Tag Archives: primary

Archaeologists Develop First 3D Model of Easter Island’s Primary Moai Quarry

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Evidence from ethnohistory and recent archaeology indicates that Easter Island (Rapanui) had a politically decentralized structure, organized into small kin-based communities that operated with a degree of autonomy throughout the island. This raises significant questions regarding the over 1,000 monumental statues (moai). Was the production process at Rano Raraku, the main moai quarry, centrally managed, or did it reflect the decentralized patterns observed on the island? Archaeologists utilized a dataset of more than 11,000 UAV images to create the first comprehensive three-dimensional model of a quarry to examine these competing hypotheses.

3D model of Rano Raraku quarry. Image credit: Lipo et al., doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0336251.

The monumental Moai of Easter Island stand as one of the most remarkable archaeological achievements in Polynesia, with over 1,000 megalithic statues spread across the volcanic isle, which is just 100 miles long.2

This significant investment in monumental architecture seems paradoxical when compared to ethnohistorical records that consistently depict Rapa Nui society as composed of relatively small, rival kin-based groups rather than a centralized polity.

Early ethnographers described a sociopolitical environment with numerous matas (clans or tribes) maintaining distinct territorial boundaries, independent ceremonial centers, and autonomous leadership structures.

This leads to the question of whether the construction of the moai was similarly decentralized.

In a recent study, Professor Carl Lipo from Binghamton University and his team compiled over 11,000 images of Rano Raraku, a key moai quarry, and developed a detailed 3D model of the site, which includes hundreds of moai at various stages of completion.

“For archaeologists, quarries are like an archaeological Disneyland,” Professor Lipo stated.

“Everything you can imagine about the making of a moai is represented here, as most of the crafting was performed directly on site.”

“This has always been a goldmine of information and cultural significance, yet it remains greatly under-documented.”

“The rapid advancement in technology is astounding,” noted Dr. Thomas Pingel of Binghamton University.

“The quality of this model surpasses what was achievable just a few years ago, and the ability to share such a detailed model accessible from anyone’s desktop is exceptional.”

In-depth analysis of the model revealed 30 distinct quarrying centers, each exhibiting different carving techniques, indicating multiple independent working zones.

There is also evidence of the moai being transported in various directions from the quarry.

These observations imply that moai construction, like the broader societal structure of Rapa Nui, lacked central organization.

“We are observing individualized workshops that cater specifically to different clan groups, focusing on particular areas,” said Professor Lipo.

“From the construction site, you can visually identify that specific groups created a series of statues together, indicating separate workshops.”

This finding challenges the prevalent assumption that such large-scale monument production necessitates a hierarchical structure.

The similarities among the moai appear to be the result of shared cultural knowledge rather than collaborative efforts in carving the statues.

“Much of the so-called ‘Rapanui mystery’ arises from the scarcity of publicly available detailed evidence that would empower researchers to assess hypotheses and formulate explanations,” stated the researchers.

“We present the first high-resolution 3D model of the Rano Raraku Moai Quarry, the key site for nearly 1,000 statues, offering new perspectives on the organization and manufacturing processes behind these massive megalithic sculptures.”

Findings are detailed in an article published in the Online Journal on November 26, 2025 in PLoS ONE.

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CP Lipo et al. 2025. Production of megalithic statues (moai) at Rapa Nui (Easter Island, Chile). PLoS One 20 (11): e0336251; doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0336251

Source: www.sci.news

Iron-rich minerals containing water may be the primary reason for the red hue of Mars.

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This iron mineral, called ferihydrite, formed under oxidative conditions during cold, humid periods on early Mars, continuing its transition to the current overheating environment.

This image of Mars Express's high-resolution stereo camera shows Mars glove set on a dark background. The planet's disc has patches of yellow, orange, blue and green, all with a muted gray hue throughout, representing the various compositions of the surface. Image credits: ESA/DLR/FU BERLIN/G. MICHAEL/CC BY-SA 3.0 IGO.

Mars is easily identified in the night sky due to its prominent red tint.

Thanks to a fleet of spacecrafts that have been studying planets over the past decades, this red colour is known to be due to rusty iron minerals in the dust.

In other words, iron bound to the rocks of Mars reacted at one point with water and oxygen in the air, just as how rust on Earth formed.

For more than billions of years, this rusty material, iron oxide — has been broken down into dust around the planet by the wind, a process that continues today.

However, iron oxide has a lot of flavour and the precise chemistry of Mars' rust is heavily debated as it is a window into the environmental conditions of Earth at the time.

And what's closely linked to it is the question of whether Mars has been habitable to date.

Previous studies of the iron oxide components of Martian dust based solely on spacecraft observations found no evidence of water contained within it.

Therefore, planetary researchers say that this particular type of iron oxide is formed under hematite, which is formed under dry surface conditions through reaction with the Martian atmosphere for billions of years after an early wet period on Mars. I had concluded that it had to be.

However, new analysis of spacecraft observations combined with new laboratory techniques shows that Mars' red colour is better matched by iron oxides containing water known as ferihydrite.

Felihydrite usually forms quickly in the presence of cold water, so it must have been formed when Mars was still water on the surface.

The minerals hold a watery signature to this day, despite their spreading down to the ground.

Dr. Adomas Valantinas, a researcher at Brown University, said:

“Ferihydrite, mixed with volcanic rock basalt, has proven to be the most suitable for the minerals found in Martian spacecraft.”

“Mars is still a red planet. It's not only about understanding why Mars is red, but it also means that our understanding has changed.”

“The main meaning is that Mars was rusting faster than before, as ferrihydrite could only form when water was still on the surface.”

“In addition, under current conditions on Mars, ferrihydrite remains stable.”

Mars has acquired its iconic color from the combination of rust and erosion over its 4.6 billion years of history. Image credits: ESA/ATG Europe/Valantinas et al. , doi: 10.1038/s41467-025-56970-z.

Other studies have also suggested that ferrihydrite may be present in Mars' dust, but the current study has been the first comprehensive study through a unique combination of space mission data and new laboratory experiments. Provide evidence.

The authors used an advanced grinder machine to create replica Mars dust, achieving realistic dust grain sizes equivalent to 1/100th of human hair.

To make a direct comparison, the samples were then analyzed using the same technology as the spacecraft orbiting the spacecraft, and ultimately identified ferrihydrite as the best match.

“This study is the result of a complementary dataset from a fleet of international missions exploring Mars at orbital and ground levels,” says Dr. Colin Wilson, PhD, Trace Gas Orbiter (TGO) from ESA and Mars Express Project Scientist. said.

Mars Express's dust mineralogy analysis helped to show that even the highly dusty regions of the planet contain water-rich minerals.

Also, thanks to TGO's unique trajectory, you can see the same area at different lighting conditions and angles. Researchers can unravel the particle size and composition essential to replicate the correct dust size in the lab.

Data from NASA's Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter and ground-based measurements from NASA's Mars Rovers Curiosity, Pathfinder and opportunity also helped to assert ferrihydrite.

“We are eagerly awaiting the results of our upcoming missions, including ESA's Rosalind Franklin Rover and sample returns from NASA/ESA Mars.

“Some of the samples that have already been collected by NASA's Perseverance Rover and are waiting for their return to Earth contain dust. Putting these precious samples into the lab will result in dust. You can accurately measure the amount of ferihydrite contained and what this means to understand the history of water and the potential for life on Mars.”

“This research is an opening opportunity for the door,” said Dr. Jack Mustard, a planetary scientist at Brown University.

“It gives us a better opportunity to apply the principles of mineral formation and conditions and tap time.”

“More importantly, the return of samples from Mars, which are currently being collected through patience.”

Survey results It will be displayed in the journal Natural Communication.

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A. Valantinas et al. 2025. Detection of ferrihydrite in the red dust of Mars records ancient cold and wet conditions on Mars. Nut commune 16, 1712; doi:10.1038/s41467-025-56970-z

Source: www.sci.news

James Dyson’s donation of £6 million to primary schools given the go-ahead despite reservations

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The Government has approved a donation of £6 million from Sir James Dyson to fund the expansion of a local state primary school, Malmesbury Anglican Primary School in Wiltshire, near Dyson’s research and development campus, despite concerns about the potential impact on nearby schools.

Education Secretary Gillian Keegan announced the approval on Monday, revealing that the donation will fund a ‘first class’ Science, Technology, Engineering, Arts and Mathematics (STEM) center, additional classrooms, and space for 210 more pupils, with an opening date in September 2027, subject to planning permission by Wiltshire Council, bringing the total capacity to 630 students.

The James Dyson Foundation, which is responsible for the donation, has not officially welcomed the approval and is considering the details of the decision carefully.

In a letter to the Times last year, Mr Dyson expressed his disappointment with his charity’s donations being blocked and described the difficulty of getting things done in the UK.

This claim was denied by Downing Street, but local opposition from Laura Mays, Wiltshire Council’s cabinet member for children’s services, suggested that there is already enough space in three local schools to meet demand.

Reports indicate that many employees at Dyson’s UK headquarters in Malmesbury would like to send their children to the school, but the current size does not accommodate this.

Education Secretary Gillian Keegan expressed her appreciation for the generous donation from the Dyson Foundation, emphasizing the support it will provide for local students and the development of future scientists and engineers.

Malmesbury Primary School’s headteacher, Steve Heal, expressed gratitude for the foundation’s support, highlighting the long journey to reach this point and the innovative curriculum created in collaboration with Dyson.

Laura Mays, following the government’s announcement, emphasized the importance of providing opportunities for all students and assured that the council will work with all parties involved to ensure the best outcome for all students.

Former education secretary Kenneth Baker supported Dyson’s efforts and questioned the government’s decision to reject the proposal, suggesting that it could discourage other industries and entrepreneurs from investing in technical education in schools.

Source: www.theguardian.com

Confining Atoms in a Small Tube Creates a Strange “Primary Gas”

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A single atom of krypton trapped in a Buckminsterfullerene cage

University of Nottingham

The krypton atoms become stuck in a “traffic jam” inside the carbon nanotube, unable to pass through each other, allowing scientists to more easily observe how the krypton atoms interact. Researchers hope that this “primary energetic body” can shed light on fundamental physical forces.

Andrey Klobistov and his colleagues at the University of Nottingham, UK, have discovered that the narrow space restricts movement and makes it easier to observe the inside of carbon nanotubes, which are just 1.5 nanometers thick (one-half millionth the width of a human hair). He spent years studying chemical reactions. They have now developed a way to do the same thing with atoms of the rare gas krypton, creating a so-called one-dimensional gas.

The researchers used a buckminsterfullerene molecule, a spherical cage made of 60 carbon atoms, with a krypton atom trapped inside. These molecules are sucked into the carbon nanotube by van der Waals forces, weak attractive forces caused by fluctuations in the electron cloud surrounding the atomic nucleus. Once filled, the tube is heated to 1200 °C and the cage is destroyed. The carbon atoms are absorbed into the nanotube, leaving behind a string of krypton atoms.

A single atom of krypton confined in a Buckminsterfullerene cage inside a nanotube, observed with an electron microscope

University of Nottingham

Klovistov said the result is like a “traffic jam” in which atoms can be observed slowly, rather than flying around at up to 400 meters per second, as they often do in three-dimensional gases. The group used a transmission electron microscope to image atoms, allowing them to accurately measure the distances between them.

“They fundamentally change their behavior,” Klovistov said. “This is a very interesting system. We can track their trajectories, how they move and how they interact. This is a great toy to play with with noble gases. “We can gain a fundamental understanding of the behavior of atoms under extreme confinement.”

Other researchers have already observed that krypton atoms form pairs held together by van der Waals forces. This phenomenon is difficult to observe in unconstrained atoms and can also occur within nanotubes. Klobistov said future experiments will be “full of surprises.”

Future research will investigate how temperature affects primary gas. If you reduce the temperature of a gas in three-dimensional space, it will condense into a liquid and then solidify, but there is no guarantee that the same rules will apply in his one dimension.

“Maybe there's no such thing as a 1D liquid, it's just a 1D solid. It's a bit of a voyage of discovery,” says Klobistov.

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Source: www.newscientist.com