Evidence suggests that Mars once hosted significant amounts of water. Past studies indicate that the majority of atmospheric water loss occurs during the Martian southern summer. During this season, warm and dusty conditions allow water vapor to ascend to high altitudes, where it escapes into space without condensing. A groundbreaking study has unveiled a previously unidentified pathway for water loss, observed for the first time in the Martian northern summer. This research highlights how a localized, short-lived sandstorm in Mars Year 37 (August 2023) caused a surge in water vapor.
Close-up color image of a small dust storm on Mars, captured by ESA’s Mars Express’ HRSC instrument in April 2018. Image credit: ESA / DLR / FU Berlin / CC BY-SA 3.0 IGO.
Dr. Adrian Brines, a researcher at the Andalusian Institute of Astronomy and the University of Tokyo, stated, “Our findings reveal the impact of this type of storm on Earth’s climate evolution and open new avenues for understanding how Mars has lost water over time.”
While dust storms have long been recognized as significant contributors to water escape on Mars, previous discussions primarily focused on large-scale dust events occurring on a planetary scale.
In this study, Dr. Brines and colleagues demonstrated that smaller, localized storms can significantly enhance the transport of water vapor to high altitudes, where it is lost to space more readily.
Prior research concentrated on the warm and dynamic summers of the Southern Hemisphere, as this is the primary period for water loss on Mars.
The recent study detected an unusual spike in water vapor in Mars’ middle atmosphere, attributed to a localized dust storm during the northern hemisphere summer of Martian year 37.
Diagram demonstrating the atmospheric response to localized sandstorms in the Northern Hemisphere during summer. High dust concentrations significantly enhance solar radiation absorption, promoting atmospheric warming, especially in the middle atmosphere. This increased circulation enhances the vertical transport of water vapor, facilitating its injection at high altitudes and increasing hydrogen efflux from the exobase. Image credit: Brines et al., doi: 10.1038/s43247-025-03157-5.
This surge in water vapor was unprecedented, reaching levels up to 10 times higher than normal—an occurrence not predicted by existing climate models or observed in previous Martian epochs.
Following this event, the amount of hydrogen in Mars’ exobase—where the atmosphere transitions into space—also rose significantly, increasing by 2.5 times compared to the previous year.
Understanding how much water Mars has lost over time hinges on measuring the hydrogen that escapes into space, as this element is produced when water decomposes in the atmosphere.
Dr. Shohei Aoki, a researcher at the University of Tokyo and Tohoku University, noted, “These results provide a crucial piece to the incomplete puzzle of how Mars has persistently lost water over billions of years, demonstrating that brief but intense episodes can significantly influence the evolution of Mars’ climate.”
Discover more about these findings in the featured study, published this week in Communication: Earth and Environment.
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A. Brines et al. 2026. Unseasonal water escape during summer in Mars’ northern hemisphere caused by localized strong sandstorms. Communication: Earth and Environment 7, 55; doi: 10.1038/s43247-025-03157-5
Planetary scientists examining oxygen isotopes in lunar soil from the Apollo missions have determined that 4 billion years of meteorite impacts may have contributed only a minimal amount of Earth’s water. This insight prompts a reevaluation of established theories regarding water’s origins on our planet.
Close-up of a relatively new crater to the southeast, captured during Apollo 15’s third lunar walk. Image credit: NASA.
Previous research suggested that meteorites significantly contributed to Earth’s water supply due to their impact during the solar system’s infancy.
In a groundbreaking study, Dr. Tony Gargano from NASA’s Johnson Space Center and the Lunar and Planetary Institute, along with colleagues, employed a novel technique to analyze the lunar surface debris known as regolith.
Findings indicated that even under optimistic conditions, meteorite collisions from approximately 4 billion years ago may have delivered only a small percentage of Earth’s water.
The Moon acts as a historical archive, documenting the tumultuous events that the Earth-Moon system has endured over eons.
While Earth’s dynamic geology and atmosphere erase these records, lunar samples have retained valuable information.
However, this preservation is not without its challenges.
Traditional regolith studies have focused on metal-preferring elements, which can be obscured by continuous impacts on the Moon, complicating efforts to reconstruct original meteorite compositions.
Oxygen triple isotopes offer highly precise “fingerprints” since oxygen, being the most abundant element in rocks, remains untouched by external forces.
These isotopes facilitate a deeper understanding of the meteorite compositions that impacted the Earth-Moon system.
Oxygen isotope analyses revealed that approximately 1% of the regolith’s mass consists of carbon-rich material from meteorites that partially vaporized upon impact.
With this knowledge, researchers calculated the potential water content carried by these meteorites.
“The lunar regolith uniquely allows us to interpret a time-integrated record of impacts in Earth’s vicinity over billions of years,” explained Dr. Gargano.
“By applying oxygen isotope fingerprints, we can extract impactor signals from materials that have undergone melting, evaporation, and reprocessing.”
This significant finding alters our understanding of water sources on both Earth and the Moon.
When adjusted to account for global impacts, the cumulative water indicated in the model equates to only a minor fraction of the Earth’s oceanic water volume.
This discrepancy challenges the theory that water-rich meteorites delivered the bulk of Earth’s water.
“Our results don’t rule out meteorites as a water source,” noted Dr. Justin Simon, a planetary scientist at NASA Johnson’s Celestial Materials Research and Exploration Sciences Division.
“However, the Moon’s long-term record indicates that the slow influx of meteorites cannot significantly account for Earth’s oceans.”
While the implied water contribution from around 4 billion years ago is minimal in the context of Earth’s oceans, it remains notable for the Moon.
The Moon’s available water is concentrated in small, permanently shadowed areas at the poles.
These regions, among the coldest in the solar system, present unique opportunities for scientific research and exploration resources as NASA prepares for crewed missions to the Moon with Artemis III and subsequent missions.
The samples analyzed in this study were collected from near the lunar equator, where all six Apollo missions landed.
Rocks and dust gathered over half a century ago continue to yield valuable insights, albeit from a limited lunar area.
Future samples collected through Artemis are expected to unlock a new wave of discoveries in the years ahead.
“I consider myself part of the next generation of Apollo scientists, trained in the questions and insights enabled by the Apollo missions,” said Dr. Gargano.
“The Moon provides tangible evidence that we can examine in the lab, serving as a benchmark for what we learn from orbital data and telescopes.”
“I eagerly anticipate the information that upcoming Artemis samples will reveal about our place in the solar system.”
The findings of this study will be published in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.
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Anthony M. Gargano et al. 2026. Constraints on impactor flux from lunar regolith oxygen isotopes to the Earth-Moon system. PNAS 123 (4): e2531796123; doi: 10.1073/pnas.2531796123
The world is entering an alarming “era of water bankruptcy” fueled by overconsumption and climate change. Approximately 75% of the global population lives in regions confronting severe water scarcity, pollution, and drought.
This is the finding of a United Nations report, which concludes that many regions are extracting excessive amounts from their annual rainwater and snowmelt, leading to the rapid depletion of groundwater reserves that may take thousands of years to replenish. Notably, 70% of major aquifers are now classified as depleted, and many changes are irreversible.
Key contributors to this crisis include the expansion of agriculture and urbanization into arid areas, which are becoming increasingly dry due to climate change. For instance, around 700 sinkholes have formed in Türkiye as a consequence of groundwater extraction. In addition, devastating sandstorms induced by desertification have resulted in numerous casualties in Beijing.
“Our surface water account is now empty,” asserts Kave Madani from the United Nations University Institute for Water, Environment and Health. “The inherited savings from our ancestors—groundwater and glaciers—are now exhausted. We are witnessing global signs of water bankruptcy,” he explained.
Approximately 4 billion people face water scarcity for at least one month each year, which is exacerbated by immigration, conflict, and insecurity. Madani noted that while a currency collapse triggered recent protests in Iran, underlying water shortages were also significant contributors.
Iran has experienced its driest autumn in 50 years. This situation is further aggravated by the rapid proliferation of agricultural dams and wells, contributing to the near-complete desiccation of Lake Urmia, once the largest lake in the Middle East. The Iranian government is now considering evacuating Tehran and is exploring cloud-seeding methods to induce rain.
In the United States, the Colorado River, which is crucial for the water supply in much of the western region, has experienced an estimated flow reduction of 20% in the past 20 years. This decline is mainly attributed to decreased rainfall and increased evaporation, alongside excessive water repurposing for beef and dairy production. Cities like Los Angeles rely heavily on this water for drinking, despite the diminishing flow reaching the ocean.
The river’s primary reservoirs are currently at about 30% capacity, and projections indicate they could reach “dead pool” status (10-15% capacity) by 2027, according to research conducted by Bradley Udall from Colorado State University. Negotiations over water allocation among states stalled last year.
Experts emphasize that increasing agricultural water efficiency often leads to greater water consumption. Improvements such as drip and sprinkler irrigation allow for gradual water absorption, yet more water also runs back into rivers from flooded fields. Therefore, it is essential to reduce overall water consumption alongside enhancing efficiency, Udall asserts.
“Agriculture consumes 70% of our water resources, hence effective solutions must originate from the agricultural sector,” he adds. “A reduction in agricultural use is crucial, and this issue is prevalent worldwide.”
Approximately half of the global food production occurs in areas where water storage is diminishing. Addressing agricultural water use will also necessitate economic diversification to support the livelihoods of over 1 billion individuals, predominantly in low-income nations, which often export food to high-income countries.
“Water is integral to the economy, as it significantly impacts public health,” states Madani. “If jobs are lost, it can lead to social unrest similar to what we are witnessing in Iran.”
Even regions with sufficient rainfall are experiencing increased water extraction by data centers or contamination from industries, sewage, and agricultural runoff. Wetlands equivalent to the area of the European Union are being lost primarily due to agricultural conversion, incurring an estimated global cost of $5.1 trillion in ecosystem services, such as flood mitigation, food production, and carbon storage.
In Bangladesh, approximately half of the nation experiences well water contamination due to arsenic, exacerbated by rising sea levels and saltwater intrusion. In Dhaka, tap water and the ominously dubbed “river of death” are polluted by chemicals linked to fast-fashion product manufacturing intended for export to Europe and North America.
“It is widely known that the river is tainted by the garment industry,” notes Sonia Hawke from Oxford University. “However, strict regulations could deter buyers, creating a conflict of interest.”
In many instances, vital water bodies—including rivers, lakes, wetlands, and aquifers—struggle to return to their previous conditions. Additionally, significant glacial melting has diminished water supplies for hundreds of millions.
Madani emphasizes the necessity for humanity to adapt to reduced water availability through improved water management strategies. However, this starts with accurately assessing water resources and consumption, including household meters, well usage, and waterway health.
“Efforts like [cloud-seeding] may be futile if we don’t understand our water system’s metrics. Effective management begins with measurement,” Madani concludes.
Transforming seawater into potable water has been a costly and energy-heavy endeavor for many regions globally. However, a pioneering approach by Flocean, a Norwegian company, is set to revolutionize this process. They aim to unveil the world’s first commercial-scale seabed desalination plant by 2026, significantly slashing both costs and energy consumption.
Global freshwater demand is surging due to factors like population growth, climate change, and industrial needs. Meanwhile, fresh water is increasingly scarce due to droughts, deforestation, and over-irrigation practices.
Currently, terrestrial desalination provides merely 1% of the world’s freshwater supply, with over 300 million people depending on it for their daily needs. The largest plants are located in the Middle East, where low energy costs enhance the feasibility of desalination technologies amid rising water scarcity.
Reverse osmosis is the primary technology employed in desalination today, which entails pressurizing seawater to force it through membranes that only allow water molecules to pass. This process is notoriously energy-intensive.
Flocean’s innovative strategy involves deploying underwater pods that filter seawater at significant depths, enabling separation of freshwater from salt while returning the salt back to the ocean. These reverse osmosis pods take advantage of hydrostatic pressure to filter seawater with reduced energy requirements.
The company asserts that their method can cut energy usage by approximately 40-50% compared to traditional desalination methods. Additionally, the deeper the pods are submerged, the cleaner the seawater, resulting in less pre-treatment before it reaches the membrane. Nikko zone conditions contribute to this purity.
“From a process perspective, it’s relatively straightforward,” states Alexander Fuglsang, Founder and CEO of Flocean. “The salinity, temperature, and pressure conditions remain stable, with minimal bacterial interference that can lead to biofouling.” The hydrostatic pressure also aids in diffusing the brine by-product, which is claimed not to have harmful chemicals for marine ecosystems.
Over the past year, Flocean has been successfully desalinating water at a depth of 524 meters at its test site located at the Mønstad Industrial Park, Norway’s leading marine supply base. The upcoming commercial facility, dubbed Flocean One, is set to produce 1,000 cubic meters of freshwater daily upon its launch next year. This scalable approach allows for the addition of more desalination pods as needed.
“We opt to maintain uniformity within the subsea units while expanding through replication, instead of constantly developing larger machinery,” explains Fugelsang. Nevertheless, scaling introduces engineering challenges, particularly in optimizing power distribution and permeation manifolds for increased efficiency.
This desalination technology has the potential to offer affordable freshwater solutions if properly implemented and costs are minimized, but large-scale viability has yet to be established, notes Nidal Hilal from New York University Abu Dhabi. “Successfully integrating this solution into municipal systems will require overcoming various technological and financial hurdles over time.”
Reducing costs is crucial for wider adoption of this technology, given that traditional water acquisition methods, such as lake or aquifer pumping, remain cheaper. Key expenses for Flocean stem from membrane cleaning and maintenance. Innovations in membrane technology are underway, with Hilal’s research focusing on conductive membranes that electrically repel salt and other contaminants, which may enhance cleanliness and throughput. Efforts are also being made to recycle single-use plastics into membrane materials to boost sustainability and drive down costs. “Durable membranes and high-efficiency pumps can further decrease operational costs, while incorporating renewable energy can lower electricity expenditures,” Hilal adds.
Flocean One is anticipated to start freshwater production in the second quarter of 2026. If all goes as planned, this technology could pave the way for larger plants in different locations. “The greatest challenge lies in achieving the right alignment,” Fugelsang concludes. “We seek clients, government approvals, and robust financial partnerships.”
Innovative training protocols now enable even injured or disabled cats to experience underwater treadmill therapy and pools without fear.
This adaptive approach lowers stress levels, ensuring cats feel secure and can reap the benefits of the same water-based rehabilitation that aids dogs, horses, and humans. Stefania Uccedu from San Marco Veterinary Clinic and Research Institute in Padua, Italy.
“This is quite unexpected, as it boils down to habituation,” she explains. “Cats, like humans seeing the beach for the first time, have no concept of water. However, once they acclimate to the therapy setting, water becomes less of a concern.”
Underwater treadmills and pool therapies allow both animals and humans to exercise with less strain, making them excellent for rehabilitation and strength training for orthopedic issues like joint and tendon injuries, neurological problems, and senior care.
However, due to their evolution in arid environments, cats often feel extreme stress when encountering water or unfamiliar spaces, leading many owners and therapists to skip aquatic therapy altogether. The rare rehabilitation centers that include cats in water programs often adapt methods originally designed for dogs, according to Uccedu.
To address this, she and her team created a cat-specific protocol. Initially, the cat explores the room to dry off the equipment, then feels a damp towel on its paws. Next, the cat stands in a warm 5-centimeter deep water, familiarizes itself with the treadmill’s sound, and gradually is introduced to deeper water, always with the owner close by. Rewards such as food, petting, and toys are given based on the cats’ preferences.
“Notably, younger cats seem distracted by moving objects, allowing them to forget about the motion itself,” Uccedu notes.
Cat engaging in aquatic therapy protocol
San Marco Clinic Veterinary Research Institute
The team tested the protocol with 12 cats of various ages, breeds, and conditions drawn from the clinic’s feline patients with neurological and orthopedic issues.
During the program, each cat was observed for specific stress behaviors such as excessive meowing, licking their nose, and signs of fear. If a cat displayed these behaviors five or more times within a minute, the session was halted.
Uccedu reported that all 12 cats successfully completed rehabilitation programs of varying lengths, from a few weeks to a year, depending on their specific conditions. The cats exhibited remarkable physical progress, with some fully recovering and even climbing trees once again.
Encouraged by the favorable outcomes, the team began applying the protocol in swimming pools, integrating different lighting and music to create a more soothing environment. “Ultimately, the choice is up to the cat,” Uccedu emphasizes. “Some may prefer classical music, while others might enjoy Madonna.”
She stresses that these findings show that cats should not be dismissed from aquatic therapy based solely on their supposed aversion to water. “The encouraging news is that any clinic can apply this protocol and achieve similar outcomes.”
Individuals enjoying a swim in London’s Beckenham Place Park Lake during January
AMcCulloch / Alamy
It’s 8am, and I find myself at the edge of my local lake in Beckenham Place Park, London, with the early morning sun just starting to break through the trees. A veil of mist rises from the chilled waters, wrapping everything in silence. Even the ducks seem to shy away from the frigid water today. Yet, my friend and I, clad in swimsuits despite the single-digit water temperature, brace ourselves. The initial plunge is startling, but once you acclimate and begin gliding through the water, it feels like a rebirth.
In recent years, I’ve successfully turned numerous friends into proponents of cold water swimming. My mantra is straightforward: nothing boosts mental health more effectively. Until recently, my experience was mostly just personal testimony. However, with the rise of ice baths, cold showers, and winter swimming, researchers are starting to uncover how these frosty immersions influence our brain chemistry. It’s becoming clear that these weekly dips may be making lasting changes to my brain.
I’m certainly not alone in my fondness for cold water. 6.8 million individuals in the UK regularly swim outdoors, whether in open waters or chilly pools that remain cool throughout much of the year. This trend aligns with emerging evidence indicating that consistent cold water exposure can alleviate fatigue, decrease depression symptoms, and enhance overall well-being, despite its potential dangers like hypothermia and waterborne illnesses.
For instance, a study involving 36 participants who undertook a four-month open water swimming program, four days a week during winter, demonstrated a marked reduction in tension and fatigue when compared to a non-swimming control group that maintained typical city life. The swimmers reported heightened energy levels, better memory retention, and improved mood.
A recent single immersion also proved effective. Individuals who stood chest-deep in seawater at around 13.6 degrees Celsius (56.5 degrees Fahrenheit) for 20 minutes reported less negativity and an increase in energy and self-esteem relative to those who remained on the shoreline.
Cold exposure affects several physiological mechanisms, including the heart and immune system, often leading to enhanced immune function which reduces the incidence of colds and cardiovascular risks. What intrigues me most are the neurological impacts.
For example, immersing your half-clad body in frigid water can uplift your mood by triggering an acute stress response. Anyone who has leapt into icy waters knows this feeling. The brain manages the sudden release of adrenaline, dopamine, and cortisol—chemicals that induce a high similar to that experienced post-exercise.
This reaction serves as an evolutionary survival tactic. Exposure to extreme cold can be life-threatening, which is why this “cold shock response” harnesses stress mechanisms to offer bursts of energy, sharpen alertness, minimize pain, and avert danger.
This is also the reason swimming in cold water might be overwhelming. In unusual cases, it can provoke rapid breathing and could lead to cardiac incidents if not approached with caution. However, if you intentionally prompt this reaction in a safe, calm setting with trained supervision, the benefits can be enjoyed while minimizing risks. Deficiencies in these neurotransmitters are critical in conditions like depression and anxiety, making the artificial elevation of these chemicals a possible explanation for the fleeting mood boost many experience after swimming.
‘Cold shock response’ boosts alertness and uplifts mood
David Trood/Getty Images
There may also be long-term benefits. Over time, the body adapts to the stress of cold water immersion, leading to shifts in the stress response. A study found that participants swimming in cold water three times a week for 12 weeks experienced a reduction in cortisol levels by the end, indicating an enhanced ability to cope with stress. Chronically high stress hormones can lead to inflammation, linked to various diseases and accelerated aging; thus, managing this response may yield long-term health advantages. A recent review of cold water swimming research suggests that this adaptation could provide expansive mental health benefits, like aiding anxiety management.
Additionally, our cold shock response triggers the release of proteins, such as RNA-binding motif 3, which assist in synaptic repair (the links between neurons). In lab mice prone to a form of Alzheimer’s, increased levels of this protein have been found to shield against nerve damage. This has led some researchers to propose that regular cold water swimming could provide lasting neuroprotective effects in humans, although this remains unverified.
Cold water immersion also wields significant psychological power. Enduring challenging conditions—even the most avid cold water enthusiasts can face trials during icy days—can foster resilience and a sense of mastery, popularly referred to as grit. Coupled with the social elements inherent in outdoor swimming, this mirrors some aspects of treatments like antidepressants and therapy. In fact, emerging evidence indicates that cold water swimming can alleviate depression symptoms as a complementary treatment. In many instances, this can occur without reliance on medication.
Interestingly, researchers are beginning direct investigations into cold water swimming’s effects on the brain. For example, Alla Yankovskaya and her team at Bournemouth University recently scanned the brains of 33 individuals not accustomed to cold water swimming before and after a five-minute full-body immersion in water at 20°C (68°F). This marked the first time researchers obtained real-time data on the interplay of brain networks post-cold exposure.
They uncovered advantageous changes in connectivity between various crucial brain regions, particularly linking the medial prefrontal cortex and the parietal cortex, areas tied to emotional regulation, focus, and decision-making. Activity in these regions is often disrupted in individuals suffering from depression and anxiety, possibly underscoring why cold water swimming acts as a therapeutic modality.
However, not everything is clear cut and positive. In rare instances, temporary memory loss may arise from cold water swimming, typically observed in older individuals, although the cause remains elusive. Besides, hypothermia poses a risk for lengthy aquatic adventures. Nevertheless, it’s comforting to know that the mental clarity and elevated mood observed after a swim are substantiated by scientific evidence, and maintaining such benefits might even guard against age-related diseases.
Recently, I learned that a sauna was being constructed lakeside, prompting curiosity about the additional benefits heat therapy might offer alongside swimming. I came across studies suggesting heat and cold can induce precise alterations in brain wave patterns, potentially yielding the most significant cognitive benefits of all. This is certainly a topic I aim to delve into in future articles—all in the name of science, of course, as I embark on a personal investigation of the UK’s premier saunas.
In the meantime, if you find yourself near a lake or the ocean this winter, gather your courage and dip your toes in. It may be chilly, but your brain will appreciate it.
Swimming in waters below 15°C (59°F) should always be conducted with a partner, flotation device, bright headwear, and full awareness of the risks involved and how to mitigate them. For more information on water safety pertaining to cold water swimming, visit the Royal Lifeboat Society. Resources are available.
Researchers at the University of Sydney, in collaboration with Dewpoint Innovations, have engineered a porous polymer coating that can reflect as much as 97% of sunlight, dissipate heat into the atmosphere, and maintain surface temperatures up to 6 degrees cooler than the ambient air—even in direct sunlight. This mechanism fosters ideal conditions for atmospheric water vapor to transform into water droplets on these cooler surfaces, much like the condensation seen on a bathroom mirror.
Experimental equipment installed on the roof of the Sydney Nanoscience Hub. Image credit: University of Sydney.
Professor Chiara Neto from the University of Sydney stated: “This innovation not only advances cool roof coating technology, but also paves the way for sustainable, low-cost, decentralized freshwater sources—an essential requirement given the challenges of climate change and rising water scarcity.”
A six-month field study conducted on the roof of the Sydney Nanoscience Hub demonstrated that dew was collected for 32% of the year, enabling a sustainable and reliable water source even during dry spells.
Under optimal conditions, this coating can yield up to 390 mL of water per square meter daily—sufficient for a 12-square-meter home, meeting one person’s daily hydration needs.
This research illustrates the integration of passive cooling techniques and atmospheric moisture collection into scalable paint-like solutions.
The extensive collection area suggests that this coating could have diverse applications in various industries, including water supply for livestock, horticulture for premium crops, cooling through spraying, and hydrogen production.
Contrary to conventional white paints, the porous coatings utilizing polyvinylidene fluoride-co-hexafluoropropene (PVDF-HFP) do not depend on UV-reflective pigments like titanium dioxide.
Dr. Ming Chiu, Chief Technology Officer of Dewpoint Innovations, remarked, “Our design achieves superior reflectiveness through an internal porous structure, ensuring longevity without the environmental downsides of pigment-based coatings.”
“By eliminating UV-absorbing materials, we have surmounted traditional limitations of solar reflectance while avoiding glare from diffuse reflection.”
“This equilibrium between performance and visual comfort enhances its ease of integration and appeal for real-world applications.”
Throughout six months of outdoor examination, researchers documented minute-by-minute data on cooling and water collection, confirming solid performance that remained stable under the harsh Australian sun—unlike similar technologies that often degrade quickly.
In addition to water harvesting, these coatings could help mitigate urban heat islands, lower energy needs for air conditioning, and provide climate-resilient water sources for regions facing heightened heat and water stress.
“This research also challenges the notion that dew collection is confined to humid environments,” noted Professor Neto.
“While humid conditions are optimal, condensation can also occur in arid and semi-arid areas where humidity increases during the night.”
“It isn’t a substitute for rainfall; rather, it serves as a water source when other supplies are scarce.”
The team’s work was published in the October 30th issue of Advanced Functional Materials.
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Ming Chiu et al. A passive cooling paint-like coating to capture water from the atmosphere. Advanced Functional Materials published online October 30, 2025. doi: 10.1002/adfm.202519108
Solar Panel and Robotic Arm of NASA’s Phoenix Lander with Sample in Scoop
NASA/JPL-California Institute of Technology/University of Arizona/Texas A&M University
Mars might harbor a system of liquid water flowing beneath its icy surface. Similar to permafrost on Earth, which is theorized to have thin veins of liquid minerals, new models suggest these veins on Mars could be substantial enough to sustain life.
“For Mars, we’re constantly flirting with the edge of habitability. Initially, I theorized this study would reveal that adequate water wouldn’t exist, thus making microbial life impossible,” states Hannah Sizemore from the Planetary Science Institute in Arizona. “I was mistaken.”
Sizemore and her team analyzed Mars’ soil composition to estimate the amount of icy soil that might actually comprise liquid water and the dimensions of the channels through which it flows. Temperatures on Mars can plummet to -150°C (-240°F), challenging the existence of liquid water. While pure water freezes at 0°C, the presence of salts—widespread on Mars—can significantly lower the freezing point.
The research indicated that it is “surprisingly feasible” to find soil containing over 5 percent liquid water in channels exceeding 5 microns in diameter. This threshold was deemed necessary for a vein to be classified as habitable. “The largest veins we’re referencing are 10 times narrower than a fine human hair,” Sizemore elaborates. “Nonetheless, it’s a sufficiently expansive environment to host microorganisms, allowing for the transfer of nutrients and waste within the ecosystem.”
Based on soil data collected by NASA’s Phoenix spacecraft, which landed on Mars in 2008, these networks of waterways may be prevalent at latitudes above 50 degrees. Sizemore indicated that if life exists on Mars, liquid veins would be prime locations for investigation, proposing that “this is a site where one could land and excavate around 30 centimeters to collect samples.”
The primary concern regarding these veins as potential habitats is their temperature, which can be significantly below what most known life forms can endure. “However, we must exercise caution in applying the limits observed for terrestrial organisms to other life forms, as they do not necessarily define the survival limits for all life that could exist elsewhere,” states Bruce Jakosky from the University of Colorado Boulder. “Ultimately, this study and related research suggest that the existence of life near the Martian surface is not out of the question.”
Access to clean water can be challenging in isolated areas
Kornienko Alexander/Alamy
A hand-cranked bottle could transform the availability of safe drinking water in areas affected by disasters and in off-grid communities.
Xudeng professors at the University of Electronic Science and Technology of China in Chengdu are committed to developing a straightforward approach to eliminate bacterial, viral, and fungal pathogens, as well as parasites from water.
“We often faced the same challenges in decentralized water treatment,” says Deng. “Most point-of-source (POS) solutions need electricity or ample sunlight and are labor-intensive.”
In areas without grid access and during emergencies when standard systems fail, an invention was required to disinfect water using a simple one-minute manual action.
Their method utilizes spherical silica nanoparticles coated with amine-based compounds that acquire a positive charge in water, along with gold nanoparticles that become negatively charged when agitated.
“Imagine a hand-cranked bottle filled with a small quantity of a synthetically made sand-like powder,” Deng explains. “A few turns of the handle induce a gentle shear in the water, activating the nanoparticles.”
As water flows over the gold and amine nanoparticles, it generates an electric charge that produces oxidizing agents known as reactive oxygen species.
“These reactive oxygen species puncture the membranes of microorganisms, rendering the pathogens incapable of survival or reproduction,” Deng states. “When agitation ceases, the powder naturally separates from the water, allowing clean water to flow out of the outlet.”
The research team evaluated the device against 16 highly infectious pathogens known to pose significant public health threats, achieving a reduction rate of 99.9999%. A similar level of reduction was noted for Escherichia coli in just 15 seconds of stirring at 50°C and for cholera bacteria in one minute. In total, it inactivated over 95 percent of all tested microorganisms.
Deng mentioned that the device is still in the proof-of-concept phase, so researchers haven’t yet established how many liters of water it can purify.
“What we do know is that after each cycle, the same set of particles can be collected and reused,” he adds. “Moreover, once charged, this system provides prolonged defense against recontamination for several hours.”
Since the quantity of gold nanoparticles used is minimal, their expense is negligible, with the primary cost attributed to the silica powder and plastic casing.
Chiara Neto from the University of Sydney in Australia expressed her admiration for the scientific advancement and novel applications of nanoparticles in disrupting pathogen cell membranes. “It’s a brilliant and impressive piece of work.”
An astronomer utilizing the Atacama Large Millimeter/Submillimeter Array (ALMA) has discovered double deuterated water (D2O), commonly known as “heavy water,” in the protoplanetary disk surrounding the protostar V883 Orionis, situated 1,300 light-years away in the Orion constellation. This finding indicates that some of the water found in comets—and even on Earth—might predate the stars themselves, offering transformative insights into the history of water in our solar system.
This artist’s impression illustrates the evolution of heavy water molecules, previously detected in giant molecular clouds, planet-forming disks, and comets, before ultimately reaching Earth. Image credit: NSF / AUI / NRAO of NSF / P. Vosteen / B. Saxton.
Investigating the primordial material from the protoplanetary disk that gave rise to our solar system suggests that water may have been transported to Earth via comet or asteroid impacts.
However, it remains uncertain whether the water ice present on these celestial objects formed primarily during the protoplanetary disk phase or if it is considerably older, originating from parent molecular clouds.
“This detection clearly demonstrates that the water found in the planet-forming disk around V883 Orionis predates the central star and must have formed during the early phases of star and planet formation,” stated Dr. Margot Rehmker, an astronomer at the University of Milan.
“This marks a significant leap in our understanding of the journey of water throughout planet formation and how this water potentially reached the solar system, including Earth, through similar mechanisms.”
The chemical fingerprinting of heavy water indicates that these molecules have withstood the turbulent processes of star and planet formation, traversing billions of kilometers through the cosmos and ending up in planetary systems like ours.
Rather than being completely destroyed and reformed within the disk, a significant portion of this water is inherited from the earliest, most frigid stages of star formation, serving as a cosmic remnant that may still exist on Earth today.
“Until now, it was uncertain whether most of the water in comets and planets was newly formed in young disks such as Orionis V883 or whether it was ‘pure’ from ancient interstellar clouds,” remarked Dr. John Tobin, an astronomer at the NSF National Radio Astronomy Observatory.
“The detection of heavy water using sensitive isotopic isomer ratios (D2oh2O) validates that this water is an ancient relic, forming a crucial link between clouds, disks, comets, and planets.”
“This finding is the first direct evidence that water can traverse through stars unaltered and intact, moving from clouds to the materials that constitute planetary systems.”
The team’s paper is published in this week’s edition of Nature Astronomy.
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M. Riemker et al. Primitive ice within a planet-forming disk identified by heavy water. Nat Astron published online October 15, 2025. doi: 10.1038/s41550-025-02663-y
To enhance certain outcomes related to constipation, recommendations include kiwifruit, rye bread, highly mineralized water, psyllium supplements, specific probiotic strains, and magnesium oxide supplements. Image credit: Aziz3625.
Constipation is a persistent condition that significantly affects quality of life and places a considerable economic strain on both individuals and healthcare systems.
Previous clinical guidelines offered limited and often outdated dietary advice, such as suggestions to increase fiber and fluid intake.
In contrast to older guidelines, the latest recommendations are founded on several thorough systematic reviews and meta-analyses, employing the GRADE framework to evaluate evidence quality.
Professor Kevin Whelan from King’s College London stated, “This new guidance represents a positive development towards empowering health professionals and their patients to manage constipation via dietary means.”
“This means individuals worldwide suffering from constipation can now receive current advice based on the best available evidence to enhance their symptoms and health outcomes.”
“With ongoing research, we have a genuine opportunity to significantly improve quality of life.”
Professor Whelan and his team analyzed over 75 clinical trials, formulating 59 recommendations and pinpointing 12 key research priorities.
“Chronic constipation can greatly influence your daily routine,” noted Dr. Eirini Dimidi from King’s College London.
“For the first time, we outline effective dietary strategies and identify advice lacking robust evidence.”
“By improving this condition through dietary modifications, individuals can better manage their symptoms and, hopefully, enhance their quality of life.”
The recommendations also examine constipation outcomes like stool frequency, consistency, straining, and overall quality of life, thereby allowing for more tailored care based on individual symptoms.
Clinician-friendly resources have also been created to facilitate the implementation of these guidelines in practices globally.
An analysis of the evidence indicates that while certain foods and supplements provide benefits, the overall quality of existing research remains low.
Most studies have concentrated narrowly on single interventions instead of comprehensive dietary strategies, emphasizing the pressing need for improved nutritional research in managing constipation.
“Adopting a high-fiber diet offers numerous health benefits and is generally advised for constipation,” Dr. Dimidi stated.
“However, our guidelines indicate insufficient evidence to confirm that it is effective, particularly for constipation.”
“Instead, our research has revealed some novel dietary strategies that may genuinely assist patients.”
“Simultaneously, there is an urgent necessity for high-quality trials to reinforce our understanding of what works and what doesn’t.”
Astronomers have detected hydroxyl (OH) gas, a chemical indicator of water, from the interstellar object 3I/ATLAS using an ultraviolet/optical telescope on NASA’s Neil Gehrels Swift Observatory.
Stacked images of the interstellar comet 3I/ATLAS obtained with NASA’s Neil Gehrels Swift Observatory: the first was captured on July 31 and August 1, 2025 (visit 1, upper half), and the second was on August 19, 2025 (visit 2, lower half). Image credit: Xing et al., others, doi: 10.3847/2041-8213/ae08ab.
The identification of the third interstellar object, 3I/ATLAS, on July 1, 2025, initiated a comprehensive characterization effort globally.
Learning from prior discoveries of interstellar objects 1I/Oumuamua and 2I/Borisov, an observation campaign was implemented to swiftly measure its initial brightness, morphology, light curve, color, and optical and near-infrared spectra.
Given the apparent brightness and early extension of the coma, there was suspicion of a gas outburst, yet none was detected.
Investigating the early activity of interstellar objects is crucial for understanding their chemical and physical evolution as they approach the Sun, as this may signify the first notable heating during their extensive dynamic lifetimes.
“The discovery of water marks a significant step in our grasp of how interstellar comets evolve,” stated Dennis Bordewitz, an astronomer from Auburn University.
“For solar system comets, water serves as a baseline for scientists to gauge their total activity and track how sunlight stimulates the release of other gases.”
“This is the chemical standard against which all assessments of volatile ice in cometary cores are made.”
“Detecting the same signal in an interstellar object means we can for the first time position 3I/ATLAS on the same scale employed to study comets indigenous to our Solar System. This is a progress toward juxtaposing the chemistry of planetary systems throughout our Milky Way galaxy.”
“What’s fascinating about 3I/ATLAS is the location of this water activity.”
Swift noticed the hydroxyl groups when the comet was nearly three times further from the Sun than Earth (well beyond the area where water ice on the surface could easily sublimate), recording a water loss rate of approximately 40 kg per second. At such distances, most solar system comets remain inactive.
The robust ultraviolet signal from 3I/ATLAS implies there might be additional mechanisms at play. Possibly, sunlight is warming small ice particles expelled from the core, causing them to vaporize and contribute to the surrounding gas cloud.
Such extensive water sources have only been detected on a limited number of far-off comets, suggesting intricate layered ice that holds clues regarding their formation.
Every interstellar comet discovered to date has unveiled a distinct aspect of planetary chemistry beyond our Sun.
Collectively, these observations illustrate that the composition of comets and the volatile ice that constitutes them can vary considerably from one system to another.
These variations imply the diversity of planet-forming environments and how factors like temperature, radiation, and composition ultimately influence planetary formation and, in some instances, the materials that lead to life.
Capturing the ultraviolet signals from 3I/ATLAS was a technological achievement in itself.
Swift employs a compact 30 cm telescope, yet from its orbit above Earth’s atmosphere, it can detect wavelengths of ultraviolet light that are largely absorbed by the atmosphere.
Free from sky glare or air interference, Swift’s ultraviolet/optical telescope achieves the sensitivity comparable to that of ground-based telescopes with 4-meter apertures for these wavelengths.
Its rapid targeting abilities allowed astronomers to analyze comets just weeks after their discovery, well before they become too faint or too close to the Sun for space study.
“When we observe water from an interstellar comet or its subtle ultraviolet signature (OH), we are interpreting notes from another planetary system,” Bordewitz notes.
“This indicates that the components essential for life’s chemical processes are not exclusive to us.”
“All interstellar comets we’ve observed thus far have been unexpectedly intriguing,” remarked Dr. Zexy Shin, a postdoctoral fellow at Auburn University.
“‘Oumuamua was dry, Borisov was rich in carbon monoxide, and now Atlas is revealing water at a distance we didn’t anticipate.”
“Each of these cases is transforming our understanding of how planets and comets form around stars.”
A study detailing the survey findings was published on September 30th in Astrophysics Journal Letter.
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Zexy Shin et al. 2025. Water production rate of interstellar object 3I/ATLAS. APJL 991, L50; doi: 10.3847/2041-8213/ae08ab
Small towns in South Texas are urgently seeking alternative drinking water sources as persistent droughts threaten to deplete their main supply.
Mattis City typically relies on Lake Corpus Christi for its drinking water; however, the intensifying drought is projected to drop levels too low for safe extraction, according to Cedric Davis from the city.
“It’s not about completely running out of water,” said Davis. “It’s just challenging to access clean water from the lake, as the extraction process brings up sediment.”
That sediment can harm urban filtration and treatment systems, he noted. According to 2020 data from the US Census Bureau, Mattis has a population of approximately 4,300.
The situation in Texas underscores the escalating challenges faced in drought-affected areas nationwide, as climate change alters rainfall patterns and reduces the availability of safe drinking water.
In 2023, New Orleans experienced a drinking water emergency when saltwater infiltrated upstream due to unusually low levels in the drought-impacted Mississippi River.
Last year, ongoing drought and years of low precipitation led to alarmingly low reservoir levels in Mexico City, resulting in significant water shortages for North America’s most populous urban areas.
South Texas has a long history of dry spells, with much of the region categorized as facing “moderate” or “severe” drought conditions. The US Drought Monitor publishes updated color-coded maps weekly to illustrate the extent and severity of droughts nationwide.
Extreme dryness has resulted in falling water levels in Lake Corpus Christi.
“There isn’t enough rain to restore the lakes and reservoirs in South Texas,” said Davis, indicating that several municipal and small community areas will need to seek emergency solutions.
Davis mentioned that projections indicate lake levels may become critically low by late December. Thus, the city is initiating the drilling of two emergency wells to ensure a continued supply of drinking water.
Although the project is still in the planning stages, Davis expressed hope that the permitting process and lease agreement with the Texas Parks and Wildlife division could be expedited. If all goes well, excavation may commence by the end of October.
“If everything goes as planned and we can install the wells by late December, we should be fine,” stated Davis.
Nonetheless, city officials are exploring additional contingency options, including potentially expensive desalination plants and wastewater treatment and reuse systems.
Ice at 10 degrees Celsius releases iron from more abundant minerals compared to liquid water at 4 degrees Celsius, according to researchers from Umeå University, Chimiques de Rennes, and CNRS. This discovery sheds light on why many Arctic rivers are taking on a rusty orange hue as permafrost begins to thaw in warmer climates.
Schematic diagram of the iron mineral dissolution reaction of ice. Image credit: Sebaaly et al. , doi: 10.1073/pnas.2507588122.
“It may seem counterintuitive, but ice is not merely a static frozen mass,” stated Professor Jean François Boyley from Umeå University.
“Frozen states create microscopic pockets of liquid water between ice crystals.”
“These pockets function like chemical reactors, where compounds become concentrated and highly acidic.”
“This implies that even at temperatures as low as 30 degrees Celsius, they can engage with iron minerals.”
To investigate this phenomenon, Professor Boyley and his team examined goethite, a diverse array of iron oxide minerals, along with naturally occurring organic acids.
Through advanced microscopy and a series of experiments, they found that repeated freeze-thaw cycles enhance iron dissolution significantly.
When ice undergoes freezing and thawing, it releases organic compounds that were previously trapped, fostering additional chemical reactions.
Salt concentration also plays a critical role; fresh brackish waters promote iron dissolution, whereas seawater inhibits it.
The outcomes of this research are particularly relevant in acidic environments like mine drainage sites, frozen atmospheric dust, acid sulfate soils along the Baltic coast, or acidic freezing locales where iron minerals interact with organic matter.
“As global temperatures rise, the freeze-thaw cycles are becoming more frequent,” remarked Angelo Pio Severly, a doctoral candidate at Umeå University.
“Each cycle liberates iron from the soil and permafrost into the water, potentially impacting water quality and aquatic ecosystems over vast areas.”
“These findings emphasize that ice is an active participant, rather than a passive medium for storage.”
“It is crucial to recognize the growing impact of freeze and thaw processes in polar and mountainous regions on ecosystems and elemental cycling.”
The research team’s paper was published on August 26, 2025, in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.
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Angelo P. Severly et al. 2025. Ice as a kinetic and mechanical driver for iron oxide dissolution of oxalate oxide. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 122 (35): E2507588122; doi: 10.1073/pnas.2507588122
Minerals constitute the building blocks of rocks, and the specific minerals and their chemical compositions reveal significant insights into rock formation and history. On Mars, NASA’s dedicated rover, equipped with X-ray lithochemistry (PIXL) instruments, produces geochemical maps of rock surfaces. A recent study examined over 90,000 chemical analyses collected by PIXL during its first 1,100 days on Mars, revealing that the minerals in Jezero Crater interact with various types of liquids over time. result This will be published in Journal of Geophysics: Planets.
This image from NASA’s Mars reconnaissance orbiter showcases the Jezero Crater on Mars. Image credits: NASA/JPL-CALTECH/MSSS/JHU-APL.
In this research, Eleanor Moreland, a Rice University graduate student, along with her team, utilized mineral identification through stoichiometry (MIST) algorithms to analyze PIXL data.
PIXL determines the chemical composition by bombarding Martian rocks with X-rays, yielding the most comprehensive geochemical measurements ever obtained from another planet.
“The minerals identified in Jezero Crater through MIST indicate that these volcanic rocks interacted with liquid water multiple times throughout Mars’ history, suggesting the potential for habitable conditions,” Moreland stated.
Minerals form under specific environmental conditions, such as temperature, pH, and the chemical composition of fluids, making them reliable narrators of planetary history.
Within Jezero Crater, 24 mineral species illustrate the volcanic characteristics of the Martian surface and their interactions with water over time.
Water chemically alters rocks, producing salt or clay minerals, with the specific minerals formed depending on environmental variables.
The minerals discovered in the crater showcase three different types of liquid interactions, each indicating distinct possibilities for habitability.
The first mineral suite, featuring green arilite, hizingerite, and ferroaluminoceradonite, shows localized high-temperature acidic fluids present only in crater bedrock, interpreted as among the oldest rocks studied.
The water involved in this scenario is regarded as the most conducive to life, given that research on Earth suggests high temperatures and low pH can harm biological structures.
“These hot, acidic conditions present the toughest challenges to life,” commented Kirsten Siebach, a researcher at Rice University.
“However, on Earth, life can thrive in extreme environments such as the acidic waters of Yellowstone, so this doesn’t negate the possibility of habitability.”
The second mineral suite favors more hospitable conditions and indicates a medium neutral fluid present over larger areas.
Minerals like Minnesotaite and Clinoptilolite were detected on both the crater floor and fan area, forming at lower temperatures with neutral pH, while Clinoptilolite was restricted to the crater floor.
Lastly, the third category represents a cold alkaline liquid, considered highly habitable from a modern Earth perspective.
Sepiolite, a common mineral change on Earth, was found to form under moderate temperature and alkaline conditions, widely distributed across all units explored by the rover.
The presence of sepiolite in all these units indicates multiple episodes of liquid water contributing to habitable conditions in Jezero Crater.
“These minerals demonstrate that Jezero Crater has undergone a transition from harsher, hotter, acidic liquid conditions to more neutral and alkaline environments over time.
Given that Mars samples cannot be prepared or scanned as accurately as Earth samples, the team developed an uncertainty propagation model to enhance the findings.
Using a statistical approach, MIST repeatedly assessed mineral identification while considering potential errors, analogous to how meteorologists predict hurricane paths by utilizing numerous models.
“Error analysis enables us to assign confidence levels to all mineral identifications,” Moreland remarked.
“MIST assists not just with the scientific and decision-making processes of Mars 2020, but also establishes a mineralogical archive of Jezero Crater, which will be invaluable if samples are returned to Earth.”
The findings affirm that Jezero Crater, once home to an ancient lake, has experienced a complex, dynamic aqueous history.
Each new mineral discovery brings us closer to determining whether Mars has ever supported life, while also refining strategies for sample collection and return.
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Eleanor L. Moreland et al. 2025. Multiple episodes of fluid changes in Jezero Crater indicated by the identification of MIST minerals in PIXL XRF data from the first 1100 SOL of the Mars 2020 mission. Journal of Geophysics: Planets 130 (9): e2024je008797; doi: 10.1029/2024je008797
This water flow took place on ancient asteroids over a billion years after their formation, likely due to the heat generated by melting ice, which caused rock fractures that facilitated water movement. JAXA’s Hayabusa-2 Spacecraft.
This image of the asteroid was taken on June 26, 2018, by JAXA’s Hayabusa-2 Spacecraft optical navigation camera – telescopic (ONC-T). Image credits: JAXA / University of Tokyo / Kochi University / Ricchiho University / Nagoya University / Chiba University of Technology / Nishimura University / Aizu University / AIST.
Ryugu is a CG-type asteroid close to Earth and part of the Polana family of impact asteroids.
The diamond-shaped body, also known as 1999 JU3, was identified by astronomers in May 1999 during asteroid studies near Lincoln.
Its diameter measures about 900 m (0.56 miles), and it orbits the Sun at a distance of 0.96-1.41 Astronomical Units (AU) every 474 days.
“We have a relatively good understanding of how the solar system was formed, though many gaps remain,” said Shiyoshijima, a researcher at the University of Tokyo.
“One gap in our knowledge is how Earth acquired its water.”
“It has long been known that carbonaceous asteroids, originating from ice and dust in the outer solar system, have contributed water to Earth.”
“We discovered that Ryugu preserves an unaltered record of water activity, indicating that liquid water moved through the rock much later than previously anticipated,” added Dr. Ikemoto.
“This shifts our understanding of the long-term fate of water on asteroids. The water has remained for an extended period and hasn’t been depleted as quickly as we thought.”
In this study, the authors examined the isotopes of lutetium (Lu) and hafnium (HF), with the radioactive decay from lutetium-176 to hafnium-176 serving as a sort of clock to gauge geological processes.
The expected presence of these isotopes in the studied sample was hypothesized to correlate with the asteroid’s age in a predictable manner.
However, the ratio of Hafnium-176 to Lutetium-176 was significantly unexpected.
This strongly suggests to researchers that the liquid effectively washed away lutetium from the rocks containing it.
“We anticipated that Ryugu’s chemical signatures would align with certain meteorites currently under examination on Earth,” Dr. Iizuka stated.
“However, the results were strikingly different, necessitating the careful elimination of other possible explanations, ultimately concluding that the Lu-HF system was hindered by a delayed liquid flow.”
“The most probable triggers involved the parent body of Ryugu’s larger asteroid, which disrupted the rocks, melting the embedded ice and allowing liquid water to permeate the body.”
“It was truly surprising! This impact event could be the catalyst for the parent body disruption.”
One of the crucial implications is that carbon-rich asteroids may be a significant source of water for Earth, supplying far more than previously estimated.
Ryugu’s parent body seems to have retained ice for over a billion years. This suggests that similar bodies impacting the young Earth could have delivered 2-3 times more water than standard models predict, significantly influencing the planet’s early oceans and atmosphere.
“The notion that a Ryugu-like object has preserved ice for such an extended time is remarkable,” Dr. Ikemoto remarked.
“It implies that Earth’s components were far wetter than we had imagined.”
“This prompts a reevaluation of the initial conditions for the planetary water system.”
“It’s still early to draw definitive conclusions, but my team and others may build on this research to clarify various aspects, including how our planet became habitable.”
The findings will be published in the journal Nature.
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T. Iizuka et al. Late fluid flow of primitive asteroids revealed by Lu-HF isotopes of Lu. Nature. Published online on September 10th, 2025. doi:10.1038/s41586-025-09483-0
A significant amount of water once cascaded along the surface of an asteroid, indicating that asteroids may have delivered more water to Earth than previously believed.
The source of Earth’s water remains somewhat enigmatic. Although incoming asteroids are considered potential contributors, skepticism exists regarding their ability to supply the vast quantities of water present on Earth today.
Carbonate asteroids develop from dust and ice in the outer solar system. In 2019, Japan’s Hayabusa 2 spacecraft landed on Ryugu and collected 5.4 grams of material, returning it to Earth in 2020.
Initial images of Ryugu suggested it was drier than anticipated, but further studies revealed the presence of cracks once filled with vital elements, including water.
Early dating of the samples indicated that the asteroid was among the oldest celestial objects, originating around 460 million years ago.
However, when Tsuyoshi Itsuka from the University of Tokyo and his team assessed its age using the radioactive decay of lutetium-176 in tiny asteroid samples, they found something intriguing.
“Our analysis estimates the age of the Ryugu sample at about 4.8 billion years, significantly predating the solar system,” notes Ikemoto. “This indicates the timing of Ryugu’s sample collection is critical.”
Instead, the researchers believe that roughly a billion years after its parent body was formed, Ryugu was warmed enough to convert ice into water, which in turn removed some lutetium-176, complicating dating techniques.
Solar radiation warms only the surface ice to about 40 centimeters, while the Ryugu samples were extracted from much deeper layers. Researchers suggest that collisions with other celestial objects may explain how the interior of the parent body was heated.
By estimating the volume of water required to alter the lutetium-176 levels in the Ryugu samples, the team concluded that the asteroid consists of roughly 20-30% water.
Ikemoto asserts that asteroids are believed to have delivered water to Earth in mineral form. “Our findings imply that they can actually provide water as both minerals and ice,” he adds.
The research highlights the value of sample-return missions, according to Jonti Horner from the University of South Queensland, who was not involved in this study. “By retrieving samples directly, we eliminate Earth’s interference, enhancing the validity of our findings,” Horner explains.
“This suggests that these bodies were wetter than previously thought, allowing us to better understand the origins of Earth’s oceans as we analyze early planetary formation,” he concludes.
Astronomy Capital of the World: Chile
Explore the astronomical wonders of Chile. Visit some of the world’s most advanced observatories and marvel at a star-studded sky amidst some of the clearest air on Earth.
A resident of Missouri has been admitted to the hospital following a potential water skiing incident at a local lake, which health officials have characterized as a fatal “brain-eating infection.”
The Missouri Department of Health’s Senior Services Office released a statement on Wednesday indicating that the unidentified patients seem to have been exposed to Naegleria fowleri.
The agency described Naegleria fowleri as “a microscopic single-celled free-living ameba capable of causing a rare and lethal brain infection known as primary amebic meningoencephalitis (PAM), commonly referred to as the ‘brain-eating’ infection.”
Health officials noted that early investigations imply the patients may have been engaged in water skiing at the Ozarks lake, a reservoir situated in central Missouri, prior to falling ill.
According to the agency, Naegleria fowleri typically resides in freshwater, although PAM is “extremely rare.” The ameba usually enters the body through the nose and makes its way to the brain, inflicting damage on brain tissue.
“Individuals who engage in water recreation should operate under the assumption that Naegleria fowleri could be found in warm freshwater across the United States, although infections remain highly uncommon,” the agency stated.
The health department reported only 167 cases of infection in the United States from 1962 to 2024.
In a separate incident last month, 12-year-old Jasen Kerr tragically passed away after swimming at Lake Murray in South Carolina, subsequently diagnosed with PAM, according to a statement from the law firm representing Kerr’s family, shared on Facebook.
“We support this family not only in seeking the truth but to ensure that no other families have to endure such losses,” stated Bailey Law Office.
The CDC warns that most individuals with PAM will succumb within 1 to 18 days after symptoms manifest, leading to coma and death within 5 days.
The Missouri Department of Health and Senior Services advised residents to “steer clear of water-related activities in warm freshwater during elevated water temperatures, utilize nose clamps, and refrain from submerging their heads in the water.”
They also recommended avoiding the disturbance of wet sediments, as “Naegleria fowleri amebas are likely to inhabit sediments at lakes, ponds, and riverbeds.”
Image of the moon captured by Chang’e 5 Lander in China, which gathered samples in 2020
CNSA/Xinhua/Alamy
Solar energy systems can generate water, oxygen, and fuel from lunar regolith for future settlements of lunar explorers.
It has been established that significant amounts of water are bound in the minerals of the moon. However, methods proposed for extracting resources from lunar regolith typically involve complex and energy-heavy techniques that aren’t practical for long-lasting lunar colonies.
Recently, Lu Wang and his team at the Chinese University of Hong Kong discovered that a relatively straightforward solar-powered nuclear reactor could yield useful materials simply by exposing lunar regolith to sunlight and utilizing them through astronauts.
In their experiments, the researchers utilized lunar samples obtained from China’s Chang’e 5 mission, along with simulated samples made from Earth-based rocks.
During the operation of the reactor, sunlight first extracts water from the lunar soil, and then the soil facilitates a reaction between CO₂ and water to produce carbon monoxide, oxygen, and hydrogen, which can serve as fuel.
While lunar soil contains various minerals that can aid in these reactions, a compound known as ilmenite is highlighted as a key catalyst, according to Wang.
“The mechanisms of these chemical reactions are quite fascinating and could lead to the creation of essential lunar resources,” says Haihui Joy Jiang, who was not part of the research team at the University of Sydney in Australia.
“We still need to address several questions and direct future research to determine if this process is applicable in a practical, feasible, and scalable manner on the moon,” Jiang adds.
Wang acknowledges the challenges of expanding this process to produce sufficient water, oxygen, and fuel to support a lunar colony. “The moon’s extreme environment presents unique challenges, including severe temperature variations, a high vacuum, intense solar radiation, and low gravity,” he notes. “Moreover, the variability in lunar soil and scarcity of co-resources pose considerable hurdles to technical implementation.”
Researchers have created innovative technologies to extract water from lunar soil, potentially offering vital support for future lunar explorers.
Findings published in the journal Joule highlight how this could significantly lower the astronomical cost of transporting water from Earth, which stands at $22,000 per liter ($83,000 per gallon).
If successfully scaled, this technology may play a crucial role in supporting long-term missions on the moon.
Utilizing samples brought back by China’s Chang’e-5 mission in 2020, scientists showed that water can be extracted from lunar materials and used alongside carbon dioxide to produce essential resources. These resources include oxygen for astronauts to breathe and hydrogen-based chemicals that can be transformed into rocket fuel.
“We never fully imagined the ‘magic’ contained in lunar soil,” said Professor Lou Wang, one of the study’s authors from Shenzhen University and Hong Kong’s China University, in a statement.
“The most surprising aspect of our work was the real success achieved through this integrated approach. One stage of lunar 2O extraction and photothermal CO2 catalysts enhances energy efficiency and simplifies infrastructure development.”
This technique employs a photothermal method (which converts sunlight into heat) to facilitate water extraction and the chemical conversion process.
Chang’e-5 lunar samples on display in Beijing, China. The mission returned 1.7 kg (3.7 pounds) of lunar material to Earth in 2020 – Source: Getty
In laboratory tests, the team employed actual lunar soils from Chang’e-5, along with simulated samples, exposing them to CO2 while concentrating light into a batch reactor. The CO2 used in the conversion process can be easily obtained from astronaut exhalations on the moon.
Previous methods for extracting water from lunar regolith lacked direct links to generating other vital resources. This integrated approach indicates a more efficient advancement; however, researchers recognize that significant challenges persist.
The moon’s extreme temperatures, high radiation levels, and inconsistent soil composition complicate efforts to scale this technology. The amount of CO2 produced by an astronaut’s exhalation may not meet the requirements for complete resource recycling, and the catalytic process still lacks the efficiency needed for sustained life.
Nevertheless, this advancement represents a promising leap towards making life on the moon more viable. There is increasing global interest in establishing a long-term human presence on the moon, and leveraging local water resources could be instrumental for deeper space missions.
The alien world found in their “habitable zone” of their stars may not be suitable for life yet
pandorumbs/alamy
Recent findings suggest the potential number of planets capable of supporting alien life may be fewer than previously assumed, largely due to advances in understanding planetary climates. When carbon dioxide levels in an atmosphere surpass a critical threshold, conditions can become inhospitable.
Life as we know it requires liquid water, prompting astronomers to target “habitable zones” around stars—regions where temperatures allow for water to exist in liquid form. However, Haskelle White-Gianella from the University of Washington and her research team have revealed that having liquid water alone does not guarantee habitability.
The researchers conducted nearly 10,000 simulations to determine how CO₂ levels fluctuate based on surface water amounts on planets that are Earth-sized. Their results indicate that at least 20% of Earth’s total water must be present for a planet to be potentially habitable.
This is largely due to the role rainfall plays in carbon storage within the ground through chemical reactions in rocks; insufficient rainfall could lead to CO₂ accumulation in the atmosphere, trapping heat and rapidly increasing temperatures beyond 126°C (259°F).
“We discovered that there exists a water threshold essential for maintaining a stable climate,” White-Gianella stated during the Goldschmidt Geochemical Conference in Prague, Czech Republic, on July 10.
This indicates that simply being in a habitable zone does not guarantee that a planet can support life, according to White-Gianella, necessitating a deeper examination of geological histories.
A parallel situation may elucidate how Venus transformed into the inhospitable environment we observe today, White-Gianella shared at the conference. While the increase in the sun’s brightness since the solar system’s inception is believed to contribute to Venus’ atmospheric changes and temperature rise, it alone doesn’t account for all observed transformations. By re-running models with a Venus-like amount of starlight, the team found that even planets with water levels similar to Earth’s could lose too much CO₂, leading to uninhabitability.
This provides a compelling rationale for how planets similar to Venus can become excessively hot, as noted by Benjamin Tutoro from the University of Calgary in Canada. Over time, reductions in CO₂ emissions complicate planetary climates, as recorded in geological data from Mars.
In the case of Mars, liquid water attracted carbon dioxide and sequestered it as carbonate minerals, which ultimately thinned its atmosphere and cooled the planet, according to Tutoro. White-Gianella stated that the team’s simulations focused on Earth-like planets, agreeing that conditions on planets like Mars could differ significantly.
Urban trees exhibit greater drought resilience than those in parks due to their access to leaking pipes, providing a unique water source.
During prolonged dry spells, trees in park settings experience greater decreases in water levels and sap flow compared to those on streets, although the underlying reasons were previously not well understood.
To delve deeper, Andre Poilier from the University of Quebec in Montreal, Canada, and his team studied trunk samples from both Norwegian and silver maple trees (Acer Platanoides and Acer Saccharinum) located in nearby parks and city streets. They analyzed various lead isotopes to establish a connection between isotopic levels and the trees’ recent history by examining the unique isotopic variations found in their trunk rings.
While park trees commonly showed lead isotopes linked to air pollution, those on the street displayed isotopic variations corresponding to lead from water pipes made of metals sourced from ancient local sediments.
Typically, a maple tree requires approximately 50 liters of water each day. Since street trees cannot rely on the rainwater that collects on concrete and drains into city sewer systems, Poilier suggests that the most plausible explanation lies in Montreal’s leaky pipes, which lose an estimated 500 million liters of water daily.
“The bright side is that planting trees along city streets can continue, as they thrive better than those in parks,” Poilier noted while presenting his findings at the Goldschmidt Geochemical Conference in Prague, Czech Republic, on July 8th.
“The sheer volume of water utilized by these urban trees is astonishing and contradicts conventional wisdom. I believe this will enhance the health of park trees as well,” commented Gabriel Filipeli from Indiana University.
As opponents of US water fluoridation voice their concerns, scientists warn that eliminating fluoride may lead to a significant rise in dental decay, potentially costing states billions and disproportionately impacting lower-income communities.
Statements from states like Nebraska, Kentucky, and Louisiana indicate their intentions to remove fluoride from water supplies, raising questions about how quickly these changes will affect Americans.
Fluoride Variation
Fluoride is a naturally occurring mineral found in freshwater, initially added to community drinking water in the United States in a controlled manner in 1945. Effective methods to prevent dental decay.
According to the CDC, community water fluoridation was reported in 1999, promoting the development of baby teeth and safeguarding them through adulthood. This initiative is recognized as one of the 20th century’s greatest public health achievements.
Recently, however, concerns have emerged that adding fluoride through foods, milk, toothpaste, and dental care products could lead to total fluoride intake surpassing safe levels.
Nevertheless, the NTP noted that there was insufficient data to establish whether the lower US fluoride level of 0.7 mg/L negatively impacts children’s IQ, admitting that out of 74 international studies evaluated, “52 were deemed low quality (high risk of bias).”
Vida Zohoori, a public health and nutrition professor at Teesside University in the UK, is known for her research on fluoride. She asserts that the studies available do not provide enough data to reach definitive conclusions.
“Most research occurs in regions with fluoride concentrations significantly exceeding US standards, limiting the relevance to community water fluoridation at 0.7 mg/L,” she explains. “Most studies are cross-sectional, not longitudinal or randomized, making it impossible to establish causal links. Furthermore, many did not control for key variables like iodine or lead exposure, malnutrition, and socioeconomic status.
Children’s teeth are particularly prone to decay
Conversely, there is substantial evidence supporting the addition of safe fluoride levels to drinking water. Based on a systematic Cochrane Review from 2015 (updated in 2024), Zohoori anticipates a notable rise in pediatric decay, known as early childhood tooth decay (ECC), if fluoride is removed from public water supplies. This primarily affects children aged 1-5 and the permanent teeth of those aged 6-12, who are extremely susceptible to damage.
This perspective is echoed by Dr. James Becker, an associate professor specializing in pediatric dentistry at the University of Utah. “No scientifically credible research has demonstrated harmful effects from fluoride when administered at safe doses,” he remarks.
Bekker explains that while toothpaste fluoride provides a topical effect during brushing, small amounts in drinking water and supplements deliver continuous systemic exposure, which reinforces tooth enamel and enhances its resistance to acid.
“Many children lack access to fluoride supplements,” Bekker noted, emphasizing that fluoridation was only present in half of Utah prior to the ban.
“We’ve observed a significant increase in tooth decay in communities without fluoridated water compared to those with it. If left untreated, cavities can enlarge and eventually reach the tooth’s nerves, leading to infections and the loss of teeth.”
If all 50 US states discontinue community water fluoridation programs, it is projected that children and adolescents aged 0 to 19 will incur 25.4 million cavities in the next five years, equating to one new cavity for every three children in America. A recent report indicated this would result in an estimated cost of $9.8 billion (£7.2 billion). Jama Health Forum in May.
“We specifically quantified the increase in dental cavities that could necessitate interventions ranging from fillings to root canals and even extractions,” stated Dr. Lisa Simon, a PhD fellow in Oral Health and Medicine Integration at Harvard Dental School and co-author of the study.
“We accounted for decay in both baby teeth and adult teeth, which began to escalate when the children were around six years old.”
Lessons Learned
With the fluoride ban in Utah now in effect, Bekker anticipates it could take five years to observe its full impact. However, the effects were evident even sooner in Calgary, Canada, which removed fluoride from its drinking water in 2011; three years later, children’s dental decay surged.
In one year, 32 out of Calgary’s 10,000 children underwent general anesthesia for dental treatments, whereas only 17 did so in Edmonton, another city within the same province. Subsequently, Calgary voted to reinstate fluoride.
The leading reason for children aged 5 to 9 being admitted to hospitals is treatment for tooth decay.
“Recent studies indicate the benefits of water fluoridation are less pronounced than in the past, particularly since fluoride has become a common ingredient in toothpaste since the 1970s.”
“However, rates of tooth decay are rising, and increased education on dental care is essential. The frequency of sugar intake is key to prevention, which supports water fluoridation initiatives in the UK.”
Dr. Scott Tomar, a professor and associate dean of Prevention and Public Health Sciences at the University of Illinois, Chicago, and spokesperson for the American Dental Association, commends the UK’s fluoridation expansion.
He expresses concern that misinformation about fluoride in the US could induce fear surrounding other sources of minerals, including toothpaste, leading to more bans across various states and communities.
Tomar highlights the overwhelming support for fluoride within the dental community as indicative of its safety and effectiveness, countering any narratives that oppose it driven by the economic interests of dentists.
“So, why do we advocate for this type of water fluoridation?” he inquires. “I’m genuinely worried because there are no alternatives to fluoride, and we can no longer rely on the federal government for guidance.”
In light of this, dentists and industry groups are joining forces to advocate for their cause.
“This appears to be primarily a political issue,” comments Lorna Kosi, chair of the coalition in Davis and program director for a dental clinic serving vulnerable communities. “We firmly believe that water fluoridation is safe. It remains the most effective and cost-efficient method to combat decay.”
Deserts like Death Valley can be an extraordinary source of drinking water
Mimi Ditchie Photography/Getty Images
The compact panels managed to extract a glass of clean water from the arid air of Death Valley, California.
Although the atmosphere over extremely dry regions can retain a significant amount of water, extracting it into usable supplies has proven challenging. Previous methods, including simple mesh fabrics and mist-capturing nets crafted from synthetic spider silk, have struggled to function effectively in real-world conditions.
Now, Xuanhe Zhao from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and his team have created a unique water collector, about 0.5 meters tall and 0.1 meters wide. It features a glass panel embedded with absorbent hydrogels—gel-like substances formed from long polymer chains and lithium salts, enabling it to gather water molecules.
The hydrogel is designed to fold into an origami-like configuration, enhancing surface area to capture moisture during the night. The absorbed water evaporates when sunlight hits the glass panel the next day. The interior of the device is coated with a specialized cooling material, which collects the evaporated water as it condenses and drips into a storage compartment below.
Zhao and his team conducted a week-long test of the apparatus in Death Valley, where humidity can plummet to as low as 5%. In comparison, the annual average in London hovers around 70%. They discovered the device can harvest up to 160 milliliters of water each day, enough to fill a small glass.
It’s estimated that eight of these panels could meet the daily drinking water requirements of an average adult, making them especially beneficial in arid regions. “Given the compact design of the device, we believe larger arrays could provide drinking water to households for consumption,” says Zhao.
Zhao and his colleagues assert that while the device shows promise in real-world conditions, Daryl Williams from Imperial College London cautions that extended testing—beyond a week—could present challenges. “Outdoor environments are generally hostile. We want to observe how the device performs under such stress after three, six, or even nine months.”
The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention reports that a Texas woman died from an infection linked to an amoeba after using tap water for sinus irrigation, which ultimately led to brain damage Case report.
The 71-year-old woman, who was otherwise healthy, experienced severe neurological symptoms, including fever, headache, and altered mental status, four days after using tap water from the RV’s water system to fill her nasal irrigation device at a Texas campground.
She received treatment for primary amoebic meningoencephalitis, an infection caused by Naegleria fowleri, often referred to as the “brain-eating amoeba.” Despite medical intervention, she suffered a seizure and succumbed to the infection eight days post-symptom onset, according to the CDC.
Laboratory tests confirmed the presence of the amoeba in the woman’s cerebrospinal fluid.
The CDC noted that while infections commonly occur after recreational water use, using undistilled water for sinus irrigation is also a significant risk factor for primary amoebic meningoencephalitis.
A survey conducted by the agency revealed that although the woman had not been recently exposed to freshwater, she had used non-boiled water from the RV’s drinking water tap for nasal irrigation multiple times prior to her illness.
According to the survey findings, the RV’s drinking water tanks were filled and potentially contained contaminated water before the RV was purchased three months earlier. The investigation concluded that contamination could have originated from local government water systems linked to the drinking water systems and bypassing the tanks.
The agency underscores the importance of using distilled, sterilized, or previously boiled and cooled tap water for nasal irrigation to lower the risk of infection or illness.
Dogs treated for fleas release chemicals into the water that kill insects when they swim
natalya_maisheva/shutter stock
Researchers advise against using spot-on flea and tick treatments if your dog has access to any water bodies.
Studies indicate that dogs submerged in water can release harmful levels of active ingredients into aquatic ecosystems, affecting wildlife and animals that consume them, including birds, for up to 28 days post-treatment.
“If your dog frequently swims, it’s best to avoid spot-on treatments,” says Rosemary Perkins from the University of Sussex, UK.
When spot-on treatments were introduced, it was mistakenly believed they posed no threat to the environment. It wasn’t until 2011 that a European Medicines Agency paper suggested protecting animals from water for 48 hours, yet Perkins notes that there was no substantial evidence backing this guideline. “It seems to be just a finger-in-the-air estimate,” she says.
Her concern grew after detecting fipronil, a pesticide used in these treatments, in a UK river. “We noted alarmingly high concentrations,” Perkins recalls.
Her team administered spot-on treatments containing either fipronil or neonicotinoids like imidacloprid to 25 and 24 dogs, respectively. After 5, 14, or 28 days, dogs were immersed up to their shoulders in a plastic tub for 5 minutes to measure pesticide levels in the water.
The findings revealed that even after 28 days, a single large dog’s chemical residue could exceed safe levels in 100 cubic meters of water—similar to the volume of a small pond. Regular swimming by treated dogs can further escalate contamination in larger bodies of water, warns Perkins.
She advocates for regulatory changes globally but fears that such adjustments may require significant time. In the meantime, dog owners should limit spot-on treatments to necessary occasions and keep their pets away from water for at least a month following treatment. “The key takeaway is that if your dog swims during this period, there are associated risks,” she emphasizes.
Currently, alternatives exist in the form of oral tablets, but Perkins remains uncertain of their environmental impact, noting that the active ingredients can persist in feces and contaminate soil. “We still lack clarity on their effects.”
A recent investigation by researchers at Binghamton University reveals that the wrinkle patterns on terrain caused by prolonged human hand immersion in water remain consistent and repetitive over time.
Images of skin wrinkles on topography were overlaid with each other from two different time points 24 hours apart, with opacity levels (a) 0%, (b) 50%, (c) 100%. Image credit: Guy German.
Several years ago, Guy K. Germany from Binghamton University conducted research into the reasons behind the wrinkling of human skin after prolonged exposure to water.
It was commonly assumed that water causes the skin to swell and wrinkle, yet substantial research to validate this was limited.
The finding revealed that the contraction of blood vessels beneath the skin leads to the formation of these wrinkles.
Recent research indicates that the topographical patterns of these wrinkles are consistent across multiple instances of immersion.
“The blood vessels maintain a relatively static position. They may shift slightly, but in relation to each other, they remain largely unchanged,” stated Dr. Deutsche.
“This suggests that wrinkles will form in a consistent manner, and we have confirmed this through our study.”
The researchers submerged subjects’ fingers in water for 30 minutes, captured images, and repeated the process under identical conditions at least 24 hours later.
By analyzing the photographs, Dr. Deutsche and his colleague Rachel Raytin observed identical patterns of raised loops and ridges after both immersion events.
“We also uncovered some fascinating aspects during our study,” Dr. Deutsche remarked.
“I learned that individuals with median nerve damage in their fingers do not exhibit wrinkles.”
“One of my students revealed, ‘I have median nerve damage in my finger.’ We tested this hypothesis—no wrinkles!”
While it was amusing to explore these inquiries, this new research may have significant applications in forensic medicine, such as in fingerprinting at crime scenes or identifying remains found after extended exposure to water.
“My father, a retired British police officer, encountered such challenges during his career in law enforcement,” Dr. Deutsche shared.
“Biometrics and fingerprinting are ingrained in my thinking. I constantly ponder these topics due to their compelling nature.”
Survey results will be published in Journal of Mechanical Behavior of Biomedical Materials.
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Rachel Raytin & Guy K. Germany. 2025. For reproducibility of the topographical pattern of water finger wrinkles, soak in human skin. Journal of Mechanical Behavior of Biomedical Materials 165, 106935; doi:10.1016/j.jmbbm.2025.106935
Paleontologists have announced the discovery of a new genus and species of Balacromian Ikuchosaur, based on a fossilized skull found in the Agua de Maderos Formation in Portugal.
Gadusaurus Aqualigneus. Image credit: Pratas e Sousa et al., doi: 10.4202/app.01199.2024.
The newly identified species thrived in the early Jurassic oceans around 193 million years ago.
It has been scientifically designated as Gadusaurus Aqualigneus; this marine reptile is a small Ikchosaur, measuring approximately 2 m (6.6 feet) in length.
“Iktiosaurus was a group of Mesozoic reptiles renowned for their adaptation back to marine life,” explained Dr. Joan Platas et Sousa, a researcher from Nova de Lisboa University.
“These creatures existed from the early Triassic to the late Cretaceous, but early Jurassic fish fauna is most commonly found in the European fossil record.”
“While some western regions are rich in marine deposits, southern areas like the Iberian Peninsula (encompassing Portugal and Spain) have very few and fragmented records.”
The nearly complete skull of Gadusaurus Aqualigneus was found in a planarized state, measuring about 35.2 cm (13.9 inches) in length, in the Agua de Madeiros Formation in 2021.
“The specimens we analyzed were collected in mainland Portugal, specifically in the San Pedro de Moel area,” the paleontologist stated.
“The fossil block was located in the sands of Agua de Maderos Beach, at a stream marking the boundary between Marinha Grande and Alcobaza municipalities.”
“This region lies within the Lusitania Basin, which is situated on the passive margin of Western Iberia in the Atlantic, providing exceptional marine records from the Lower Jurassic,” they added.
“The Lusitania Basin is a long, narrow structure bordered to the east by the Iberia Massif and to the west by the Valiskan Berrenga Horst.”
“The basin’s development coincided with the opening of the Atlantic Ocean, displaying various sedimentary facies from the upper Triassic to the upper Cretaceous.”
Phylogenetic analysis places Gadusaurus Aqualigneus within the Ichthyosaur Clade Baracromia, part of the Neoichthyosaur and Parvipelvia Clades.
“This specimen represents the most complete and well-preserved remains of Uoshima described so far on the Iberian Peninsula,” the researchers noted.
“Moreover, it is the first new species of this marine reptile group documented in Iberia.”
“This specimen predates the Toarcian Marine Anoxia Event, which is believed to have affected the lifestyle of later Ichthiosaurus species.”
“It’s reasonable to assume that ecological events during this period may have similarly influenced the lifestyle of this type, though further studies are essential.”
The discovery of Gadusaurus Aqualigneus will be detailed in a new paper published online in the journal Acta Palaeontologica Polonica.
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J. Platas E. Sousa et al. 2025. A new Ichaosaurus from the lower Jurassic of Portugal (Iberian Peninsula). Acta Palaeontologica Polonica 70(1):179-192; doi:10.4202/app.01199.2024
Mars once boasted a sprawling ocean across its surface. Over time, the magnetic field diminished, the atmosphere thinned, and the water vanished. Yet, the total isn’t accounted for. This water must have disappeared somewhere as the red planet transitioned from a watery haven to the dusty landscape we recognize today. So, what happened to it?
A recent study published in National Science Review by researchers from China, Australia, and Italy has uncovered potential vast reservoirs of water located deep beneath the planet’s surface, providing answers about its fate. Unlike the icy reservoirs found elsewhere on Mars, this water is believed to remain in liquid form, making it a promising candidate in the search for extraterrestrial life.
Around 4 billion years ago, liquid water covered much of Mars’s surface. If evenly distributed, this water would have created a global ocean approximately 1,500 meters (4,920 feet) deep, comparable to the volume of the Indian Ocean on Earth today.
While exact figures are still under debate, this estimation highlights a significant discrepancy.
“Estimated losses of liquid water due to atmospheric escape and crust hydration are predicted to be between 10-200 meters (33-656 feet) and 550 meters (1,800 feet) respectively,” stated Waijia Sun, a geophysics professor at the Chinese Academy of Sciences and lead author of the study, as reported by BBC Science Focus.
“Current estimates suggest a total of 20-40 meters (66-131 feet) of water exists in Mars’s atmosphere and as ice in polar or subsurface deposits.”
The “missing water” on Mars, estimated at a range between 710 and 920 meters (2,330 and 3,020 feet), remains unaccounted for, according to Sun and colleagues.
Marsquakes and Meteorites
With NASA’s InSight lander landing on Mars on November 26, 2018, a new perspective of the planet’s interior became available. Equipped with a dome housing a seismometer, it measures seismic activity similar to how earthquakes are monitored on Earth, dubbed “pulsing” by NASA.
The research team utilized measurements from two meteor impacts and seismic waves generated by a “Marsquake.” BBC Science Focus co-author Professor Hrvoje Tkalčić compared this technique to medical ultrasound, allowing glimpses into the Martian interior.
“In essence, earthquake waves generated from distant events travel through the Earth’s crust beneath the seismometer,” explained Tkalčić. “By analyzing their reverberations, we can deduce the thickness of these layers and the depth of boundaries.”
Scientists set up solar arrays for NASA’s InSight Lander in 2015 – Photo Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/Lockheed Martin
Seismic waves travel faster through rock that contains water. By measuring the velocity of waves resulting from impacts or quakes, scientists can investigate the presence of deep underground water without the need for excavation.
This innovative method, known as the “receiver function,” enabled the team to identify layers approximately 5.4-8 km (3.4-5 miles) below the Martian surface where seismic waves slow down, indicating water’s presence.
At these depths, temperatures are sufficient for liquid water to exist. Researchers estimate that the water present ranges between 520-780 meters (1,700-2,560 feet) beneath the surface.
Could There Be Life on Mars?
If substantial aquifers lie below the Martian surface, it could be an ideal location to search for alien life. Water is a crucial element for life on Earth, sustaining even deep subterranean microorganisms like bacteria and archaea, which constitute around 15% of Earth’s total biomass.
While finding complex life forms is unlikely at such depths on Mars, microbial life remains a distinct possibility.
“The availability of liquid water is viewed as a key factor in our search for life, as it is essential for existence,” noted Tkalčić. “Consequently, pinpointing locations with liquid water on Mars is vital for identifying potential life.”
Additionally, if humanity establishes a presence on Mars, water becomes a critical resource. Excavating kilometers below the surface presents significant engineering challenges, but such obstacles are to be expected in pioneering a human settlement on another planet.
However, before rushing to buy tickets to Mars, Sun and Tkalčić caution that the aquifer’s existence is not yet confirmed. They emphasize the necessity for additional data before reaching any conclusions.
Liquid water is the most plausible explanation supported by current data, but other viable explanations for the observed seismic waves, such as layers of sediment, exist.
Professor Hrvoje Tkalčić oversees seismology and mathematics in geophysics and heads the Warramunga Seismic & Infrasound Facility at the Australian National University – Photo credit: Jamie Kidston/ANU
On Earth, seismic measurements are taken from numerous seismometers worldwide that cross-validate data points. The situation is different on Mars.
“We must remember that we are limited to data from a single seismometer on a faraway planet. It’s a challenging observational environment, and we are maximizing the quality and quantity of our data,” Tkalčić added.
Researchers aspire that upcoming Mars missions equipped with more seismometers will facilitate more comprehensive studies across the planet. Eventually, we may even analyze the crust for direct chemical evidence of water, and potentially signs of life.
For now, this research offers a hopeful glimpse into what future missions may reveal. Sun remarked: “These findings shed light on the evolution of Mars’s water cycle and its potential habitability, laying a solid groundwork for future inquiries into Martian life and the planet’s climatic history.”
Read more:
About Our Experts
Weijia Sun is a professor of geophysics at the Chinese Academy of Sciences, recognized for his work in Earth and Planetary Physics. His research has appeared in prominent journals such as Nature, Geophysical Research Letters, and Journal of Geophysical Research.
Hrvoje Tkalčić heads the Geophysics Department and directs the Warramunga Seismic & Infrasound Facility at the Australian National University. His research focuses on observational seismology, particularly the Earth’s deep structure and dynamics, appearing in journals like Science, Geophysical Research Letters, and Journal of Geophysical Research.
On Wednesday, the Environmental Protection Agency unveiled plans to roll back restrictions on harmful “forever chemicals” in drinking water, roughly a year after the Biden administration implemented its first-ever national standards.
Last year, the Biden administration introduced regulations that could reduce PFA exposure for millions. This initiative was part of a broader effort to enhance drinking water quality by creating rules to mandate the removal of toxic lead pipes and tackle the forever chemical issue following years of activism.
During President Donald Trump’s administration, there were fewer environmental regulations and increased development in the oil and gas sectors. EPA Administrator Lee Zeldin has actioned the agenda by announcing a significant rollback of regulations.
We have learned about plans to eliminate certain PFA restrictions and extend deadlines for two of the most prevalent types. Here are some key points about PFAS chemicals and the EPA’s role.
What is PFA?
PFAS, or Perfluoroalkyl and Polyfluoroalkyl substances, have existed for decades and are a group of chemicals that have contaminated the air, water, and soil across the country.
Manufactured by companies like 3M and Chemours, they have made eggs slide out of non-stick pans, helped firefighting foams extinguish flames, and allowed textiles to repel water.
However, these chemicals do not break down easily, leading to enduring environmental presence.
Why are they harmful to humans?
Activists have long warned about the health risks associated with PFAS before the dangers were acknowledged publicly. The same properties that make PFAS valuable—such as their resistance to degradation—pose significant health risks.
PFAS can accumulate in the human body. Consequently, the Biden administration has established limits on two common types, PFOA and PFOS, which continue to be found in the environment despite being phased out of production.
Exposure to certain PFAS has been linked to various health issues, including kidney disease, low birth weight, elevated cholesterol levels, and even certain cancers, according to the EPA.
Guidelines for PFOA and PFOS have significantly evolved in recent years, reflecting new scientific discoveries. For instance, the 2016 EPA recommended that combined levels of these two substances should not exceed 70 parts per trillion, while the Biden administration later deemed this amount unsafe.
Understanding the EPA’s actions
The EPA is planning to roll back restrictions on three types of PFAS, including less commonly known substances like GenX found predominantly in North Carolina, as well as PFHXS and PFNA. Furthermore, limits regarding PFAS mixtures are also set to be withdrawn.
Few utilities currently would be impacted by the easing of restrictions on these specific types of PFAS. Recent sampling showed that nearly 12% of U.S. water utilities exceed the Biden administration’s limits. However, many utilities are still addressing PFOA and PFOS challenges.
For the more commonly found types, PFOA and PFOS, the EPA will maintain existing restrictions but will provide an additional two years—until 2031—for utilities to comply.
Reactions to the announcement
Environmental groups argue that the EPA’s move to weaken regulations may be illegal. The Safe Drinking Water Act empowers the EPA to limit water contaminants and ensures that new rules do not loosen previous standards.
“The law clearly states that the EPA cannot abolish or weaken drinking water standards,” noted Eric Olson, a senior strategist with the nonprofit Natural Resources Defense Council.
Activists are largely critical of the EPA for not upholding Biden-era standards, warning that this could worsen public health issues.
Industry responses have varied. The American Chemistry Council questioned the scientific foundation of the Biden administration’s stricter rules, asserting that the Trump administration had prioritized cost considerations and scientific foundations.
“EPA actions only partially address this issue and are necessary to prevent significant community impacts and unintended consequences,” the industry group stated.
The American Water Works Association, representing two major utility industry groups, expressed support for the EPA’s decision to withdraw the new approach to limiting chemical mixtures, though they cautioned that this change would not significantly alleviate compliance costs associated with PFAS regulations.
Some utilities expressed a desire for stricter PFOA and PFOS limits, according to Mark White, a drinking water expert at engineering firm CDM Smith.
However, they received the extension instead.
“This will require additional time to handle the current knowledge, demanding more resources. Some utilities are still determining their existing situation.”
Water ice plays a crucial role in the formation of giant planets and can also be delivered by comets to fully developed rocky planets. Utilizing data from the Near-infrared spectrometer (NIRSPEC), which is part of the NASA/ESA/CSA James Webb Space Telescope, astronomers have identified crystallized ice on a dusty fragment disk surrounding HD 181327.
Artist impression of a debris disk around the sun-like star HD 181327. Image credits: NASA/ESA/CSA/STSCI/RALF CRAWFORD, STSCI.
HD 181327 is a young main sequence star located approximately 169 light years away in the constellation Pictor.
Also referred to as TYC 8765-638-1 and WISE J192258.97-543217.8, the star is about 23 million years old and roughly 30% larger than the Sun.
Astronomer Chen Zai and a team at Johns Hopkins University utilized Webb’s NIRSPEC instrument to study HD 181327.
“The HD 181327 system is highly dynamic,” Dr. Xie noted.
“There are ongoing collisions occurring within the debris disk.”
“When these icy bodies collide, they release tiny particles of dusty water ice, which are ideally sized for Webb to detect.”
Webb’s observations reveal a significant gap between the star and its surrounding debris disk, indicating a considerable area devoid of dust.
Moreover, the structure of the fragment disk is reminiscent of the Kuiper Belt within our Solar System, where we find dwarf planets, comets, and various icy and rocky bodies that may also collide.
Billions of years ago, the Kuiper Belt in our own Solar System could have resembled the HD 181327 debris disk.
“Webb clearly detected crystallized water ice not only present in the debris disk but also in places like Saturn’s rings and the icy bodies of the Kuiper Belt,” Dr. Xie stated.
The water ice is not uniformly distributed across the HD 181327 system.
The majority is found in the coldest and most distant regions from the star.
“The area beyond the debris disk contains over 20% water ice,” Dr. Xie explained.
Near the center of the debris disk, Webb detected approximately 8% water ice.
In this region, frozen water particles may form slightly faster than they are destroyed.
Closest to the star, Webb’s detection was minimal.
Ultraviolet radiation from the star can evaporate the nearby water ice deposits.
It is also possible that the interiors contain rocky bodies, referred to as planets, which are “confined” such that their frozen water remains undetectable by Webb.
“The presence of ice facilitates planetary formation,” said Dr. Xie.
“Icy materials can ultimately contribute to the delivery of resources to terrestrial planets that may form over hundreds of millions of years in such systems.”
Survey results were published in the May 14, 2025 issue of the journal Nature.
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C. Xie et al. 2025. Water ice on debris disks around HD181327. Nature 641, 608-611; doi:10.1038/s41586-025-08920-4
A recent study conducted by researchers from the University of California, Berkeley, and Georgia Tech has uncovered that flamingos are not mere passive filter feeders; instead, they are active predators that employ flow-guided traps to catch nimble invertebrates.
Flamingos feed by dragging their flattened beaks forward along the shallow lake bottom. To enhance feeding efficiency, they stomp their feet to stir up the bottom, create swirling vortices with their heads, and repeatedly slap their beaks to catch food like brine shrimp. Image credit: aztli ortega.
“Flamingos are predators actively seeking out moving animals underwater. The challenge they face is how to concentrate these prey items to attract and capture them.”
“Consider how spiders spin webs to catch insects. Flamingos utilize vortices to trap creatures such as brine shrimp.”
Utilizing high-speed cameras and particle image velocity measurements, the researchers documented and analyzed feeding behaviors, employing flow visualization techniques involving fine food particles and oxygen bubbles.
They discovered that the birds use their floppy, swaying feet to disturb the bottom sediment and propel themselves forward in a swirling motion. Additionally, the flamingos convulse their heads upward like plungers while creating mini-tornados to draw food from the water’s surface.
As the birds keep their heads inverted in a watery vortex, their angled beaks create small vortices that direct sediment and food into their mouths, enhancing their feeding efficiency.
The unique structure of the flamingo’s beak, with its flattened shape and angled front, enables a technique known as skimming. This involves the bird extending its long, S-shaped neck to push its head forward while rapidly beating its beak, generating a sheet-like vortex (von Karman vortex) that captures prey.
“These complex active feeding behaviors challenge the long-held belief that flamingos are merely passive filter feeders,” noted Dr. Ortega Zimenez.
“While they may appear to be filtering only passive particles, these birds are actively preying on moving organisms.”
The authors also applied computational fluid dynamics to simulate the 3D flow around the beak and feet of the flamingos.
They confirmed that the vortices indeed concentrate particles, similar to experiments that used a 3D printhead with aggressively swimming shrimp and passively floating brine shrimp eggs.
“We observed that when we placed 3D printed models in the water to replicate skimming, they generated symmetrical vortices along the sides of the beak, cycling particles in the water effectively,” Dr. Ortega Zimenez shared.
The team’s findings will be published in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.
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Victor M. Ortega Zimenez et al. 2025. Flamingos use their L-shaped beak and morphing legs to induce vortex traps for prey capture. pnas 122 (21): E2503495122; doi: 10.1073/pnas.2503495122
3M is expected to pay New Jersey between $400 million and $450 million over the next 25 years. The company is implicated in the contamination of drinking water across the nation with harmful “forever chemicals,” known as PFAS.
The Minnesota-based chemical corporation has produced PFAS for decades at the Chambers Works site in Deepwater, New Jersey, situated along the Delaware River. This facility was previously owned by the competitor DuPont.
Officials have stated that this settlement marks the largest single clean water agreement in New Jersey history. In 2019, New Jersey launched a lawsuit against 3M, DuPont, and other PFAS manufacturers, citing contamination of the drinking water supply from the facility.
PFAS, or polyfluoroalkyl substances, are found in numerous everyday products, such as nonstick cookware, water-repellant clothing, and stain-resistant carpets. Exposure to these chemicals is associated with metabolic disorders, reduced birth rates in women, delayed child development, and higher risks of certain cancers, including prostate, kidney, and testicular cancers.
As part of the settlement announced on Tuesday, 3M will allocate between $400 million and $450 million to New Jersey over 25 years, aimed at damages and improving drinking water treatment.
New Jersey noted that DuPont and its spinoff, Kemoul, which operates the facility, are not included in the settlement. The remaining parties are anticipated to take the matter to trial. DuPont chose not to comment.
“Businesses that contaminate our water supply must be held accountable,” stated New Jersey Attorney General Matthew J. Platkin. “For years, 3M was aware its PFAS chemicals were permanently polluting the New Jersey environment, yet they evaded responsibility. That time is over.”
According to the Environmental Protection Agency, the Chambers Works facility historically produced gunpowder and materials for nuclear purposes, aiding in the development of the atomic bomb. Recently, the site has manufactured a range of chemicals, including PFAS.
New Jersey Environmental Protection Commissioner Sean M. Latourette remarked that the pollution issue extends far beyond drinking water. “PFAS are present throughout New Jersey, even reaching soil in forests distant from landfills,” he noted.
New Jersey is only the second state to settle with 3M regarding PFAS-related drinking water pollution claims, following Minnesota, which saw 3M agree to pay $850 million in 2018 for similar issues affecting natural resources.
In 2023, 3M also reached a nationwide settlement of up to $12.5 billion with public water suppliers to tackle PFAS contamination in drinking water.
3M characterized the agreement as a “crucial step toward mitigating risks and uncertainties” related to historical PFAS contamination. The company indicated that it had begun phasing out the production of two major PFAS substances in 2000 and aims to stop all PFAS production by 2025.
3M clarified that the settlement should not be seen as an admission of guilt and noted that it would incur a pre-tax charge of $285 million in the second quarter.
This week, the EPA was set to announce whether it will uphold the stringent PFAS drinking water standards established by the Biden administration last year.
Chemical companies and utilities have sued the agency over this decision. The Trump administration was due to inform the court on Monday whether it would continue to support these standards but instead requested a 21-day extension to determine its next steps.
Tianwan Nuclear Power Station on the Yellow Sea coast of China
Xinhua Newsletter/Alamie
Researchers in China have created a cost-effective and energy-efficient method for extracting uranium from seawater. As the global leader in nuclear power plant construction, China’s advances will bolster its uranium supply.
The oceans are estimated to contain around 4.5 billion tonnes of uranium, significantly more than is available through traditional mining methods. However, these resources are challenging to extract. Previous methods have involved immersing materials in artificial sponges or polymers inspired by natural structures, or utilizing a more costly electrochemical approach to capture uranium atoms via an electric field.
A team led by Shuangyin Wang from Hunan University has developed an enhanced electrochemical technology that is not only cheaper but also requires less energy than existing methods. Unlike conventional systems that draw only uranium atoms towards a positive electrode, this new device utilizes two copper electrodes.
This innovative method managed to extract 100% of uranium from a brine solution within 40 minutes, whereas physical adsorption techniques typically yield less than 10% of the available uranium.
When tested with small amounts of natural seawater, the system processed about 1 liter at a time, achieving 100% extraction from East China Sea water and 85% from South China Sea water. In the latter scenario, larger electrodes allowed for complete extraction.
The energy cost of this method is over 1000 times lower than that of traditional electrochemical procedures, with extraction costing approximately $83 per kilogram of uranium—four times cheaper than earlier methods and significantly less than the $360 per kilogram average.
By scaling up production and device size, researchers believe this technique could lead to the “industrialization of uranium extraction from seawater” in the future. During a 58-hour test in 100 liters of seawater, the largest experimental setup managed to extract over 90% of the available uranium.
A notable earlier success in uranium extraction from seawater occurred during the 1990s, when the Japanese Atomic Energy Agency used physical adsorption methods to recover kilograms of uranium, setting a significant benchmark for subsequent research in China.
In 2019, China’s state-run nuclear power company partnered with research institutes to form the Innovation Alliance for Seawater Uranium Extraction Technology. The goal is to establish a demonstration plant by 2035 and achieve continuous industrial production by 2050. South China Morning Post.
Half of the reactor projects currently in development are located in China. The country is positioned to significantly increase its nuclear capacity by 2030, potentially surpassing both the US and the EU. International Energy Agency.
Nonetheless, China still imports the majority of the uranium it requires, making any economical extraction from seawater highly valuable.
Researchers at Talton State University have discovered that extracts from okra and/or fenugreek can attract and eliminate as much as 90% of microplastics from sea, freshwater, and groundwater.
Srinivasan et al. We demonstrated that plant-based polysaccharides exhibited better microplastic removal efficiency than polyacrylamides commercially used in water treatment. Image credit: Srinivasan et al., doi: 10.1021/acsomega.4C07476.
Microplastics are emerging as significant pollutants that pose a threat to aquatic environments globally.
These solid polymers, measuring less than 5 mm, originate from larger plastic debris and the fragmentation of environmental emissions.
These contaminants not only inflict physical damage but also act as carriers for other harmful pollutants that cling to microplastics.
When consumed by organisms, these microparticles can lead to bioaccumulation and bioproliferation.
Conventional wastewater treatment methods using inorganic and organic polymer flocculants are not eco-friendly and can introduce toxicity.
Dr. Rajani Srinivasan and her team at Talton State University have been investigating a safe, plant-based strategy for attracting and eliminating contaminants from water sources.
In laboratory experiments, they found that okra, fenugreek, and tamarind polymers effectively adhered to microplastics, allowing them to aggregate and sink for easy separation from water.
To prepare the sticky plant polymer, sliced okra pods were soaked in separate containers of water overnight.
The resulting extracts were collected, dried, and ground into a powder.
Analysis revealed that the powdered extracts contained polysaccharides, which are natural polymers.
Initial tests on pure water contaminated with microplastics indicated: (i) One gram of any of the quart (1 liter) powders was highly effective in trapping microplastics. (ii) Dried okra and fenugreek extracts removed 67% and 93% of the plastic in one hour, respectively. (iii) A combination of equal parts okra and fenugreek powder reached a maximum removal efficiency of 70% within 30 minutes. (iv) Natural polymers proved significantly more effective than synthetic commercial polyacrylamide polymers typically used in wastewater treatment.
The researchers conducted tests using real water samples contaminated with microplastics.
They collected samples from various water sources around Texas and analyzed them in the lab.
The removal efficiency of plant extracts varied based on the original water source: okra was most effective in seawater (80%), fenugreek showed 80-90% efficiency in groundwater, and a 1:1 mixture of okra and fenugreek achieved 77% efficiency in freshwater.
The scientists suggest that natural polymers display different efficiencies due to the diversity of microplastic types, sizes, and shapes across water samples.
“While polyacrylamide is commonly used for contaminant removal in wastewater treatment, extracts from okra and fenugreek provide biodegradable and non-toxic alternatives,” they stated.
“Using these plant-based extracts for water treatment can eliminate microplastics and other pollutants without introducing additional toxins into the treated water, thereby reducing long-term health risks for the public,” Dr. Srinivasan added.
The team’s work has been published in the journal ACS Omega.
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Rajani Srinivasan et al. 2025. Fenugreek and okra polymers as therapeutic agents for removing microplastics from water sources. ACS Omega 10(15):14640-14656; doi:10.1021/acsomega.4C07476
The mayor of Miami-Dade County announced on Friday that she opposes the removal of fluoride from drinking water in Florida’s largest county. This decision goes against a growing movement that aims to eliminate minerals used for preventing tooth decay.
This veto by Mayor Daniela Levine Cava, a Democrat, comes as critics advocate for the addition of fluoride to water supplies. Recently, Utah became the first state to prohibit the addition of fluoride to public water, and other states, including Florida, are contemplating similar actions.
“The science is crystal clear,” Levine Kava stated during a press conference on Friday. She emphasized, “Ending fluoridation could cause real and lasting harm, especially to children and families who cannot afford regular dental care.”
On April 1, the Miami-Dade Commission, a nonpartisan body of county commissioners, passed a measure to ban fluoride, with some commissioners absent. A total of nine votes are needed to override the mayor’s veto if all 13 commissioners are present, and it remains uncertain whether there is enough support for this. The next scheduled board meeting is on May 6th.
The majority of commissioners in Miami-Dade are Republicans, and Kevin Marino Cabrera, a Trump ally, is set to become the ambassador of Panama. Levine Cava is currently the highest elected Democrat in the state, with Republicans having claimed victory in all other county elected offices in Miami-Dade last year, including sheriffs and election supervisors.
During a press conference last Friday, Levine Caba referenced a study to support her decision, standing alongside dentists and doctors wearing white coats.
“I do what I believe is best for the health of my community. I stand with dental and medical professionals,” she affirmed.
Commissioner Roberto J. Gonzalez, the sponsor of the law, criticized Levine Hippo for “behaving like a typical politician, relying on tired partisan narratives to jeopardize public health.” In a statement on Friday, he called on his fellow committee members to override the veto.
Many experts caution against the removal of fluoride from drinking water, especially for oral health and cavity prevention. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention deem Fluoridation as one of the “10 greatest public health achievements of the 20th century.”
However, concerns about fluoride have gained momentum in recent years, particularly after the COVID-19 pandemic undermined trust in public health interventions. Opponents argue that they aim to safeguard bodily autonomy and raise worries about potential cognitive effects in children.
They reference a Recent Review Papers which analyzed 74 studies and suggested a link between decreased IQ scores in children with high fluoride exposure during childhood or prenatal periods. (The levels studied were double the CDC’s recommended level. One study found no association.)
Levine Cava’s veto contrasts with the stance of fluoride skeptics like the Trump administration’s Kennedy and Republican Gov. Ron DeSantis, along with his appointed surgeon general, Dr. Joseph A. Radapop, who advocates for fluoridated water.
Recently, DeSantis expressed, “Do we want forced medication or do we want people to have a choice? When you’re adding it to water, you’re not really giving people a choice.”
Before the mayor’s announcement, Dr. Radapop called for a halt to Covid vaccine use and urged Miami-Dade residents to petition the mayor to support the fluoride ban. “It’s difficult to comprehend how someone feels entitled to add drugs to the water people drink,” he remarked.
Fluoride was first introduced in city water supplies in 1945 and became a common practice across the country in the ensuing decades. Studies have shown a direct correlation between fluoridation and improved oral hygiene.
“There’s a growing distrust in reliable, evidence-based science,” remarked Dr. Brett Kessler, president of the American Dental Association, in a statement this week. “When government officials, like Secretary Kennedy, perpetuate misinformation and mistrust in research, it harms public health.”
The debate over fluoridated water has raged for years as experts warn against excessive long-term fluoride exposure due to potential health issues. The federally mandated level has decreased over the years, including after a recent court order.
On Monday, Environmental Protection Agency director Lee Zeldin announced the decision to “expeditiously review new scientific information on the potential health risks of fluoride in drinking water.”
“If this evaluation is conducted without bias, it will provide a modern and comprehensive scientific assessment,” stated Zeldin. He lauded Kennedy’s longstanding involvement in this issue. Most individuals who spoke during the public comments section at the April Miami-Dade Committee meeting opposed fluoridation. A few days post-meeting, Levine Hippo hosted a Roundtable Discussion, focusing on the benefits with community healthcare professionals.
Since the November election, Florida’s 20 other cities and county governments have voted to eliminate fluoride from their water supplies. Miami-Dade County, with a population of around 2.7 million, is significantly larger. There are ongoing discussions in the Florida Legislature regarding a bill that would prevent local municipalities from adding fluoride to water.
Miami-Dade politics have shifted markedly to the right in recent years, mirroring Florida’s political landscape from a battleground state to one that is increasingly leaning Republican. In November, Trump became the first Republican presidential candidate to win the county since 1988.
The other side of the moon – the part that is always far from the earth – is strangely different from close. It is pockmarked with more craters, with a thicker crust and less Maria, where lava was once formed, or with fewer plains.
Now, scientists say the difference can be more than the depth of the skin.
Using samples from the moon obtained last year, Chinese researchers believe the inside of the moon is potentially drier than its near it. Their discovery, Published Wednesday’s Nature Journal will provide a clearer picture of how pearly orbs we admire in the night sky have formed and evolved over billions of years.
The difference in moisture in the distant side of the moon and its nearby appears to be “accidentally consistent” with variations in the surface features of the two hemispheres of the moon, said Senfu, a researcher at the Chinese Academy of Sciences in Beijing and author of the new results. “It’s very interesting,” he said.
Until the 1990s, when scientists began to discover tips on water on its surface, the moon was believed to be “dry bones.” These tips were confirmed in 2009 when NASA denounced the rocket stage to the moon’s Antarctic.
One of the goals, including this mission, was to estimate the amount of water that lies deep within the moon. The interior of the moon is not changed much by the process of weathering the surface.
Returning to Earth with a Chang’e-6 sample in hand, researchers looked for hardened particles of lava erupted from the female entrance or within the lunar mantle. Some of these basalts were 2.8 billion years old, and contained olivine, a crystal that had ancient magma cooled in the moon and stored information about the composition of the mantle early in the history of the moon.
The amount of hydrogen trapped in olivine allowed scientists to estimate the amount of water present in the mantle at the time. 1-1.5 grams of water for every million grams of the moon rock.
Previous measurements from samples collected near the moon – the US, the Soviet Union, and most recently 200 times wet.
The harsh difference between the range of nearby lunar ranges between nearby and far side samples could suggest that the parts of the moon that we don’t see on Earth are generally much drier, Dr. Hu said.
Shuai Li, a planetary geologist at the University of Hawaii, Manoa, who studies water on the moon, described the results as “very interesting.” However, he pointed out that limited information can be extracted from a single sample.
“It’s hard to say if the far side is definitely dryer than the nearest side,” said Dr. Lee, who was not involved in the job.
One scenario the Chang’e-6 team proposed to explain the internal differences is that the impact of creating the Antarctic-Aitken basin is strong enough to throw water and other elements near the moon, depleting the amount of water beyond.
Another idea is that the basalt in the Chang’e-6 sample comes from a much deeper, dry part of the lunar mantle.
“For me, that’s a little more realistic,” said Mahesh Anand, a planetary scientist at the UK Open University. Estimate the moisture content inside the moon From near-side samples from China collected by the Chang’e-5 mission in 2020.
Dr. Anand also praised the researchers’ careful selection of hundreds of particles from Chang’e-6 samples, less than 16 inches in size, to estimate water abundance.
“The ability to do that is extremely laborious and requires a lot of sophisticated and careful work,” he said.
More samples from various locations collected by future moon missions will help scientists determine whether the inner interior of the width is uniformly dry, and whether it changes throughout the hemisphere.
Freshwater essential for lithium mining is found in parts of Argentina, Bolivia, and Chile, situated in the world’s “lithium triangle” on the Andean plateau, boasting half of all global lithium reserves.
A recent study in Communications Earth and the Environment revealed that available freshwater for lithium extraction in these regions is significantly lower than previously believed. With global demand for lithium expected to surge by 2040, this poses a challenge as it surpasses the limited annual rainfall supplying water to the dry lithium triangle.
Minimizing freshwater usage in the lithium industry is crucial to prevent disruption in mining activities. Extracting one ton of lithium requires approximately 500,000 gallons of water, which also sustains small indigenous communities and unique wildlife habitats in the region.
Water scarcity affects both the ecosystem and the industry in the lithium triangle, as lithium is a key component in batteries driving the global shift towards clean energy technologies. Despite the projected quadrupling demand for lithium batteries by 2030, delays in mining operations due to resource availability raise concerns about meeting this growing demand.
Freshwater plays a vital role in determining the supply of lithium available for mining in the lithium triangle. Rainfall washes lithium-rich minerals out of rocks, creating lagoons filled with lithium-rich water where mining companies extract the mineral. However, limited weather data and overestimation of freshwater supply in the region pose challenges to sustainable mining.
Research into water and resource availability for lithium mining operations is ongoing, emphasizing the need for a comprehensive understanding of the entire lithium supply chain. Studies in lithium-rich regions worldwide are essential to grasp the environmental and social impacts of lithium extraction.
Almost 500 buildings in the province’s capital get heat from clean, renewable sources deep in the ground.
It’s very easy to get into Boise’s hot water. After all, it’s Idaho, a state filled with hundreds of hot springs.
The city has used warm water in its natural environment to create a geothermal system that operates the largest local government in the country.
Nearly 500 Boise Business, Government Buildings, Houses, and Hospital and University Buildings; City Hall and YMCA. – Warmed by heat drawn directly from a hot water reservoir or aquifer below the ground. Idaho State University in Boise is the only US that uses geothermal heat. In winter, heat warms some sidewalks and raises the temperature of the hot tub to melt the snow.
50 states, 50 revisions This is a series about local solutions to environmental issues. I’ll come more this year.
Renewable, reliable and relatively free of pollution, but geothermal heating is possible due to fault lines that expose groundwater to hot rocks and heat the water to about 170 degrees Fahrenheit, or about 77 degrees Celsius. The water is drawn from a well in a nearby hilly area into a closed loop network of pipes reaching the building, then returned to the aquifer to reheat.
In each building, geothermal heat is transferred to the water through adjacent pipes, dispersing the heat throughout the building.
“We pumped water, borrowed heat for the building, then reverted it back to the aquifer,” said Tina Riley, Geothermal Development Coordinator at Boise.
The number of buildings that heat up the city of Boise in this way has increased more than six times over the past 40 years, and has grown along the way. One of the consequences of the expansion is cleaner air. In 2024, city officials calculated that their carbon footprint is 6,500 tons a year, equivalent to removing 1,500 vehicles from the road each year.
“There’s a lot of demand for clean, affordable local energy,” Riley said. “This also has the energy independence.”
Boiseans began using this natural resource to heat the buildings in the 1890s. It gave birth to hundreds of thousands of gallons of piping hot water a day after drilling the well into the aquifer. The water-heated pools and baths of local swimming pools, the Victorian mansion belonging to the head of the Water Company, and hundreds of homes in the area that baptized the Boise Warm Springs Water district.
Things may have ended because it wasn’t due to the oil crisis of the 1970s.
“At that point, the Boise Warm Springs area had been thriving for almost 100 years,” Riley said. “That’s what we saw. Then we say, ‘Let’s do the same thing.’ ”
Today, Boise has four individually operated geothermal hydrothermal systems. One is run by the city, the other is run by the Boise Warm Springs area, and two more serve the Capitol and the U.S. Veterans Affairs buildings.
The city’s system operates as a utility funded by the sale of water rather than taxpayers. Riley said the heat price is roughly comparable to that of natural gas, depending on the efficiency of the building, but it is less expensive when used in parallel with a heat pump.
In the Boise Warm Springs Water area, engineer Scott Lewis said it is particularly cost-effective for warming an old Victorian home where geothermal heat had not been weathered.
He said that because it uses minimal electricity, it means all the stress on the power grid is less. The district costs $1,800 a month to power water pumps that provide heat to more than one million square feet of space. The expansion of the geothermal network is limited by what aquifers can offer, but Lewis said the district is trying to add 30 more homes to the network to meet demand.
“It’s actually very desirable, especially around the area,” he said. “We see that a lot of people are really environmentally conscious around here.”
The heating system attracted visitors from Iceland, Croatia and Australia, making Boise the destination.
“We were from all over the world,” Lewis said. “We love to let everyone know about our little geothermal system here.”
It is explained in the paper published today journal Natural Astronomy the discovery means that habitable deplanets may have begun to form much earlier, before they were formed billions of years ago.
This artist's impression shows the evolution of the universe, beginning with the Big Bang on the left. After that, you will see the microwave background of the universe. The formation of the first stars ends the dark ages of the universe, followed by the formation of galaxies. Image credit: M. Weiss/Harvard – Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics.
“We had no oxygen before the first star exploded, so there was no water in space,” said Daniel Warren, an astronomer at the University of Portsmouth.
“Only a very simple nucleus survived the Big Bang: hydrogen, helium, lithium, trace amounts of barium and boron.”
According to Dr. Whalen and his colleagues, water molecules began to form shortly after the first supernova explosion known as the Population III Supernova.
These cosmic events that occurred on first generation stars were essential to creating the heavy elements (such as oxygen) needed for water to exist.
“The oxygen forged in the hearts of these supernovas combines with hydrogen to form water, paving the way for the creation of the essential elements needed for life,” Dr. Whalen said.
In their study, researchers looked at two types of supernovae. This produces corecrolaps supernovae, which produces a modest amount of heavy elements, and more energetic POP III supernovae.
They discovered that both types of supernovae form dense masses of rich gas in water.
The overall amount of water produced by these early supernovae was modest, but was highly concentrated in a gas-dense area called the cloud core, which is thought to be the birthplace of stars and planets.
These early, water-rich regions may have sown planetary formations at the dawn of space long before the first galaxy took shape.
“A significant discovery is that the primitive supernova formed water in the universe ahead of the first galaxy,” Dr. Hualen said.
“So water was already an important component of the first galaxy.”
“This means that the conditions necessary for the formation of life were in place faster than we could have imagined, meaning it was an important step in our early understanding of the universe.”
“The total water mass was modest, but it was very concentrated on the only structures that could form stars and planets.”
“And that suggests that before the first galaxy, a water-rich planetary disc could form at the dawn of space.”
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