind bones for scavengers. Interestingly, not every bone displayed signs of butchery—bear, beaver, and aurochs remains were also present, indicating that Neanderthals regularly hunted near the lake.
Verheijen suggested that modern elephants often head towards water when injured. Therefore, after being speared, the elephant likely made its way toward the lake, where it may have been pursued until it collapsed. One spear ultimately broke underneath it, which could explain some of the scene’s findings. The research team plans to further analyze the spear.
Even in its initial phases, the project has already painted a vivid picture of Neanderthal hunting behavior.
Verheijen aims to preserve Rehringen’s bones for exhibition, emphasizing, “This site is among the most significant Neanderthal locations in Germany. Despite being previously overlooked, we are dedicated to giving it the recognition it deserves.”
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Recent scientific research has unveiled two previously unknown species of marsupials within the remote rainforests of New Guinea’s Vogelkop Peninsula. The Pygmy Longfinger Possum (Dactylonax Kambuyai) and Wow Glider (Thus ayamalensis) are believed to have vanished around 6,000 years ago. These discoveries indicate that New Guinea’s rich forests may still conceal remnants of an ancient animal kingdom.
Pygmy Longfinger Possum (Dactylonax Kambuyai), a female spotted in the Kralik area of the Vogelkop Peninsula. Image credit: Carlos Bocos.
Professor Tim Flannery from the Australian Museum states: “The identification of a ‘Lazarus taxon’ is a remarkable event, especially when it was thought to be recently extinct.”
“The uncovering of two species once believed to be extinct for millennia is truly exceptional.”
“This discovery underscores the crucial need to conserve these unique biological regions and highlights the significance of collaborative research in safeguarding hidden biodiversity.”
The pygmy long-tailed possum and the ring-tailed glider, known through Pleistocene fossils found in Australia and New Guinea, inhabit secluded lowland forests of the Vogelkop Peninsula.
“Vogelkop represents an ancient section of the Australian continent, now part of New Guinea,” remarked Professor Flannery.
“Its forests may still harbor even more hidden aspects of Australia’s natural history.”
The Pygmy Longfinger Possum boasts striking stripes and remarkable adaptability, featuring one finger on each hand that is twice as long as the next longest finger.
This species is thought to have vanished from Australia during the Ice Age, a period notorious for the extinction of iconic megafauna, including the diprotodon and the marsupial lion.
Wow Glider (Thus ayamalensis), a subadult from the South Solon area of the Vogelkop Peninsula. Image credit: Arman Muharmansyah.
The ring-tailed glider is closely related to the Australian Glider (Petauroides) and marks the first new genus of marsupials identified in New Guinea since 1937.
Smaller than its relatives, this species features furless ears and a strong, prehensile tail, forming lifelong pair bonds and typically raising just one pup annually.
Similar to sugar gliders, these marsupials reside in tree hollows high within the forest canopy and face threats from logging practices.
“The glider, known locally as tous among some Tamburou and Maybrat communities, is deemed sacred,” shared Lika Koline, a Maybrat community member.
“It symbolizes the spirits of our ancestors and plays a key role in educational practices such as initiation ceremonies.”
“Our meticulous collaboration with Tamburou Elders was essential, and without the involvement of Traditional Owners, this identification would not have been feasible.”
“We are immensely proud that Papuan researchers have contributed to these groundbreaking findings. Our gratitude extends to the communities in Misool, Maybrat, and Tambulo for their continued support in this research,” stated Dr. Aksamina Yohanita from the University of Papua.
A detailed study discussing these findings was published on March 6th in the Australian Museum Records.
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Tim F. Flannery et al. 2026. “Reemergence after 6,000 years: A modern record of the ‘extinct’ Papuan marsupial, Dactylonax Kambuyai (Marsupial: Petauridae), revised phylogeny and zoogeography of the genus Dactylonax.” Records of the Australian Museum 78 (1): 17-34; doi: 10.3853/j.2201-4349.78.2026.3003
Recent research analyzed 31 ancient societies from Europe, Asia, and the Americas, revealing that democratic institutions were more prevalent than previously thought and not solely dependent on factors like population size or geography.
Acropolis of Athens by Leo von Klenze.
The term “democracy” originated in ancient Greece, where it was defined as the power of the people (demo = people, kratos = power).
This definition transcends specific institutional frameworks, framing democracy as an overarching goal.
Traditionally, scholars rooted in Western social science have viewed the core elements of democratic governance—such as power centralization and national inclusiveness—as products of the classical Mediterranean world, which lay dormant for over a millennium until the Renaissance reinvigorated these ideals in Europe and its colonies.
Yet, this prevalent perspective that democratic governance emerged exclusively in the West has rarely undergone systematic scrutiny.
“Many believe that democracy first flourished in Greece and Rome,” says Dr. Gary Fineman, MacArthur Curator of Mesoamerican and Central American Anthropology at the Field Museum’s Negaunee Center for Integrative Research.
“However, our research indicates that numerous societies around the globe devised methods to limit the authority of rulers and empower ordinary citizens.”
In contrast to democracies, dictatorships centralize power in a single individual or a small group, examples of which include absolute monarchies and authoritarian regimes.
In a democracy, decision-making is a collective process among the populace. While elections often correlate with democratic practices, this association is not always accurate; many dictators are elected through popular votes.
“Elections alone do not serve as the best indicators of democratic value, thus our study emphasized historical instances of political organization,” Dr. Fineman noted.
“We identified two critical governance aspects: the concentration of power within individuals or institutions, and the degree of inclusiveness, reflecting how accessible power is to significant segments of the population.”
The current study evaluated 40 cases from 31 distinct political entities across Europe, North America, and Asia over numerous millennia.
Due to varying record-keeping methods, not all societies maintained written archives, necessitating innovative approaches to infer their governance structures.
“The spatial arrangement of societies is particularly revealing,” Dr. Fineman remarked.
“Urban areas featuring open spaces and public structures that facilitate community gatherings tend to exhibit more democratic tendencies.”
Conversely, architectural remnants suggesting concentrated power—such as pyramids with limited upper space or urban designs funneling into a ruler’s residence—signal more authoritarian regimes.
The researchers developed an “authoritarianism index” to classify each society along a continuum from highly authoritarian to highly democratic.
“Many archaeologists maintain that Athens and the Roman Republic represent the only democracies of the ancient era, while governance in Asia and the Americas was predominantly autocratic,” stated Dr. Fineman.
“Our analysis reveals that various regions possessed democratic structures comparable to those of Athens and Rome.”
“These results indicate that both democratic and authoritarian governance existed widely in the ancient world,” commented David Stasavage, a professor at New York University.
“Societies innovated ways to democratize power and enhance inclusivity, suggesting that democratic principles have profound and unexpected historical roots,” added Dr. Linda Nicholas of the Field Museum.
The study also challenges the notion that population size and political complexity inherently lead to authoritarian rule, highlighting how funding mechanisms shaped authority.
“Societies reliant on income controlled by leaders—such as mines, trade routes, or warfare gains—tended to be more authoritarian,” Dr. Fineman explained.
“On the contrary, societies that primarily derived funds from community labor or domestic taxes were more likely to decentralize power and uphold shared governance.”
Furthermore, the research found that societies with more inclusive political frameworks generally exhibited lower economic inequality.
“These insights contradict the belief that dictatorship and high inequality are inevitable outcomes of socio-economic complexity and growth,” Dr. Fineman stated.
“Historical evidence shows that people globally have developed inclusive political systems, even under challenging conditions.”
For more information, check out the research paper, recently published in Scientific Progress.
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Gary M. Feynman et al. 2026. Distribution of power and inclusiveness over deep time. Scientific Progress 12(12); doi: 10.1126/sciadv.aec1426
A groundbreaking discovery of 142 beads and pendants from five archaeological sites in Israel’s Natufian period (15,000 to 11,650 years ago) indicates that clay was first utilized for symbolic purposes and identity rather than for tools or cooking. Remarkably, many of these artifacts bear the fingerprints of children, suggesting that young makers played a vital role in this ancient artistry. These findings illuminate the origins of art, education, and social expression well before the advent of agriculture.
Late Natufian period butterfly clay beads from Einan Maraha in the upper Jordan Valley. Colored ocher red and bearing the fingerprints of a child (approximately 10 years old) who crafted it 12,000 years ago. Image credit: Laurent Davin.
“This discovery fundamentally alters our understanding of the relationship between clay, symbolism, and the emergence of sedentary life,” stated Laurent Davin, an archaeologist at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem.
The study analyzed a collection of 142 beads and pendants from five Natufian sites, revealing over 3,000 years of continuous occupation.
Each bead, small enough to fit in a child’s hand, was meticulously shaped into cylinders, disks, and ovals using unbaked clay.
Many beads featured a coating of red ocher applied using a technique called engobe, signifying the oldest known usage of this coloring method.
The extensive variety and quantity of beads discovered indicate that this was not an isolated venture but rather a rich cultural tradition.
Evidence suggests that clay served as a medium for visual communication long before being utilized for practical objects like bowls and jars.
The researchers identified 19 distinct bead types, many inspired by plants central to Natufian life, including wild barley, einkorn wheat, lentils, and peas—key crops that would later form the foundation of agriculture.
Fascinatingly, traces of plant fibers found on several beads provide insights into how these ornaments were worn and strung, highlighting organic materials that typically vanish from the archaeological record.
This eclectic collection strongly implies that nature, especially the plant kingdom, served not only as a food source but also as a foundation for cultural significance.
Perhaps the most astonishing revelation comes from the fingerprints preserved on the beads. A total of 50 prints were recovered, allowing scientists to identify the ages of their makers—children, youths, and adults alike.
This marks the first instance where archaeologists have successfully identified the creators of Paleolithic ornaments, showcasing the largest collection of fingerprints from this era.
Some artifacts appear to have been designed for children, such as a small clay ring measuring only 10 mm in diameter.
This suggests that crafting ornaments was a prevalent activity, playing an essential role in learning, imitation, and the transfer of social values through generations.
For decades, researchers believed that the symbolic use of clay in Southwest Asia arose solely from agricultural practices and Neolithic lifestyles.
This pivotal study, alongside the recent discovery of clay figurines at Nahal Ein Geb II, challenges that assumption.
Instead, it indicates that a symbolic revolution began during the early phases of sedentarization, when communities were transitioning to settled lifestyles while still hunting and gathering.
Clay ornaments emerged as a means of visual and public expression of identity, belonging, and social connections.
“These objects reveal that significant social and cognitive transformations were already taking place,” noted Leore Grossman, a professor at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem.
“The roots of the Neolithic period run deeper than we once realized.”
“By documenting one of the world’s oldest traditions of clay decoration, our study repositions the Natufians not just as agricultural pioneers, but as innovative cultural personalities who employed clay to convey their identities and aspirations.” Read the full study, published in the journal Science Advances.
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Laurent Davin et al. 2026. Modeling identity in the first settled communities: The emergence of clay ornaments in Paleolithic Southwest Asia. Science Advances 12(12); doi: 10.1126/sciadv.aea2158
Recent research highlights that birch bark tar—historically recognized as a natural tool adhesive—can effectively inhibit harmful bacteria like: Staphylococcus aureus. This suggests that Neanderthals may have utilized it to treat wounds and manage infections during the Ice Age.
Neanderthals likely employed birch tar for various applications, including wound care. Siemsen et al. confirmed that birch tar possesses selective antibacterial properties and effectively inhibits Staphylococcus aureus.
Birch tar is frequently discovered at Neanderthal sites, where it is known to have served as an adhesive for crafting tools.
Recent inquiries suggest that Neanderthals may have had additional uses for this versatile substance.
For instance, indigenous communities in Northern Europe and Canada have utilized birch tar to treat injuries. Increasing evidence indicates that Neanderthals also engaged in various medicinal practices.
To explore the medicinal capabilities of birch tar, Dr. Tjaark Siemssen and his team from the Universities of Cologne and Oxford extracted tar from birch tree bark, particularly species identified at Neanderthal sites.
The researchers employed multiple extraction techniques, including distillation in clay pits and condensation on stone surfaces—methods that Neanderthals could also have accessed.
All tested tar samples showcased effectiveness in inhibiting bacterial growth against various strains, including the notorious Staphylococcus bacteria responsible for wound infections.
These findings not only reinforce the efficacy of indigenous medicinal practices but also lend credence to the possibility that Neanderthals used birch tar for therapeutic purposes.
The researchers note that birch tar, alongside other available plants, may serve additional roles, such as an insect repellent.
Further investigations into the diverse applications of these natural substances will enrich our understanding of Neanderthal culture.
“Our findings demonstrate that birch tar produced by Neanderthals and early humans possesses notable antibacterial properties,” the researchers stated.
“This discovery has significant implications for how Neanderthals managed disease burdens during the last Ice Age and contributes to the expanding knowledge of medicine among early human communities.”
“Integrating research in indigenous pharmacology and experimental archaeology enhances our understanding of the medical practices of our early ancestors and their closest relatives.”
“Moreover, this paleopharmacological research could assist in rediscovering antibiotic treatments as we confront a rising crisis of antimicrobial resistance.”
“The intricate processes involved in birch tar production are noteworthy.”
“Each stage of production was a sensory journey, and the challenge of cleaning tar from my hands after hours by the fire was a central experience every time.”
For more detailed insights, refer to the study published in the journal PLoS ONE.
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T. Ziemsen et al. 2026. Antibacterial properties of experimentally produced birch tar and its medicinal efficacy in the Pleistocene. PLoS One 21 (3): e0343618; doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0343618
Paleontologists have unveiled a fascinating new species of enigmatic ciclidan crustacean, identified from three exceptionally preserved specimens hailing from China’s Early Triassic Guiyang biota.
Yunnanosiculus fortis. Image credit: Sun et al., doi: 10.1002/spp2.70052.
The Cyclidae represent a unique group of arthropods that first emerged during the Carboniferous period and persisted until the late Cretaceous period.
Despite their significance, their fossil record is scant, as most findings only display the carapace (hard shell) of these creatures, with many anatomical features remaining elusive.
“Cyclida is an arthropod order integral to the Guiyang biota,” explains Dr. Xiaoyuan Sun from the China University of Geosciences, alongside collaborators from China and the United States.
“This specialized group of crustaceans originated in the Mississippi Sea (359-323 million years ago) and went extinct during the Maastrichtian (73-66 million years ago) of the Late Cretaceous Period.”
“They’re classified as crustaceans due to distinctive traits such as antennae, mandibles, and maxillae.”
“Sadly, our comprehension of ciclidan crustaceans remains limited because of their rarity in the fossil record.”
Typically, only the robust carapace is preserved, with the antennae and limbs being scarcely found.
The newly identified ciclidan species, designated Yunnanosiculus fortis, thrived during the late Dinerian period of the early Triassic, around 251 million years ago.
It is described based on three specimens sourced from the Daye Formation in Guizhou Province, China.
These fossils unveil an oval carapace featuring narrow, smooth margins, well-defined antennae, and seven pairs of thoracic segments.
Significantly, one specimen retains a pair of robust lower jaws, an exceptionally rare feature in ciclidan fossils.
The holotype’s carapace measures approximately 19.8 mm long by 14.7 mm wide, with the lower jaw spanning about 1.7 mm long and 0.8 mm wide.
Microscopic X-ray fluorescence analysis revealed elevated levels of calcium and phosphorus within the mandible and other structures, indicating they were thick and heavily calcified.
“Yunnanosiculus fortis boasted a notably sturdy oval lower jaw,” the research team stated.
Holotype of Yunnanosiculus fortis. Scale bar – 2 mm. Image credit: Sun et al., doi: 10.1002/spp2.70052.
This remarkable discovery broadens the known geographic range of Early Triassic cichlidans.
Previously, fossils from this era were primarily registered from Madagascar and select regions of Europe.
The new species signifies the oldest record of cichlidans located in the eastern Tethyan area.
“The identification of this new species from China enhances our understanding of the paleogeographical distribution of Early Triassic cichlidans,” the researchers noted.
“Early Triassic cyclidans demonstrate widespread distribution across Madagascar, Europe, and China.”
“However, by the Late Triassic, their presence was predominantly limited to Europe.”
These fossils also provide insights into the evolutionary trajectory of these enigmatic creatures.
By examining the morphological data from Yunnanosiculus fortis, scientists reconstructed morphospace—an approach to analyze the diversity of body morphology within cichlidans and other related species.
The findings indicate that cichlidans underwent significant diversification early in their history during the Carboniferous period, with a gradual reduction in disparity in later geologic periods.
This pattern corroborates the “initial burst” model of evolution, where groups diversify rapidly soon after emerging, followed by a phase of slow evolutionary change.
This discovery further enriches our understanding of ecosystems following the Permian-Triassic mass extinction, which eradicated over 80% of marine life.
The fossil evidence from the Guiyang biota and other Early Triassic sites suggests that complex marine communities might have been reinstated earlier than initially believed.
By revealing new anatomical details and extending the geographic record of cichlidans, Yunnanosiculus fortis offers valuable insights into the recovery and evolution of marine life during one of Earth’s most chaotic periods.
“The addition of new species and the re-evaluation of the chronological paleogeography of Triassic cichlids illustrate that early Triassic cichlids were the most broadly distributed, with a gradual decline in distribution thereafter,” the authors concluded.
“This trend mirrors the global distribution of ammonoid and other marine invertebrate species during the Early Triassic and may relate to the reduction of environmental gradients in varying latitudinal zones post-Permian-Triassic mass extinction.”
The groundbreaking discovery of Yunnanosiculus fortis is discussed in the research paper published in the journal Paleontology Papers.
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Sun Xiaoyuan et al.. 2025. A new Induan (Early Triassic, Dinerian) cichlidan crustacean discovered from the Guiyang biota. Paleontology Papers 11 (6): e70052; doi: 10.1002/spp2.70052
Artist’s Impression of a 5th-Century Visigoth Warrior
Creative Assembly (CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)
A groundbreaking DNA study from Gothic tombs uncovers that the Goths were a multi-ethnic society, linked to regions spanning Scandinavia, modern-day Türkiye, and North Africa.
This finding challenges traditional theories that positioned the Goths solely as Scandinavian migrants to the eastern Mediterranean. “If Gothic identity were primarily tied to a biological lineage from Scandinavia, we wouldn’t observe this diversity,” states Svetoslav Stamov of the National History Museum of Bulgaria.
The Goths inhabited Eastern Europe from at least the 3rd century AD, frequently residing along the Roman Empire’s borders. They alternated between being allies and adversaries of Rome. Notably, the Visigoths famously sacked Rome in 410 AD, playing a crucial role in the Western Roman Empire’s decline.
Despite their historical significance, the Goths remain one of history’s least understood cultures, largely represented through potentially biased Roman accounts that often conflated various neighboring groups under labels like “Goths,” “Celts,” and “Scythians.”
To uncover the true identity of the Goths, Stamov and his team sequenced the genomes of 38 individuals from two Bulgarian sites, identified as Gothic based on their unique beads, jewelry, burial practices, and cranial modifications.
One site near the palace of Aur in Khan Omurtag featured a cemetery likely linked to an early Gothic bishop’s church, dating from around 350 to 489 AD. This location is tentatively associated with an early Christian bishop named Ulfila.
The team also analyzed samples from the necropolis of Aquae Caridae, an ancient Roman site (circa 320 to 375 AD) known for its healing center and bathhouse. Though not a cemetery, several burials occurred there; one revealed an artificial skull deformity atypical for Roman times, indicating cultural diversity, as noted by Stamov.
Though significantly distinct genetically, the two groups shared mixed heritage from Scandinavia, the Caucasus, the Levant, Anatolia (now Turkey), East Asia (now Mongolia), Egypt, and sub-Saharan Africa. “This reflects a remarkably diverse community,” Stamov commented.
Arianism, an early Christian sect, might have played a pivotal role in fostering inclusivity. “Anyone could become an Arian Christian,” emphasizes Todor Chobanov at the Balkan Research Institute and Laryngology Center, Sofia, Bulgaria.
Chobanov asserts that the premise that the Goths were “complex and diverse” holds merit, as doesn’t establish a direct link between ancestry and ethnic identity. However, the team’s genomic analysis remains limited, so further sampling is necessary for a comprehensive understanding. Moreover, they caution that simply possessing Gothic artifacts does not definitively identify individuals’ ethnicities.
James Harland, from the University of Bonn, posits that the Roman Empire’s influence was significant in shaping Gothic identity as they navigated cooperation and conflict with the empire. “The interactions with the empire facilitated the existence of these groups as cohesive units,” he points out.
“Various Gothic tribes resided at the fringes of the Roman Empire for centuries, absorbing numerous influences, such as clothing styles and pottery,” notes Chobanov.
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A groundbreaking discovery in paleontology has unveiled a new genus and species of Permian archaic tetrapods, identified from fossilized jawbones found in Brazil. Named Tanika amnicola, this intriguing amphibian relative showcases unique horizontal teeth and abrasive, file-like surfaces. This suggests that ancient tetrapod vertebrates may have begun experimenting with plant consumption much earlier than previously thought.
Tanika amnicola. Image credit: Vitor Silva.
Tanika amnicola thrived in the southern regions of the Gondwana supercontinent during the early Permian period, approximately 275 million years ago.
“Tanika amnicola has captivated researchers,” says Dr. Jason Pardo, a paleontologist at the Field Museum.
“We were intrigued by an unusual twist in its jaw that we were determined to understand.”
“For years, we speculated whether this was a variant, but with nine jaw samples now extracted, all exhibiting this distinctive twist—some exceptionally well preserved—it’s clear this was characteristic of the species, not a deformity,” he added.
Tanika amnicola represents a pedunculated tetrapod lineage, the oldest subset of tetrapods that eventually diversified into two major groups: those laying eggs outside of aquatic environments and those that lay eggs in water.
Modern reptiles, birds, and mammals descend from the branches that evolved to lay watertight eggs on land, while contemporary amphibians, like frogs and salamanders, represent tetrapod relatives that require moist environments for their eggs.
Nonetheless, some pedunculated tetrapods persisted even after more modern variations evolved, with Tanika amnicola being a notable example.
“In essence, Tanika amnicola survived as a remnant of the pedunculated tetrapod lineage long after newer tetrapods emerged. Its appearance is somewhat akin to that of a platypus—a true living fossil,” remarked Dr. Pardo.
Many aspects of Tanika amnicola‘s anatomy still puzzle scientists.
“The isolated jawbones we’ve discovered are remarkably unique and distinctive,” stated Dr. Ken Angielczyk, curator of paleomammalogy at the Field Museum.
“However, until we find a skull or additional bones definitively connected to these jaw samples, we cannot conclusively ascribe other nearby bone fragments to Tanika amnicola.”
Yet, the jawbone alone is revealing, demonstrating the rarity of this creature.
“Run your tongue across your lower teeth. Do you feel the tops pointing towards the roof of your mouth?” they explained.
“In Tanika amnicola, the lower jaw twists, with teeth projected sideways rather than upwards.”
“Conversely, the portion of the jaw facing the tongue in Tanika amnicola angles upward, towards the roof of the mouth.”
“The jawbone is adorned with numerous small teeth, known as denticles, creating a grinding surface akin to a cheese grater.”
Scientists hypothesize that the teeth and dental arrangements in the upper jaw harmonized with those in the lower jaw.
“We theorize that the lower jaw’s teeth would rub against similar teeth in the upper mouth,” Pardo explained.
“This grinding action suggests a distinctive feeding method predominantly aimed at plant material.”
“Based on dental morphology, we believe Tanika amnicola was likely an herbivore, consuming plants at least occasionally,” remarked Dr. Juan Carlos Cisneros from the Federal University of Piauí.
“It’s astonishing that a quadrupedal creature like Tanika amnicola existed, especially considering most of its tetrapod relatives primarily consumed meat, indicating an evolved adaptation to a plant-based diet.”
The peer-reviewed findings are published in the journal Proceedings of the Royal Society B.
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Jason D. Pardo et al.. 2026. A quadrupedal organism with an anomalous jaw structure living during the early Permian period in Brazil. Proc Biol Sci 293 (2066): 20252106; doi: 10.1098/rspb.2025.2106
Ancient DNA extracted from vibrant feathers found in Peru has been linked to at least four distinct species of Amazonian parrots: the scarlet macaw (Ara macao), blue and yellow macaw (Ara ararauna), red and green macaw (Ara chloropterus), and mealy amazon (Amazona farinosa). These birds were reportedly transported alive across the Andes centuries before the rise of the Inca Empire, showcasing a complex network of long-distance trade that connected Amazonian communities, high-altitude routes, and the Pacific Ocean.
A pair of scarlet macaws (Ara macao) in Costa Rica. Image credit: Julio-César Chávez / CC BY 4.0.
Discovered in Pachacamac, Peru, an ancient parrot feather lies far beyond the natural habitat of these birds, which are native to the rainforest.
“Through the integration of ancient DNA sequencing, isotope chemistry, and computational landscape modeling, we tracked the movement of these birds across diverse terrains,” explained Dr. George Oler, a researcher affiliated with the Australian National University and King’s College London.
“Our models of ancient habitats confirm that the western Andes were equally inhospitable for these species a millennium ago. These parrots thrive solely in rainforest environments, typically spanning a natural home range of about 150 kilometers.”
“The evidence that they were found on the opposite side of South America’s tallest mountain range—over 500 kilometers away—indicates human involvement, as these birds do not fly over the Andes under normal conditions.”
“Our research illustrates that multiple species of Amazonian parrots were captured in their natural habitat, transported over mountainous pathways, and survived long enough to regrow feathers along the coast.” – Dr. Oler.
Through genome analysis, researchers identified the four Amazonian parrot species from feather assemblages: scarlet macaw, blue and yellow macaw, red and green macaw, and mealy amazon, all of which traditionally inhabit tropical rainforests hundreds of kilometers from the Pacific coastline.
The journey for these birds likely took weeks or even months as traders navigated rugged mountain terrain and steep plateaus.
“Our findings provide genetic and isotopic evidence showing that these parrots were not merely traded for their feathers but were actually transported alive across challenging landscapes to significant coastal ceremonial sites,” Dr. Oler asserted.
By investigating chemical signatures within the feathers, the team discovered that the birds’ diet had shifted to include C4 plants like corn and marine proteins, implying that they continued to live post-transport over the Andes.
“Our analysis indicates that the parrots were fed a nitrogen-rich diet similar to that of their captors, clearly illustrating long-term care after their removal from the rainforest,” Dr. Oler noted.
Landscape modeling tools further unveiled trans-Andean corridors and river routes that may have facilitated avian transport, revealing a sophisticated network of overland and river exchanges.
This bird species, valued for its striking plumage, held immense cultural significance in pre-Hispanic societies and was frequently featured in rituals and elite burial practices.
“This discovery challenges previous beliefs that pre-Inca societies were isolated or fragmented,” Dr. Oler remarked. “Instead, we uncover evidence of organizational networks, ecological understanding, and logistical strategies that connected vastly differing ecosystems long before formal imperial roads established these routes.”
For further details, refer to the original publication in the journal Nature Communications.
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G. Ola et al. 2026. Ancient DNA and spatial modeling reveal pre-Inca trans-Andean parrot trade. Nat Commun 17: 2117. doi: 10.1038/s41467-026-69167-9
Reconstruction by artist Sonselasuchus cedrus in its environment, 215 million years ago
Credit: Gabriel Ugueto
Ancient crocodilian relatives navigated their early years on all fours before transitioning to a bipedal stance as they matured.
This evolutionary adaptation involved differing growth rates in their arm and leg bones. “The forelimb length starts at about 75% of the hindlimb length and ends up being about 50%,” explains Elliot Armor Smith from the University of Washington in Seattle.
This discovery contributes to a growing body of evidence indicating that crocodile-like ancestors from the early dinosaur era showcased remarkable diversity, with some developing body shapes and lifestyles akin to modern ostriches.
Christian Sidor, Armor Smith’s collaborator, excavated the Cay Quarry, located in Arizona’s Petrified Forest National Park. This site comprises mudstone and sandstone laid down by ancient rivers during the Triassic period, around 215 million years ago.
Through their excavation, Armor-Smith and Sidor unearthed over 3,000 bones from early crocodilian relatives known as Shubosauridae. “It’s a jumble of individual limb bones that aren’t necessarily related,” notes Armor-Smith.
They successfully identified a new species within the Shubosaur family, naming it Sonselasuchus cedrus. Over 950 bones belong to this species, which diverges significantly from modern crocodiles, resembling more of a flightless bird or theropod dinosaur with short arms and a toothless beak instead of a jagged mouth full of teeth.
Other Shubosaurs share similar body features. “Shubosaurids are unique creatures that existed in the late Triassic period,” asserts Michelle Stocker from Virginia Tech. “They bear a striking resemblance to dinosaurs.” Most closely, they resemble ornithomimids, ostrich-like dinosaurs from the late Cretaceous period, occurring more than 100 million years after the Shubosaurids.
Sonselasuchus cedrus marks the beginning of a four-legged life. Fossils from young individuals exhibit similar sizes in forelimbs and hindlimbs, while older specimens showed larger hind limbs capable of supporting greater weight. “The robust femur indicates strength,” Armor-Smith remarks, “though even the largest humerus is relatively delicate.”
This is unusual, yet not entirely surprising. A 2019 study uncovered evidence of two dinosaur species transitioning from quadrupedal to bipedal locomotion as they matured. One was a sauropod, an ancestor of colossal sauropods like Brachiosaurus, while the other was a distantly related early ceratopsian akin to Triceratops.
Both juvenile and adult S. cedrus likely lived somewhat distinct lives, even adopting different diets, according to Stocker.
Common narratives of the dinosaur age often imply that dinosaurs, especially avians, evolved in remarkable ways, while crocodiles have largely remained unchanged. This perception misrepresents the extensive diversity of pseudosuchians, the lineage that includes crocodiles. Stocker clarifies, “They engaged in numerous unique and radical adaptations first, paving the way for dinosaurs.”
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Paleontologists from the University of Toronto Mississauga have uncovered numerous tooth impressions in the fossilized bones of three juvenile Diadectes, one of the earliest large herbivorous vertebrates to traverse land. This groundbreaking finding represents the earliest direct evidence of predator-prey interactions between terrestrial carnivores and herbivores.
Skeletal reconstruction of Diadectes sideropelicus. Side view illustrating left and right tooth and hole marks. Image credit: Young et al., doi: 10.1038/s41598-026-38183-6.
Paleontologists have long been aware of the existence of apex predators in the Permian landscape; however, clear physical evidence confirming their dependence on the early large herbivores has remained elusive.
In contrast to the Mesozoic Era, renowned for its dinosaur bite marks, the earlier fossil record reveals scant direct evidence of such predator-prey encounters.
“Our findings indicate that the predator-prey hierarchy emerged earlier than previously understood,” stated lead author Professor Robert Rice, a paleontologist at the University of Toronto Mississauga.
“While these interactions are well-documented in the ‘age of reptiles,’ there has been limited information regarding them in the Paleozoic era, when terrestrial vertebrates first evolved into large apex predators and herbivores.”
In this study, Professor Rice and colleagues analyzed the disarticulated skeletons of three juvenile Diadectes, dating back to the early Permian period.
The fossils were unearthed in the Mud Hill area of the Vale Formation located in Texas, USA.
The paleontologists documented five distinct types of bone damage: shallow notches, deeper holes, grooves along the shafts, conical punctures, and small holes.
Notably, many marks were concentrated around cartilage-rich joints, indicating predators had stripped away muscle and pried open connective tissues.
Some grooves ran parallel to the long axis of the bone, consistent with the motion of tearing flesh.
“The holes, pits, cuts, and wrinkles present on these three juvenile herbivores’ skeletons point to the presence of large predators in this area, such as Varanopus and Dimetrodon,” said lead study author Jordan M. Young, a researcher at the University of Toronto Mississauga.
“Scavengers and small arthropods also took part in this ‘Paleozoic feast.’”
Evidence of arthropod perforation was found where the cartilage of the bone ends would have been.
The study was published in the Journal on February 26, 2026, in a Scientific Report.
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JM Young et al. 2026. The earliest direct evidence of trophic interactions between terrestrial apex predators and large herbivores. Scientific Reports 16, 6977; doi: 10.1038/s41598-026-38183-6
Newly Discovered Tiny Fossil: Purgatorius
This shrew-sized mammal is recognized as the oldest known ancestor of all primates, including humans. Initially believed to be confined to northern North America, its range now extends hundreds of kilometers to the south. This week’s article in the Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology, detailed in a recent paper, challenges conventional theories about the biogeography of early primates and suggests that their diversification occurred rapidly following the end-Cretaceous mass extinction.
Shortly after the Cretaceous mass extinction, the earliest known primates like Purgatorius McKivevelli adapted quickly, specializing in an omnivorous diet that included tree fruits and archaic ungulate mammals. Image credit: Andrei Atutin.
The origins and early biogeographical history of primates is a fascinating yet contentious subject. The oldest primates, Purgatorius, are small tree-dwelling mammals that first emerged in North America around 65.9 million years ago.
Previously, Purgatorius fossils were only found in northern regions such as Montana and Saskatchewan, creating an incomplete understanding of their evolutionary history.
Paleontologist Stephen Chester from the City University of New York and his colleagues describe the southernmost fossil of Purgatorius in their new paper.
The specimens were meticulously recovered from ancient sediments in the Coral Bluffs area of the Denver Basin in Colorado.
“This discovery fills a critical gap in our understanding of the geographic distribution and evolution of our earliest primate ancestors after the dinosaur extinction,” Dr. Chester stated.
The fossils analyzed by the team consist of small teeth that display a distinctive combination of features, indicating they may belong to an earlier, previously unidentified species of Purgatorius.
“The presence of these fossils in Colorado reveals that ancient primates likely originated in the north before expanding southward, rapidly diversifying post-end-Cretaceous mass extinction,” Chester explained.
While scientists previously believed Purgatorius was absent from southern regions during this period, new findings suggest that this assumption was primarily due to limited fossil sampling.
“Our results demonstrate that small fossils can easily be overlooked,” Dr. Chester remarked.
“More intensive searches, especially utilizing screen-cleaning techniques, will likely uncover numerous significant specimens.”
The study further questions long-held assumptions about the habitats of early primates.
“The ankle bone of Purgatorius suggested tree-dwelling characteristics, and we initially suspected its absence from southern Montana was due to extensive forest destruction following an asteroid impact 66 million years ago,” Chester noted.
“Yet, our paleobotanical colleagues indicate that plant recovery in North America was rapid, leading us to believe that Purgatorius likely existed further south—we just haven’t looked hard enough.”
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Stephen GB Chester et al. “Southernmost Origin of Purgatorius: Insights into the Biogeographic History and Diversification of the Oldest Primates.” Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology, published online March 2, 2026. doi: 10.1080/02724634.2026.2614024
A groundbreaking study from the University of Pennsylvania reveals that prehistoric humans and Neanderthals interbred with a notable sexual bias, with male Neanderthals mating more often with female modern humans. This pattern may explain the scarcity of Neanderthal DNA in the human X chromosome and highlight the impact of social behaviors on our genetic lineage.
Prehistoric mating preferences help explain why modern humans carry small amounts of Neanderthal DNA in their genomes, particularly absent from the X chromosome. Image credit: Gemini AI.
“In addition to the X chromosome, there’s a significant gap in Neanderthal DNA referred to as the ‘Neanderthal desert’,” stated lead author Dr. Alexander Pratt, a researcher at the University of Pennsylvania.
“Historically, we believed these gaps resulted from certain Neanderthal genes being biologically harmful to humans, leading to their removal through natural selection,” he added.
New genomic analyses indicate that long-standing mating preferences, not genetic incompatibilities, influenced which Neanderthal DNA sequences were retained in modern human genomes.
This research illustrates how social interactions have shaped the human genome and challenges the notion that evolution is solely driven by the “survival of the fittest.”
“Our findings indicate a distinct sexual bias, with gene flow predominantly occurring from male Neanderthals to anatomically modern human females, which explains the limited presence of Neanderthal DNA on modern human X chromosomes,” remarked Dr. Platt.
“Approximately 600,000 years ago, anatomically modern humans and Neanderthals diverged, creating two separate evolutionary paths,” added Professor Sarah Tishkoff, the study’s senior author.
“While our ancestors evolved in Africa, Neanderthals adapted to life in Eurasia, yet this separation was not permanent.”
“Over millennia, human groups migrated into and out of Neanderthal territories, resulting in genetic exchanges during their encounters.”
To assess whether Neanderthal X chromosomes contained modern human alleles, researchers analyzed conserved DNA in three Neanderthal samples: Altai, Chagyrskaya, and Vindija.
They compared this data with that of a diverse genome from Africa, which hadn’t historically interacted with Neanderthals.
“Our analysis revealed a significant discrepancy,” noted co-author Dr. Daniel Harris from the University of Pennsylvania.
“While modern humans lack the Neanderthal X chromosome, the Neanderthal X chromosome contained 62% more modern human DNA compared to other chromosomes.”
This mirrored result indicates that if reproductive incompatibility existed, modern human DNA would also be absent in Neanderthal X chromosomes.
However, the presence of modern human DNA in Neanderthal X chromosomes rules out biological incompatibility as a barrier to reproduction.
The lingering explanation lies in the sexual bias in mating practices.
Given that women possess two X chromosomes and men only one, the direction of mating plays a crucial role.
If Neanderthal males mated more frequently with modern human females, fewer Neanderthal X chromosomes would integrate into the human gene pool, while more human X chromosomes would enter the Neanderthal population.
Mathematical models verified that this bias adequately explains the observed inheritance patterns.
While other factors such as gender-biased migration could lead to similar results, these scenarios are often complex and vary over time and geography.
“Our findings suggest that mating preferences offer the simplest explanation for these patterns,” concluded Dr. Platt.
For more details on this research, refer to the journal Science.
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Alexander Pratt et al. 2026. Interbreeding between Neanderthals and modern humans showed significant sexual bias. Science 391 (6788): 922-925; doi: 10.1126/science.aea6774
Fossils preserved in amber are not only exquisite but also provide insights into ancient ecological interactions, including potential parasitism and symbiotic relationships between ants and mites. This revelation comes from a groundbreaking morphological study analyzing six amber specimens: Baltic, Dominican, and Burmese.
Fossils of an ant colony preserved in Baltic Sea amber from Lithuania. Image credit: José de la Fuente & Agustín Estrada-Peña, doi: 10.3389/fevo.2026.1724595.
“Inclusions in amber reveal potential interactions between various organisms that shaped prehistoric environments,” stated paleontologist Dr. Jose de la Fuente from the Game and Wildlife Research Institute.
“The identification and morphological analysis of fossil ants and other insects in amber offer a glimpse into life on Earth millions of years ago.”
In this pioneering study, de la Fuente and colleagues examined four pieces of Cretaceous amber (dating back 99 million years), one Eocene amber (approximately 56 to 34 million years ago), and one Oligocene amber (roughly 34 to 23 million years ago).
The specimens comprised ancient ants and other organisms, as well as a rare phenomenon known as syninclusion.
“The earliest ants, identified from the late Cretaceous period, were known as stem ants, which left no modern descendants. All existing ants evolved from crown ants,” the researchers emphasized.
“Both ant types are present in the six amber specimens we investigated, including the hell ant, which evolved from stem ants.”
The researchers utilized advanced microscopy to identify various species and document the distances between ants and other organisms in the specimens.
In three of the six amber pieces, ants were discovered in close proximity to mites.
The first specimen revealed crested ants, a wasp, and two ticks closely associated, suggesting they may have been traveling on the ants.
The second piece showcased stem ants alongside spiders, while the third contained hell ants, snails, millipedes, and numerous unidentified insects.
The fourth specimen featured a stem ant and a mite approximately 4 mm apart.
The fifth amber fragment included three distinct types of ants related to mites and termites, as well as poorly preserved mosquitoes and winged insects.
In the sixth sample, stem ants were found alongside wasps and spiders believed to be parasitic. It appeared the ants were consuming something, resting against another insect inclusion that might be a worm or larva, yet no interaction was evident, hinting it could be a coincidence.
“The closest co-inclusions of ants likely reflect behaviors and interactions between these organisms,” Dr. de la Fuente noted.
“The ant-mite interaction observed in the fourth specimen may indicate two potential scenarios.”
“First, a special symbiotic relationship where the tick hitches a ride on the ant to disperse to new habitats; second, parasitism occurring when the mites feed on the ant host during transport.”
While amber fragments featuring ants are scarce, those with multiple species are even rarer. Existing evidence suggests interactions between ants and mites may sometimes be mutually beneficial.
Future studies could clarify these interactions using micro-CT scans to explore attachment structures that may facilitate the mites’ travel on ants.
“Advanced imaging techniques are essential for enhancing the analysis of interactions among diverse organisms in fossil amber inclusions,” concluded Dr. de la Fuente.
For more details, read the research team’s paper published today in Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution.
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Jose de la Fuente and Agustín Estrada-Peña. 2026. Description of fossil amber containing ant co-inclusions. Front. Ecol. Evol 14; doi: 10.3389/fevo.2026.1724595.
According to a recent study published in Pro Swan, the Chincha Kingdom, an influential ancient society on the Peruvian coast, thrived significantly due to their innovative use of bird droppings.
Archaeological investigations of maize recovered from burial tombs indicate that the Chincha people utilized seabird droppings, known as “guano,” as fertilizer to improve agricultural yields.
This natural fertilizer enabled the Chincha Kingdom to produce a corn surplus, facilitating economic growth, population expansion, and increased influence, ultimately making it one of the most prosperous Pre-Inca civilizations in South America.
“While seabird guano might seem insignificant, our study reveals that this vital resource played a crucial role in sociopolitical and economic transformations in the Peruvian Andes,” stated Dr. Jacob Bongers from the University of Sydney. “In ancient Andean cultures, fertilizer equated to power.”
Bongers’ team analyzed 35 corn samples from the Chincha Valley burial tombs, where an estimated 100,000 individuals lived at the time, discovering that the corn exhibited unusually high nitrogen levels.
Seabird feces are particularly nitrogen-rich due to their marine diet, providing biochemical evidence that the Chincha people enriched their soil with guano.
The arid land of Peru’s Chincha Valley makes crop cultivation challenging. – Credit: Jo Osborn
“The guano was likely sourced from the nearby Chincha Islands, renowned for their abundant and high-quality guano deposits,” Bongers elaborated.
The research team further examined modern images of seabirds, fish, and sprouting corn depicted on pottery, wall carvings, and paintings.
This artistic evidence reinforces the connection between seabirds and maize, highlighting their significant cultural role in Chincha society.
“The combined chemical and physical evidence we analyzed aligns with prior studies indicating that guano was intentionally harvested and utilized as fertilizer,” Bongers noted.
“Moreover, it underscores a deeper cultural significance, pointing to the acknowledgment of this fertilizer’s remarkable power and the ritualistic celebration of the bond between seabirds and agriculture.”
A selection of crafts from Peru featuring seabirds and ceremonial tools, highlighting the connection between agriculture and marine life. – Credit: Metropolitan Museum of Art/Art Institute of Chicago
Much about the Chincha Kingdom’s history, including its origins, remains elusive, but it is known that it became part of the Inca Empire around 1480 AD, not long before the Spanish conquest of Peru.
Prior to their incorporation into the Inca Empire, the Chincha people engaged in trade with the Incas, who were known for their obsession with corn, which they fermented into a ceremonial beer called “chicha.”
However, the Incas, living high in the Andes, were unable to cultivate substantial corn crops due to their lack of access to valuable guano.
“Chincha’s true strength was not solely in resource access but in its mastery of complex ecosystems,” explained study co-author Dr. Joe Osborne from Texas A&M University.
“They possessed traditional knowledge of the interconnections between marine and terrestrial ecosystems, transforming that understanding into an agricultural surplus that built their civilization.”
“Their art reflects this connection, illustrating that their power stemmed from ecological wisdom, not just precious metals.”
Researchers have made a groundbreaking discovery of ancient bacteria trapped in ice. This ancient bacteria could provide insights into antibiotic resistance—and potentially exacerbate the existing problem.
A recent study published in Frontiers of Microbiology highlights the analysis conducted by Romanian scientists on the antibiotic resistance profiles of these ancient bacterial strains.
Known as Cyclobacter SC65A.3, these bacteria have been preserved for approximately 5,000 years beneath a thick layer of ice in Scalisoara Cave, located in northwestern Romania.
According to the study authors, “These ancient bacteria are invaluable for science and medicine; however, meticulous handling and laboratory safety measures are crucial to mitigate the risk of uncontrolled spread.” Dr. Cristina Purcarea, a Senior Researcher at the Institute of Biology, emphasized this point.
As antibiotic resistance continues to rise, conventional antibiotics may soon become ineffective in treating infections.
The issue of antibiotic resistance is largely driven by overuse. However, Professor Purcarea noted that Cyclobacter SC65A.3, recovered from thousands-of-years-old ice deposits, reveals the natural evolution of antibiotic resistance long before the introduction of modern antibiotics.
To recover this bacterial strain, scientists drilled a 25-meter ice core representing a 13,000-year timeline and transported the frozen samples in sterile bags to their laboratory.
Once in the lab, researchers analyzed the bacterial DNA embedded in the ice chips to explore how the bacteria survived such frigid temperatures and how they interacted with various antibiotics.
The bacterium was recovered from the great hall area of the Scalisoara cave in Transylvania, Romania – Credit: Getty Images
Scientists found that Cyclobacter possessed over 100 genes related to antibiotic resistance.
They tested these bacteria against 28 different antibiotics and discovered resistance to 10 of them, which included drugs used to treat infections of the lungs, skin, blood, reproductive system, and urinary tract.
Purcarea noted, “The 10 antibiotics to which we found resistance are commonly used in both oral and injectable therapies for a variety of serious bacterial infections in clinical settings.”
The findings suggest that strains capable of surviving in cold environments may serve as reservoirs for genes that aid in drug resistance.
“As the ice melts and releases these microorganisms, their resistance genes could spread to modern bacteria, further complicating the global issue of antibiotic resistance,” Purcarea explained.
Nevertheless, there is a silver lining. Cyclobacter SC65A.3 contains nearly 600 genes with unknown functions, including 11 genes that have the potential to kill other microorganisms or inhibit their growth.
This indicates that this strain could pave the way for the development of new treatments and therapies, particularly against major antibiotic-resistant pathogens.
A groundbreaking study by geoscientists at the University of Florida and the Paris Institute of Geophysics reveals the origin of Earth’s most severe gravity anomaly, known as the Antarctic Gravity Hole (or Antarctic Geoid Depression). This anomaly is attributed to millions of years of slowed underground rock flow.
Evolution of the Antarctic geoid cyclone. Image credit: P. Glišović & AM Forte, doi: 10.1038/s41598-025-28606-1.
According to Professor Alessandro Forte from the University of Florida, gaining a better understanding of how Earth’s interior influences gravity and sea levels can shed light on factors essential for the growth and stability of significant ice sheets.
“Variations in gravity due to differences in rock density beneath the surface, although small in absolute terms, can have a substantial impact on ocean levels,” he explained.
“In regions of reduced gravity, water tends to flow toward areas of higher gravity, causing sea levels to be relatively lower in those spots.”
“As a result of the Antarctic gravity hole, the sea level around Antarctica is significantly lower than it would typically be.”
In this research, Professor Forte and Dr. Petar Grišović from the Paris Institute of Geophysics have meticulously mapped out the Antarctic geoid cyclone, revealing its development throughout the Cenozoic Era, spanning from 66 million years ago to the present day.
The team utilized a global scientific initiative that integrates seismic data and advanced modeling techniques to reconstruct the 3D structure of Earth’s interior.
“It’s like performing a CT scan of the planet without the use of conventional X-rays,” Forte remarked.
“Earthquakes generate seismic waves, which act as the ‘light’ that reveals Earth’s inner structure.”
The researchers successfully created a global gravity map that aligns closely with satellite data, validating their underlying model.
The next challenge involved reversing the geophysical clock to examine how the Antarctic geoid cyclone has evolved over millions of years.
By employing physics-based reconstructions and sophisticated computer models, they retraced geological changes spanning 70 million years.
These historical analyses indicate that the Antarctic geoid cyclone began in a relatively weak state.
From approximately 50 to 30 million years ago, however, the gravity hole began to strengthen, coinciding with significant shifts in Antarctica’s climatic conditions, including the onset of a global ice age.
“We aim to test the causal relationship between this intensified gravity hole and the Antarctic ice sheet. Our new modeling will connect changes in gravity, sea levels, and continental elevation,” stated Professor Forte.
This research seeks to answer pivotal questions about the interactions between our climate and the processes occurring within Earth.
For more details, refer to the study published in December 2025 in the journal Scientific Reports.
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P. Grišović and A.M. Forte. 2025. Cenozoic evolution of Earth’s strongest geoid low reveals the dynamics of the Antarctic subsurface mantle. Scientific Reports 15, 45749; doi: 10.1038/s41598-025-28606-1
Ancient Inuit Circular Tents Found on Isbjørne Island
Credit: Matthew Walls, Marie Christ, Pauline Knudsen
4,500 years ago, early humans embarked on a historic journey to a remote island off Greenland’s northwest coast. This daring expedition entailed crossing over 50 kilometers of open sea, marking one of the longest maritime voyages by Arctic indigenous peoples.
Archaeologists assert that these intrepid sailors were the first to reach these isolated islands. Notably, John Derwent from the University of California, Davis, contributed insights but was not involved in this study.
In 2019, Matthew Walls and a team from the University of Calgary, Canada, explored the Kittisut Islands, also known as the Carey Islands, located northwest of Greenland. These islands lie within the Pikiarasorsuaq polynya—an open ocean region surrounded by sea ice, which has been present for approximately 4,500 years.
The research focused on three main islands: Isbjörne, Mellem, and Nordvest, revealing five sites with a total of 297 archaeological features. The most significant findings were at Isbjörne beach terraces, where they uncovered the remnants of 15 circular tents, each with a central hearth and divided by stones. These distinctive “bilobed” structures are emblematic of the Paleo-Inuit—the first settlers of northern Canada and Greenland.
Radiocarbon dating of a long-billed murre’s wing bones found within one of the tent rings indicated they are between 4,400 and 3,938 years old. This confirms that humans occupied the Kittisut Islands shortly after the formation of the polynya.
“We have nesting colonies of long-billed murres,” Walls noted. The early settlers likely harvested their eggs and hunted them for food, and they likely pursued seals as well.
The Old Inuit had already reached Greenland at this time and likely journeyed to Kittisut from the west, covering a minimum distance of about 52.7 kilometers. However, due to prevailing winds and currents, they most likely set sail from a more northerly location, resulting in a longer, safer journey. To the west of Kittisut lies Ellesmere Island, which is further but presents challenging navigational conditions.
The only comparable journey known in Arctic prehistory was the 82-kilometer crossing of the Bering Strait from Siberia to Alaska, likely first accomplished over 20,000 years ago, with the Diomede Islands serving as a midway stopping point.
“Crossing that expanse required advanced watercraft,” Derwent emphasizes. The population on Kittisut likely necessitated larger vessels rather than single-person kayaks. “You can’t transport children and the elderly safely in a kayak,” he explained. The Old Inuit likely used larger boats capable of carrying nine or ten individuals.
Despite extensive studies, no boat wrecks have yet been uncovered on Kittisut Island, and few such finds exist in the Arctic region. “Their vessels would have been skin-on-frame designs similar to those utilized by later Inuit communities,” noted Walls.
The initial Paleo-Inuit settlers likely played a vital role in shaping the Kittisut ecosystem. By transporting marine nutrients onto land, they fertilized the barren soil, fostering plant growth on the islands. “There’s initially a diverse plant life there, reliant on human involvement in nutrient cycling between marine and terrestrial systems.”
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Valued for Centuries: Peruvian Pelican and Booby Droppings
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A potent fertilizer derived from seabird droppings likely played a crucial role in the rise of Peru’s agricultural kingdom 900 years ago, contributing to its eventual conquest by the Incas.
Recent chemical analysis of ancient corn cobs from southern Peru revealed elevated nitrogen isotope levels, indicating the maize was fertilized with a nutrient-rich blend of seabird excrement, feathers, and organic matter known as guano. This discovery represents the strongest evidence yet that indigenous Chincha farmers and traders sourced this exceptional fertilizer from nearby islands to enhance their crop yields and elevate their socio-economic status, according to Jacob Bongers at the University of Sydney.
“Access to vital resources can pave the way to power; here, the Chincha kingdom had the upper hand, while the Incas did not,” he states. “Social change may have originated from an unexpected source: bird droppings. It’s quite the intriguing narrative.”
Between 1000 and 1400 AD, the affluent and populous Kingdom of Chincha dominated one of Peru’s most fertile coastal valleys until its eventual incorporation into the Inca Empire in the 15th century.
The Chincha Valley lies just 25 kilometers from the Chincha Islands, home to large colonies of Peruvian pelicans (Pelecanus sagus), Peruvian boobies (Sula variegata), and Guanaius (leucocarbo bougainvilli), as well as penguins and gulls. These islands are known as guano islands. Bird droppings became renowned globally in the 19th century for their remarkable nutritional properties, primarily due to their high nitrogen content.
The use of guano by the Incas is well documented in early colonial records, which describe stringent state regulations governing the islands and substantial penalties for harming seabirds. However, until now, researchers lacked solid archaeological proof that the ancestors of the Chincha were already exploiting this valuable resource. Historians have long suggested that seabird fertilizers significantly bolstered the kingdom’s economic success, Bongers notes. Images of seabirds depicted on ceremonial artifacts, textiles, pottery, and architectural features further indicate that these birds held special significance for the Chincha people.
Bongers and his team gathered numerous ancient corn cobs (possibly offerings for the deceased) from Chincha tombs, hoping to unlock this mystery.
He collaborated with Emily Milton from the Smithsonian Institution, analyzing 35 corn cobs from 14 cemeteries in the Chincha Valley for their carbon and nitrogen isotope ratios. Together with Bongers, Milton and their colleagues also examined collagen from the bones of 11 ancient seabirds from the region, including pelicans, boobies, cormorants, gulls, and penguins, to establish a local isotope baseline for guano.
The bone analysis showed elevated nitrogen-15 levels typical of seabirds, while many corn cobs displayed even higher nitrogen isotope ratios indicative of guano fertilization.
These findings confirm that the Chincha people were utilizing island resources by at least 1250, says Joe Osborne from Texas A&M University.
Guano may have facilitated the economic expansion of the Chincha kingdom and enhanced its bargaining capacity when later absorbed into the Inca Empire, with broader implications for understanding how marine fertilizers influenced social transformations throughout the Andes, the researchers contend.
“It’s logical that ancient Peruvians harnessed guano as fertilizer,” remarks Dan Sandweiss from the University of Maine, who was not involved in the study. “Traveling to the islands for such a valuable resource would certainly have been worthwhile!”
Chincha guano is exceptionally valuable, possibly because its limited rainfall allows the nitrogen to remain largely intact. “This Peruvian guano was indeed a treasure,” he adds.
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A remarkable discovery has identified a cold virus that infected a woman in London approximately 250 years ago, marking it as the oldest known human RNA virus.
Researchers, through advanced DNA sequencing techniques, have uncovered traces of various viruses in ancient human bones that date back as far as 50,000 years. However, many viruses, particularly rhinoviruses that are responsible for the common cold, contain RNA genomes, which are significantly more unstable than DNA and typically deteriorate within hours post-mortem.
RNA is also generated by our cells during the process of translating genetic code into proteins.
In recent years, scientists have successfully extended the recovery timelines for ancient RNA. Notably, a team managed to recover RNA from a woolly mammoth that lived 40,000 years ago.
“To date, much of the ancient RNA research has depended on well-preserved materials, such as permafrost samples or dried seeds, which restricts our understanding of historical human diseases,” remarks Erin Burnett of the Fred Hutchinson Cancer Center in Seattle, Washington.
Since the early 1900s, numerous tissues in pathology collections have been preserved using formalin, a method that fortifies RNA against rapid degradation. Barnett and her team sought to explore pathology collections across Europe for older human specimens that might contain preserved RNA.
Within the Hunterian Museum of Anatomy at the University of Glasgow, researchers discovered lung tissue samples from two individuals preserved in alcohol rather than formalin. One sample belonged to a woman who passed away around the 1770s, while the other was from an unidentified individual who died in 1877. Both exhibited documented cases of severe respiratory illness.
The researchers aimed to extract both RNA and DNA from the lung tissue of these individuals. Barnett described the RNA extracted from both samples as “extremely fragmented,” with the majority of fragments measuring just 20 to 30 nucleotides in length.
“For context, RNA molecules in living cells typically exceed 1000 nucleotides,” she explains. “Thus, instead of working with long, complete chains, we meticulously pieced together data from many smaller fragments.”
Gradually, the scientists succeeded in reconstructing the entire RNA genome of a rhinovirus extracted from the 18th-century woman. They also detected signs indicating she was infected with bacteria responsible for respiratory ailments, including Pneumococcus, Haemophilus influenzae, and Moraxella catarrhalis.
They compared the reconstructed ancient RNA viruses against a National Institutes of Health database featuring millions of viral genomes globally, including multiple rhinovirus strains.
This analysis revealed that the historic virus’s genome classified under the human rhinovirus A group, representing an extinct lineage most closely aligned with the modern genotype known as A19. “By comparing this with contemporary viruses, we deduce that the last time this historic virus and modern A19 shared a common ancestor was around the 1600s,” Barnett noted.
“The personal stories of these two individuals remain largely untold, and I hope this research brings them to recognition,” she expressed.
“This finding is significant as it demonstrates the potential to recover RNA from wet collections dated before the use of formalin,” said Love Darren at Stockholm University, Sweden.
“This marks the first step towards a surge of research into RNA viruses. Given that many RNA viruses evolve rapidly, studying them over centuries will yield vital insights into viral evolution,” he concluded.
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Fossil vertebrae of a massive python, measuring nearly 4 meters long, were unearthed from the Chiting Formation in Taiwan, indicating its existence during the Middle Pleistocene.
An artistic reconstruction of a python and Toyotamafimia in Middle Pleistocene Taiwan. Image credit: National Taiwan University, Fossil Vertebrate Evolution and Diversity Laboratory / Cheng-Han Sun.
The Python genus comprises nearly 10 species of snakes within the Pythonidae family, found across tropical and subtropical regions of the Eastern Hemisphere.
In Africa, pythons inhabit tropical zones south of the Sahara, being absent from the southwestern tip of southern Africa and Madagascar.
In Asia, their range extends from Bangladesh, Nepal, India, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka, across Myanmar to Indochina, southern China, Hong Kong, Hainan, and throughout the Malay region of Indonesia, and the Philippines.
“There are currently no living members of the Python genus on the main island of Taiwan,” notes Yi Lu Liau and colleagues from National Taiwan University.
A recent study involved paleontologists who analyzed a large, single trunk vertebra found near Tainan, Taiwan.
This vertebra dates back to the Middle Pleistocene, approximately 800,000 to 400,000 years ago.
The researchers classified this specimen as belonging to the Python genus, marking the first discovery of python fossils on mainland Taiwan.
Using measurements from a 3D reconstruction of the specimen, researchers estimated that this ancient snake reached lengths of about 4 meters, surpassing the size of modern snakes in Taiwan.
While Taiwan is home to over 50 snake species, none match the size indicated by these fossils.
“This fossil is not only the largest but also the most surprising snake fossil discovered in Taiwan,” the researchers stated.
The fossil was recovered from the Chiting Formation, a geological unit rich in fossils from southern Taiwan, where large herbivores such as saber-toothed cats, massive crocodiles, mammoths, and extinct rhinos have also been found.
Collectively, these findings suggest a complex, predator-dominated ecosystem during the Middle Pleistocene, in stark contrast to Taiwan’s current fauna.
“A top predator has gone extinct, as shown by the discovery of this enormous Python. Alternatively, previously documented saber-toothed tigers and large crocodiles indicate rapid changes in Taiwan’s modern biodiversity,” the scientists concluded.
“We propose that the top predator niche in today’s ecosystems may have remained vacant since the Pleistocene extinction event.”
“Future discoveries and in-depth analyses should further explore this hypothesis and illuminate the origins of modern biodiversity in the Far East.”
For more details regarding this discovery, refer to the study published in the journal Historical Biology.
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Yi Lu Liau and colleagues. Unexpected snake fossil (Pythonidae, Python) discovered in Taiwan. Historical Biology, published online on January 16, 2026. doi: 10.1080/08912963.2025.2610741
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Unearthed in 1958 by a young fossil hunter in Albion, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia, dinosaur footprints have been officially recognized as the continent’s oldest, dating back approximately 230 million years to the late Triassic period. This discovery indicates that dinosaurs inhabited the Brisbane region far earlier than previously thought by paleontologists.
Living fossils unearthed from Petrie Quarry, Albion, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia. Image credit: Anthony Romilio & Bruce Runnegar, doi: 10.1080/03115518.2025.2607630.
The 18.5 cm (7 in.) long dinosaur footprint was discovered at Petrie’s Quarry, part of the Aspley Formation, alongside a slab featuring narrow linear grooves interpreted as possible tail traces.
Both specimens were extracted before the quarry site was redeveloped, passing through several university collections since then.
“This is the only dinosaur fossil discovered in an Australian capital, highlighting how significant finds can remain hidden in plain sight,” stated Dr. Anthony Romilio, a palaeontologist from the University of Queensland.
“Urban development has rendered the original site inaccessible, leaving behind these footprints as the only evidence of dinosaurs in the area.”
The footprints show impressions of three forward-facing toes, with the central toe demonstrating a faint fan-shaped outline, characteristics typical of a bipedal dinosaur.
Advanced 3D modeling and morphometric analysis revealed that this footprint closely resembles the Ichnogenus Evazoum, commonly linked to early sauropod dinosaurs found elsewhere.
Based on the dimensions of the footprints, Dr. Romilio and Professor Bruce Rannegar estimated that the corresponding dinosaur stood about 78 centimeters (31 inches) tall at the waist and weighed around 144 kilograms (89 pounds).
Utilizing established scaling equations, researchers calculated the maximum potential running speed to be about 60 km/h (37 mph).
While no dinosaur skeletons have been found in the Aspley Formation, these footprints serve as the only direct evidence of dinosaur presence in this time and place.
“Dinosaurs may have walked along waterways, leaving their tracks preserved in sandstone that was later cut to build structures across Brisbane,” Dr. Romilio explained.
“If not for the foresight to conserve this material, the history of Brisbane’s dinosaurs would have remained completely unknown.”
“These footprints were made in sediment by large animals and exemplify a unique kind of trace fossil,” stated Professor Rannegar.
The associated tail print, approximately 13 centimeters (5 inches) long, aligns with structures interpreted as a dinosaur’s tail track. However, the authors caution that without preservation of the corresponding footprint in an appropriate location, its origin remains uncertain.
“The shallow linear grooves found in the tail block closely match reported tail drag traces, yet lack any remaining evidence of Manus or Pes. Their true identity remains ambiguous,” they noted.
“These grooves could have resulted from caudal contact in the orbits of prosauropods, but typically on-site and near the midline of such orbit, which isn’t applicable in this case.”
The team’s research paper has been published this week in The Alcheringa, Australian Journal of Paleontology.
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Anthony Romilio and Bruce Rannegar. Australia’s oldest dinosaur: Reproductive fossils unearthed from the Carnian Aspley Formation in Brisbane, Queensland, Australia. Alcheringa published online on February 1, 2026. doi: 10.1080/03115518.2025.2607630
Archaeologists have made a groundbreaking discovery, unearthing the “oldest known hand-held wooden tool” at a Middle Pleistocene site in Marathusa 1, Greece.
Impression of a Marathusa 1 female artist crafting a digging stick using small stone tools from an alder trunk. Image credit: G. Prieto / K. Harvati.
According to Professor Katerina Herberty from the University of Tübingen, “The Middle Pleistocene was crucial for human evolution, marking a period when complex behaviors emerged.”
“This era also showcases the earliest reliable evidence of the targeted use of plants for technological purposes.”
The 430,000-year-old wooden tools discovered at the Marathusa 1 site, led by Professor Harbati and his team, consist of worked alder trunks and small willow/poplar artifacts.
The primary tool is made from alder wood (Alnus sp.) and features engraving marks along with associated stop and chop marks, indicating intentional shaping.
This approximately 81 cm long artifact displays signs of usage consistent with a multifunctional rod likely employed for paleolakeshore excavation.
The second tool, a small piece of willow/poplar (Salix sp./Populus sp.), measures 5.7 cm and exhibits signs of rounding.
This object shows two signs of potential processing, suggesting that growth rings have been removed from one end.
Researchers hypothesize that this small wooden tool’s function remains uncertain but may have been utilized for modifying stone tools.
Alongside these wooden tools, scientists uncovered butchered remains of an elephant with straight tusks (Paleoloxodon Antique), as well as stone artifacts and processed bones.
Dr. Annemieke Milks, a researcher at the University of Reading, states, “Unlike stone artifacts, wooden objects need special conditions to survive over long durations.”
“We meticulously examined all tree remains, analyzing the surfaces under a microscope.”
“Our findings revealed clear evidence of cutting and carving on these two objects, strongly indicating that early humans intentionally shaped them.”
A multifunctional digging stick (top) and small wooden tools (bottom) from the Marathusa 1 site in Greece. Image credit: D. Michailidis / N. Thompson / K. Harvati.
Additionally, researchers found a large fragment of an alder trunk exhibiting deep carved stripes, interpreted as fossilized claw marks from a large carnivore. This suggests potential competition between early humans and carnivores at this site.
Evidence of cuts and damage on the elephant remains indicate that early hominins had access to the carcass, while gnawing marks reveal subsequent carnivorous activity.
Dr. Milks added, “Previous discoveries of ancient wooden tools have occurred in countries such as Britain, Zambia, Germany, and China, comprising weapons, digging sticks, and tool handles.” However, she noted that these finds date newer than the Marathusa 1 artifacts.
“The only evidence of ancient wood used by humans, dating to around 476,000 years ago, comes from the Kalambo Falls site in Zambia, where the wood served as structural material rather than tools.”
“We have now identified the oldest known wooden tools and the first of their kind from southeastern Europe,” emphasized Professor Herberty.
“This discovery highlights the exceptional conservation conditions at the Marathusa 1 site.”
“The concurrent evidence of human activity and large carnivores in the vicinity of the butchered elephant indicates a competitive dynamic between them.”
Details of these findings are published in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.
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A. Chemilux et al. 2026. The earliest evidence of human use of wooden hand tools, discovered at Marathusa 1 (Greece). PNAS 123 (6): e2515479123; doi: 10.1073/pnas.25154791
Reconstruction of a Paleolithic woman crafting wooden tools
Credit: G. Prieto; K. Harvati
Remarkably, some of the oldest known wooden tools have been unearthed in an open-pit mine in Greece, dating back 430,000 years. These artifacts were likely crafted by an ancient human ancestor, potentially related to Neanderthals.
Archaeologists note that prehistoric wooden artefacts are “extremely rare.” According to Dirk Leder from the Lower Saxony Cultural Heritage Office in Hannover, Germany, any new findings in this area are highly valued.
Evidence suggests our extinct relatives may have utilized wooden tools for millions of years. “This could be the oldest type of tool ever used,” states Katerina Harvati from the University of Tübingen, Germany. Unfortunately, the preservation of wooden artifacts is often poor, hindering our understanding of their use.
Harvati and her team discovered the tool at a site called Marathusa 1, originally confirmed in 2013 in the Megalopolis Basin of southern Greece. The open-pit lignite mine revealed sediment layers that are nearly a million years old, offering unprecedented access to date and research, as mentioned by researcher K. Harvati.
From 2013 to 2019, excavations yielded not only tools but also the skeleton of a straight-tusked elephant (Paleoloxodon antiquus), indicating a rich archaeological context with evidence of activity, including more than 2,000 stone tools and remains of varied flora and fauna, depicting an ancient lakeshore ecosystem.
To date Marathusa 1, researchers relied on various methods, including analyzing fossil footprints and historical changes in the Earth’s magnetic field. By 2024, they confirmed that the artefacts are around 430,000 years old, a time marked by challenging climatic conditions—the gravest ice age of the Pleistocene in Europe. The Megalopolis Basin likely provided refuge due to its relatively temperate climate.
The archaeological team identified two significant wooden tools among the 144 artifacts. The first, an 81 cm long pole made from alder, exhibits marks indicative of intentional shaping. One end appears rounded, possibly serving as a handle, while the other is flattened, hinting at potential use for digging underground tubers or perhaps for butchering elephant carcasses. Harvati admits uncertainty about its exact application.
Mysterious second wooden tool from Marathusa 1
Credit: N. Thompson; K. Harvati
The second tool remains enigmatic, measuring just 5.7 cm in length and made from willow or poplar. It also shows signs of intentional shaping after the bark was removed. According to Harvati, this represents a completely new type of wooden tool. While it might have served to modify stone tools, the specific purpose remains a mystery.
Reeder points out that while the first tool is a clear example of wooden craftsmanship, questions remain about the functionality of the second. “Is this a complete item or part of something larger?” he muses.
No hominid remains have been found at Marathusa 1. Given its age, it predates our species and is likely too early even for Neanderthals. “The prevailing hypothesis suggests this site might be associated with pre-Neanderthal humans or Homo heidelbergensis. However, Harvati cautions against making definitive conclusions, noting that Greece was frequented by various hominin groups.
Other ancient wooden tools, like the Clacton spear discovered in Britain, are estimated to be about 400,000 years old, while a wooden spear from Schöningen, Germany, has been dated using multiple methods to around 300,000 years. The only tools that predate those found at Marathusa 1 are from Kalambo Falls in Zambia, which date back 476,000 years and resemble remains of larger structures or buildings.
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In the last 25 years, the field of human evolution has witnessed remarkable growth, showcased by a significant increase in discoveries. Archaeologists have unearthed more fossils, species, and artifacts from diverse locations, from the diminutive “hobbits” to enigmatic creatures inhabiting Indonesian islands. Notably, Homo naledi is known solely from a single deep cave in South Africa. Simultaneously, advanced analytical techniques have enhanced our understanding of these findings, revealing a treasure trove of information about our origins and extinct relatives.
This whirlwind of discoveries has yielded two major lessons. First, since 2000, our understanding of the human fossil record has been extended further back in time. Previously, the oldest known human fossil was 4.4 million-year-old Ardipithecus, but subsequent discoveries in 2000 and 2001 unearthed even older species: Ardipithecus, Orrorin tugenensis from 6 million years ago, and Sahelanthropus tchadensis from 7 million years ago. Additionally, the Orrorin lineage was tentatively identified in 2022, suggesting it is slightly more recent than O. tugenensis.
According to Clement Zanoli from the University of Bordeaux, the discovery of these early human fossils represents “one of the great revolutions” in our understanding of evolution.
The second major lesson has enriched the narrative of how our species emerged from earlier hominins. By 2000, genetic evidence established that all non-Africans descend from ancestors who lived in Africa around 60,000 years ago. This revelation indicated that modern humans evolved in Africa and subsequently migrated, replacing other hominid species.
However, by 2010, the sequencing of the first Neanderthal genome opened a new chapter, along with the DNA analysis of several other ancient humans. These studies revealed that our species interbred with Neanderthals, Denisovans, and possibly other groups, creating a complex tapestry of human ancestry.
Skeletal research has long suggested interbreeding as many fossils exhibit traits that defy clear species categorization, as noted by Sheila Athreya at Texas A&M University. In 2003, Eric Trinkaus and colleagues described a jawbone excavated from Peștera cu Oase, Romania, as a Human-Neanderthal hybrid, based on its morphology. Later genetic testing in 2015 confirmed that individuals from Oase had Neanderthal ancestry, tracing back 4 to 6 generations ago.
This evidence highlights that our species did not merely expand from Africa; rather, our population absorbed genetic contributions from Neanderthals and Denisovans along the way. Genetically, we are a mosaic, a fusion of countless years of diverse human lineages.
A groundbreaking research team from the University of Wisconsin-Madison has successfully reverse-engineered a primitive nitrogen-fixing enzyme. This discovery sheds light on how life thrived before the Earth was transformed by oxygen and establishes reliable chemical markers for detecting extraterrestrial life.
Resurrection and characterization of an ancestral nitrogenase. Image credit: Rucker et al., doi: 10.1038/s41467-025-67423-y.
Led by Professor Betül Kaçar, the research focuses on an essential enzyme known as nitrogenase, which plays a pivotal role in converting atmospheric nitrogen into bioavailable forms.
“We selected an enzyme that significantly influences life on Earth and investigated its evolutionary history,” Professor Kaçar stated.
“Without nitrogenase, the existence of modern life as we know it would be impossible.”
Traditionally, scientists have depended on geological evidence to reconstruct Earth’s historical life.
However, significant fossils and rock samples are scarce and often require fortuitous discovery.
Professor Kaçar and his team view synthetic biology as a valuable tool to bridge these gaps, allowing them to construct specific ancient enzyme reconstructions, insert these into microorganisms, and study them in contemporary lab settings.
“The Earth of 3 billion years ago was vastly different from the world we recognize today,” remarked Dr. Holly Rucker.
“Before the Great Oxidation Event, the atmosphere was rich in carbon dioxide and methane, and life predominantly consisted of anaerobic microorganisms.”
“Understanding how these microorganisms accessed vital nutrients like nitrogen enhances our comprehension of how life persisted and evolved before oxygen-dependent organisms began to alter the planet.”
“Though fossilized enzymes are unavailable for study, these enzymes can leave discernible isotopic traces, measurable in rock samples.”
“Much of the prior research assumed ancient enzymes produced isotopic signatures akin to modern enzymes,” added Dr. Rucker.
“This holds true for nitrogenase; the isotopic traces we observe from ancient times correspond with modern signatures, providing deeper insights into the enzyme itself.”
The researchers discovered that ancient nitrogenase enzymes, despite having different DNA sequences, maintain the same mechanisms for isotopic signatures observed in the rock record.
“As astrobiologists, our understanding of Earth helps us comprehend the potential for life elsewhere in the universe,” Professor Kaçar emphasized.
“The quest for life begins right here on our 4-billion-year-old planet.”
“To grasp future possibilities and life beyond our planet, we must first understand our own history.”
The results were published today in the online journal Nature Communications, accessible here.
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Rucker et al. 2026. The revived nitrogenase reproduces the standard N isotope biosignature spanning two billion years. Nat Commun 17,616; doi: 10.1038/s41467-025-67423-y
Treponema pallidum Bacteria Linked to Syphilis and Related Diseases
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New research reveals that traces of Treponema pallidum—the bacteria responsible for syphilis—have been identified in the bones of ancient inhabitants of Colombia, dating back over 5,000 years. This discovery suggests that syphilis was infecting humans far earlier than previously believed, prior to the advent of intensive agriculture, which many experts think may have facilitated its spread.
Currently, Treponema pallidum encompasses three subspecies that cause syphilis, bejel, and framboise. The origins and transmission pathways of these diseases remain topics of scientific debate. Although ancient DNA and infectious markers on bones offer insights, they are often limited and ambiguous.
In a groundbreaking study, researchers analyzed DNA from 5,500-year-old remains discovered in the Bogotá savannah. The unexpected finding of Treponema pallidum in a human leg bone provides critical evidence of its historical prevalence.
“This discovery was entirely unanticipated, as there was a lack of skeletal evidence indicating an infectious disease,” notes Nasreen Broumandkoshbacht from the University of California, Santa Cruz.
Many scholars have long posited that the majority of diseases affected humans only after the rise of intensive agriculture, which led to denser populations. However, this individual lived in a contrasting setting—small, nomadic hunter-gatherer bands that maintained close contact with wild animals.
“These results shed light on the extensive evolutionary history of these organisms,” states Davide Bozzi from the University of Lausanne, Switzerland. “They reveal longstanding relationships between the bacterium and human populations.”
As researchers, including Blumandhoschbacht and Bozzi, correlated ancient genomes with contemporary ones, they identified that the pallidum strain was part of a distinct lineage, separate from any known modern relatives. This indicates that early variants of syphilis were already diversifying and infecting humans in the Americas millennia ago, with many of the same genetic traits that make present-day strains particularly pathogenic.
The findings imply that these pathogens were not only early residents in the Americas but may have been affecting human populations globally for much longer than previously assumed.
Rodrigo Barquera, a researcher at the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology in Leipzig, Germany, suggests that this ancient strain might link to an elusive “missing” pathogen, Treponema carathaeum, known primarily for its physical characteristics rather than its genetic makeup.
Kertu Majumdar, a researcher at the University of Zurich in Switzerland, posits, “The genomes of even older organisms might provide insights into a variety of extinct lineages and diseases caused by these pathogens.”
For Bozzi, unearthing the evolutionary adaptations of pathogens like syphilis is crucial for understanding their genetic attributes that enhance their virulence in new hosts.
New bone analysis suggests even the colossal kangaroos of ancient Australia might have been capable of jumping.
During the Pleistocene, some kangaroos weighed over twice as much as today’s species. One subset, the Stenurines, reached such enormous sizes that their ability to jump was doubted, leading researchers to believe they primarily walked on their hind legs.
“When discussing giant kangaroos, the stenurines are a frequent topic,” says Megan Jones from the University of Manchester, UK. “These unique kangaroos feature very short, box-shaped skulls and one toe on each foot. The largest male red kangaroos today average around 90 kilograms, while the biggest stenulin weighed nearly 250 kilograms.”
Among these giants is Procoptodon Goria, the most significant kangaroo species, standing approximately 2 meters tall and going extinct around 40,000 years ago.
Debate has persisted regarding the stress on their feet, prompting Jones and her team to analyze bone measurements from 67 macropod species—encompassing modern kangaroos, wallabies, potoroos, beetongs, rat kangaroos, and extinct giant kangaroos.
They measured leg bones (including the femur, tibia, and calcaneus) and gathered body weight data to estimate tendon sizes and their endurance under stress.
“The kangaroo’s Achilles tendon is on the brink of rupture but serves a vital role,” states Jones. “It enables kangaroos to store elastic energy for the next jump. Simply scaling today’s kangaroo would present challenges.”
Yet, ancient kangaroos weren’t merely massive. With shorter legs and wider calcaneus bones, their structure mitigated bending influences during hopping, allowing for larger tendons capable of withstanding the corresponding forces.
“This evidence indicates they weren’t mechanically restricted from jumping,” asserts Jones. “Whether they actually jumped, however, is a different question.”
While hopping likely wasn’t their primary locomotion mode, it might have been used sporadically for rapid movement, Jones explains.
This study reinforces the view that the iconic kangaroo hop is likely an adaptable feature within a surprisingly varied locomotor repertoire, according to Benjamin Kia from Uppsala University, Sweden. Over millions of years, this versatility has contributed to the ecological triumph of macropods.
The flexibility remains clear today; red kangaroos, often perceived as constant hoppers, can also utilize their tails as a fifth limb for walking. “Tree kangaroos exhibit diverse locomotion styles—they walk, jump, bounce, and can even move on two legs,” adds Jones.
Illustration of Haikouichthys, a notable Cambrian fish with fossilized evidence of a second pair of eyes
Xiangtong Lei, Sihang Zhang
Over 500 million years ago, the earliest known vertebrates exhibited an intriguing feature: an extra eye. Interestingly, humans may retain traces of this ancient evolutionary trait.
Significant fossils from two species of jawless fish, known as myllokunmingids, were discovered by Kong Peiyun. From 2019 to 2024, Kong worked alongside colleagues at Yunnan University in China, specifically around Dianchi Lake.
The fossils unearthed in the Chengjiang biota area, renowned for its exquisite preservation, date back to approximately 518 million years ago—a timeframe marked by a dramatic increase in life’s diversity during the Cambrian period.
Remarkably, the vertebrate fossils discovered by Kong’s team included well-preserved soft tissue and vital eye structures.
Complex eye structures evolved independently in various animal groups. Many invertebrates, like insects, possess compound eyes, which consist of numerous individual units, each with its own lens, enabling a mosaic vision.
Meanwhile, vertebrates such as humans and reptiles possess what scientists label as “camera eyes.” These comprise a spherical lens, retina, iris, and muscles that regulate eye movement. Additionally, they contain pigment structures called melanosomes that influence eye color.
Light focuses on the retina, generating a signal relayed to the brain via the optic nerve.
Under electron microscopy scrutiny, Kong and his team identified two eyes situated on the sides of the head, with melanin-rich melanosomes preserved, alongside two smaller enigmatic black marks between them.
Employing a lens impression to analyze the fossils, team members led by Jacob Vinther from the University of Bristol suggested that these ancient creatures possessed two pairs of camera-like eyes, allowing them to visualize their environment much like modern vertebrates. The decisive difference? They utilized four eyes instead of two.
Fossil of Haikouichthys displaying conserved melanosomes
Xiangtong Lei, Sihang Zhang
The research team posits that this ancient additional eye has evolved into various organs known as the pineal complex. Some vertebrates, such as reptiles, possess a light-sensitive organ called the parietal eye atop their heads, while all mammals retain a reduced version that is the pineal gland, a key player in regulating sleep cycles through melatonin secretion.
“Early vertebrates likely used the pineal organs as functional eyes, enabling them to perceive their surroundings before evolving into sleep-regulating organs,” states Vinther.
These large eyes may have been optimized for high-resolution vision, complemented by smaller eyes that enabled detection of nearby threats—critical for survival in the predator-rich Cambrian seas.
According to Vinther, these creatures could likely discern objects with detail, estimating their shape and gain a degree of depth perception—all thanks to their remarkable four-eyed adaptation.
Tetsuto Miyashita, from the Canadian Museum of Nature in Ottawa, finds the interpretation of these fossils both “half-believable and half-doubtful.”
The structure located between the two eyes had previously perplexed researchers, but realizing it may indicate another camera eye was considered a “lightbulb” moment, he explains.
If indeed this is the case, it raises the question: where is the animal’s nose? “Most early fish evolution centered around nose development, suggesting that it would be unusual for the nose to not be preserved,” he notes.
Miyashita anticipates significant discussions will persist until experts can engage in a thorough debate regarding this exciting finding. “What function do so many prominent eyes actually serve?” he questions.
John Patterson, a researcher from the University of New England in Armidale, Australia, asserts that it is logical for prey species to have developed such visual capabilities to escape formidable predators.
The Cambrian era was evolutionary peculiar, showcasing animals displaying unusual behavior and not strictly developing pairs of eyes on their heads, but placing eyes in other regions as well.
Karma Nangle, a professor at the University of California, Riverside, aims to create a comprehensive map of the entire fossil body to investigate the potential existence of similar traces. Such findings could demonstrate that the second set of eyes may simply be a result of chemical processes during fossilization.
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Arc-shaped volcanoes like Japan’s Sakurajima release carbon dioxide from the Earth’s interior
Asahi Shimbun via Getty Images
New research suggests that the impact of volcanoes on Earth’s climate may not be as ancient as previously believed.
The Earth’s climate has experienced shifts between “icehouse” and “greenhouse” conditions, largely dictated by greenhouse gas levels like carbon dioxide.
Volcanic arcs, including significant eruptions from mountain ranges such as Japan’s, release CO2 from deep within the Earth. Recent findings indicate that dinosaurs became a substantial source of carbon emissions only towards the end of their reign, approximately 100 million years ago, according to Ben Mather and his team from the University of Melbourne.
This correlates with the emergence of phytoplankton featuring calcium carbonate scales in the oceans approximately 150 million years ago. When these organisms perish, they deposit large amounts of calcium carbonate on the ocean floor.
As tectonic plates shift, these significant reservoirs of carbon are pushed into the mantle and recycled into the Earth’s molten core via a process known as subduction.
“Most of the carbon derived from plankton on the subducting oceanic plate mixes into the melt interior, but a portion is released through volcanic arcs,” explains Mather.
Before the emergence of scaly plankton, volcanic arc emissions contained relatively lower levels of CO2, according to Mather.
Through modeling, Mather and colleagues examined tectonics’ long-term impact on the carbon cycle over the past 500 million years. They discovered that much of the carbon stored within Earth throughout its history was released through crustal fractures in a process termed rifting, not primarily through volcanic arcs.
Rifting, a geological process where continents separate, can occur on land (as in the East African Rift) or along mid-ocean ridges.
“As tectonic plates separate, they effectively ‘roof off’ parts of the molten Earth,” Mather states. “This process generates new crust at mid-ocean ridges, releasing carbon.” The amount of carbon entering the atmosphere from continental fractures and mid-ocean ridges relies on the cracks’ length and the rate at which they separate, a process that has remained relatively stable. However, emissions from volcanic arcs have surged in the last 100 million years due to new carbon reservoirs formed by plankton.
Currently, Earth is in a temporary warm phase called an interglacial period, nested within a larger ice age that began 34 million years ago. One reason for the persistent cold phases is that phytoplankton sequester substantial amounts of carbon from the ocean, depositing it on the sea floor. Although volcanic emissions are rising, they still pale in comparison to the carbon stored by phytoplankton and that sequestered through tectonic movements.
According to Alan Collins and his team from the University of Adelaide, modeling studies like this are crucial for comprehending how volcanic and tectonic activities have influenced climate patterns over geological timescales.
“The composition of marine sediments has shifted as new organisms evolved, utilizing diverse elements, including the rise of calcium carbonate-based zooplankton,” Collins emphasizes.
Reference journal: Nature Communications Earth and Environment, DOI TK
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A recently reconstructed genome from a piece of flesh found in the stomach of a wolf pup, dated to 14,400 years ago, reveals that the woolly rhinoceros was genetically robust despite its close proximity to extinction.
While the exact cause of the young female wolf pup’s death, near present-day Tumato in northern Siberia, remains a mystery, it is believed she and her sister, referred to as Tumat puppies, had recently consumed woolly rhinoceros meat (Coelodonta antiquitatis). Their mother inadvertently caused their burial in permafrost when their burrow collapsed.
The first puppy was discovered on-site in 2011, with the second found in 2015. Examination of one puppy’s stomach contents revealed remnants of woolly rhino meat.
Edana Road, a member of the research team at Stockholm University, remarked that the preserved material resembled “fluffy jerky.”
“It was astonishing to see hair still intact,” Lord commented.
Lord stated that the preservation of the tissue was almost miraculous.
“It’s remarkable that, thousands of years later, we retrieved a beautifully preserved mummified wolf pup, analyzed its stomach contents, and uncovered this woolly rhinoceros tissue, shedding light on a previously different species,” Lord adds.
Tumat Wolf Pup: Evidence of Woolly Rhinoceros Diet
Mietje Germonpre
Lord’s team successfully reconstructed the woolly rhinoceros genome, identifying it as a female with no signs of inbreeding.
This groundbreaking finding is significant because it marks the first time DNA has been recovered from a woolly rhinoceros close to the time of its extinction.
The cause behind the woolly rhinoceros’ extinction remains a topic of debate, encompassing the impacts of human hunting, climate change, and inbreeding.
Another researcher on the team, Darren Love, noted that the sample’s hair was yellowish, leading to initial thoughts that it belonged to a cave lion carcass (Panthera spelaea) until DNA analysis was performed.
“As far as I know, sequencing an entire ancient genome from stomach contents has never been accomplished before,” Darren stated.
The research team compared the new genome with two others from the woolly rhinoceros, dating back 18,000 and 49,000 years, discovering no evolution in genetic diversity or inbreeding levels over time.
“Had populations dwindled, we would expect a drop in genetic diversity among woolly rhinoceroses, alongside an increase in inbreeding,” Darren explained.
The researchers concluded that the most probable driver behind the woolly rhinoceros extinction was a rapid climate shift between 14,700 and 12,900 years ago, during the Bølling-Allerød Interstadial, which drastically altered the species’ habitat.
Leang Bulu Betu, a rock shelter located in the Maros Pankep karst region of Sulawesi, Indonesia, has become a pivotal site for paleoanthropological research. Scholars have uncovered one of the most thorough records of early human habitation in Wallasia, which serves as a critical junction between Asia and Australia. This groundbreaking discovery highlights the timeline of Homo sapiens, revealing their adaptation and existence tens of thousands of years ago, alongside ancient human species.
Leang Bulu Bettue in the Maros Pankep karst region of South Sulawesi. Image credit: Burhan et al., doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0337993.
At Leang Bulu Betu, Basran Burhan and his team from Griffith University have uncovered a wealth of artifacts, stone tools, and animal remains dating back to the Pleistocene era.
Burhan stated, “The depth and continuity of cultural sequences at Leang Bulu Bettue now position this cave as a key site for exploring potential overlaps between different hominin lineages.”
The initial stages of occupation date back approximately 208,000 years and are defined by simple stone tools and evidence of animal slaughter.
Among the significant artifacts are strong stone tools referred to as picks, indicating that archaic human cultural practices predated the arrival of modern humans.
Professor Adam Blum from Griffith University remarked, “These findings suggest an archaic human cultural tradition that persisted into the late Pleistocene in Sulawesi.”
Archaeological evidence indicates a notable transformation around 40,000 years ago, showing advancements in stone technology and the emergence of symbolic behavior, which are closely associated with Homo sapiens.
Burhan noted, “This later phase was marked by a unique technological toolkit and the earliest evidence of artistic expression and symbolic behavior on the island.”
Sulawesi plays a critical role in the narrative of human evolution due to its geographic location between the continents of Asia and Sahul, which once linked Australia and New Guinea, making it a vital conduit for early human migration.
Despite this significance, the area’s dense forests and complex terrains have resulted in a surprisingly minimal archaeological record to date.
This new research raises intriguing possibilities about the coexistence of Homo sapiens with their extinct relatives on Sulawesi.
The researchers propose that Leang Bulu Bettue could provide the first tangible archaeological evidence of this chronological overlap and potential interactions.
The later layers reveal signs of symbolic and cultural behaviors, echoing discoveries at other ancient Sulawesi sites known for rock art and advanced tools.
These advancements were initially thought to be exclusive to Homo sapiens, suggesting that the arrival of modern humans brought not only technological innovations but also new cognitive and cultural practices.
Professor Blum expressed, “Archaeological research on Sulawesi is particularly compelling because, unlike Australia, which shows no evidence of human habitation prior to our species’ arrival, Sulawesi was inhabited by various hominins for a million years before our emergence.”
“If we dig deep enough, we may find evidence of interactions between these different human species.”
Burhan stated, “There may be several more meters of archaeological layers beneath the deepest level we have explored at Leang Bulu Bettue.”
“Further investigations at this site could yield groundbreaking discoveries that reshape our understanding of early human history on Sulawesi and beyond.”
The findings were published in December 2025 in the journal PLoS ONE.
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B. Burhan et al. 2025. A near-continuous archaeological record of Pleistocene human occupation discovered at Leang Bulu Bettue, Sulawesi, Indonesia. PLoS ONE 20 (12): e0337993; doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0337993
Recent archaeological findings have unveiled traces of two toxic plant alkaloids, bupandoline and epibufanisin, in artifacts discovered at the Umhlatuzana Rock Complex in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. These artifacts, known as lined microliths, date back approximately 60,000 years, providing evidence of poisoned weaponry from the Late Pleistocene era.
A lined microlith from the Umhlatuzana Caves, showing residues of bufanidrine and epibufanisin, along with reddish toxic glue attached to the tool. Image credit: Isaksson et al., doi: 10.1126/sciadv.adz3281.
Professor Marlies Lombard from the University of Johannesburg remarked, “This represents the earliest direct evidence of arrow poison used by humans.”
“Our research reveals that early humans in southern Africa invented the bow and arrow much earlier than previously believed and utilized natural compounds to enhance hunting efficiency.”
Using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry, Lombard and her team analyzed residues from 10 quartz microliths, identifying bufanidrine and epibufanisin in five of them.
These compounds are derived from the Amaryllidaceae plant family, which is indigenous to southern Africa.
The likely source is a plant species known as Buffondistica, historically associated with arrow poisons.
The residue patterns indicate that the Umhlatuzana microlith had a transverse handle and served as an arrow tip.
Visible poison residue along the dorsal part of some artifacts suggests that toxic compounds were incorporated into the adhesive used to attach the stone tip to the arrow shaft.
The presence of minor impact scars and edge striations supports its use as a tip for horizontally-handled arrows.
To validate their results, researchers compared the ancient residues with poisons extracted from 18th-century arrowheads in South Africa.
“Finding the same poison in both prehistoric and historical arrowheads was crucial,” stated Professor Sven Isaksson of Stockholm University.
“Through detailed analysis of the chemical structures, we confirmed that these materials can endure underground for extended periods.”
This groundbreaking discovery pushes the timeline for toxic weapons back significantly.
Previously, the oldest known arrow poisons were dated to the mid-Holocene, but the findings from Umhlatuzana demonstrate their use as far back as 60,000 years ago.
The authors explain that poisoned arrows are designed not for immediate kills, but to weaken animals over time, allowing hunters to track prey over great distances.
“Utilizing arrow poison requires foresight, strategy, and a keen understanding of natural effects,” noted Professor Anders Högberg from Linnaeus University.
“This indicates a level of cognitive sophistication in early human behavior.”
For further details, refer to the study published on January 7th in Scientific Advances.
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Sven Isaksson et al. 2026. Direct evidence of poison use in microlithic arrowheads from southern Africa, dating back 60,000 years. Scientific Advances, 12(2);doi: 10.1126/sciadv.adz3281
Recent discoveries of hominin fossils in the Thomas Quarry I cave located in Casablanca, Morocco, provide crucial insights into the early origins of homo sapiens. These findings indicate that the lineage leading to modern humans was potentially established in Africa nearly 800,000 years ago. The fossils, although similar in age to the ancestor of homo discovered in Spain, display a mix of primitive and advanced traits reminiscent of post-Eurasian hominins, including homo sapiens.
Reconstruction of homo erectus.
Paleoanthropologists have long debated the origins of Neanderthals and Denisovans, the last common ancestors of modern humans. Genetic studies reveal that this ancestor likely existed between approximately 765,000 and 550,000 years ago, although fossil records are still inconclusive.
While some researchers have posited a Eurasian origin based on fossils unearthed in Atapuerca, Spain, dating back to 950,000 to 770,000 years ago, the new findings from Morocco reinforce the theory of an African origin.
Recent discoveries from the Moroccan cave, including mandible fragments, teeth, vertebrae, and femur pieces, bolster the evidence supporting Africa as the cradle of human evolution.
Analysis of the sediments surrounding these fossils indicates that they date back approximately 773,000 years, coinciding with significant changes in the Earth’s magnetic field, aligning with the era of the ancestor of homo.
Interestingly, the new fossils present distinct morphological differences. The evidence suggests that regional differentiation between Europe and North Africa was already evident by the late Early Pleistocene, spanning from around 1.8 million to 780,000 years ago.
The Moroccan fossils exhibit a blend of primitive features linked to species like homo erectus alongside more modern traits found in homo sapiens and Neanderthals.
For instance, their molar size aligns with earlier homo sapiens fossils, while the jaw shape resembles that of Neanderthals and other African archaic humans.
Although the Moroccan fossil may not serve as the ultimate last common ancestor of modern humans, Neanderthals, and Denisovans, it is likely a close precursor.
“The Moroccan fossils likely represent an advanced form of homo erectus in North Africa, situated on a lineage close to the evolutionary divergence between African and Eurasian lineages,” stated the researchers.
“Our findings underscore the Maghreb region as vital for understanding the emergence of our species and strengthen the argument for an African origin of homo sapiens,” they concluded.
Findings are detailed in a recent study published in Nature.
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J.J. Havlin and colleagues. Early human fossils from Morocco and the emergence of homo sapiens. Nature, published online January 7, 2026. doi: 10.1038/s41586-025-09914-y
A groundbreaking research team at the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology has successfully generated a high-quality Denisovan genome assembly using ancient DNA extracted from molar teeth found in the Denisovan Cave. This genome, dating back approximately 200,000 years, significantly predates the only previously sequenced Denisovan specimen. The findings are prompting a reevaluation of when and where early human groups interacted, mixed, and migrated throughout Asia.
Artist’s concept of Penghu Denisovans walking under the bright sun during the Pleistocene in Taiwan. Image credit: Cheng-Han Sun.
Dr. Stéphane Peregne, an evolutionary geneticist from the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, along with his team, recovered this Denisovan genome from molars excavated in the Denisova Cave, located in the Altai Mountains of southern Siberia. This cave is historically significant as it was the site where Denisovans were first discovered in 2010 through DNA analysis of finger bones.
This cave continues to be pivotal in the study of human evolution, revealing repeated occupations by Denisovans, Neanderthals, and even offspring resulting from the interbreeding of these groups.
“The Denisovans were first identified in 2008 based on ancient DNA sourced from Denisova 3, a phalanx found in the Denisova Cave,” Dr. Peregne and his colleagues noted.
“This analysis confirms that Denisovans are closely related to Neanderthals, an extinct human group that thrived in Western Eurasia during the mid-to-late Pleistocene.”
Since then, twelve fragmentary remains and a single skull have been associated with Denisovans through DNA or protein analysis, with Denisova 3 being the only specimen yielding a high-quality genome.
The newly studied molars, belonging to a Denisovan male who lived approximately 200,000 years ago, are predating modern humans’ migration out of Africa.
“In 2020, a complete upper left molar was found in Layer 17, one of the oldest cultural layers within the southern chamber of the Denisova Cave, dating between 200,000 and 170,000 years old based on photostimulated luminescence,” the scientists elaborated.
“Designated as Denisova 25, this molar resembles others found at Denisova Cave, specifically Denisova 4 and Denisova 8, and exhibits larger dimensions compared to Neanderthal and most post-Middle Pleistocene hominid molars, indicating it likely belonged to a Denisovan.”
“Two samples of 2.7 mg and 8.9 mg were extracted by drilling a hole at the cement-enamel junction of the tooth, with an additional 12 subsamples varying from 4.5 to 20.2 mg collected by carefully scraping the outer root layer using a dental drill.”
Thanks to excellent DNA preservation, researchers successfully reconstructed the genome of Denisova 25 with high coverage, matching the quality of the 65,000-year-old female Denisova 3 genome.
Denisovans likely had dark skin, in contrast to the pale Neanderthals. The image depicts a Neanderthal. Image credit: Mauro Cutrona.
Comparisons between the genomes indicate that Denisovans were not a singular, homogeneous population.
Instead, at least two distinct Denisovan groups inhabited the Altai region at various intervals, with one group gradually replacing the other over millennia.
Earlier Denisovans possessed a greater amount of Neanderthal DNA than later populations, suggesting that interbreeding was a regular event rather than an isolated occurrence in the Ice Age landscape of Eurasia.
Even more intriguing, the study uncovered evidence that Denisovans engaged in interbreeding with “hyperarchaic” hominin groups that diverged from the human lineage before the ancestors of Denisovans, Neanderthals, and modern humans branched off.
“This second Denisovan genome illustrates the recurrent admixture between Neanderthals and Denisovans in the Altai region, suggesting these mixed populations were eventually supplanted by Denisovans from other regions, reinforcing the notion that Denisovans were widespread and that populations in the Altai may have existed at the periphery of their geographic range,” the researchers explained.
The Denisovan 25 genome presents valuable insights into the long-standing mysteries regarding the Denisovan ancestry in contemporary populations.
People in Oceania, parts of South Asia, and East Asia all carry Denisovan DNA, albeit from different Denisovan sources.
Through genetic comparison, scientists have identified at least three separate Denisovan origins, highlighted by their genetic segments found in thousands of modern genomes.
One lineage closely relates to the later Denisovan genome and is linked to widespread ancestry across East Asia and beyond.
A second, more distantly related Denisovan population contributed independently to Oceanian and South Asian ancestry.
Notably, East Asians do not share this highly divergent Denisovan ancestry, implying their ancestors may have taken a different route into Asia, potentially from the north, whereas Oceanian ancestors likely migrated through South Asia.
“Neanderthal-like DNA fragments appear in all populations, including Oceanians, aligning with a singular out-of-Africa migration; however, the distinct Denisovan gene flow points to multiple migrations into Asia,” the researchers stated.
Reconstruction of a young Denisovan woman based on skeletal profiles derived from ancient DNA methylation maps. Image credit: Maayan Harel.
The researchers believe certain Denisovan genetic traits offered advantages that increased their prevalence in modern human populations through the process of natural selection.
By analyzing both Denisovan genomes, the authors pinpointed numerous regions in present-day populations that appear to have originated from Denisovan introgression, particularly in Oceania and South Asia.
Genetic alterations observed in other Denisovans provide intriguing insights into their physical appearances.
Several unique mutations in Denisovans influence genes connected to cranial shape, jaw protrusion, and facial characteristics—attributes that align with the limited fossil record associated with Denisovans.
A shift in regulatory mechanisms is on the horizon. The Fox P2 gene, implicated in brain development and language in modern humans, raises important questions regarding the cognitive capabilities of Denisovans, although researchers emphasize that genetic data cannot replace direct fossil or archaeological evidence.
“The impact of Denisovan alleles on modern human phenotypes might also shed light on Denisovan biology,” the researchers pointed out.
“Examining alleles linked to contemporary human traits, we identified 16 associations with 11 Denisovan alleles, covering aspects like height, blood pressure, cholesterol levels, and C-reactive protein levels.”
“Additionally, we recognized 305 expressed quantitative trait loci (QTL) and 117 alternative splicing QTLs that affect gene expression across 19 tissues in modern humans, with the most significant effects observable in the thyroid, tibial artery, testis, and muscle tissues.”
“These molecular effects can be utilized to explore additional phenotypes that are not retained in the fossil record. This updated catalog provides a more reliable foundation for investigating Denisovan traits, adaptations, and disease susceptibilities, some of which may have influenced modern humans through admixture.”
Archaeologists from the University of Tübingen and LMU Munich have unearthed the remnants of an ancient pottery workshop in an early Iron Age Dinka settlement on the Peshdar Plain, located in Iraq’s Kurdish Autonomous Region. This groundbreaking discovery enhances our understanding of craft specializations, technical traditions, and urban life, revealing a surprising level of socio-economic complexity in the region during that era.
A 3,000-year-old pottery workshop in Jirdi Bazaar, showcasing the walls and kiln. Image credit: Andrea Scutieri.
The Dinka settlement complex, encompassing Girdi Bazaar, Karati Dinka, and neighboring areas, was excavated as part of the Peshdar Plain project launched by LMU Munich archaeologists in 2015.
This initiative concentrated on the Iron Age of the Lower Zab headwaters, a historically underexplored region in the western Zagros.
Excavations have revealed previously unknown Iron Age ruins, featuring a diverse pottery assemblage and a pottery production workshop in the bustling Jirdi Bazaar.
The workshop included two updraft kilns and manufacturing tools dating back to approximately 1200 to 800 BC.
Dr. Silvia Amicone, an archaeologist at the University of Tübingen, remarked: “The workshop was so well-preserved that we could utilize various techniques to gain a comprehensive understanding of how potters operated in this region during the Iron Age.”
Archaeologists examined materials including raw clay, finished pottery, kiln lining, contents, and fuel remnants from the firing process.
Through mineralogical and microstructural analysis of clay and pottery samples, researchers identified the raw materials and manufacturing methods employed in pottery creation.
Findings indicate that while vessels from this settlement exhibited minor variations in shape and finish—possibly reflective of their specific functions—these differences were integrated into a modular and well-organized production framework, likely catering to both the Dinka settlement and the surrounding area, with the Gil-i-Bazaar workshop playing a pivotal role.
This conclusion is corroborated by extensive evidence of pottery production across the settlement complex, including potential kilns identified through geophysical analyses.
The results suggest that pottery production was fundamental to the city’s configuration, with Gird-i Bazar being part of a network of workshops adhering to standardized production procedures.
“Our findings suggest that pottery was mainly fired at relatively low temperatures (below 900 degrees Celsius) under oxidizing conditions, utilizing simple updraft kilns with gradual heating rates and brief firing times,” the researchers stated.
“The variations in microstructural and mineralogical characteristics can be explained by different firing events conducted within a shared technological framework.”
“All types of vessels appear to have been ignited similarly, showcasing a consistent tradition of pyrotechnics.”
“Investigating pottery production in Dinka settlements provides a unique insight into the organization and innovative capabilities of early urban societies,” explained Professor Karla Pohlmann (Doshisha), Rector of the University of Tübingen.
“These discoveries illuminate how technological knowledge and community structures laid the groundwork for cultural evolution over 2,500 years ago.”
“Such research serves as a reminder that progress has always been a collective endeavor.”
For further insights, refer to this study. The survey’s results will be published on December 23rd in an archeology journal.
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Silvia Amicone et al. “Assembling the pieces of the puzzle: Integrating pottery and kiln analysis to reconstruct firework technology in Dinka settlements (Iraqi Kurdistan).” archeology journal, published online on December 23, 2025. doi: 10.1016/j.jas.2025.106425
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