Philosophers Explore the Boundless Nature of Consciousness Beyond Earth’s Biology

Renowned philosophers Erik Schwitzgebel from the University of California, Riverside, and Jeremy Pober, a postdoctoral researcher at the University of Lisbon, propose that consciousness is substrate flexible. This concept suggests that consciousness may not be limited to the biological tissues found on Earth, but could also emerge in entirely different physical materials throughout the universe.

Schwitzgebel and Pober discuss the potential for consciousness to exist in diverse physical substrates beyond Earth’s biology. Image credit: Fernando Rivas.

In their book, Professor Schwitzgebel and Dr. Pober state, “Who is conscious? We, the authors, and you, the reader, are conscious.” You can access their paper here.

“Some non-human animals likely share this trait. Further, we will explore the possibility that some extraterrestrial beings may also possess consciousness.”

“While we do not currently have evidence that today’s technology has produced conscious artifacts, we do not dismiss the potential for future discoveries.”

“Our argument emphasizes that consciousness can arise in a vast array of physical configurations, or substrates.”

Within the observable universe, there are approximately 1 trillion galaxies. While planets are abundant, most exist in environments vastly different from Earth.

The authors posit that at least 1,000 behaviorally sophisticated species capable of complex communication, goal-directed behavior, and cooperation likely exist somewhere in the universe.

They assert, based on astrobiological studies, that life on other planets could have evolved using distinct chemical building blocks, unlike the amino acids and nucleic acids fundamental to life on Earth.

Scientists have theorized about possible life forms in alien environments such as Venus, using sulfur compounds, organoborates, or silicon-based chemistry.

“We argue that it is improbable for all behaviorally advanced species in the universe to have evolved using the same substrate,” the researchers suggest in their paper.

“Even if our substrate is nearly optimal given known environmental constraints, a plethora of other substrates may be more advantageous in different environments.”

“For example, the extreme conditions of Venus’s gas clouds illustrate one such environmental limitation. Its atmosphere differs significantly from Earth’s, presenting unique challenges for life to thrive using alternative biochemical frameworks.”

The researchers further explore what they describe as the Copernican principle of consciousness.

Just as modern astronomy has debunked the notion that Earth occupies a special place in the cosmos, Schwitzgebel and Pober argue that we should not assume Earth holds a unique status in the realm of consciousness.

If multiple behaviorally sophisticated species evolved across various substrates in the universe, we cannot logically assert that only organisms sharing our biochemistry are capable of subjective experiences.

“It is an unsubstantiated view to presume that only entities with our specific biological makeup can be conscious,” they write.

“Consider that we might infer consciousness exists in all vertebrates and certain cephalopods and insects on Earth.”

“Assuming each galaxy contains, on average, a million planets, it is likely that species with comparable behavioral sophistication will emerge (even if technological civilizations are rare).”

The observable universe may have as many as 1 quintillion (1018) potentially habitable planets.

“With so many chances for life to arise, it’s inevitable that many of these life forms will appear quite unusual.”

“Thus, we shouldn’t confine the understanding of consciousness to organisms constructed from the same materials that form life on Earth.”

Professor Schwitzgebel and Dr. Pober also address the implications for artificial intelligence (AI).

However, they stop short of asserting that current AI systems possess consciousness.

In Dr. Pober’s perspective, we should refrain from assuming that today’s computer hardware is capable of supporting consciousness.

The potential for consciousness in different substrates does not automatically suggest that all substrates can achieve consciousness.

“Until we have compelling evidence to suggest otherwise, we should assume that current computer chips are incapable of consciousness,” he states.

“The default assumption is that substrates, such as those used in modern AI, do not exhibit consciousness unless there is valid reason to believe differently.”

Professor Schwitzgebel takes a slightly more optimistic stance regarding the potential for AI consciousness.

Once we dismiss the notion that consciousness strictly requires human biology, it becomes challenging to rule out silicon-based systems solely because of their composition.

Regardless, he argues that this aspect of the philosophical debate is too narrow.

“We should remain open to the possibility of AI consciousness,” he notes.

“When we recognize that consciousness does not depend on a specific substrate, it seems limiting to draw an arbitrary line, provided the substrate demonstrates the ability to support sufficient behavioral sophistication.”

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Jeremy Porber and Eric Schwitzgebel. 2026. Substrate flexibility and the Copernican principle of consciousness

Source: www.sci.news

Bezos Movement in a Boundless Space: ‘One Man Renting a City for Three Days? That’s Unacceptable’

wHeather Jane Johnson heard that Jeff Bezos got married in Venice this June, but she felt worse than ever. Twenty-five years ago, she closed her bookstore in Boston, Massachusetts. “I lost a lot because of Bezos and the American accomplices behind Amazon’s rise,” states the 53-year-old. “The primary reason I moved to Italy was my sense of betrayal by my homeland.”

When a public meeting was announced in the city, she immediately attended. Since then, she has participated in every gathering of anti-Bezos activists, including the one right before last week’s wedding. “These young people have truly restored my faith in humanity,” Johnson remarks.

Many activists part of the “Bezos No Spaces” movement are based at Laboratorio Accupatato Morion, which identifies as “an anti-fascist, anti-capitalist, anti-racist, and transfeminist political space.” Federica Toninero, 33, describes it as “the home of many struggles.” The venue boasts the same vaulted ceilings and grandeur as others nearby, but is adorned with banners and placards ready to transform Venice in anticipation of Bezos’ wedding festivities, starting Thursday. (During my visit on Sunday, I didn’t spot any billionaires; their inclination for invisibility is strong.) It is all visually stunning, reminiscent of one of Venice’s countercultural spaces, filled with striking graphics from past campaigns against big ships, cruises, and tourists. A grassroots movement emerges here, advocating for refugees, with feminist unions popping up to address issues such as climate crises and urban poverty.




“I don’t think he’s welcome”… his fiancées, Lauren Sanchez and Bezos. Photo: Bruce Glikas/Wireimage

Noemi Donà, a 19-year-old activist from USG (a slowly growing union of young leftists), mentions Oliver, 43, who works as a receptionist in a historic Venetian hotel, not one of the hyper-luxury ones, but rather a “small 14th-century palace.” “Bezos can pay and stay here,” he says, “but thousands of Italian shops have closed due to Amazon’s rise. There are universities aligning with us, many of which occupied campuses last year to protest against the Israeli bombings of Gaza.”

The atmosphere is charged with the scent of aerosols and felt-tip pens. Some banners proclaim “Free Palestine,” while others demand the cessation of bombings in Iran. The Palestinian Libre organization actively condemns the U.S. attack on Iran, which feels particularly shocking just under 24 hours since it occurred. Yet, in opposition to Bezos, Marta Sottoliva, a 34-year-old middle school teacher, asserts, “This isn’t just a group; it’s a platform.”

“If Bezos had announced his wedding here without our movement, the media’s narrative would have centered on a luxurious hotel, VIPs, and gossip,” Sottliva reflects. “We aimed to highlight the obscene wealth that enables men like him to monopolize a city.”

On June 12th, the activists unfurled a massive 8-meter banner featuring Bezos’ name encircled in red. Tonyelo jokes about their lively banter on social media, saying, “You must be embarrassed!” A similar banner was displayed on the Rialto Bridge shortly after.




Protest at San Giorgio Maggiore. Photo: Marta Sottoriva

The activists have shifted their focus from merely questioning, “How much money does he have?” to “What conversation will arise from Bezos’ presence? What numbers will they draw?” As Elon Musk captures the public’s attention, there’s a growing discontent regarding the high purchasing power of elites in the face of societal upheavals. One aspect Bezos cannot buy is public goodwill—nor respect for his fiancée, Lauren Sanchez, nor for the 200 guests he plans to invite. That, indeed, is significant.

Not all demonstrations will be publicized, but one detail is clear: a protest will block access to the Scola Grande della Misericordia this Saturday, where Bezos is set to host the celebration.

On a Sunday evening stroll around the venue, I analyzed the logistics for a protest designed to obstruct any chance of the Kardashian presence. A three-meter-wide strip runs along the canal, with a steep drop, creating a narrow bridge that unexpectedly terminates at metal gates in Venice. On the west side, a pavement parallels the canal, leading to a small bridge that could facilitate both police and protesters, but only permits slow movements. With so many stunning bridges dotting Venice, this is the most beautiful, though not conducive to fast access. A square lies at one end and a canal at the other. If 200 protesters show up, they could indeed create significant disruption.

Rumor has it that Bezos isn’t relying solely on police protection but is also engaging former Marlins, hoping to bolster his public image. “How can I get someone away from the water without causing harm?” Toninero muses, her tone playful rather than anxious. “We use our bodies to convey, ‘Stop it, we don’t want this.’”

According to reports Monday, Bezos has been compelled to relocate the party to a different venue.




Rialto Bridge banner. Photo: Manuel Silvestri/Reuters

Even as the city showcases its exquisite eccentricities, it’s difficult to imagine hosting a lavish party in such a locale with a dead-end bridge resembling a 14th-century lagoon. If you spread the word to just 15 people that you’re not welcome, you realize how inherently impossible it is to execute a glamorous, star-studded event here. Perhaps Venice is a mere facade, and the real celebration is set for Maui.

The activist assembly aired their views amidst all this. Critics argue Bezos and Sanchez may not be ideal foes for the anti-tourism sentiment. Yet, many Venetians recognize a common disregard from local authorities. In their quest to appease billionaires, the city effectively shuts down its center. They exert significant influence over short-term rentals yet refuse to take action. Last year’s initiative, taxing tourists €5 a day, was believed to address the situation, but as Sottoliva points out, locals feel they “are like animals in a zoo or cartoon characters from Disneyland.”

Sofia, 26, originally from Barcelona, has engaged in numerous discussions regarding overtourism, but she sees a uniquely vibrant community within Venice, supporting one another beyond mere intellectual endeavors.

Venice’s politically radical lens, influenced largely by its tourism, contrasts sharply with Bezos’ wedding deal, revealing inconsistencies in his values. His conduct as an employer and his apparent disregard for corporate tax responsibilities reflect a divide that becomes glaringly visible in such discussions.




Michael Jordan’s yacht docked in Venice ahead of Bezos’ wedding. Photo: Yara Nardi/Reuters

Climate change activists have also voiced concerns about promoting a culture of extreme consumption, as noted by Stella Faye, a 27-year-old university researcher.

Politically, Bezos’ transition from a perceived mild Democratic supporter to an active Trump advocate has not gone unnoticed. “We are witnessing a disturbing fusion between the private interests of digital capitalism and fascism,” argues Sottoliva. “This is not just confined to Venice.”

Perhaps most troubling for Bezos is the emerging critique of billionaires not just as individuals, but as systemic forces. “There’s a rise in anti-wealth movements,” states Robin Piazzo, a political scientist at the University of Turin. Traditionally, Marxist discourse focused less on billionaires as individuals, instead analyzing capitalism as a collective system. The grassroots movements increasingly question the narratives around the affluent, especially as they light on the influence of wealth over politics and media.

Yet, within grassroots movements, a consistent anti-Western critique is evident, bridging both religious and political sentiments. Piazzo, who also serves on the city council for the Democratic Party, recounts a 90-year-old woman approaching him post-meeting, saying, “You must act against the rich; I detest them.” She aligned herself with the sentiments expressed by Pope Francis. “This is a critical juncture for ultra-high-net-worth individuals,” he warns, as wealth’s perception shifts to a self-serving entity, starkly contrasted with the struggles faced by the less fortunate.


Wealth is showing its sharper edge once again. In 2001, during the G8 summit in Genoa, police responses were harsh and swift after a protester named Carlo Giuliani was killed by Carabinieri. During that tumultuous time, a leftist in England warned that if pushed, resisting police involved serious risks. The memories of such violence linger deeply.

After Giuliani’s death, a specialized police unit was deployed, known for its distinctive blue uniforms and aggressive tactics. Most surreal was the heavy steel fence constructed to shield leaders at the G8. However, despite the barriers, a single protester managed to break through and was quickly arrested. The show of force reflected a stark division between state officials and protesters—clearly demonstrating that their interests were at odds.

Twenty-four years later, Bezos’ wedding symbolizes everything he represents—wage reduction, rampant consumerism, environmental degradation, and wealth supremacy—casting a shadow over a city struggling to maintain its identity. “Honestly, it terrifies me,” states Noemi Donà. “But I’m here.”

Source: www.theguardian.com