Credit: University of Alabama Huntsville, Propulsion Research Center
Astronauts currently face the challenge of washing laundry in space, but that scenario may soon change. This innovation could lead to enhanced comfort for individuals on extended missions to the Moon or Mars.
On the International Space Station (ISS), astronauts typically wear the same clothing for multiple days before returning them to Earth, where they incinerate upon re-entry. While this approach suffices for shorter missions, it becomes impractical for extended missions without frequent supplies from Earth.
Recently, researchers Gabe Schuh and Chelsea Cassilly at NASA’s Marshall Space Flight Center have introduced a novel “washing gun” that projects cold plasma onto fabrics, effectively eliminating odor-causing microorganisms. This breakthrough was highlighted at the recent Astrobiology Science Conference held in Wisconsin on May 21st.
The mechanism involves igniting a mixture of helium, air, and water vapor with a strong electric burst, resulting in oxygen ions that permeate the fabric, attacking and destroying harmful microorganisms through oxidative stress.
One significant advantage of this plasma method over others, such as ultraviolet light exposure, is its effectiveness against resistant microorganisms. “Certain microorganisms can withstand UV light, but based on our tests, there’s no known microorganism resilient to oxidative stress. If they absorb it, they perish,” Xu explained. Laboratory tests demonstrated that the purple plasma beam decreased spore colonies on cotton cloth samples from 250,000 to approximately 60,000 colonies per milliliter.
This cleaning technique operates without damaging the fabric or presenting safety hazards. “When we think about plasma jets, we often visualize extremely hot phenomena like lightning or welding. However, with a jet designed for this application, it becomes safe for home use,” Xu states.
Despite its current limitation to disinfect only small fabric patches at a time, effectively scaling it for household use remains a challenge. Xu and Cassilly are advancing two alternative versions: a “plasma washer” that channels plasma into a chamber containing the fabric and a dual plasma jet vacuum suitable for surface applications.
As Schuh remarked, “For long-term habitats on the Moon or Mars, astronauts will undoubtedly desire a clean and comfortable environment, but achieving that necessitates effective cleaning solutions. Plasma jets could make this vision a reality.”
While many envision Mars as a desolate red dust ball, recent research indicates the presence of mineral deposits suggesting a warm and wet history for the planet. A dedicated team utilized the Compact Reconnaissance Imaging Spectrometer aboard NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter to analyze specific wavelengths of visible and near-infrared light from Martian minerals, allowing for detailed assessments of the planet’s chemical composition from afar.
Previous studies have revealed layered silicate minerals, notably clay, scattered across Mars’ surface. This clay formation occurs when water interacts with rock, documenting the amount and chemical composition of the water involved. Water’s interaction with Martian rocks led to the mobilization of elements like magnesium and iron, transporting them to deeper soil layers, while more stable elements like aluminum remained in place. This natural process, known as leaching, resulted in the creation of two distinct clay layers within Martian geology.
Scientists have proposed two primary hypotheses regarding the formation of these layered clays on Mars. The first suggests that clay was formed through underwater seepage in ancient lakes. The second hypothesis posits that a humid surface environment facilitated the leaching process across the Martian landscape.
To investigate these hypotheses, a team from Purdue University estimated the “true” thickness of Mars’ clay layers using terrestrial methods. Since clay-containing rock layers can appear distorted, they can misrepresent thickness. The team conducted a high-resolution imaging science experiment (HiRISE) to generate detailed elevation maps of the Martian surface, utilizing tools from the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter. These elevation maps were combined with surface composition data from the Compact Reconnaissance Imaging Spectrometer to create intricate 3D composition maps.
Using these 3D compositional maps, the researchers tracked the exposure of each clay layer and monitored it underground to estimate slope angles. They applied trigonometry to calculate the actual thickness of each clay layer, studying 46 locations on Mars. Astonishingly, they found that the total thickness of the combined clay layers ranges from approximately 20 to 680 feet (6 to 200 meters), averaging about 190 feet (60 meters), equivalent to the height of a 60-story building.
The researchers then explored the extent of clay deposits in a significant ancient Martian valley known as the Great Valley of Mars, specifically the Mawrth Vallis region. This region was chosen for its significant elevation variations and previously collected high-resolution chemical composition and elevation data.
The study determined that if the clay layers were confined to the valley’s bottom where water existed, along with varying thicknesses and boundaries, this would strongly support the “aquatic seepage” hypothesis. Conversely, consistent thickness and widespread layer boundaries would lean towards the “surface seepage” hypothesis, indicating a moist surface environment.
The findings revealed that the clay layer extended beyond the valley’s lowest points, maintaining consistent boundaries over an elevation difference of more than half a mile (approximately 1 kilometer). Consequently, the researchers concluded that the clay layers most likely formed through surface leaching in a moist environment.
These groundbreaking discoveries challenge earlier Martian climate models, which suggested that surface conditions rarely exceeded freezing temperatures. The research team hypothesized that these deposits may have formed gradually over extended periods, despite a generally frigid climate. If Mars’ surface remained frozen most of the time with occasional warmth, this could reconcile their findings with existing climate models.
The researchers noted limitations within their study, especially regarding sparsely sampled locations. Despite their strong evidence for widespread wet environments on early Mars, further detailed research in areas like Mawrth Vallis could refine our understanding of the specific surface conditions under which these clays developed, potentially aligning more closely with Martian climate models.
Exciting new findings from NASA’s Mars Atmosphere and Volatile Evolution (MAVEN) spacecraft indicate that the Zwan-Wolf effect—where charged particles are expelled through magnetic structures known as flux tubes—is also influencing Mars’ upper atmosphere. This phenomenon was previously believed to be exclusive to Earth’s magnetosphere.
An artistic rendering of the Zwan-Wolf effect on Mars observed by NASA’s MAVEN mission. Image credit: LASP/CU Boulder.
“While analyzing MAVEN data, we discovered a remarkable change,” said Dr. Christopher Fowler, a researcher at West Virginia University.
“We never anticipated this effect because it had not been documented in any planet’s atmosphere before.”
The Zwan-Wolf effect was first identified in 1976 and had only been recorded within planetary magnetospheres until now.
In contrast to Earth, Mars lacks a global magnetic field, which significantly impacts how it interacts with solar wind and space weather.
The MAVEN spacecraft detected the Zwan-Wolf effect within Mars’ ionosphere—less than 200 km above the surface—where a notable number of charged particles reside.
Mars has an induced magnetosphere, produced by solar wind interacting with its ionosphere, but this field’s size and form can vary dramatically due to large solar wind and space weather events.
This variability is what Dr. Fowler and his team observed in MAVEN data during a massive solar storm on Mars.
The team suspects that the Zwan-Wolf effect could be constantly occurring in Mars’ ionosphere but at levels undetectable by MAVEN’s instruments.
Currently, space weather phenomena appear to have intensified, allowing researchers to observe it in their findings.
Initially, the authors noticed intriguing fluctuations in the magnetic field as the spacecraft traversed the Martian atmosphere.
To clarify these observations, they conducted a more detailed analysis using multiple MAVEN instruments, including charged particle measurement capabilities in the ionosphere.
Further analysis revealed additional fascinating features within the data.
After eliminating other possibilities, they identified the Zwan-Wolf effect as the reason for the observations.
“No one anticipated this effect in the atmosphere,” Dr. Fowler remarked.
“This discovery is thrilling; it introduces complexities in physics that remain unexplored and sheds light on new ways solar and space weather can influence Mars’ atmospheric dynamics.”
“Understanding the Zwan-Wolf effect on Mars enhances our knowledge of space weather’s impact and offers fresh insights into similar phenomena on non-magnetic celestial bodies like Venus and Saturn’s moon Titan.”
“These observations underscore the need to comprehend how large-scale space weather fluctuations can lead to environmental changes on Mars, potentially affecting assets both on the planet and in its vicinity.”
“Understanding space weather’s interactions with Mars is vital,” stated Dr. Shannon Currie, a researcher at the University of Colorado Boulder’s Institute for Atmospheric and Space Physics and MAVEN’s principal investigator.
“The MAVEN team continues to analyze our dataset for new discoveries and connections between our Sun and Mars.”
For a detailed look at this research, see the study published in this week’s edition of Nature Communications.
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C.M. Fowler et al. 2026. The Zwan-Wolf effect is detected in the ionosphere of Mars. Nat Commun, 17, 4224; doi: 10.1038/s41467-026-72251-9
What did the New Scientist Book Club think of Red Mars by Kim Stanley Robinson?
I set an engaging challenge for the New Scientist Book Club this April: reading through Kim Stanley Robinson’s epic novel Red Mars, a detailed 600-page journey into the complexities of colonizing Mars. In just 30 days, our members shared their thoughts on this literary masterpiece during our vibrant discussions on Discord.
There’s a personal element to this as well; Red Mars is one of my all-time favorites. After reading a compelling article by critic George Bass about the story’s beginning in 2026, I was motivated to revisit this captivating world with our passionate community of 25,000 readers. Robinson masterfully captures the vast, alien beauty of Mars, and I loved experiencing the narrative from multiple perspectives, particularly the character Anne — a passionate advocate for preserving Mars’s natural state — and Sacks, who is determined to terraform the planet swiftly. I found the perspective of Nadia, a pragmatic engineer, especially engaging, though I admit the love triangle between John, Frank, and Maya felt somewhat repetitive.
Some members returned to Red Mars for a second read, while others picked it up for the first time, and some were inspired to finally dive into a book they had long overlooked. DavidC reflected on his initial draw to the book, stating, “I found the phrase ‘but it all happened in the mineral unconscious’ really appealing right on the first page. Now I’m ready for the next 600 pages!”
However, Zagosia expressed dissatisfaction with the dramatic opening that resulted in an important character’s demise, stating, “I don’t like the concept of spoiling the ending in the first chapter. You don’t want to know where this is going?” I, along with other members, reassured her to continue reading.
My conversation with Robinson during a video interview shed light on his intriguing narrative choice: “This is a flash-forward. It creates a sense of tension as we learn that John is dead, but we don’t yet understand why. This adds depth to every seemingly mundane detail of the town’s development.” The suspense enriches the story.
Robinson recently reread Red Mars and found it resonated well, apart from some “laughable gaps” in his knowledge of 2026 and beyond. He discussed the current misguided dreams of colonizing Mars, critically stating, “These people don’t think through the implications.” He dismissed Elon Musk’s notion that colonizing Mars would “save Earth” as unrealistic.
Reactions from our readers varied; many praised Robinson’s beautifully crafted writing about Mars while some found it hard to connect with the characters. Zagosia noted, “The portrayal of nature and scale was remarkable, yet I struggled to empathize with the characters and often felt situations lacked logic.”
Annie Greenwood enjoyed the book but craved something more relationship-driven afterward, saying, “I wanted an injection of character complexity after ‘Red Mars.’ I felt the narrative leaned heavily on ideas more than deep interpersonal dynamics.” The high-quality writing is undeniable, yet it lacked the emotional engagement she sought.
Discussions arose about the fragile state of affairs on Mars and whether a better selection of astronauts could have prevented chaos. Barbara Howe noted, “I anticipated a tale of scientific triumph over adversity, but what I encountered was a melodrama rife with human politics and flaws.” Despite personal frustrations with the plot dynamics, she appreciated the vivid descriptions of the Martian environment and found a few characters, like Nadia and Arkady, compelling.
Overall, our book club members enjoyed the rich experience of reading, discussing, and analyzing this classic sci-fi novel. Personally, I was thrilled to rediscover Red Mars as one of my enduring favorites.
Join the New Scientist Book Club today and participate in the conversation! Visit us on Discord.
NASA’s Curiosity rover has discovered over 20 carbon-containing compounds, including seven previously unseen on Mars, from 3.5 billion-year-old clay-rich sandstone in Gale Crater.
A close-up of three holes drilled by Curiosity into Martian rock in October 2020 at a site named after Mary Anning. Image credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/MSSS.
The drilled rock sample, named Mary Anning 3 in honor of the British fossil collector and paleontologist, comes from a region of Mount Sharp that was once abundant in lakes and streams billions of years ago.
This ancient environment underwent cycles of flooding and drying, which eventually enriched the area with clay minerals adept at preserving organic matter.
Among the newly identified compounds are nitrogen heterocycles—a type of ring structure containing carbon and nitrogen—believed to be precursors to crucial nucleic acids like RNA and DNA.
Dr. Amy Williams from the University of Florida stated, “This discovery is significant as these structures could be chemical precursors to more complex nitrogenous molecules.” She further explained that nitrogen heterocycles have never been recorded on Mars until now, nor have they been identified in Martian meteorites.
Another fascinating finding is benzothiophene, a molecule composed of carbon and sulfur, commonly found in many meteorites. Some scientists think that these meteorites, along with their organic compounds, may have contributed to prebiotic chemistry across the early solar system.
Dr. Ashwin Vasavada from NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory emphasized the teamwork involved: “It required dozens of scientists and engineers to identify this site, drill samples, and achieve these remarkable discoveries with our advanced robotic technologies.”
This collection of organic molecules ignites the possibility that Mars may have harbored life in the distant past.
The analysis of the Mary Anning 3 sample was conducted in a sophisticated mini-lab known as Sample Analysis of Mars (SAM), housed within Curiosity’s body.
A drill at the end of the rover’s robotic arm carefully grinds selected rock samples into powder, which is then deposited into the SAM. Here, the samples are heated in a high-temperature oven that liberates gases, enabling laboratory equipment to analyze the rock’s chemical composition.
Moreover, SAM is capable of performing “wet chemistry,” where samples are mixed with a solvent in small cups, allowing large complex molecules to break down for easier detection.
Among the cups, only two are filled with tetramethylammonium hydroxide (TMAH), a powerful solution earmarked for the most significant samples. The Mary Anning 3 sample was the first to undergo TMAH treatment.
To verify TMAH’s reactions with extraterrestrial materials, researchers also tested this method on Earth with a fraction of the Murchison meteorite—one of the most studied meteorites, aged over 4 billion years, containing vital organic molecules from the early solar system.
Tests revealed that Murchison samples reacted with TMAH to break down larger molecules into smaller ones, including the benzothiophene found in Mary Anning 3, reinforcing the idea that these Martian compounds may originate from more complex molecules linked to life.
The spatial distribution analysis of organic materials is currently limited within SAM, leaving unclear whether the identified compounds stem from meteorite deposits or were formed abiotically through processes like serpentinization or electrochemical reactions. Nevertheless, the verification of macromolecular organics suggests that future optimized TMAH thermochemical experiments may unlock ancient biosignatures preserved within Martian macromolecules.
The diverse structural characteristics of organic molecules observed directly from surface materials indicate that some chemical diversity has been maintained in ancient Martian sediments, even after more than 3.5 billion years of geological changes and radiation exposure.
“These findings expand the inventory of organic molecules recognized as preserved at the Martian surface over deep geological time, supporting the existence of polymeric carbon on Mars,” the scientists concluded.
For further information, refer to the findings published in the Journal on April 21, 2026, in Nature Communications.
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AJ Williams et al. 2026. The first SAM TMAH experiment reveals a diverse array of organic molecules on Mars. Nat Commune 17, 2748; doi: 10.1038/s41467-026-70656-0
A continent-like shelf beneath Mars’ surface indicates that a vast ocean may have once covered up to one-third of the planet, reigniting a long-standing debate about Mars’ watery past.
Artist’s impression of Mars as it appeared around 4 billion years ago. Credit: M. Kornmesser / ESO.
While it is widely accepted that Mars had some liquid water on its surface, the existence of long-lasting oceans remains uncertain. It’s debated whether water existed solely in lakes and streams or whether significant oceans formed during Mars’ history.
Previous Mars missions have identified geological features resembling coastlines, but their subtlety and varying elevations complicate their interpretation.
Real coastlines would exhibit consistent elevation across the globe, similar to Earth’s sea level. However, observations suggest otherwise.
“If Mars had an ocean, it likely dried up billions of years ago, more than half of Mars’ age,” states Michael Lamb, a professor at the California Institute of Technology.
“Earth has very few features that are billions of years old, especially after continuous erosion and disturbances over time,” he adds.
“We sought terrain that could provide stronger evidence of such an ancient ocean.”
Illustration from orbiter data showing the coastal shelf region of Mars, a hallmark of global oceans formed over extended periods. Image credit: A. Zaki.
Professor Lamb and Dr. Abdallah Zaki from the California Institute of Technology and the University of Texas at Austin analyzed Earth’s geological features to find indicators of past oceans.
Using computer simulations, they drained ocean models to assess the remaining terrain.
The simulations revealed that a distinct flat landmass, known as the continental shelf, surrounds the region where land meets sea, akin to a ring left by a drained bathtub.
While sea levels have fluctuated on Earth, continental shelves have remained stable, which supports the hypothesis of an ancient Martian ocean.
The researchers utilized topography data from Mars orbiters, discovering similar shelf formations in the northern hemisphere, hinting at an ocean covering a significant portion of the planet.
Such landforms take considerable time to form and are rare in lake environments, supporting the theory of a stable ocean existing for millions of years.
Additionally, evidence of river deltas and coastal features known as “bathtubbling” shelves were observed.
“The discovery of the shelf is a vital observation that consolidates the evidence for a Martian coastal zone,” Dr. Zaki commented.
“This previously overlooked aspect strengthens the case for a northern ocean on Mars, leading to further studies on deposits and satellite data.”
For further details, refer to the publication in Nature.
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Zaki, A. & Ram, M.P. Identifying topographical features of the early Martian ocean. Nature, published online April 15, 2026. doi: 10.1038/s41586-026-10381-2
NASA has successfully landed five rovers on Mars. The Curiosity rover
landed in Gale Crater in 2012, unveiling rocks formed by a shallow lake approximately 3.6 billion years ago, hinting at a once habitable environment. Curiosity continues its mission, while in 2021, the Perseverance rover
was launched to explore Jezero Crater, where traces of past life may be found in sediments from a lake dating back 3.7 billion years.
within Martian lake rocks. As all life on Earth is composed of similar organic molecules, astrobiologists speculate that these Martian compounds could lend credence to the existence of ancient life on Mars. However, it is crucial to note that organic molecules can also be formed through non-biological processes, implicating the need for further concrete evidence to definitively identify ancient Martian life.
Researchers at the Center for Astrobiology in Madrid, Spain, are investigating whether DNA
can serve as a biomarker in Martian rocks. They argue that DNA is utilized by all life forms on Earth and is “the most critical biological molecule for life,” uniquely formed by living organisms. Additionally, factors that typically accelerate DNA degradation on Earth—such as water, heat, and microorganisms—are absent in Mars’ cold, dry climate .
The greatest challenge in locating ancient DNA on Mars stems from the planet’s surface, which is consistently bombarded by intense cosmic
that can rapidly degrade DNA and other organic molecules. Past studies have shown that DNA is more likely to endure radiation damage when protected within rock
, prompting researchers to test whether Mars-like rocks could shield DNA from radiation levels akin to those on the planet for about 100 million years.
Direct access to Martian lake rocks is anticipated through future sample return missions such as NASA/ESA’s Mars Sample Return
mission. Researchers collected rocks from various geological ages formed in lakes and shallow marine environments globally. They specifically targeted rocks containing remnants of an ancient microbial community known as
comparable to those identified in Martian geological samples, including lake microbial rocks from Mexico aged 2,800 years, shallow-water microbial rocks from Morocco aged 541 million years, and iron-rich rocks from Ontario, Canada, aged 2.93 billion years, with characteristics similar to those in Jezero Crater on Mars.
The team crushed the rocks, dividing them into six samples sealed in glass containers. They exposed three samples from each set to radiation levels reflective of 136 million years on the Martian surface, retaining the remaining three for comparison. The DNA was extracted from each sample and analyzed using nanopore sequencing , a method that effectively identifies short DNA fragments while assigning a quality score based on the reliability of the sequences.
The analysis indicated that unirradiated samples, presenting higher organic carbon content, also contained a greater abundance of DNA fragments. The findings suggest that the DNA originates from modern microbial communities that recently inhabited the rocks, while the organic carbon represents remnants from ancient microbes. Enhanced availability of nutrients correlates with increased microbial growth, solidifying the view that organic-rich sites such as ancient crater lakes are prime candidates for life-detection missions.
In the irradiated samples, DNA quality diminished and became fragmented from radiation exposure. For instance, the irradiated samples of Mexican lake microorganisms exhibited average quality scores 53% lower and DNA reads 85% shorter than unirradiated samples. However, the research team successfully identified which microorganisms contributed an estimated 2% to 9% of the DNA in these irradiated samples.
The researchers concluded that identifiable DNA fragments could potentially persist in Martian rocks for over 100 million years. They advocate for the application of this sensitive sequencing technology in forthcoming Mars rovers to search for evidence of past life and evaluate the planet’s biological safety. While the results are promising for astrobiologists, some caveats remain. Martian rocks may harbor toxic salts that could harm DNA integrity. Furthermore, scientists voice concerns regarding pollution from terrestrial life. The research team recommends that future investigations develop stringent protocols for eliminating salts from Martian rock samples and assessing possible external contamination.
Exciting findings from the Neretva Canyon—a prehistoric river channel that once flowed to Mars’ Jezero Crater—uncover significant concentrations of nickel in 3 billion-year-old sediments. These patterns mirror mineral formations found on Earth, often linked to microbial activity.
Nickel detected in bright magnesium sulfate veins in Jezero Crater on Mars, supporting its genuine origin. Image credit: Manelski et al., doi: 10.1038/s41467-026-70081-3.
“The Perseverance rover landed in Mars’ Jezero Crater in February 2021 aimed at exploring ancient habitable environments and collecting core samples for future return to Earth during a planned Mars sample return mission,” stated Dr. Henry Manerski from Purdue University and his research team.
“Jezero is a Noachian impact crater, approximately 45 km in diameter, dating back 3.8 to 4 billion years, that once housed a lake, as supported by its two inlet valleys, delta fan formations, and an outlet valley on the eastern side.”
“Since its landing, Perseverance has traversed the igneous crater floor, ascended western alluvial fan deposits, crossed olivine- and carbonate-rich margins, and entered the western inlet valley known as the Neretva Valley.”
In their comprehensive study, Dr. Manerski and colleagues employed lasers, infrared spectrometers, and X-ray spectrometers onboard Perseverance to analyze 126 sedimentary rock samples and eight rock surfaces in the Neretva Valley.
They discovered nickel in 32 rocks at concentrations reaching up to 1.1% by weight, marking the highest level ever recorded in Martian rock.
The team noted that nickel tends to occur alongside iron sulfide compounds and sulfate minerals resulting from the breakdown of rocks such as jarosite and acanite.
Researchers drew parallels between the nickel-rich iron sulfide arrangements found in the Neretva Valley and the composition and structure of pyrite, an iron sulfide mineral observed in sedimentary rocks worldwide.
Iron sulfide found in Earth’s sedimentary rocks is predominantly produced by the anaerobic respiration of microorganisms that utilize sulfate in the presence of iron-rich minerals.
Previous investigations identified iron sulfide in the Neretva Valley, coinciding with organic carbon compounds and suggested these may have originated from biological sources.
“Although, such formations can also arise from non-biological processes,” the scientists noted.
“Our current research hasn’t provided evidence of any organisms being present.”
“Nickel is a vital element in the enzymes of many ancient archaeal and bacterial species, playing crucial roles in energy production, carbon fixation, and organic matter decomposition.”
“The identification of nickel-rich rocks implies that if life existed on early Mars, nickel was potentially available in forms usable by these organisms.”
“The nickel may stem from the breakdown of igneous rocks or from nickel-rich meteorites.”
“More research is essential to pinpoint the source of nickel in the Neretva Gorge and to examine its relationship with organic matter at this location.”
Results from this study were published in this week’s issue of Nature Communications.
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HT Manerski et al. 2026. Strong nickel enrichment coexists with redox and organic interactions in Neretva Canyon on Mars. Nat Commun 17, 2705; doi: 10.1038/s41467-026-70081-3
Planetary scientists concur that Mars once boasted liquid water and a water-rich atmosphere, drastically different from its current arid state. However, extensive research has revealed a significant anomaly regarding the fate of this ancient water. Despite discerning various sources of water that once flowed on Mars, we still question where it all disappeared.
The Noachian Era, occurring between approximately 4.5 to 3.7 billion years ago, is believed to be the time when Mars had significant surface water. Current estimates suggest there was enough water to envelop the entire planet in an ocean ranging from 150 to 250 meters deep at the end of this period.
However, Bruce Jakoski and his research team from the University of Colorado discovered that, based on their assessment of water removal processes, the total depth might only reach a few dozen meters. This work was presented at the Lunar and Planetary Science Conference (LPSC) in Texas on March 20.
Today, the available water near Mars’ surface is predominantly in the form of ice and hydrated minerals—roughly equivalent to Earth’s ocean, which is approximately 30 meters deep. “How can we transition from a distance of 150 meters down to merely 30 meters? This is perplexing,” remarked Jakoski, emphasizing that our current understanding of Martian water loss is far from complete.
Several theories exist regarding where the water went. It might have evaporated into space in greater quantities than previously considered, become trapped in undiscovered ice reserves, or suggested environmental interactions between ice caps and atmosphere may have been misunderstood. Jakoski believes it’s likely a combination of these mechanisms alongside others.
While the significant discrepancy surrounding Martian water is indeed surprising, it underscores that our understanding of the planet’s hydrological history remains incomplete. Other researchers at LPSC have proposed the notion of intermittent rainfall followed by droughts, suggesting that Mars’ water cycle might significantly differ from Earth’s.
Potential Discoveries on Mars
“This indicates that Mars’ water cycle might be fundamentally different from Earth’s,” stated Eric Hyatt from Washington University in St. Louis. His findings propose that Martian groundwater may not interact with the surface and atmosphere as previously thought, potentially altering our comprehension of the water influx to Mars’ surface.
Moreover, Bethany Alman from the University of Colorado posits that there may exist more water on Mars than we initially thought. This situation highlights that while considerable knowledge about Mars has been amassed, a comprehensive picture of its water history remains elusive.
Deciphering the secrets of Mars’ water and its implications for potential habitability throughout its history will pose a monumental challenge. “How do we advance from here? We can’t just introduce more models,” Jakoski stated. “We must engage in boots-on-the-ground exploration.”
NASA and SpaceX have both prioritized lunar exploration. Given that it might take decades before humans arrive on Mars, progress will be gradual, utilizing data collected from rovers and orbiting satellites.
Explore the Mysteries of the Universe
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A pale cloud of water ice drapes over the Tharsis volcano on Mars
NASA/JPL/MSSS
Before humanity ventured to Mars, the planet was desolate. Yet, it underwent significant geological activity, with processes of accretion, melting, and cooling, creating its distinctive features like craters, canyons, and volcanoes—all occurring in silence, without witnesses. Aside from those observing from afar, only in the most recent chapters of its history has Mars witnessed consciousness.
The allure of Mars has captivated humanity throughout the ages. This planet, a prominent celestial body for prehistoric civilizations, displayed red hues and variations in brightness, hinting at a story. Its ancient names—Nirgal, Mangala, Aukak, and Harmakis—echo with a weight that transcends time, almost fossilized from an era long past. For millennia, Mars has symbolized profound forces, representing blood, conflict, and passion.
The advent of the telescope revealed a small, orange disk with polar ice caps and shifting dark markings, shaped by seasonal changes. Yet, these early observations led to fantastic tales of a dying world, enriched by the imagination of astronomer Percival Lowell, who spun stories of desperate Martians constructing canals to combat encroaching deserts.
This compelling narrative captivated the public. However, with the Mars Mariner and Viking missions, our understanding of the planet transformed dramatically. We now possess a wealth of knowledge about Mars, far surpassing any previous understanding, revealing an unexpected world full of new possibilities.
Despite the excitement, Mars appeared lifeless. Researchers sought any evidence of life, from microbial forms to ancient civilizations, but none was found. Just as in previous eras, stories proliferated to fill this void—tales of microfossils obscured by geological layers, ruins buried within sandstorms, and mythical figures that emerged from the Martian lore. These narratives help animate Mars, a cherished symbol echoing humanity’s innate curiosity and storytelling instincts.
Thus, we came to Mars. What began as an abstract concept now stands as a tangible destination.
This excerpt is from Kim Stanley Robinson’s thought-provoking book, Red Mars, featured in New Scientist Book Club’s latest recommendations. Join us and delve into the world of literature together here.
2026 marks a significant milestone as humanity embarks on its bold journey to colonize Mars.
Later this year, NASA’s ESCAPADE rover is set to launch towards Mars, laying the groundwork for future manned missions. For more details, read about the rover’s objectives here.
Future settlers aim to create self-sustaining cities on Mars, transforming its harsh landscape and opening new possibilities for humanity beyond Earth. This endeavor also has the potential to extend the survival of human consciousness.
Elon Musk has expressed his ambition to land on Mars within two years, as noted in 2024 on X. He has often referenced Kim Stanley Robinson’s acclaimed novel, Red Mars, published in 1992.
Set in 2026, Robinson’s narrative doesn’t rely on extraterrestrial conflicts or futuristic technologies. Instead, it delves into the ethical dilemmas faced by humans, highlighting debates surrounding the sanctity of intelligent life versus the need for solar system exploitation.
Robinson’s prophetically accurate depiction of the future includes a world dominated by powerful multinational corporations, overshadowing the United Nations. The author suggests that the UN operates as a mere tool for these corporations, predicting a future where corporate interests dictate global affairs.
His vision resonates with early predictions by Pulitzer Prize-winning science writer David Dietz, who forecasted rampant resource overexploitation and an increase in competition, leading to rising prices and a decline in luxury goods.
Robinson’s Red Mars illustrates how future generations will navigate environmental challenges. Climate change is a key factor motivating humanity to leave Earth, and the protagonist, Anne Claiborne, views Mars as a new beginning rather than a mere resource. “You can’t simply erase the surface of a planet that’s 3 billion years old,” she notes during discussions on terraforming.
The character Frank Chalmers reflects on past ecological disasters on Earth, drawing parallels to today’s ambitious “climate megaprojects,” such as glacier stabilization and large-scale re-greening efforts.
Red Mars also continues the tradition of classic speculative fiction, focusing on human conflict and societal division as the settlers grapple with how best to cultivate their new home. This central theme is further developed in Robinson’s sequels, Green Mars and Blue Mars.
Anne’s concerns about the ethical implications of creating breathable air on Mars echo a profound respect for potential undiscovered native life. “It would be unscientific and, worse, immoral,” she asserts.
The depth of Robinson’s characters and narratives makes Red Mars a treasured work, earning both the Nebula Award and the British Science Fiction Society Award, and has been subject to numerous attempts at a screen adaptation, including interest from director James Cameron before he focused on the Avatar universe.
The prequel, Green Mars, was also included in NASA’s Mars rover Phoenix lander in 2006 as part of an interplanetary library, a nod to Robinson’s influence on the genre to this day.
Outside of his Mars Trilogy, Robinson has expressed caution regarding future technological advancements and governance in his works. His novel, 2312, published in 2012, envisions a world facing extreme heat and rising sea levels while reflecting on humanity’s slow response to climate issues.
In the same year, he addressed the future of technology and society at the Humanity+ conference, emphasizing the need for inclusivity in tech advancements, stating, “[It] has to be for All People Plus,” hinting at underlying societal tensions.
The New Scientist Book Club is currently reading Red Mars by Kim Stanley Robinson. Join us for a collective reading experience here.
NASA/JPL-California Institute of Technology/ASU/MSS S
Thinking about the readers brings me joy. In Red Mars, the narrative unfolds in the current year, even though I penned this novel from 1989 to 1991. Reflecting on how my predictions for this decade diverge from reality adds a fascinating layer to the reading experience.
This phenomenon is common in science fiction. As years pass, the narrative evolves from envisioning a hypothetical future to representing past speculative ideas. It provides invaluable insight into the mindset of that era, which is often difficult to recover.
Exploring vintage science fiction offers a window into the hopes and fears people held about potential realities, transforming these texts from mere inaccuracies to poignant statements about their context.
Consequently, science fiction is a reflection of its time, even when set in the future. It functions as a time capsule, transporting readers to past ideologies and thoughts.
Upon revisiting Red Mars, it fascinates me how well it aligns with the actual trajectory of the 2020s, despite not being an intended prediction. The U.S. and Russia as waning powers working tandem against emerging nations? Check. The ascent of China and India? Double check.
Additionally, themes of ecological and economic fragility punctuated by climate change and geopolitical conflicts resonate eerily with current events. These issues hint at an evolving social order and ongoing discussions about its shape. Humanity has been in a state of upheaval for ages, but change is on the horizon—because stagnation is untenable in any capacity.
I find it intriguing to reflect on the technological insights from the book, noting both predicted advancements and missed opportunities. Some predictions blend past visions with the reality of today. For instance, if one considers the evolution from videotapes to platforms like YouTube, or John Boone’s fictional Dick Tracy-esque watch equipped with the AI ‘Pauline’—it serves as an early seed for the sophisticated AI in my later work, particularly in 2312. Such speculation underscores the unpredictable nature of forecasting the future.
When I crafted this trilogy, we had just begun to uncover breathtaking insights about Mars, significantly influenced by the Mariner and Viking missions. These explorations gifted us a tangible vision of a new realm—one that, while barren, held immense potential.
The emergence of the terraforming concept was timely, raising the question: could we modify Mars to allow human habitation? The newfound suitability of Mars, with its water potential, gravity, and essential nutrients, left many pondering transformation possibilities. These discussions blended speculative fiction with scientific imagination, underscoring the foundational plausibility of my narratives.
Now, after 35 years, our understanding of Mars and human biology has dramatically evolved. The aspiration for human settlement now appears considerably more daunting than before. Recent discoveries reveal that Martian sand contains toxic perchlorates, a potent reminder of the planet’s hostile environment.
Moreover, we’ve delved deeper into how Martian low gravity may impact human health and the harmful effects of unshielded cosmic radiation on our systems. Current proclamations by some billionaires about imminent Mars colonization remain ungrounded in reality. The vision of restoring Mars to a thriving environment akin to Earth’s is, unfortunately, a fantasy rather than a forthcoming reality.
Like many, I share hope for Mars’s future. While I still dream of visiting, I envision it akin to our current expeditions to Antarctica—establishing a scientific base where researchers can thrive for limited periods, akin to crews at McMurdo Station.
These visitors’ lives could parallel characters in chapters 3 and 4 of my book. Their experiences, while fraught with possible health repercussions, would be pursued for the sake of innovation and discovery. Their projects would garner interest, reminiscent of current research efforts in Antarctica—though perhaps not as intensely.
Human presence on Mars would symbolize another chapter in our Anthropocene narrative. It’s arguably the most realistic iteration of a science fiction tale available. If we extend the timeline considerably and achieve a harmonious relationship with Earth, full habitation and terraforming of Mars may one day materialize.
A significant barrier to our Mars ambitions, more pressing than toxicity, is our ongoing environmental neglect on Earth. We must resolve our self-created issues before venturing beyond our planet. Once we establish equilibrium here, Mars will remain ready for future projects—representing a reward for our success.
Keep this in mind when encountering sensational claims suggesting humanity’s imminent habitation of Mars. As the author of the Mars Trilogy, I call such assertions fantasy.
To conclude, while the speculative aspects of Red Mars are compelling, I believe the story’s heart lies in its characters and their intertwining journeys. These elements propel the narrative and shape the reader’s emotional experience.
Reflecting on my time since writing Red Mars, I recently revisited the book, finding joy in experiencing it anew—not as a memory but as fresh reading. That realization brought immense satisfaction.
The characters—Nadia, Maya, John, Frank, Sax, Anne, Michelle, Hiroko, Arkady, Phyllis, Vlad, Ursula, Spencer, and all their companions—jumped vividly to life in my imagination. They are distinct from me and their origins remain a mystery; they arrived with their tales, a beautiful gift. The intertwining of their relationships, political maneuvers, terraforming efforts, and life experiences weave together a rich history, echoing my esteemed teacher Fredric Jameson’s notion of history.
I’m incredibly grateful that this story continues to resonate with readers and I hope you find joy discovering it.
The New Scientist Book Club is currently reading Red Mars by Kim Stanley Robinson. Please join us and read together here.
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Since British pop legend David Bowie posed the question in 1971, “Does life exist on Mars?”, NASA has successfully landed five rovers on the Red Planet. The Curiosity rover, which touched down in Gale Crater in 2012, uncovered rocks formed in a shallow lake approximately 3.6 billion years ago, indicating a once habitable environment. In 2021, the Perseverance rover began exploring Jezero Crater, where traces of ancient life may be found at the base of a lake dating back 3.7 billion years.
Both Curiosity and Perseverance have discovered evidence of complex carbon-containing molecules within Martian lakebed rocks. Organisms on Earth consist of similar organicmolecules, leading astrobiologists to speculate that these Martian compounds might indicate past life. However, it’s important to note that organic molecules can also arise from non-biological processes, such as interactions between gases and minerals at high temperatures. Thus, more conclusive evidence is needed to confirm the existence of ancient Martian life.
A recent study by researchers at the Center for Astrobiology in Madrid, Spain, explored whether DNA could function as a potential biomarker in Martian rocks. They posited that DNA is universal among Earth’s life forms and deemed it “the most crucial biological molecule for life.” Only life forms create this molecule. Furthermore, many conditions that degrade DNA quickly on Earth—such as the presence of water, heat, and microorganisms—are absent in the cold, dry climate of Mars.
One major obstacle in detecting ancient DNA on Mars is the planet’s surface, which is constantly bombarded by intense shock waves. Cosmic and solar radiation can rapidly degrade DNA and organic molecules. Prior research has indicated that DNA is more likely to survive radiation damage when protected within rock. Hence, the researchers aimed to examine whether Mars-like rocks could shield DNA from radiation levels equivalent to around 100 million years of exposure on the planet’s surface.
Scientists will not gain direct access to Martian lake rocks until future sample return missions, such as NASA/ESA’s Mars Sample Return or the Chinese Astronomy-3 mission, are conducted. The researchers collected samples from various rock ages formed in lakes and shallow marine environments worldwide. They specifically targeted rocks with remnants of an ancient microbial community known as microorganisms and a total organic carbon concentration similar to that of Martian rocks. The samples included 2,800-year-old lake rocks from Mexico, 541-million-year-old shallow-water rocks from Morocco, and 2.93-billion-year-old iron-rich rocks from Ontario, Canada, featuring minerals akin to those in Jezero Crater on Mars.
The team crushed the rocks, dividing them into six samples each, sealed in glass bottles. They exposed three samples to radiation levels equivalent to 136 million years on the Martian surface, while leaving the other three unexposed for comparison. DNA was extracted from each sample and examined using a technique that enables reliable identification of short DNA fragments known as nanopore sequencing. This method also generates quality scores for each DNA fragment to assess the accuracy of specific DNA sequences.
The analysis revealed that unirradiated samples contained higher quantities of DNA fragments, correlating with a greater presence of organic carbon. This suggests that the DNA originated from contemporary microbial communities residing in the rocks, while the organic carbon was derived from long-deceased microbes. Thus, the researchers inferred that modern microbes were consuming ancient organisms; the more food available, the larger the microbial populations grow. These findings support the proposition that rich organic carbon sites like ancient crater lakes are prime targets for future life-detection missions.
In irradiated samples, DNA quality diminished and fragmented due to radiation exposure. For instance, the DNA from irradiated samples of Mexican lake microorganisms exhibited quality scores that were, on average, 53% lower, with DNA reads averaging 85% shorter compared to unirradiated samples. Nevertheless, the research team managed to identify microorganisms that contributed around 2% to 9% of the DNA in the irradiated samples, despite significant degradation.
The researchers concluded that identifiable DNA fragments could persist in Martian rocks for over 100 million years. They proposed that this sensitive sequencing approach should be implemented in future Mars rovers to search for evidence of past life and evaluate the planet’s biological viability. While these results are promising for astrobiologists, challenges remain, such as the presence of toxic salts that could further degrade DNA and concerns regarding pollution from terrestrial life. The research team recommended developing stringent protocols for decontaminating Martian rock samples and addressing external contamination.
The Perseverance rover has uncovered a precious gemstone among the rocky terrain of Mars. These intriguing gemstone grains are primarily composed of corundum and may be classified as rubies or sapphires based on their specific metal content.
Ann Orilla and her team at Los Alamos National Laboratory in New Mexico first detected traces of corundum using the Perseverance rover’s SuperCam instrument while analyzing a rock formation known as Hampden River. The SuperCam employs various techniques—including two lasers—to ignite the rock’s surface and capture emitted light with dual cameras, confirming the presence of corundum grains matching laboratory ruby measurements.
As the rover traversed Jezero Crater, leaving Hampden River behind, researchers also discovered a pebble named Coffee Cove, which exhibited similar corundum characteristics. Another rock, Smith Harbor, displayed the same mineral presence. Orilla shared these exciting findings at the Lunar and Planetary Science Conference held in Texas on March 16.
These gemstones are unprecedented on Mars and likely did not form as they do on Earth. “Corundum on Earth is typically associated with tectonic activity. This requires specific conditions—low silica and high aluminum content,” Orilla explained. Mars lacks plate tectonics, making the discovery of corundum there particularly surprising. Researchers suggest that Martian corundum likely formed from a meteorite impact that heated and compressed the surrounding dust.
Alan Treiman, a conference participant not affiliated with Orilla’s team, remarked, “I was quite surprised. However, there are aluminum-rich formations on Earth resulting from meteorite impacts.” The findings definitely sparked curiosity and further inquiries.
These corundum grains are extremely tiny—less than 0.2 millimeters in diameter—making visual identification of their type, ruby or sapphire, impossible through images alone.
“I wish I could collect one of these grains for analysis to determine if it’s red. It’s somewhat disappointing to only see this white pebble,” Orilla expressed. Nevertheless, shining the SuperCam laser on it revealed a brilliant glow.
Latest orbital data indicates that Mars’ recently active volcanic system is more than just a one-time eruption. Long-lasting magma conduits under Mount Pavonis, one of Mars’ largest volcanoes, have reformed lava flows over time, illuminating distinct eruption stages and evolving chemical signatures. These findings enhance our understanding of Mars’ internal dynamics and the processes through which rocky planets mold and alter their surfaces.
This perspective map from ESA’s Mars Express displays three of Mars’ iconic giant volcanoes: Mount Arsia, Mount Pavonis, and Mount Askreus. Image credit: ESA / DLR / FU Berlin.
What seems to be a solitary volcanic eruption often stems from intricate processes occurring deep beneath the surface of Mars, where magma shifts, evolves, and transforms over an extended timeframe.
To comprehensively understand volcanic activity, geoscientists analyze volcanic ejecta from the planet’s surface, unveiling concealed magma systems that significantly influence eruptions.
This groundbreaking study, spearheaded by Bartosz Pieterek from Adam Mickiewicz University, demonstrates that such complexities are also applicable to Mars.
By integrating detailed surface mapping with orbital mineralogy data, researchers meticulously reconstructed the volcanic and magmatic evolution of the region south of Mount Pavonis in unprecedented detail.
“Our research reveals that even during Mars’ recent volcanic activity, the subsurface magma system remained intricate and dynamic,” stated Dr. Pieterek.
“Volcanoes did not erupt just once; they evolved in response to changing underground conditions.”
This study highlights that the volcanic system progressed through various eruptive stages, transitioning from early fissure-induced lava flows to late point-source activity that produced cone-shaped vents.
Despite the differing appearances of these lava flows, they all originate from the same foundational magma system.
Each eruption phase leaves distinct mineral signatures, enabling scientists to trace the evolution of magma over time.
“The variations in these minerals signify that the magma itself was undergoing evolution,” Pieterek noted.
“This likely reflects shifts in the depth of magma origins and the time it spent underground before erupting.”
“Currently, direct sampling of Martian volcanoes isn’t feasible, making studies like this essential for gaining insights into the structure and evolution of Mars’ interior.”
“This discovery underscores the power of orbital observations in revealing the hidden complexities of volcanic systems on Mars and other rocky planets.”
Find out more in the study published in the Journal of Geology on January 29, 2026.
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Bartosz Pieterek et al. Spectral evidence for magma differentiation within the Martian plumbing system. Geology, published online on January 29, 2026. doi: 10.1130/G53969.1
Evidence suggests that Mars once hosted significant amounts of water. Past studies indicate that the majority of atmospheric water loss occurs during the Martian southern summer. During this season, warm and dusty conditions allow water vapor to ascend to high altitudes, where it escapes into space without condensing. A groundbreaking study has unveiled a previously unidentified pathway for water loss, observed for the first time in the Martian northern summer. This research highlights how a localized, short-lived sandstorm in Mars Year 37 (August 2023) caused a surge in water vapor.
Close-up color image of a small dust storm on Mars, captured by ESA’s Mars Express’ HRSC instrument in April 2018. Image credit: ESA / DLR / FU Berlin / CC BY-SA 3.0 IGO.
Dr. Adrian Brines, a researcher at the Andalusian Institute of Astronomy and the University of Tokyo, stated, “Our findings reveal the impact of this type of storm on Earth’s climate evolution and open new avenues for understanding how Mars has lost water over time.”
While dust storms have long been recognized as significant contributors to water escape on Mars, previous discussions primarily focused on large-scale dust events occurring on a planetary scale.
In this study, Dr. Brines and colleagues demonstrated that smaller, localized storms can significantly enhance the transport of water vapor to high altitudes, where it is lost to space more readily.
Prior research concentrated on the warm and dynamic summers of the Southern Hemisphere, as this is the primary period for water loss on Mars.
The recent study detected an unusual spike in water vapor in Mars’ middle atmosphere, attributed to a localized dust storm during the northern hemisphere summer of Martian year 37.
Diagram demonstrating the atmospheric response to localized sandstorms in the Northern Hemisphere during summer. High dust concentrations significantly enhance solar radiation absorption, promoting atmospheric warming, especially in the middle atmosphere. This increased circulation enhances the vertical transport of water vapor, facilitating its injection at high altitudes and increasing hydrogen efflux from the exobase. Image credit: Brines et al., doi: 10.1038/s43247-025-03157-5.
This surge in water vapor was unprecedented, reaching levels up to 10 times higher than normal—an occurrence not predicted by existing climate models or observed in previous Martian epochs.
Following this event, the amount of hydrogen in Mars’ exobase—where the atmosphere transitions into space—also rose significantly, increasing by 2.5 times compared to the previous year.
Understanding how much water Mars has lost over time hinges on measuring the hydrogen that escapes into space, as this element is produced when water decomposes in the atmosphere.
Dr. Shohei Aoki, a researcher at the University of Tokyo and Tohoku University, noted, “These results provide a crucial piece to the incomplete puzzle of how Mars has persistently lost water over billions of years, demonstrating that brief but intense episodes can significantly influence the evolution of Mars’ climate.”
Discover more about these findings in the featured study, published this week in Communication: Earth and Environment.
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A. Brines et al. 2026. Unseasonal water escape during summer in Mars’ northern hemisphere caused by localized strong sandstorms. Communication: Earth and Environment 7, 55; doi: 10.1038/s43247-025-03157-5
Despite Mars being smaller than Earth, it profoundly affects Earth’s climate cycle. Understanding how smaller planets influence the climates of exoplanets is crucial for assessing their potential for habitability.
According to Stephen Cain, researchers at the University of California, Riverside, discovered this phenomenon by simulating various scenarios to analyze Mars’ effect on Earth’s orbit across different masses, from 100 times its current mass to its complete removal. “Initially, I was skeptical that Mars, only one-tenth the mass of Earth, could so significantly affect Earth’s cycles. This motivated our study to manipulate Mars’ mass and observe the effects,” says Cain.
Earth’s climate is influenced by long-term cycles tied to its orbital eccentricity and axial tilt. These cycles are dictated by the gravitational forces of the Sun and other planets, determining significant climate events such as ice ages and seasonal shifts.
One crucial cycle, referred to as the Grand Cycle, spans 2.4 million years, involving the elongation and shortening of Earth’s orbital ellipse. This directly influences the amount of sunlight reaching Earth’s surface, thus controlling long-term climate changes.
The research indicates that eliminating Mars would not only remove the Grand Cycle but also another essential eccentricity cycle lasting 100,000 years. “While removing Mars wouldn’t completely halt ice ages, it would alter the frequency and climate impacts associated with them,” Cain explains.
As Mars’ simulated mass increases, the resulting climate cycles become shorter and more intense. However, a third eccentricity cycle, enduring approximately 405,000 years, remains predominantly influenced by Venus and Jupiter’s gravitational pulls, illustrating that while Mars is notably influential, it is not the only player.
Mars also affects Earth’s axial tilt, which oscillates over about 41,000 years. Cain and colleagues observed that Mars seems to stabilize these cycles—more mass leads to less frequent cycles, while a smaller Mars results in more frequent ones.
The precise impact of Mars’ absence or increased mass on Earth remains speculative, but it would undoubtedly lead to changes. The pursuit of Earth-like exoplanets with climates suitable for life continues, underscoring the need to evaluate the influence of smaller planets more thoroughly. “A comprehensive understanding of exoplanet system architectures is essential for predicting possible climate changes on these worlds,” warns Sean Raymond from the University of Bordeaux, France.
However, deciphering these structures can be challenging. “This serves as a cautionary note: small planets like Mars may wield a greater influence than we realize, making it imperative not to overlook these difficult-to-detect celestial bodies,” concludes Cain.
Mars’ geological features reveal that the planet once hosted rivers and extensive coastlines, indicating it may have had vast oceans in its history. This discovery offers the most substantial evidence yet of Mars’ once vibrant blue landscape.
According to Ezzat Heidari, a geochemist at Jackson State University in Mississippi (who was not part of the study), “The existence of liquid water on Mars encompasses a wide array of topics including rain, rivers, lakes, and oceans.” In his view, this research highlights a significant factor: the ocean.
The research team, featuring planetary geologists like Ignatius Indy and geoscientists such as Fritz Schlunegger from the University of Bern, made groundbreaking discoveries using data from numerous spacecraft. This includes NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter and the European Space Agency’s Mars Express and ExoMars Trace Gas Orbiter. The ExoMars spacecraft, equipped with a specialized Bernese Mars camera, has been instrumental in capturing high-resolution color images, which were crucial for this research.
“These sophisticated images help us identify subtle variations in surface materials that are invisible in black and white images,” Indy explains. Combined with topographical data from other orbiters, these tools transform into a “geological time machine,” providing a clearer glimpse of Mars’ geological evolution.
To explore Mars’ potential ancient water sources, the researchers scrutinized Valles Marineris, an extensive canyon system over 4,000 kilometers long that runs along the planet’s equator. Their focus particularly emphasized the southeast area, Koprates Chasma, with its features dating back around 3.3 billion years.
By merging the new images with geomorphological analyses, the researchers identified structures indicative of river flow into oceans and the formation of alpine lakes at mountain bases—similar to Earth’s geography.
“The Nile Delta serves as a classic illustration,” Schlunegger notes. “If you were to drain the Mediterranean just past the end of the Nile, you’d observe features remarkably akin to those found on Mars,” he states.
Silty Deposits Left by Ancient Water on Mars
Algadestia et al. 2026, CaSSIS
The new data allowed scientists to trace the ancient coastline of Mars’ former ocean, estimating its size to be comparable to Earth’s Arctic Ocean. This could represent the largest ocean that ever existed on Mars.
“Our research indicates that approximately 3 billion years ago, Mars may have sustained significant bodies of surface water within Valles Marineris, the largest canyon in our solar system,” Indy remarked. “What’s even more intriguing is that these water bodies might have been linked to a much larger ocean that once spanned parts of Mars’ northern lowlands.”
While past research suggested the presence of water on Mars, much of the evidence was indirect. A notable study revealed Martian minerals that may have interacted with water long ago. Additional investigations have indicated that an ancient asteroid impact could have triggered a massive tsunami on the planet. Yet, acquiring conclusive data has remained a challenge.
The notion that Mars once harbored a vast ocean remains debated; as Michael Manga, a geoscientist from the University of California, Berkeley (who wasn’t involved in this study), points out, “Even if the ocean did exist, the geological record is far too ancient to be clear.”
This discovery raises fascinating possibilities for the search for extraterrestrial life and serves as a cautionary reminder that Earth’s crucial resources may also one day diminish.
“This paper addresses a question that is paramount to those researching Mars’ evolution,” Heidari said. “Martian oceans would have operated similarly to Earth’s oceans, playing a vital role in the planet’s health.”
World Capital of Astronomy: Chile
Discover Chile’s astronomical treasures, including the world’s most advanced observatory, and enjoy stargazing under the clearest skies on Earth.
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For nearly a month, NASA has been striving to reestablish communication with the MAVEN probe, which unexpectedly went silent while orbiting Mars.
The space agency lost contact with the Mars Atmosphere and Volatile Evolution (MAVEN) spacecraft on December 6. Despite efforts to restore connectivity, mission controllers believe the spacecraft was spinning erratically based on data received that day.
NASA plans to make another attempt to revive MAVEN on January 16 due to Mars and Earth being positioned on opposite sides of the sun, which has caused significant communication delays.
Unfortunately, the prognosis is concerning for one of NASA’s flagship missions.
Since its entry into orbit around Mars in 2014, the MAVEN spacecraft has been instrumental in studying the Red Planet’s upper atmosphere, including the ionosphere, and understanding how Mars has lost its atmosphere over billions of years. MAVEN also facilitates communications among two rovers on the Martian surface, Curiosity and Perseverance, and Earth.
NASA has been unable to contact MAVEN since December 6, a day when the agency experienced a “loss of signal” while the spacecraft was behind Mars. This situation generally leads to routine communication interruptions, but MAVEN failed to reestablish contact when it emerged from behind the planet.
NASA announced it is investigating the situation. In a statement from December 9, few specifics were given, although mission controllers reported that all subsystems were functioning correctly before the spacecraft passed behind Mars.
After about a week, NASA updated that they had not received communications from MAVEN since December 4 but did retrieve a snippet of tracking data from December 6.
The findings were alarming. “Analysis of that signal suggests that the MAVEN spacecraft was rotating unexpectedly as it emerged from behind Mars,” NASA officials stated in a statement.
NASA employs a global network of radio antennas known as the Deep Space Network to issue commands to MAVEN and monitor incoming signals. On December 16 and 20, attempts were made to capture images of MAVEN in orbit using instruments aboard NASA’s Curiosity rover.
Meanwhile, mission controllers are diligently analyzing the last set of recovered tracking data. NASA reported on December 23 that they were trying to piece together a timeline to understand the issue. Additional details were not disclosed in a comment request, but the agency referred to the December 23 update.
Originally, the MAVEN mission was intended to last just two years, yet it has been operational for more than a decade. In 2024, NASA celebrated a decade since MAVEN began orbiting Mars.
By examining Mars’ atmospheric loss, MAVEN has provided insights into the planet’s past and present climate, illustrating its transformation from a potentially habitable environment with liquid water to the cold, desolate world it is today.
MAVEN is one of three NASA spacecraft currently orbiting Mars. The agency also operates the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter, launched in 2005, and Mars Odyssey, launched in 2001.
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MMX Spacecraft to Explore Mars Moons
Credit: JAXA
The mystery surrounding the origins of Mars’s moons, Phobos and Deimos, may soon be unraveled with the launch of the MMX spacecraft, set to return samples from Phobos to Earth in 2026.
“While we understand the origin of Earth’s moon, the origins of Phobos and Deimos remain unclear,” says Emelia Brannagan-Harris from the Natural History Museum in London. “By exploring the origins of these moons, we aim to gain insights into Mars’s evolutionary history.”
There are two leading theories regarding how these moons came to orbit Mars. The first theory suggests that they are remnants of asteroids that either merged and then separated or closely orbit each other. The second theory posits that they may have formed from an asteroid impact on Mars, similar to the formation of Earth’s moon.
Currently, evidence supports neither scenario definitively. However, the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency’s Mars Moon Explorer (MMX), scheduled for launch in 2026, is equipped to clarify which theory holds true. This spacecraft will observe both moons and send a rover to gather samples from Phobos’s surface and subsurface.
If the observations reveal a prevalence of carbon-rich materials and water, it could support the theory of asteroid capture. Conversely, if such materials are absent, we may need to await the analysis of the collected samples, expected to return to Earth by 2031.
The Phobos samples will include both surface material and samples from beneath the surface. Testing this material will allow scientists to investigate signs of past dissolution, potentially indicating interactions with Mars’s atmosphere or surface.
Regardless of the origins of Phobos, its close orbit around Mars suggests it may hold well-preserved samples from early Mars. “Phobos might also contain ancient debris from Mars’s period of liquid water, offering significant insights into the planet’s history,” Brannagan-Harris emphasizes.
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NASA’s Perseverance Rover: Pioneering Exploration for Past Life on Mars
Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech
On the surface of Mars, minute details provide critical insights into the planet’s past. In 2025, new findings will shed light on possible microbial life that may have once thrived.
NASA’s Perseverance rover has gathered samples indicating the potential for ancient life. Specifically, it uncovered a rock featuring tiny specks, known as “leopard spots,” encircled by a distinctive dark ring. These geological features resemble those associated with microbial fossils on Earth.
This year, Joel Hurowitz and his team at Stony Brook University conducted a detailed analysis of the leopard spots and identified forms of iron and sulfur commonly linked to microbial activity. “This evidence is more promising than anything I’ve encountered in the last two decades,” stated Hannah Sizemore from the Planetary Science Institute in Arizona.
Previous indications of potential life on Mars included unexpected changes in methane levels and fossil-like structures in Martian meteorites. “I am more excited about these discoveries compared to earlier findings,” Sizemore added, emphasizing that the previous data lacked the correct physical scale for microbial evidence. In contrast, the leopard spots on Mars could directly indicate microbial activity.
The Perseverance rover has also detected other potential biosignatures, such as a small greenish mineral blob typically associated with microbial life on Earth. “Life on Mars is subtle. It’s not like seeing herds of wildlife,” remarked Andrew Steele, who was instrumental in formulating the rover’s scientific objectives. “Identifying signs of life will require the best technology we have available.”
Perseverance Rover Reveals Mars Rocks with Unique ‘Leopard Spots’
Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/MSSS
Equipped with advanced scientific tools, Perseverance is crucial for identifying whether these Martian rocks exhibit signs of ancient life. The mission involves caching samples for a future retrieval back to Earth for comprehensive testing.
“These samples could provide decisive evidence regarding the existence of life on Mars,” Steele remarked. “However, before we can confirm this, we need to return the samples to our laboratories.”
Unfortunately, the prospect of retrieving these samples is growing uncertain. The 2026 NASA budget proposal under the Trump administration raises concerns about the Mars Sample Return Project’s viability. If approved, it would eliminate plans to recover the meticulously gathered samples from Perseverance.
It’s possible that evidence of past life on Mars has already been discovered, yet we may never fully understand it. “While we are making strides, the understanding of Mars’ habitability remains fluid,” Sizemore said. “We’re on the edge of a potential breakthrough. However, we can neither ignore it nor prove it without further missions.”
Explore Chile: The Astronomical Capital of the World
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As I explore the fascinating world of lichens, I often find myself captivated by their unique growths on tree branches, rocky outcrops, and gravestones. Although I have encountered numerous lichens during my research on symbiosis, discovering them in a laboratory flask swirling in an incubator was a novel experience. Recently, I’ve begun to contemplate the insights lichens can provide, not just about our past but about the potential for our future.
The green liquid in the incubator may not resemble typical lichen, as this is actually a synthetic alternative. According to Rodrigo Ledesma Amaro, director at the Bezos Center for Sustainable Protein, this co-culture comprises fungi (yeast) and cyanobacteria. Much like natural lichens, the fungal component acts as a structural host while cyanobacteria leverage sunlight, water, and carbon dioxide to create sugars during photosynthesis.
What drives the creation of such “potion”? As Ledesma-Amaro explains, genetically edited yeast can produce useful products—food, fuels, and medications—which can be created sustainably through photosynthesis. Today’s synthetic lichens present exciting opportunities within the biotechnology sector. They hold potential for repairing infrastructures, mitigating climate change, and even crafting habitats on Mars.
“Synthetic lichens replicate the symbiotic nature of natural lichens but grow significantly faster,” says Ledesma-Amaro. Their use of yeast facilitates large-scale production of valuable compounds, like caryophyllene—a vital ingredient in pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, and fuel. Notably, alternative synthetic lichens could be engineered for carbon capture and storage, while ongoing research pursues their use in revitalizing aging concrete structures worldwide. The future application of lichens could even extend beyond Earth, with NASA exploring ways to cultivate engineered lichens on the Moon and Mars for building purposes.
The Science of Symbiosis
Though unassuming, lichens exemplify the essence of symbiosis, where diverse species coexist harmoniously. Typically, lichens consist of fungal partners that host photobionts—algae or bacteria—that produce food through photosynthesis while the fungus shelters them. This arrangement enables lichens to thrive in extreme conditions, fostering scientific interest in creating synthetic counterparts.
Lichens demonstrate two key benefits: their interdependent nature allows them to accomplish more together than individually, and their resilience enables survival in harsh environments. In some regions like Svalbard, where around 700 lichen species exist, they tolerate frigid temperatures, salinity, and other extreme conditions. Curious scientists continue to explore how these organisms endure aridity and temperature fluctuations.
Lichens represent a fascinating life form sustained through a symbiotic relationship.
Jose B. Luis/naturepl.com
Researchers propose that lichen resilience stems from biomolecules formed by filamentous fungi, which provide protection to the entire community. Moreover, their slow growth allows them to persist with minimal resources. Together, these qualities offer lichens unique advantages over single-species organisms.
Space Lichens: The Future of Exploration
These attributes have sparked interest from NASA due to lichens’ ability to withstand simulated and real space conditions. For instance, lichens like Cirquinaria girosa survived outside the International Space Station for over 18 months. Their capacity for growth within rocks and survival in space conditions has intrigued scientists and advocates alike.
Kongrui Jin, a biomaterials engineer at Texas A&M University, recognizes the potential of lichens in future space habitats. Proposals for extraterrestrial homes often use inflatable structures, reducing the need to transport materials from Earth. However, opportunities exist to produce building materials directly from Martian regolith using lichen-based solutions.
Lichens have survived in space, proving their resilience and adaptability.
ESA
“We aim to merge these fungi with photosynthetic species like cyanobacteria,” Jin elaborates. “This combination can convert sunlight into organic nutrients while binding Martian soil particles into cohesive structures.” The biomaterials produced could be utilized with 3D printing technology for constructing habitats.
Jin’s research illustrates the potential of lichens in transforming Martian regolith into conducive building materials. They also offer routes toward producing biominerals and biopolymers, leading some futurists to envision them as key players in terraforming Mars. Yet even without strict planetary protection measures, lichens will need shielding from the harsh Martian surface conditions to flourish.
The Future of Architecture with Lichens
While colonizing other planets remains a distant goal, the application of lichens offers immediate benefits on Earth. They can aid in bundling rubble for construction, notably in rebuilding after natural or human-made disasters. Furthermore, incorporating methods that sequester carbon in concrete production could significantly lessen its environmental impact.
Jin and her colleagues successfully demonstrated that integrating lichen-based combinations of fungi and cyanobacteria can grow in concrete, precipitating calcium carbonate to repair structural cracks efficiently. “This method shows much higher survival rates compared to other microbes in challenging conditions,” she states. These synthetic lichens can extract nitrogen from the air, negating the need for external nutrient supplementation.
Meanwhile, Khakhar is exploring ways to enhance lichen growth by selecting and modifying fast-growing microorganisms. His lab is developing synthetic lichens similar to Jin’s, paving the way for sustainable production of building materials through biomanufacturing, termed “mycomaterials.”
My journey into the world of symbiosis reveals that lichens embody complex ecosystems—a vivid lesson in interdependence and their futuristic potential in shaping our materials. The next time you encounter a lichen adorning a tree or tombstone, take a moment to reflect on the incredible possibilities these organisms hold for our future.
There may have been ancient tides on Mars, suggesting the presence of larger moons capable of influencing the planet’s waters. Currently, Mars has two small moons that aren’t sufficient for this theory.
Suniti Karunatilake and researchers from Louisiana State University discovered signs of tidal activity in Gale Crater’s sedimentary layers.
By examining these layers, they inferred the nature of the tidal cycles and the potential moon responsible for them. If such a moon existed, it would have been significantly larger than Phobos, Mars’ biggest moon, yet still smaller than Earth’s moon. The two current Martian moons might be remnants of a larger satellite.
Mr. Karunatilake is set to present the findings at the upcoming American Geophysical Union meeting in New Orleans, Louisiana.
The sedimentary rocks that supported their conclusions were captured by NASA’s Curiosity rover, displaying alternating layers of varying thicknesses and colors. These strata are termed rhythmite, indicating that they were formed by winds or ocean currents of fluctuating strength. In tidal scenarios, sand is transported back and forth, covered by fine mud when the tide recedes.
The rhythm of strong winds leaves thin, dark lines indicative of “mud drapes,” which “resemble Earth’s tidal patterns closely,” notes team member Priyabrata Das, also from Louisiana State University.
To bolster their hypothesis, Ranjan Sarkar from Germany’s Max Planck Institute for Solar System Research utilized a standard mathematical technique called the Fourier transform to evaluate the layered structures in Martian rocks. This analysis revealed additional periodicity in layer thicknesses, implying that both the sun and a past moon may have influenced the tides.
This analysis may validate the idea initially put forth by Rajat Mazumdar from the German Institute of Technology in Oman. In 2023, Mazumdar suggested that layered formations observed by NASA’s Perseverance rover in Jezero Crater could indicate tidal activity. Unfortunately, the resolution of these images was insufficient for Fourier analysis. Enthused by the Gail rhythmite findings, Mazumdar emphasizes that rhythmite on Earth is strong evidence of tidal conditions.
However, skepticism remains. The lakes in Jezero and Gale craters, sized at 45 kilometers and 154 kilometers respectively, are considered too small to exhibit significant tidal flooding. Nicholas Mangold, a member of NASA’s Perseverance Mars team at the Institute for Planetary and Earth Sciences in Nantes, France, argues that larger moons wouldn’t have left tidal traces in these locations.
Christopher Fed, a professor at the University of Tennessee working with NASA on the Curiosity mission, also finds the notion of a larger moon problematic, suggesting that tidal-like patterns could emerge from varying river inflows instead.
Nevertheless, Sarkar believes a tidal connection is feasible. “The ocean might have linked to Gale, and even subsurface porosity could create tides. Mars’ surface is extensively cracked and crated, meaning porosity isn’t an issue,” he argues.
NASA’s Perseverance spacecraft has identified thousands of light-toned rock fragments, also known as floating rocks, several of which exhibit spectral characteristics of an aluminum-rich clay mineral known as kaolinite. To understand their origins, planetary scientists utilized data from Perseverance’s SuperCam and Mastcam-Z instruments to analyze the chemistry and reflectance spectra of the floating rocks in relation to deeply weathered paleosols (ancient soils) and hydrothermal kaolin deposits recorded in Earth’s geological archives. The increased levels of aluminum and titanium, along with the reduced amounts of iron and magnesium, differentiate these rocks from hydrothermal deposits, aligning them more closely with the bleached layers of paleosoils formed during periods of significant rainfall in Earth’s past greenhouse climates. Thus, these rocks may signify some of the most aqueous periods in Mars’ history.
Mastcam-Z landscape and multispectral images of light-toned float rocks atop the Jezero Crater Margin Unit near the Hans Amundson Memorial Works (Sol 912). It shows the spectral diversity of this material. Image credit: Broz others., doi: 10.1038/s43247-025-02856-3.
“Rocks like these are likely among the most significant outcrops we’ve observed from orbit because their formation is challenging to replicate elsewhere on Mars,” stated Dr. Bryony Hogan, Perseverance’s long-term planner and a researcher at Purdue University.
“Given that these require substantial water, we believe they could be indicative of an ancient, warmer, wetter climate that experienced prolonged periods of rainfall.”
“Tropical environments, such as rainforests, are where kaolinite clays are predominantly found on Earth,” added Adrian Broz, Ph.D., a postdoctoral researcher at Purdue University.
“Thus, when finding kaolinite on Mars, which is desolate and frigid with no surface liquid water, it suggests that there used to be significantly more water than is present today.”
Kaolinite fragments, varying in size from pebbles to larger rocks, contribute to the ongoing discussion about the climate of Mars billions of years ago.
Initial analyses using the SuperCam and Mastcam-Z instruments have involved comparing kaolinite to analogous rocks on Earth.
Debris from Mars could yield crucial insights into not only the planet’s historical environmental conditions but also how it transitioned to its current desolate state.
“Kaolinite carries its own enigmas,” emphasized Dr. Hogan.
“Currently, there are no significant outcrops nearby that could explain the presence of these light-colored rocks, despite their distribution along the mission’s path since Perseverance’s landing in Jezero Crater in February 2021.”
“This crater once housed a lake that was approximately twice the size of Lake Tahoe.”
“While there are compelling indicators of significant water events, the origin of these rocks remains uncertain.”
“It’s possible they were transported into the Jezero lake by rivers that formed the delta regions, or they may have been ejected into Jezero by a meteorite impact. The complete picture is still unclear.”
Satellite imaging has revealed substantial kaolinite outcrops in various regions of Mars.
“However, until we can physically reach these large outcrops with spacecraft, these small rocks are the only tangible evidence we have regarding their formation,” Dr. Hogan noted.
“Currently, the findings in these rocks suggest a historically warmer and wetter environment.”
Mastcam-Z and SuperCam observations of hydrated layers of aluminum-rich floating rock in Jezero Crater, Mars. Image credit: Broz others., doi: 10.1038/s43247-025-02856-3.
The researchers compared the Martian kaolinite samples studied by Perseverance to rock samples located near San Diego, California, and in South Africa. The similarities between the rocks from both planets were striking.
On Earth, kaolinite forms in both rainy tropical climates and hydrothermal systems where hot water permeates into rocks.
Nonetheless, this process leaves behind chemical signatures that differ from the effects of cold leaching from rain over extended periods.
Scientists evaluated various hydrothermal leaching scenarios against Martian rocks using datasets from three distinct sites.
Rocks like kaolinite from Mars act as time capsules, potentially preserving billions of years of information regarding environmental conditions throughout Earth’s history.
“All life requires water, so if these Martian rocks signify a rainfall-driven environment, that’s an extraordinary indication of a potentially habitable space where life could have flourished on Mars,” stated Dr. Broz.
The team’s paper has been published in the journal Communication Earth and Environment.
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AP Broz others. 2025. Alteration history of aluminum-rich rocks in Mars’ Jezero Crater. Communication Earth and Environment 6,935; doi: 10.1038/s43247-025-02856-3
The moon of Earth stands out as a prominent feature in our night sky. Scientists largely agree that during the early stages of Earth’s formation, a smaller, planet-like object collided with Earth, ejecting a substantial amount of material into space. This debris was subsequently pulled into orbit around Earth due to gravity and maintained a slow enough speed to become trapped in Earth’s gravitational field. However, the giant impact hypothesis has provided clarity on the origin of our moon. In contrast, the origins of other moons in our solar system, like the Martian moons Phobos and Deimos, remain a topic of debate.
An alternate theory suggests that two small celestial bodies approached Mars early in its existence and collided with the gas and dust clouds left from its formation. This surrounding dust could have decelerated them sufficiently for Mars’ gravity to capture them. This theory is referred to as the gas drag capture hypothesis and may account for the existence of Phobos and Deimos. Furthermore, they are composed of different materials than those found on Mars , which raises additional questions.
One challenge to this theory is that the dust density around Mars would have to be several times greater than current models of solar system formation indicate, to slow down approaching objects effectively. Additionally, there’s a question of probability. Although Phobos and Deimos both have orbits that lie within 2° of the Martian equator, the odds of both objects aligning with Mars at an angle that matches the equator is around only 0.00001%.
To investigate the viability of this scenario, two scientists from Japan developed a model aimed at calculating the trajectory of a Phobos-sized object approaching Mars. The aim was to show, through various challenges, that the gas drag trap hypothesis might not be as implausible as previously believed.
Phobos orbits Mars about 3,700 miles or 6,000 kilometers above the planet’s surface and is slowly falling towards Mars. Deimos orbits Mars at a distance of 14,600 miles, or 23,500 kilometers. “Mars Moons” by Muskid is licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0.
Initially, the researchers defined the pertinent equations of motion to include in their model. This included variables such as the angular velocity of an object approaching Mars, its distance from the planet, its potential energy, and the drag force that reduces its speed. Additionally, they factored in Mars’ mass and the state of the surrounding matter at the time, which they referred to as the primitive atmosphere of Mars. They estimated this atmosphere’s temperature at 200 Kelvin (approximately -73°C or -100°F) and its density at 4.7 × 10.-7 kilograms per cubic meter, increasing near the Martian surface and decreasing exponentially with height.
Next, the team needed to establish the initial orbit of the incoming satellite, testing eight different speeds ranging from 20 meters/second to 160 meters/second (about 45 miles/hour to 360 miles/hour) in 20 meters/second increments. There were 4,096 angles of incidence to be tested relative to Mars’ equator and poles, leading to a total of 32,768 initial trajectory combinations for objects approaching Mars.
Their findings indicated three potential outcomes for objects entering Mars’ primordial atmosphere: they could escape Mars’ gravitational grasp, become temporarily trapped, or be permanently ensnared. Remarkably, nearly all objects approached at the slowest speeds were captured in some capacity, while only around 10% of those at the highest speeds were captured. The researchers posited that about 1 in 50 incoming objects would be permanently secured by Mars, particularly if they lost enough energy, limiting their orbits to within 10 degrees of Mars’ equator.
The research team proposed a potential history for Phobos and Deimos, suggesting that due to their composition, they likely formed in the outer solar system, possibly within or beyond the asteroid belt. Over time, they may have been scattered by Jupiter’s gravitational influence, gradually approaching Mars at the right angles and speeds to be captured by its gas, resulting in their current eccentric orbits. Eventually, their orbits became slower, more circular, and moved closer to Mars.
This proposed scenario aligns well with current observations of Phobos and Deimos. The research team anticipates that future Mars satellite exploration missions will further investigate these moons. The planned mission will orbit Mars and then Phobos, conducting detailed observations and remote sensing while collecting surface samples to return to Earth, enhancing our understanding of these moons’ origins. The mission is set to launch in 2026, with Phobos samples expected to arrive back on Earth in 2031.
This image of 3I/ATLAS was captured by the HiRISE camera aboard NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter on October 2, 2025. Credit: NASA / JPL-Caltech / University of Arizona.
On October 2, 2025, the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO) observed 3I/ATLAS from approximately 30 million km (19 million miles) away.
The MRO team utilized the High-Resolution Imaging Science Experiment (HiRISE), which typically focuses on the Martian surface.
By maneuvering, the spacecraft can direct its camera toward other celestial objects. This method was previously employed in 2014 when HiRISE collaborated with MAVEN to examine the comet Siding Spring.
“Observations of interstellar objects are still infrequent, so each time we learn something new,” noted Dr. Shane Byrne, HiRISE principal investigator and researcher at the University of Arizona.
“We were fortunate that 3I/ATLAS came close to Mars.”
Captured at a resolution of about 30 km (19 miles) per pixel, 3I/ATLAS appears as a pixelated white sphere in the HiRISE images.
“This sphere is a cloud of dust and ice, referred to as a coma, that the comet emits as it travels past Mars,” the researchers added.
Further analysis of HiRISE images could assist scientists in establishing an upper limit on the size of a comet’s core, composed of ice and dust.
The images might also uncover properties of particles known as comas within the comet’s atmosphere.
Ongoing scrutiny of the images may reveal nuclear fragments and gas jets expelled as comets disintegrate over time.
“One of MRO’s greatest contributions to NASA’s Mars research is its ability to observe surface phenomena that only HiRISE can detect,” explained Dr. Leslie Tampali, MRO’s project scientist and a research scientist at NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory.
“This opportunity allows us to study passing space objects.”
“Thanks to NASA’s versatile fleet of spacecraft throughout our solar system, we can continue to observe this dynamic entity from unique perspectives,” stated Georgia Tech researcher Professor James Ray, a HiRISE co-investigator.
“All three prior interstellar objects exhibit significant differences from one another and from typical Solar System comets, making every new observation incredibly valuable.”
“Being able to observe a visitor from another star system is extraordinary in itself,” remarked Dr. Tomás Díaz de la Rubia, senior vice president for research and partnerships at the University of Arizona.
“Doing so from a University of Arizona-led instrument orbiting Mars adds to its remarkable nature.”
“This moment highlights the ingenuity of our scientists and the lasting impact of this university’s leadership in space exploration.”
“HiRISE exemplifies how discovery tools can benefit both science and the public interest.”
Blue Origin achieved a successful launch of its impressive New Glenn rocket on Thursday, transporting two NASA spacecraft en route to Mars. This marks just the rocket’s second flight, as both Blue Origin and NASA anticipate it will eventually carry personnel and supplies to the moon.
Soaring to a height of 321 feet (98 meters), the New Glenn rocket burst into the afternoon sky from Cape Canaveral Space Force Station, initiating a lengthy journey for NASA’s twin Mars rovers to the Red Planet. The launch was delayed by four days due to inclement weather and a solar storm, which created auroras visible as far south as Florida.
In a significant achievement for the emerging company, Blue Origin successfully retrieved the booster after its separation from the upper stage and the Mars rover. This step is vital for cost reduction and reusability, mirroring SpaceX’s operational model. Company employees erupted in cheers as the booster landed upright on a barge 375 miles (600 kilometers) offshore, with an elated Bezos observing from launch control.
“Next time it’s the moon!” the employees chanted excitedly after the centerpiece of the booster landed. Twenty minutes later, the upper stage of the rocket deployed the two Mars rovers into space, fulfilling the primary goal of the mission.
The New Glenn conducted its inaugural test flight in January, successfully placing a prototype satellite into orbit, though it did not manage to land its booster on a floating platform in the Atlantic Ocean.
The twin Mars rover, named Escapade, will remain near Earth for a year at a distance of 1 mile (1.5 kilometers). Once Earth and Mars are ideally aligned next fall, they will utilize gravity assist from Earth to travel to the Red Planet, with an expected arrival in 2027.
During its orbit around Mars, the spacecraft will map the planet’s upper atmosphere and diffuse magnetic field, studying their interactions with solar wind. The data collected will enhance understanding of the processes driving the loss of Mars’ atmosphere and provide insights into how the planet transitioned from a wet and warm environment to its current dry and dusty state. Researchers will also investigate ways to protect astronauts from the intense radiation present on Mars.
“We are eager to gain a deeper understanding of how the solar wind interacts with Mars,” stated Escapade’s lead scientist Rob Lillis from the University of California, Berkeley, ahead of the launch. “Escapade offers a unique opportunity with two spacecraft operating simultaneously, granting us an unprecedented stereo perspective.”
This relatively cost-effective mission is budgeted at less than $80 million and is managed by the University of California, Berkeley. Initially slated for last fall, the launch of the Mars rover was postponed due to issues related to Blue Origin’s new rocket.
The New Glenn rocket, named in honor of John Glenn, the first American to orbit the Earth, is significantly larger than Blue Origin’s New Shepard rocket, which caters to affluent passengers traveling to the edge of space from West Texas. Blue Origin is also set to launch a demonstration mission for its prototype lunar lander, Blue Moon, aboard New Glenn in the upcoming months.
Founded in 2000 by Amazon’s Jeff Bezos, Blue Origin holds a contract with NASA for the third astronaut lunar landing under the Artemis program. In contrast, SpaceX, led by Elon Musk, utilized its Starship rocket—approximately 100 feet (30 meters) taller than New Glenn—to successfully complete the first two crewed lunar landings.
However, last month, NASA’s acting administrator Sean Duffy reinstated the contract for the initial manned moon landing, expressing concerns regarding the pace of progress on Starship’s testing from Texas. Both Blue Origin and SpaceX have put forth preliminary plans for landing.
Plans are underway for NASA to send astronauts around the moon early next year using its own Space Launch System (SLS) rocket, followed by the Artemis crew’s attempt to land. The space agency aims to surpass China’s mission and return astronauts to the moon within the next decade.
Caves in the Hebrus Valley of Mars may have been sculpted by ancient water flows
NASA Mars Earth Surveyor
Subsurface caves shaped by flowing water on Mars may have provided ideal conditions for life, with potential remnants still present today.
Throughout Mars, numerous openings resembling cave entrances are found, primarily near volcanic regions. This implies these features were likely formed by processes related to volcanic activity rather than water.
Earth is home to numerous karst caves, created by the dissolution of soluble rock by water. However, scientists have yet to find equivalent caves on Mars, despite evidence indicating the planet was once covered in water billions of years ago.
Currently, Ding Vermicelli, a professor at Shenzhen University in China, has identified eight caves that seem to have been formed by ancient water flows instead of volcanic activity. These caves are situated in the Hebrus Gorge, a northwestern region characterized by extensive valleys and depressions likely shaped by ancient floods.
Previous Mars missions, including NASA’s Mars Global Surveyor (which orbited Mars from 1997 to 2006), have mapped these caves. Ding and his team analyzed material near one cave entrance using spectroscopic data from that mission, revealing a notable presence of carbonate and sulfate minerals typically associated with water.
They also detected signs of an ancient stream ending near the cave entrance, similar to patterns seen near karst caves on Earth. James Baldini from Durham University, UK, noted, “On a map, you’d expect a river to emerge to the surface only to disappear suddenly, as the cave system absorbs its water.”
Daniel Le Corret from the University of Kent in the UK mentioned that while the mineralogical and geological data implies these may be water caves, they appear quite similar to other Martian caves of volcanic origin. “I’ve spent countless hours evaluating the global catalog of Martian caves and these resemble known volcanic formations,” he said.
If these caves are indeed formed by water, they might be excellent locations for searching for life. “For life to exist, water and a protective environment from Mars’ intense surface radiation are essential,” Baldini remarked. “Volcanic caves and lava tubes also present good avenues for potential life, though they don’t necessarily involve water.”
Mars’ water caves may contain stalagmites—bulbous rock formations generally found in Earth’s karst caves—and could act as time capsules of Mars’ ancient climate conditions, such as temperature.
However, stalagmites require thousands of years of sustained water flow to develop, and determining their formation timing could be challenging, even if rovers or drones succeed in collecting samples, according to Baldini.
Mysteries of the Universe: Cheshire, England
Join a weekend with some of science’s leading minds as you delve into the enigmas of the universe, featuring a tour of the renowned Lovell Telescope.
Investigating the potential for life to endure under extraterrestrial circumstances is a key aim of astrobiology. In this recent study, researchers utilized the robust model organism, baker’s yeast, to evaluate the impact of Mars-like environments. They discovered that the yeast can resist shock waves and perchlorate treatment, two stress factors linked to Mars. Furthermore, yeast adapt to Martian-like conditions by forming conserved RNA-protein complexes.
A model demonstrating the significance of RNP condensates in facilitating survival under Mars-like stress conditions. Image credit: Dhage et al., doi: 10.1093/pnasnexus/pgaf300.
“With advancements in space science and astrobiology, examining Mars’s potential to harbor life forms is gaining considerable interest,” stated Dr. Purusharth Rajguru and his team at the Indian Institute of Science.
“Mars presents a range of extreme environmental challenges that any potential life forms would need to overcome.”
“Hence, it is essential to comprehend its unique and harsh environmental conditions.”
“The stressors on Mars include: (i) high-intensity shock waves from meteorite impacts, (ii) extreme fluctuations in temperature and pressure, (iii) ionizing radiation and solar ultraviolet radiation resulting from a thin atmosphere, and (iv) chaotropic agents such as perchlorates.”
“These factors create significant barriers to the survival of potential life.”
In this investigation, the researchers examined budding yeast, a well-known model organism for studying shock waves and perchlorate.
One reason for selecting this yeast is its previous studies conducted in space environments.
When subjected to stress, yeast, humans, and various other organisms form ribonucleoprotein (RNP) condensates, structures composed of RNA and proteins that safeguard the RNA and influence the progression of mRNA.
When a stressor subsides, RNP condensates, which include stress granules and subtypes called P bodies, disassemble.
Yeast subjected to a shock wave with a Mach strength of 5.6 survived, exhibiting slower growth rates, similar to those observed in yeast exposed to 100 mM sodium perchlorate salt (NaClO4)—a concentration akin to that found in Martian soil.
The yeast cells also endured the combined stress of shock waves and perchlorate exposure.
In both situations, the yeast accumulated RNP condensates, the researchers noted.
The shock wave triggered the formation of stress granules and P bodies, while perchlorate prompted the yeast to generate P bodies but not stress granules.
Mutants that were unable to assemble RNP condensates fared poorer under Martian stress conditions.
Transcriptome analysis uncovered specific RNA transcripts affected by the Mars-like scenarios.
“This finding highlights the significance of yeast and RNP condensates in understanding how Martian conditions affect life,” the scientists concluded.
For further details, refer to their paper published in today’s issue of PNAS Nexus.
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Riya Dage et al. 2025. Ribonucleoprotein (RNP) condensates regulate survival in response to Mars-like stress conditions. PNAS Nexus 4(10):pgaf300; doi: 10.1093/pnasnexus/pgaf300
Parallel channels known as linear dune canyons can be observed within some of Mars’ dunes. Contrary to what their name suggests, these canyons are frequently quite winding. It was previously believed that these landforms were created through debris flow processes influenced by liquid water. However, recent satellite imagery has revealed that they are active during the local spring due to processes involving carbon dioxide ice. During the Martian winter, ice accumulates on the dunes, breaking off at the top as temperatures rise in early spring. In new experiments conducted in the Mars Chamber, planetary researchers from Utrecht University, the University of Le Mans, the University of Nantes, the Grenoble Institute of Astrophysics, and the Open University have demonstrated that linear dune canyons form when blocks of carbon dioxide and ice slide or submerge into the sandy slopes of dunes, or shift downwards with considerable force, draining the nearby sand. This drilling action is triggered by a powerful gas flow generated by the sublimation of carbon dioxide ice, as it transitions into carbon dioxide gas. The movement of sliding carbon dioxide ice blocks contributes to the formation of shallow channels, while the excavation of carbon dioxide ice results in the development of deep, winding channels in Martian dunes.
Two examples of Martian dunes with linear dune gullies: (a) linear dune gullies in the dune field of Gall Crater; (b) A linear dune canyon in the dune field of an unnamed crater in the center of the Hellas Plain. Image credit: Roelofs et al., doi:10.1029/2024GL112860.
Linear dune canyons are remarkable and enigmatic formations located in the mid-latitude sand dune regions of Mars.
Despite their designation, these parallel and often meandering waterways, characterized by sharp bends, limited source areas, distinct banks, and hole-like channel terminations, have no equivalent on Earth.
They differ significantly from the conventional canyon topography found on steep slopes both on Mars and Earth, which typically features erosional alcoves, channels, and sedimentary aprons that are often larger than linear dune canyons.
“In our simulations, we observed how high gas pressures cause the sand to shift in all directions around the blocks,” stated Loneke Roelofs, a researcher at Utrecht University and lead author of the study.
“Consequently, the blocks become lodged into the slope and get trapped within cavities, surrounded by small ridges of settled sand.”
“However, the sublimation process persists, leading to continued sand displacement in all directions.”
“This phenomenon drives the block to gradually descend, resulting in a long, deep canyon flanked by small sand ridges on either side.”
“This is precisely the kind of canyon we find on Mars.”
In their research, Dr. Roelofs and colleagues merged laboratory experiments that let blocks of carbon dioxide and ice slide down sandy slopes under Martian atmospheric pressure with observations of the linear dune canyons located within the Russell Crater Giant Dunes.
“We experimented by simulating dune slopes of varying steepness.”
“We released chunks of carbon dioxide ice down a slope and observed the outcomes.”
“Once we discovered an appropriate slope, we began to see significant effects. The carbon dioxide ice chunks started to penetrate the slope and move downwards, resembling burrowing moles or dune sandworms. It was quite an unusual sight.”
“But how exactly do these ice blocks originate? They form in the desert dunes located in the midlands of Mars’ southern hemisphere.”
“During winter, a layer of carbon dioxide ice develops across the entire surface of the dunes, reaching thicknesses of up to 70 cm. As spring arrives, this ice begins to warm and sublimate.”
“The last remnants of the ice persist on the shaded side of the dune’s summit, where blocks will break off once temperatures rise sufficiently.”
“When a block reaches the base of the slope and halts its movement, sublimation continues until all carbon dioxide evaporates, leaving behind a cavity filled with sand at the dune’s base.”
This study was published in the October 8th issue of Geophysical Research Letters.
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Loneke Roelofs et al. 2025. Particle transport driven by explosive sublimation causes blocks of CO2 to slide and burrow, forming winding “linear dune valleys” in Martian dunes. Geophysical Research Letters 52 (19): e2024GL112860; doi: 10.1029/2024GL112860
Ancient volcanic eruptions on Mars may have led to ice deposits near the planet’s equator
Ron Miller/Science Photo Library
The hottest regions on Mars conceal an unexpectedly dense layer of ice beneath their surface, and researchers might have unraveled its origins. This water could have journeyed from the planet’s interior via peculiar volcanic eruptions billions of years ago, making it a vital resource for future human expeditions.
While Mars is known for its polar ice caps, recent radar data from orbiting satellites indicates that ice also exists in equatorial zones. “There’s a frozen layer at the equator, which is curious given that it’s the warmest area of the planet,” says Saira Hamid from Arizona State University. At high noon, temperatures around the equator can soar to approximately 20°C (68°F).
Hamid and her team conducted simulations of volcanic activity on Mars, revealing that explosive eruptions could have propelled water from the interior into the atmosphere over extensive periods. In ancient times, Mars boasted a denser atmosphere conducive to freeze and snowfall, leading to the ice layers observed today. “This narrative intertwines fire and ice,” adds Hamid.
These eruptions would have differed substantially from those on Earth. Mars’ reduced gravity allows volcanic ash, water, and sulfur plumes to ascend as high as 65 kilometers (65 kilometers) above Earth’s surface, and under certain atmospheric conditions during eruptions, even reach space.
As snow accumulates, the water compresses into muddied ice layers, shielded by a blanket of volcanic ash. This covering prevents the ice from sublimating into space and has contributed to its preservation to the present day.
“The potential for such ice-laden deposits poses challenges for many,” comments Tom Watters from the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, DC. A notable source of confusion is the massive Medusa Fosse Formation near Mars’ equator. “If the water anticipated in the Medusa Fosse Formation were to melt, it could fill the Great Lakes. That’s a substantial volume of water.”
Another theory for the ice’s formation suggests that Mars’ axial tilt may have changed drastically over time, potentially shifting equatorial areas to pole-like conditions. “However, these volcanic eruptions are sufficient to generate ice without requiring shifts in axial tilt,” Hamid pointed out. “It’s the simpler explanation.”
Equatorial regions are also prime sites for landing missions to Mars because the faint atmosphere thickens in these areas, helping to decelerate landers approaching the surface. The availability of water there could be crucial for future human missions, although initial missions may not exploit this resource. Subsequent landings could benefit from the ice.
“On our inaugural trips, we intend to carry plenty of water, just in case we misinterpret our radar readings,” says Watters. “Without enough water, venturing out with only a shovel expecting to strike water is unwise. Bring a shovel, but also ensure you have sufficient water.”
This image seems to show a Martian wrench, but it’s just a stone
Brian Cory Dobbs Productions
Blue Planet Red Directed by Brian Corrie Dobbs, available on Amazon Prime Video
Blue Planet Red is a documentary focused on Mars. The world depicted by director Brian Corrie Dobbs diverges from our understanding but certainly possesses its allure. It showcases an advanced civilization of pyramid builders that either failed to avert their world’s demise or destroyed it through a catastrophic nuclear conflict.
Dobbs presents his assertions regarding advanced Martian life directly to the audience, complete with expressive gestures and confident poses. I found him quite engaging. Yet, after viewing his work, I wasn’t surprised to discover that a section of his portfolio includes questionable content (referring to dubious videos concerning cell phones, electromagnetic fields, and cancer).
Whether by design or not, Blue Planet Red serves as a historical record. It is a testament to a generation of researchers and enthusiasts raised under the imposing shadow of a two-kilometer geological mound in the Martian region of Sidonia. Back in 1976, NASA’s Viking spacecraft took a blurry photo of what seemed to be a giant human face, known as the “Face of Mars,” at the intersection of Mars’ southern highlands and northern plains.
There’s no need to delve into debunking topics that have already been convincingly dismantled many times before. If you enhance the resolution of the image, the so-called face vanishes. Features resembling tools or bones are simply rocks. Additionally, the presence of xenon-129 in Mars’ atmosphere suggests an ancient nuclear war only if we disregard the well-understood decay process of the now-extinct isotope iodine-129 into xenon-129 within Mars’ cooling lithosphere.
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The ambiguous data from the Viking orbiters fostered the growth of fanciful ideas “
Yet, capturing this narrative holds a certain poignancy. Transforming Ideas gives voice to this generation of researchers. Individuals featured in the film include Richard Bryce Hoover, who led NASA’s astrobiology research at the Marshall Space Flight Center in Alabama until 2011, where he helped prove the existence of extremophiles on Earth. He is convinced he discovered microfossils in Martian meteorites. However, despite his enthusiasm, director Hoover fails to clarify in the film why these fossils rest atop the rock samples rather than embedded within them.
Contributor John Brandenburg is regarded as a respectable plasma scientist, provided he avoids discussing nuclear war on Mars. Mark Carlot, on the other hand, has dedicated 40 years to chronicling remnants of civilization on Mars while others merely see rocks. Upon returning to Earth, he proves to be an adept archaeologist.
After Apollo made its final moon landing in 1972, the initial thrill of the space race began to diminish. The images transmitted back by the Viking spacecraft signaled the next significant discovery. This hazy mixture of revolutionary yet unclear data served as a fertile ground for the emergence of fanciful ideas, particularly in the United States, where the Vietnam War and Watergate bred skepticism and paranoia.
Dobbs’ dynamic recounting of the Martian narrative frames it as a tale of an event occurring 3.7 billion years ago when the wet, warm planet transitioned into a barren dust bowl. For me, it resonates more with what happened to the passionate groups glued to their screens and magazines in the 1970s. Let us momentarily set aside our disdain and engage with this generation. Strong hope should never again hinder a kind heart like this.
American and German (and Nazi) rocket scientists drew inspiration from Antarctic exploration to draft this foundational technical specification for a manned mission to Mars.
Simon Ings is a novelist and science writer. X Follow him at @simonings
The bright area represents the comet’s core, which consists of a dense mixture of ice, rock, and dust. Typically, the nucleus is enveloped in a cloud of gas and dust known as a coma.
Since being discovered in July, Comet 3i/Atlas has captivated both astronomers and space enthusiasts. There have been intriguing theories suggesting it could be alien technology or a spacecraft, though no scientific backing exists for these ideas.
The comet is not stationary.
Researchers tracking its trajectory project that the comet will make its closest approach to the sun around October 30, as its orbit navigates through the inner solar system in the following weeks.
NASA has stated that 3i/Atlas poses no risk to Earth, maintaining a distance of about 170 million miles during its pass.
However, its near pass of Mars provided a unique observational opportunity.
The ExoMars Trace Gas Orbiter, jointly run by the ESA and Russia’s Federal Space Agency, directed its cameras at the comet for approximately a week starting October 1, officials from ESA noted. At that point, 3i/Atlas was roughly 18.6 million miles from the spacecraft.
Despite this, the orbiter’s instruments are primarily designed for imaging the Martian surface rather than distant objects, as explained by Nick Thomas, principal investigator for the imaging system.
“This posed a significant challenge for our instruments,” he stated in a statement. “Comets are approximately 10,000 to 100,000 times less dense than typical targets.”
Other interstellar visitors to our solar system include Oumuamua in 2017 and 2i/Borisov in 2019.
ESA emphasized, “All celestial bodies in our solar system share a common origin, but interstellar comets are unique outsiders, providing insights into the formation of distant worlds.”
As 3i/Atlas travels through our solar system, astronomers are eager to analyze its size and physical characteristics. Earlier this year, it was visible through ground-based telescopes, but it’s currently too close to the sun for observation. It is expected to reappear on the opposite side of the sun by early December, according to NASA.
NASA is tracking 3i/Atlas with the Hubble Space Telescope and plans additional observations in the upcoming months. The James Webb Space Telescope, Spherex Space Observatory, Parker Solar Probe, and the Exoplanet Survey Satellite are among the instruments hoping to catch a glimpse of the comet.
A photo taken recently by the Saturday camera captured streaks of light, leading to speculation online that it could be Comet 3i/Atlas. However, NASA has not confirmed this, and their public information office is currently closed due to the government shutdown.
ESA’s Mars Express spacecraft did focus its camera on the comet as it passed, although further analysis will be required to distinguish interstellar objects from the gathered data.
The recently identified mineral, Phalic Hydroxysullate, sheds light on the environmental conditions and history of Mars, hinting at potential past volcanic, ash, or hydrothermal activities.
A distinct spectral unit on the Juventue Plateau on Mars. Image credit: Bishop et al, doi: 10.1038/s41467-025-61801-2.
The compact reconnaissance imaging spectrometer (CRISM) on NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter has gathered hyperspectral data, enabling the mapping of numerous minerals that enhance our understanding of Mars’ ancient geochemical history.
Various sulfate minerals have been identified both from orbit and during landing missions, utilizing spectral parameters, X-ray diffraction, and elemental composition to compare with minerals found on Earth.
In 2010, a unique spectral band was detected in the CRISM data from Mars, specifically on the plateau near Juvento Chasma and within the eroded impact crater Arum Chaos.
This spectral band did not match any known minerals, presenting challenges in mineral identification for over 15 years.
Initial laboratory studies suggested that dehydrated iron sulfate could be the source of this unidentified material.
“The data obtained from spectrometers can’t be utilized in that manner,” explains Dr. Mario Parent, a researcher at the University of Massachusetts Amherst.
“Data adjustments are necessary to account for atmospheric effects.”
“The sunlight reflecting off the minerals and CRISM passes through the Martian atmosphere twice,” he continues. “There are scattering molecules and gases that absorb light.” For instance, Mars has a high concentration of carbon dioxide, which can distort the data.
By employing a deep learning artificial intelligence method, researchers can map both known and unknown minerals, automatically identifying anomalies in individual image pixels.
This technique has revealed additional locations with similar spectral bands and clarified other spectral features.
With refined properties, researchers were able to replicate the minerals in the lab and identify the enigmatic compound as hydroxysulfate.
“Materials formed in laboratory conditions may represent new minerals due to their unique crystal structure and thermal durability,” states Dr. Janice Bishop, a researcher at the SETI Institute and NASA’s Ames Research Center.
“However, it is imperative to find them on Earth to officially classify them as new minerals.”
Hydroxyacids are formed at elevated temperatures (50-100 degrees Celsius) in the presence of oxygen and water under acidic conditions.
“When will we observe this material once we develop a mineral attribution and obtain the necessary indicators of a specific material?” Dr. Parente questions.
Scientists deduced that it formed in Arum Chaos due to geothermal heat, while the same minerals likely originated in Juvento from volcanic activity involving ash or lava.
They speculate this may have occurred during the Amazonian era, which is estimated to be under 3 billion years ago.
“Factors such as temperature, pressure, and pH are critical indicators of what the paleoclimate was like,” states Dr. Parente.
“The existence of this mineral adds depth to our understanding of Martian processes.”
“Some regions of Mars have been chemically and thermally altered more recently than previously thought, providing new insights into the planet’s dynamic surface and its potential to support life.”
Study published in the journal Nature Communications.
____
Jl Bishop et al. 2025. The properties of iron hydroxythrusa acid on Mars and the implications of the geochemical environment that supports its formation. Nat commun 16, 7020; doi:10.1038/s41467-025-61801-2
Moreover, the atmospheric pressure is equivalent to that found on Earth at an altitude of 35km (almost 115,000 feet), well above the cruising altitude of commercial flights. This sparse atmosphere is predominantly carbon dioxide, containing only minimal amounts of oxygen.
Additionally, liquid water is virtually nonexistent on Mars, with radiation levels being 400 times greater than those on Earth, and only rare instances of extremely saline trickles.
Nonetheless, certain Earth organisms have shown a remarkable ability to endure such harsh conditions.
The European Space Agency conducted a series of experiments between 2008 and 2016, exposing various organisms and seeds to simulated Martian conditions aboard the International Space Station.
Tardigrades, fungi, and some bacteria survived for over a year, but solely in dormant forms, such as spores and cysts.
Some lichens and algae went a step further, demonstrating actual metabolic activity when partially shielded from radiation—this could occur on Mars if they are embedded in soil or hidden within rock crevices.
In 2024, Chinese researchers discovered that various desert moss species (Syntrichia caninervis) could endure simulated Martian conditions. However, “tolerance” is far from thriving in such an environment.
Although the moss was able to recover after a week in the simulated Martian environment and returned to normal growth, researchers did not find evidence of metabolic activity, such as oxygen production, within the Martian setting.
But the challenges are even greater.
Mars has an average surface temperature of -63°C (-81°F) and an atmospheric pressure that corresponds to 35km (nearly 115,000 feet), along with radiation levels that are 400 times higher than on Earth.
Mars soil contains perchlorate, a problematic oxidizer that is toxic to cell functions and leads to DNA damage. Exposure to the ultraviolet radiation prevalent on Mars makes it even more reactive.
The Chinese experiments did not simulate perchlorate presence in the Martian environment. Had it been included, it likely would have obliterated the moss entirely.
Some fungi survive perchlorate, and several bacterial species can utilize it as an energy source, even breaking it down into harmless by-products. However, these species still require water and warmth to thrive.
Typically, when we store items, we employ various methods to eliminate bacteria and fungi or inhibit their growth.
We freeze food, dehydrate it, sterilize with UV light, soak it in saline solutions, or seal it in oxygen-removing containers. On Mars, all these methods are naturally enforced!
If we aimed to sterilize a planet, we could hardly surpass the existing conditions on Mars.
This article addresses the inquiry posed by Robin Mason of Manchester: “Is there anything on Earth that can withstand Martian conditions?”
Please send your questions via emailto Question @sciencefocus.com, or reach us throughFacebook,Twitter, orInstagramPage (please include your name and location).
Explore our ultimateFun fact for more astonishing science content.
The unusual “leopard spot” markings on Mars’ rocks might finally indicate that alien microbes could have existed on the Red Planet.
A comprehensive analysis of these rocks has shown that the intricate patterns are “the clearest signs ever found on Mars,” as stated by Sean Duffy, a NASA representative.
These rocks, estimated to be about 3.5 billion years old, were discovered in July 2024 by NASA’s Perseverance rover. Since then, planetary scientists have been exploring various hypotheses to explain these markings.
Recent information from a Nature paper suggests that while the patterns may have a geological origin, the prevailing theory now points toward ancient Martian microbes as the likely culprits.
Perseverance collected rock samples, hoping to yield a more definitive answer. If all goes well, these samples will eventually return to Earth for a thorough examination of potential signs of past life.
Leopard Spots on Bright Angel
Currently, Mars is a barren, lifeless world, but this hasn’t always been the case. Until around 3 billion years ago, Mars’ surface was rich with flowing rivers and expansive lakes.
Wherever there is water on Earth, signs of life typically follow. For two decades, NASA’s rovers have been scouring Mars for evidence suggesting that the Red Planet could have once supported life.
The Perseverance rover is exploring a site known as Jezero Crater, which was a lake in Mars’ ancient history. Similar environments on Earth often serve as habitats for microorganisms.
Within rock formations referred to as the Bright Angel formation, Perseverance uncovered stunning patterns resembling leopard spots.
“We conducted extensive observations of the entire rock formation at Bright Angel,” said Professor Joel Hurowitz of Stony Brook University in the US, in an interview with BBC Science Focus.
While Perseverance’s cameras captured detailed images of the patterns, a spectrometer analyzed the mineral composition. The rover even utilized radar to map the structure of the subsurface outcrop.
“Essentially, we used every tool available on these rocks except for the kitchen sink,” Hurowitz remarked.
The analysis indicated that the patterns were formed by iron-rich minerals called vivianite and greygite. On Earth, these minerals typically arise from “redox reactions,” a process in which microorganisms exchange electrons with their environment.
“On Earth, these reactions are often facilitated by microorganisms residing in sediments, which derive energy from them for metabolic activity,” Hurowitz explained. The residuals from these processes create distinctive patterns in sedimentary rocks.
However, this doesn’t mean we should rush to celebrate the discovery of alien life just yet. There are other mechanisms that could account for the leopard spot patterns without any biological influence.
For instance, heat could have driven reactions between mud and organic matter, resulting in new minerals.
Yet, the research team did not find evidence indicating that the rocks were subjected to heat. Additionally, other methods they investigated also did not seem viable. Nonetheless, Hurowitz cautioned, “We cannot dismiss these entirely.”
One of the most surprising findings is the relatively young age of these rocks. At only 3.5 billion years old, the patterns formed while Mars was already entering a phase of decline, suggesting that the planet may have been habitable for much longer than previously assumed.
Unfortunately, Perseverance has an entire planet to explore and we continue our quest to find life beyond Earth.
Perseverance drilling and photographing rock samples – Credit: NASA/JPL -CALTECH/MSSS
“If I could revisit Jezero in the future, I would have follow-up questions that I would like to address using the rover’s instruments,” Hurowitz remarked.
“However, these follow-up analyses may not necessarily provide a more conclusive answer regarding whether these features were shaped by life.”
“Ultimately, determining whether life was involved will necessitate laboratory analysis back on Earth.”
Bringing Mars to Earth
Fortunately, Perseverance is part of the initial phase of Mars’ sample return mission. Not only is it studying the rocks on Mars, but it’s also preparing to bring samples back to Earth.
Before departing from Bright Angel, the rover collected and stored samples from the rocks along with numerous similar fragments obtained during its mission on Mars.
NASA aims to collaborate with the European Space Agency on follow-up missions to retrieve these samples and return them to Earth where they can be analyzed in top-tier laboratories.
After 3.5 billion years, finding definitive evidence is challenging. Instead, researchers will seek additional signs that microbes may have left behind.
“The first logical step is to analyze the isotopic composition of iron, sulfur, and carbon in the various mineral and organic components of the rock,” Hurowitz stated.
Isotopes can be thought of as different variants of the same element. Microorganisms tend to retain particular isotopes more than their non-biological counterparts, enabling researchers to narrow down their search for evidence of life.
“These variations in isotopic composition are essential tools for investigating biological signals in ancient rocks on Earth, and we aim to apply similar methods to this Martian sample,” Hurowitz noted.
The return mission is tentatively scheduled for the 2030s, although there is a risk of cancellation due to cuts to NASA’s planetary exploration budget during the Trump administration.
“NASA is examining strategies for retrieving these samples and others,” a NASA spokesperson told BBC Science Focus. “Having explored Mars for 60 years, we will continue to look into budgetary and timing considerations for a quick and cost-effective return of these samples.”
“We hope these findings will further motivate the sample return mission,” Hurowitz added. “This will allow us to scrutinize the sample with the detail necessary to determine its historical record of life on Mars.”
“If it’s indeed life, that would suggest our planet is not the only one where life has evolved,” Frowitz concluded. “If life originated twice, how many other places might it have occurred?”
About Our Experts
Joel Hurowitz is an associate professor in the Department of Geoscience at Stony Brook University in New York, USA. He investigates the early history of Mars through measurements taken from planetary studies and Earth’s similar topographies.
Since January 2025, when Donald Trump returned to the White House, his administration has enacted severe funding cuts across various federal agencies, including NASA. The proposed 2026 Budget plans to decrease NASA’s institutional funding by as much as 24.3%.
This translates to a financial drop from $24.8 billion (£18.4 billion) allocated by Congress in 2025, to $18.8 billion (£13.9 billion) in 2026.
The president’s proposals are not law until they pass through Congress, where they will be scrutinized, debated, and revised in the coming months.
Nonetheless, this situation focuses attention on some key priorities Trump has outlined during his two terms in office.
Focus on Human Spaceflight
During Trump’s first term from 2017 to 2021, NASA’s budget increased from $19.5 billion (£15.5 billion) to $23.3 billion (£18.5 billion), which constitutes about 0.48% of federal spending.
Trump has reinstated the National Space Council, shaping US space policies with the US Space Force consolidating national security assets in the latest military setup.
His administration emphasizes human spaceflight, launching NASA’s Artemis program aimed at returning humans to the moon by 2024.
Although this timeline appears overly ambitious, Artemis II is still scheduled for a crewed mission around the moon in 2026. If all goes well, Artemis III may land on the lunar surface a few years later.
Near the close of his first term, Trump formalized the National Space Policy, committing to lunar exploration and future missions to Mars. This policy streamlined regulatory frameworks, increasing accessibility for the private sector.
Support for human spaceflight and exploration carried on into his second term.
In April, when announcing the NASA Budget, the White House asserted its intention to return American astronauts to the moon “before China,” which has ambitious plans for a lunar base by the 2030s.
“The proposal includes investments to pursue lunar and Mars exploration simultaneously but prioritizes vital science and technology research,” stated NASA Administrator Janet Petro, reinforcing that the agency would “continue to progress towards achieving the impossible.”
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Risk Projects Due to Budget Cuts
However, the budget cuts may hinder NASA’s ability to meet its goals, as it calls for “rationalizing the institutional workforce” while cutting many support services, including IT and maintenance.
The budget suggests cancelling the costly and delayed Space Launch System (SLS) rocket and the Orion Crew Capsule, both essential for long-range space missions like Artemis.
Instead, it proposes replacing them with “a more cost-effective commercial system” to facilitate subsequent missions.
According to the White House, SLS is operating at 140% over budget, costing $4 billion (£3.2 billion) per launch.
The SLS rocket completed an unmanned Artemis I mission in 2022, but as Trump’s budget advances, Artemis II will send astronauts Reid Wiseman, Victor Glover, Christina Koch, and Jeremy Hansen around the moon in 2026, with plans for lunar landings to follow.
Eliminating SLS and Orion, referred to as the “Legacy Human Exploration System” in Trump’s budget, could save $879 million (£698.5 million).
Artemis I’s Space Launch System Rocket Launch – Photo Credit: NASA
However, US lawmakers have expressed concerns about terminating the program, despite its notable expenses, as it has taken a decade to prepare for the flight, and cancellation could grant China a competitive advantage.
This sentiment was echoed by Texas Senator Ted Cruz: “It’s hard to think of more devastating mistakes,” he remarked during an April Senate hearing.
Another project earmarked for termination is the Lunar Gateway, a new space station intended to orbit the moon. Key hardware for this initiative has already been constructed in the US, Europe, Canada, and Japan.
While some missions might be salvaged, these cancellations risk alienating international partners that NASA has built relations with over decades.
Is There No More NASA Science?
The budget also threatens significant cuts to NASA’s Earth and Space Science Programs, with funding for the former at £1.16 billion (£921.7 million) and the latter at £2.655 billion (£2.1 billion).
“Are Mars and Venus habitable? How many Earth-like planets exist? We’re opting not to find out; such questions will remain unanswered,” the critique suggests.
The budget aims to terminate “multiple, affordable missions,” including long-term endeavors like the Mars Sample Return (MSR), which was deemed unsustainable.
This mission aims to uncover significant information about Mars’ past by analyzing rock and soil samples already collected by rovers currently exploring the planet.
Nonetheless, NASA acknowledged last year that the estimated cost of the MSR mission ballooned from $7 billion (£5.6 billion) to $11 billion (£8.7 billion), with its timeline pushed back from 2033 to 2040.
The proposed budget suggests that MSR goals may be achieved through crewed missions to Mars, aligning with Trump’s promise to “send American astronauts to plant the stars and stripes on Mars.”
However, China’s plans for a Mars sample return mission remain robust, with aspirations for execution in 2028, potentially prompting Congressional pushback against the MSR budget cancellation.
In Earth Sciences, the budget proposes cuts to various Earth monitoring satellites, many vital for tracking climate change.
Ground crews assist 19 astronauts as they return to Earth in April after a successful six-month mission aboard China’s Tiango Space Station – Photo Credit: Getty Images
The future of NASA’s Landsat Next is in question, which includes a trio of satellites set to launch in 2031 for monitoring Earth’s dynamic landscapes.
Meanwhile, several climate satellites and instruments currently operational, such as orbital carbon observatories and deep-sea climate stations, face closures even though they remain fully functional.
Another mission facing uncertainty is the Nancy Grace Roman Space Telescope, scheduled for launch between 2026 and 2027, aimed at planetary exploration and investigating cosmic evolution.
This initiative is expected to be pivotal in understanding dark matter, dark energy, and answering fundamental questions about the universe.
Though Roman’s costs have escalated from an initial $2 billion (£1.6 billion) to over $3.2 billion (£2.5 billion), with 90% of the projected expenditure already incurred, the budget proposes reducing its development funding by $244 million (£133.9 million).
Ultimately, it remains unclear how the budget will be finalized as it awaits Congressional approval. Will these cuts devastate scientific progress, or usher in a new era of human exploration?
Mars’ atmosphere may have once been far thicker, providing a protective layer against the frequent asteroid impacts that destroyed other celestial bodies.
Our solar system began forming around 4 billion years ago, and by that time, Mars was nearly fully developed. The planet existed within a vast reservoir of hot gas and dust swirling around a youthful sun, known as the solar nebula, which some planets absorbed into their atmosphere. However, it was believed that as the solar nebula dissipated, Mars would lose this gas, resulting in a thinner atmosphere.
Recently, Sarah Jollett from Paris’ Collège de France and her team propose that Mars retained this gas for a longer period, forming a primordial atmosphere akin to a sustained soup.
Shortly after the nebula receded, it was believed that the orbits of significant planets like Jupiter and Saturn influenced each other, subsequently disturbing the paths of comets and asteroids that headed towards the inner solar system, impacting rocky planets. While chemical signatures of these impacts can be found on Earth, evidence on Mars remains limited.
“All terrestrial planets faced bombardments from comets during this time, and Mars was no exception, so we should observe remnants of this cometary assault on Mars,” Jollett stated at the Europlanet Science Congress held on September 11th in Helsinki, Finland.
Jollett and her colleagues suggest that the dense, hydrogen-rich atmosphere during this era may have diluted comet material that was available for absorption by Mars. By running simulations of the early solar system, they estimated the potential amount of material impacting Mars and compared it to the detectable quantity. They deduced that the original Martian atmosphere had a mass equivalent to 2.9 bars, around three times the atmospheric pressure we experience on the surface today.
However, this atmosphere dissipated relatively swiftly over about a million years, according to Raymond Pierre Hambart from Oxford University, who was not involved in the study. This loss primarily occurred before liquid water could come to the surface of Mars. The necessary clear atmospheric conditions, rich in carbon dioxide, were likely not present in that thick primordial atmosphere.
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Unusual clouds form on the Arcia Mon, a volcano on Mars every year.
ESA/DLR/FU Berlin/J. Cowart CC by-sa 3.0 Igo
The delicate clouds that appear on Mars annually have intrigued astronomers since their initial discovery, likely stemming from a water-rich atmosphere that seems implausible.
Each winter, clouds spanning 1,800 kilometers form near the Arsia Mons, located in the southern hemisphere of Mars, emerging and dissipating daily for nearly three months. The atmospheric conditions on Mars vastly differ from Earth’s, notably with an abundance of fine dust particles that can cause water vapor in the atmosphere to condense into cloud particles. This results in cloud patterns unique to Mars, yet simulations accounting for these high dust levels do not replicate the distinct features of the Arsia Mons Cloud.
Now, Jorge Hernandez Bernal from the University of Sorbonne in France and his team propose that an exceptionally high amount of water vapor in the atmosphere could recreate these cloud characteristics. Elevated levels of water vapor aid in cloud particle formation through alternative dust-free processes known as homogeneous nucleation.
When researchers conducted atmospheric simulations around Arsia Mons that featured increased water content, the resulting cloud formations bore a striking resemblance to the actual clouds.
“Uniform nucleation necessitates much greater water levels on Mars. [Water] saturation is required. Initially, I believed this to be improbable or extremely unlikely on Mars,” said Hernandez Bernal at the Europlanet Science Congress (EPSC) on September 10th, held in Helsinki, Finland. “However, over the last decade, we’ve discovered that Mars can indeed exhibit supersaturation.”
In summary, no. However, last year, NASA’s diligent rover uncovered indications in ancient rocks that may suggest life existed on the Red Planet billions of years ago. Now, new evidence points to the unique structure of certain clay-rich minerals that might indicate biological origins.
Despite the excitement surrounding these findings, caution is essential: Astrobiologists Trust in detecting life employs strict criteria to evaluate evidence quality. Even the previous discoveries combined with today’s findings remain at initial stages.
What Did NASA Actually Discover?
Perseverance explored a lakebed known as Bright Angel in Jezero Crater last year when it encountered a rock displaying unusual markings referred to as “leopard spots” and “poppy seeds.” On Earth, these patterns are indicative of ancient microbial activity. Leopard spots are small, round dark marks, while poppy seeds are even tinier, darker particles.
Both types of markings are found in a rock named Chayaba Falls, after the Grand Canyon Falls, sandwiched between white layers of calcium sulfate—a mineral typically formed in the presence of water, crucial for life.
Today, NASA announced further intriguing discoveries. Clay-rich samples were found at two locations (one named Sapphire Canyon) along with those previously identified in Bright Angel, including small green spots of chemically reduced iron phosphate and iron sulfide minerals.
Map of Perseverance’s Course on Mars
NASA/JPL-Caltech/University of Arizona
How Are These Findings Related to Life?
On Earth, both leopard spots and poppy seeds are linked to signs of microbial activity. These redox reactions that produce energy during life processes leave colored deposits of iron and sulfur in their “reduced forms,” effectively indicating electron acquisition.
The markings found at Chayaba Falls may have resulted from either microbial actions or high-temperature reactions unrelated to life. Yet, the onboard instrument aboard Perseverance was used earlier this year to analyze the chemical composition of these markings, revealing that they contain a reduced form of mineral, suggesting a higher likelihood of biological activity.
Additionally, the newly identified rocks featuring green spots of chemically reduced materials, akin to earlier samples, may signal the presence of life. Their heterogeneous distribution is also directly related to organic compound concentrations, bolstering the hypothesis that they were produced by living organisms.
Joel Hurowitz from Stony Brook University, along with collaborators, commented in a newly published paper in the journal Nature: “The Bright Angel formation encompasses textures and chemical properties alongside organic signatures that warrant consideration as ‘potential biosignatures.’ However, definitive proof of life on Mars remains unestablished.”
How Can I View the Results?
Analyzing Chayaba Falls and the current samples on Mars is challenging. The best way to gain insight is by returning them to Earth for thorough examination.
Perseverance is tasked with storing these intriguing samples to be handed over to future missions that will physically return them to Earth, but this plan has faced setbacks. Proposals to reduce NASA’s budget during the Trump administration raised concerns about the fate of the Mars sample return mission, leaving collected samples on the Martian surface.
Team member Sanjeev Gupta from Imperial College, London stated that the new findings strengthen the case for funding the sample return mission. He added, “This is the first time we’ve observed evidence suggesting a biological process, and that fuels the excitement surrounding these samples, which we need to bring back.”
“Ultimately, retrieving samples from Mars, including those from Sapphire Canyon collected near Bright Angel formations, will offer the best opportunity to understand the processes that formed these unique features,” the team remarked.
Is There Anything I Can Explore on Mars?
When life emerged on Earth, it proliferated rapidly. Thus, a viable approach without a sample return mission is to look for similar formations. Can we find additional rocks with analogous characteristics?
“We are currently investigating ancient rocks outside Jezero Crater to see if they exhibit similar processes and characteristics. There’s always a chance we could revisit the same site to explore further,” Gupta explained. “However, realistically, we aim to return the sample to Earth for analysis in our laboratories, which remains our primary objective.”
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