Volcano Erupts, Unleashing Remnants of Earth’s Primordial Magma Ocean

Posted on July 3, 2026 by Igor Mitreski

Submarine Relief from Mayotte Survey 2019: Fani Maore Volcano

Credit: Campagne MAYOBS2

Recent discoveries reveal that undersea volcanoes off Madagascar’s coast are releasing chemical signatures from Earth’s primordial magma ocean. This magma ocean formed during the planet’s first 100 million years, offering insights into early Earth’s history.

Geologists posit that the Earth’s mantle—a vast layer of heated rock beneath the crust—has been slowly churning for over four billion years, gradually erasing chemical traces from Earth’s early formation.

“This discovery will significantly change our understanding in earth science,” states Catherine Chauvel from the French National Center for Scientific Research (CNRS) in Paris. “We now have proof that material dating back 4.5 billion years still exists in sufficient quantities to be studied in volcanic systems.”

During the Hadean era, a Mars-sized object collided with Earth, generating intense heat and forming a global magma ocean. As the molten rock solidified over millions of years, the oldest crust began to emerge.

While some scientists believed remnants of this primordial crystallization remained in the mantle, they lacked the analytical methods to confirm it, according to Chauvel.

An unusual swarm of earthquakes in May 2018 off Mayotte Island, located between Madagascar and Mozambique, led to the discovery of a new volcano, Fani Maore, approximately 50 kilometers eastward. Over the subsequent three years, eruptions released significant magma, causing the island to sink around 20 centimeters.

Chauvel and her research team collected volcanic rock samples from both Fani Maore and nearby Mayotte Island to analyze the chemical composition of the new volcano versus older volcanic systems. Collaborating with Claudine Israel, they are employing cutting-edge ultra-high precision techniques at the University of Cambridge to assess variations in neodymium isotopes, which preserve a chemical record of the crystallization process from Earth’s primordial magma ocean.

Initial findings indicate that Fani Maore’s lava has a higher proportion of neodymium-142 and neodymium-144 compared to that from Mayotte, suggesting pockets in the ancient mantle have remained undisturbed by billions of years of geological mixing. These pockets are relatively rich in bridgmanite, a mineral believed to have first crystallized from Earth’s primordial magma ocean.

“Finding something that has eluded others is always thrilling,” remarks Chauvel.

This discovery implies that Earth’s mantle may not have mixed as extensively as previously thought, thus aiding scientists in reconstructing how Earth’s primordial magma ocean solidified, according to Israel.

“We experimentally demonstrate how the mantle crystallizes from a magma ocean, creating chemical diversity from the very beginning,” she notes.

Tim Johnson at Curtin University in Perth, Australia, claims that this finding serves as compelling evidence that Earth’s mantle still houses ancient material. “This is a significant breakthrough,” he asserts.

“Despite the challenges in perfecting such technology, the results are impressive,” adds Bernard Bourdon from CNRS in Lyon.

This research provides unprecedented insights into an era of Earth’s history with limited direct evidence, akin to uncovering a core sample that made its way to the surface, Bourdon concludes.

According to Richard Carlson from Carnegie Science in Washington, D.C., the accuracy of this study is remarkable. “Those familiar with these measurements will recognize this achievement as substantial,” he remarks.

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Source: www.newscientist.com

Discover Australia’s Arctic Dome Crater: Earth’s Oldest Known Archean Impact Structure

Posted on June 26, 2026 by Igor Mitreski

Zircon crystals and impact-altered minerals reveal that a colossal asteroid impacted Western Australia’s Pilbara region approximately 3 billion years ago.

Arctic Dome Crater: (A) Simplified map of the Eastern Pilbara Terrain (EPT, Western Australia). Key geological features include Paleoarchean granite domes (pink) and greenstone belts (green and blue), with the North Pole Dome (NPD) at the center. (B) Geological map featuring NPD and shutter cone fields (yellow stars). (C) Quartz (Qtz) carbonate vein intersecting the shutter cone line. Image credit: Kirkland et al., doi: 10.1130/G54866.1.

According to Professor Chris Kirkland from Curtin University and his research team, “While evidence of heavy bombardment exists for the Moon during the Hadean and early Archean eras, the impact history on Earth remains largely unclear.”

“Identifying meteorite impact structures can be challenging, especially when impacts occur within Archean upper crustal rocks, which often lack quartz or zircon—minerals that preserve impact signatures.”

“Recently identified dense shutter cone fields in the Arctic Dome provide tangible evidence of impact on these weakly metamorphosed mafic rocks.”

“Shatter cones were once thought to have formed around 3.47 billion years ago.”

However, new findings reveal two fracture cones that suggest an impact event between 2.7 billion and 400 million years ago linked to the Neoarchean Low Basalt Mountains.

In their latest study, researchers analyzed two rock samples containing shattered cones (zircon-bearing metadolerite and apatite-bearing metabasalt), along with shocked quartz veins from the Arctic Dome.

Using advanced mineral dating techniques, they uncovered the most compelling evidence yet that the impact occurred roughly 3 billion years ago.

Professor Kirkland stated, “This discovery addresses long-standing questions regarding the timing of this impact event.”

Previously identified as an ancient impact structure, the exact age was unknown until now.

“The impact left behind a ‘mineral clock.’ By dating the minerals that have either regenerated or newly formed in these damaged rocks, we can determine the occurrence of this unusual event,” he explained.

“Key to this research are zircon minerals, renowned for their ability to retain geological timelines spanning billions of years.”

“Some of the zircons from the Arctic Dome exhibit unique branched skeletal shapes, interpreted as shock-altered crystals formed by heat and pressure during intense impact.”

“These zircon crystals provide a record of events that transpired about 3 billion years ago, marking the best estimate of the impact time.”

To further validate their findings, apatite was analyzed—this mineral forms as hot fluids move through impact-altered rocks, confirming similar dating results.

The correlation between these two mineral systems enhances our confidence that we are observing signs of a singular significant event: a meteorite impact.

This latest research positions the Arctic Dome structure as Earth’s oldest known impact crater and the sole recognized example from the Archean Era, a period when Earth’s earliest continents were forming.

Professor Kirkland highlighted, “Dating ancient impact craters poses challenges due to geological alterations such as heat, pressure, and fluid movements over billions of years, which may obscure original impact signals.”

“Our study successfully separates the moment of impact from its extensive geological history.”

This groundbreaking discovery extends Earth’s impact record deeper into geological history than any previously dated crater, offering an invaluable insight into the violent processes that shaped the early Earth.

For more details, refer to the team’s paper published in the June 23 edition of Geology.

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C.L. Kirkland et al. “How old is the Arctic Dome impact in Western Australia?” Geology, published online June 23, 2026. doi: 10.1130/G54866.1

Source: www.sci.news

Scientists Reveal Earth’s Early Sexual Practices Were Detrimental

Posted on June 20, 2026 by Igor Mitreski

Recent studies reveal that Earth’s earliest animals were quite unproductive, lacking fertility and significantly suppressing the diversity of life for millions of years. It wasn’t until sexual reproduction emerged, influenced by stress and competition, that evolution accelerated.

Research conducted by the University of Cambridge focused on fossils of the oldest known animals, dating back approximately 574 million years. These ancient beings reproduced asexually, creating offspring from a single parent’s genetic material.

As detailed in a study published in Natural Ecology and Evolution, this research sheds light on a long-pondered question among paleontologists: why has animal life changed so little over millions of years?

Among the first life forms were Fructophusus, which roamed the Earth during the Ediacaran period, approximately 635 to 539 million years ago, resembling ferns rather than modern animals.

These organisms lacked mouths, organs, or limbs, likely absorbing nutrients from their surroundings. They reproduced asexually, producing clones via runners similar to contemporary strawberry plants.

According to Dr. Emily Mitchell, lead author of the study from Cambridge’s Zoology Department, “Life in Ediacaran times was so sufficient that the necessity for sex was limited. There was minimal competition, resulting in little urgency for change.”

Mitchell and her team examined fossils at Mistaken Point in Newfoundland, a premier site for Ediacaran period fossils.

Using a sophisticated computer model, they simulated animal community behaviors under various conditions to explore why early animal groups were relatively species-poor.

The first multicellular organisms appeared on the ocean floor about 600 million years ago – Credit: Getty

During the Ediacaran period, animals thrived in nutrient-rich waters with limited competition for resources. However, as they migrated from deeper to shallower waters, they faced increased pressures like tides, storms, temperature fluctuations, and changes in trophic levels.

“As stress leads to sexual reproduction, we witness a notable increase in dispersal distance as animals strive for new territories amid heightened competition,” explains Mitchell.

As these ancient organisms adapted to diverse habitats and reproductive strategies, speciation flourished. This diversification intensified during the subsequent Cambrian period when animals became more mobile.

Read more:

Source: www.sciencefocus.com

Discovering Earth’s First Land Animals: Surprising Facts Beyond Amphibians

Posted on June 19, 2026 by Igor Mitreski

A paleontologist from the Field Museum of Natural History has unveiled new insights into the fossilized remains of a baby embolomere, a crocodile-like predator that inhabited ancient rivers and swamps between 350 million and 280 million years ago. Contrary to previous beliefs, these early vertebrates did not resemble tadpoles during their infancy.

New fossil evidence suggests that embolomeres did not undergo the same metamorphosis as modern amphibians, contradicting the notion that amphibians, reptiles, and mammals evolved from tadpole-like ancestors. Image credit: Berit Godling.

“Many of us learned a simplified version of evolution in high school: that fish evolved into amphibians, which then led to reptiles, and finally to mammals,” said Jason Pardo, a paleontologist at the Field Museum.

“Our research indicates that this fundamental premise—that the first four-legged vertebrates developed like amphibians—is incorrect.”

In their recent study, Dr. Pardo and colleague Dr. Arjan Mann analyzed well-preserved fossil quadrupeds from Mason Creek Lagerstätte, Illinois, known for its exceptional soft tissue specimens.

“Mason Creek is one of the world’s best fossil sites for soft tissue and delicate small fossils,” remarked Dr. Mann.

“The fossils from Mason Creek serve as a time capsule, allowing us to gain insights that were previously thought impossible.”

Embolomeres could grow over 3 meters (10 feet) as adults and were fearsome apex predators in ancient rivers, lakes, and swamps from 350 million years ago (Carboniferous period) to 280 million years ago (Permian period).

The Mason Creek specimen offers a striking contrast; though the baby is just a few centimeters long, it provides enough evidence to challenge century-old scientific assumptions.

Notably, researchers observed that embolomere offspring lacked crucial characteristics associated with amphibian tadpoles, such as external frilled gills.

No evidence of true metamorphosis was found in these early tetrapods, despite the major changes that occur during the larval stage in modern amphibians.

Instead, the life cycles of these initial tetrapods appear to resemble those of humans or fish more than they do those of amphibians.

“We examined a range of species representing various lineages throughout the fish-to-tetrapod transition and found no evidence resembling a tadpole,” Pardo stated.

“If there are no tadpoles, then metamorphosis cannot exist.”

“If creatures like embolomeres did not display tadpole morphology or undergo true amphibian metamorphosis, then the widely accepted theory that reptiles and mammals evolved from amphibian-like ancestors must be reconsidered.”

“The narrative that metamorphosis facilitated the transition of animals from water to land is no longer valid. It’s become obsolete.”

For further details, refer to the findings published in Science.

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Jason D. Pardo & Arjan Mann. 2026. Direct development of stalk tetrapods through the fin-to-limb transition. Science 392 (6804): 1292-1296; doi: 10.1126/science.aeb7635

Source: www.sci.news

How Earth’s Core Waves Transformed Japan Post-2011 Earthquake

Posted on June 18, 2026 by Igor Mitreski

Kesennuma Fishing Port: The Aftermath of the 2011 Tohoku Pacific Coast Earthquake

Image Credit: Carolyn Cole/Los Angeles Times via Getty Images

Kesennuma fishing port after the 2011 Tohoku earthquake — Kesennuma Fishing Port: The Aftermath of the 2011 Tohoku Pacific Coast Earthquake

Image Credit: Carolyn Cole/Los Angeles Times via Getty Images

<p>On March 11, 2011, just 15 minutes after Japan experienced the powerful magnitude-9 Tohoku earthquake, most of the country shifted eastward by approximately half a centimeter. This significant geographical change was driven by formidable seismic waves that traveled 5,800 kilometers deep to the Earth's core before bouncing back to the surface.</p>

<p>While a shift of five millimeters may appear minor against the catastrophic backdrop of the earthquake—which caused severe local land movements, resulting in the meltdown of three reactors at the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear power plant and a devastating 40-meter tsunami—it highlights a complex geological phenomenon.</p>

<p>This remarkable movement spanned 3,000 kilometers, nearly seven times longer than the earthquake's primary rupture line and surpassing any previously recorded land displacement.</p>

<p>Park Sun Young from the University of Chicago notes that this event is unique due to its timing and pattern: "No normal earthquake took place at that moment. This widespread 5-millimeter eastward displacement occurred almost simultaneously across most of Japan."</p>

<p>The changes were not only vast but also influenced the oceans, showcasing the extensive impact of the earthquake across the entire nation.</p>

<p>"It’s not just a limited 'edge' moving," Park explained. "The eastward shift is widespread across Japan, particularly where GPS stations are located. If we had greater density of instruments on the ocean floor, we could better assess this offshore movement, but on land, these changes are evident throughout Japan."</p>

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<p>By meticulously analyzing a wealth of GPS and seismic data obtained during this disaster, Park and colleagues uncovered the mechanisms behind such enormous movements and the reasons for the rupture occurring 15 minutes post-main shock.</p>

<p>Typically, earthquakes generate waves that penetrate the Earth's interior and rebound off the core, but these waves weaken significantly before reaching the surface. In the case of the Tohoku earthquake, the shock was so powerful that the waves remained strong enough upon returning to the surface, causing widespread shaking as four adjoining tectonic plates moved synchronously.</p>

<p>"We believe the intense shaking from the initial Tohoku earthquake compromised the stability of plate boundaries, rendering them more vulnerable to movement when reflection waves arrive," Professor Park stated.</p>

<p>This event suggests a previously unrecognized mechanism for post-earthquake rupture, indicating a need for awareness regarding potential seismic hazards triggered by waves traveling deeper following large earthquakes across extended distances—possibly leading to additional earthquakes.</p>

<p>Further research is crucial for comprehending how such phenomena affect other locations globally with similar geological traits, according to Robin Lee of the University of Canterbury, New Zealand.</p>

<p>("This demonstrates that significant earthquakes can initiate widespread delayed faulting within minutes and across much larger areas than anticipated," Lee pointed out.)</p>

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Source: www.newscientist.com

Earth’s Complex Life Could Endure 500 Million Years Longer Than Anticipated

Posted on June 18, 2026 by Igor Mitreski

What Will Earth Look Like in the Distant Future?

Bimal S/Unsplash

Future Earth — What Will Earth Look Like in the Distant Future?

Bimal S/Unsplash

The sun is gradually getting brighter and expanding as it ages, eventually cooking the Earth before consuming it entirely. However, new research indicates that complex life may endure in this extreme Earth scenario far longer than previously estimated.

Observations of other stars suggest that our Sun will transition into a red giant in about 5 billion years, raising questions about how long our planet will remain habitable. In ecological terms, the final survivors of complex life will be the trophic biosphere, including plants both aquatic and terrestrial. Their survival heavily relies on Earth’s temperature and the crucial carbon dioxide levels essential for photosynthesis.

“The greenhouse effect acts as Earth’s thermostat, balancing CO2 levels to maintain a habitable temperature,” explains Jacob Haq Misra from Blue Marble Space in Washington. As temperatures rise, CO2 is absorbed into rocks, diminishing atmospheric levels and allowing some heat to escape.

This shift implies that as the Sun expands, CO2 will become the critical limiting factor for plant life. Previous estimates indicated that a threshold of about 10 ppm of CO2 in the atmosphere is necessary for plant survival; below this level, plants perish, leaving only microorganisms. This phenomenon is expected to occur roughly 1.35 billion years from now. While the exact longevity of these microbes post-plant extinction is uncertain, it is likely they will survive much longer.

Innovative simulations by Haq Misra and his colleague Eric Wolf suggest potential plant lifespans may be extended by an additional 500 million years. Their more sophisticated simulations account for specific plants, such as cacti and pineapples, that utilize a unique type of photosynthesis known as Crassulacean acid metabolism, which allows more efficient CO2 absorption. This could lower the CO2 starvation threshold to just 1 ppm, enabling the trophic biosphere to thrive for more than 1.8 billion years.

“Life on Earth is capable of much more than we might expect,” states Haq Misra. Over such extensive timescales, evolutionary adaptation could allow life to persist even longer, adjusting to the gradual warming triggered by the Sun’s expansion.

“These models suggest that we may be on the brink of understanding Earth’s complex biosphere, rather than approaching its end, as previously pessimistic scenarios suggested,” shares Edward Schwieterman from the University of California, Riverside. This insight is promising, as it implies that if we treat Earth as a representative example of a habitable world, our chances of discovering biospheres on other planets may be higher than previously anticipated. “This isn’t merely a philosophical query; it has practical implications: they are modeling a future Earth that we may be able to observe within the next 20 years.”

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Source: www.newscientist.com

Philosophers Explore the Boundless Nature of Consciousness Beyond Earth’s Biology

Posted on June 18, 2026 by Igor Mitreski

Renowned philosophers Erik Schwitzgebel from the University of California, Riverside, and Jeremy Pober, a postdoctoral researcher at the University of Lisbon, propose that consciousness is substrate flexible. This concept suggests that consciousness may not be limited to the biological tissues found on Earth, but could also emerge in entirely different physical materials throughout the universe.

Schwitzgebel and Pober discuss the potential for consciousness to exist in diverse physical substrates beyond Earth’s biology. Image credit: Fernando Rivas.

In their book, Professor Schwitzgebel and Dr. Pober state, “Who is conscious? We, the authors, and you, the reader, are conscious.” You can access their paper here.

“Some non-human animals likely share this trait. Further, we will explore the possibility that some extraterrestrial beings may also possess consciousness.”

“While we do not currently have evidence that today’s technology has produced conscious artifacts, we do not dismiss the potential for future discoveries.”

“Our argument emphasizes that consciousness can arise in a vast array of physical configurations, or substrates.”

Within the observable universe, there are approximately 1 trillion galaxies. While planets are abundant, most exist in environments vastly different from Earth.

The authors posit that at least 1,000 behaviorally sophisticated species capable of complex communication, goal-directed behavior, and cooperation likely exist somewhere in the universe.

They assert, based on astrobiological studies, that life on other planets could have evolved using distinct chemical building blocks, unlike the amino acids and nucleic acids fundamental to life on Earth.

Scientists have theorized about possible life forms in alien environments such as Venus, using sulfur compounds, organoborates, or silicon-based chemistry.

“We argue that it is improbable for all behaviorally advanced species in the universe to have evolved using the same substrate,” the researchers suggest in their paper.

“Even if our substrate is nearly optimal given known environmental constraints, a plethora of other substrates may be more advantageous in different environments.”

“For example, the extreme conditions of Venus’s gas clouds illustrate one such environmental limitation. Its atmosphere differs significantly from Earth’s, presenting unique challenges for life to thrive using alternative biochemical frameworks.”

The researchers further explore what they describe as the Copernican principle of consciousness.

Just as modern astronomy has debunked the notion that Earth occupies a special place in the cosmos, Schwitzgebel and Pober argue that we should not assume Earth holds a unique status in the realm of consciousness.

If multiple behaviorally sophisticated species evolved across various substrates in the universe, we cannot logically assert that only organisms sharing our biochemistry are capable of subjective experiences.

“It is an unsubstantiated view to presume that only entities with our specific biological makeup can be conscious,” they write.

“Consider that we might infer consciousness exists in all vertebrates and certain cephalopods and insects on Earth.”

“Assuming each galaxy contains, on average, a million planets, it is likely that species with comparable behavioral sophistication will emerge (even if technological civilizations are rare).”

The observable universe may have as many as 1 quintillion (10¹⁸) potentially habitable planets.

“With so many chances for life to arise, it’s inevitable that many of these life forms will appear quite unusual.”

“Thus, we shouldn’t confine the understanding of consciousness to organisms constructed from the same materials that form life on Earth.”

Professor Schwitzgebel and Dr. Pober also address the implications for artificial intelligence (AI).

However, they stop short of asserting that current AI systems possess consciousness.

In Dr. Pober’s perspective, we should refrain from assuming that today’s computer hardware is capable of supporting consciousness.

The potential for consciousness in different substrates does not automatically suggest that all substrates can achieve consciousness.

“Until we have compelling evidence to suggest otherwise, we should assume that current computer chips are incapable of consciousness,” he states.

“The default assumption is that substrates, such as those used in modern AI, do not exhibit consciousness unless there is valid reason to believe differently.”

Professor Schwitzgebel takes a slightly more optimistic stance regarding the potential for AI consciousness.

Once we dismiss the notion that consciousness strictly requires human biology, it becomes challenging to rule out silicon-based systems solely because of their composition.

Regardless, he argues that this aspect of the philosophical debate is too narrow.

“We should remain open to the possibility of AI consciousness,” he notes.

“When we recognize that consciousness does not depend on a specific substrate, it seems limiting to draw an arbitrary line, provided the substrate demonstrates the ability to support sufficient behavioral sophistication.”

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Jeremy Porber and Eric Schwitzgebel. 2026. Substrate flexibility and the Copernican principle of consciousness

Source: www.sci.news

Unexplained Shift: Earth’s Core Changes Direction—What It Means for Our Planet

Posted on June 11, 2026 by Igor Mitreski

A river of molten iron, flowing 1,400 miles beneath the Pacific Ocean in Earth’s outer core, has surprised scientists by changing direction.

This phenomenon offers new insights into the behavior of the liquid outer core, which is crucial for generating Earth’s magnetic field. Without this protective magnetic shield, Earth would face dangerous levels of solar radiation exposure.

Researchers at the University of Edinburgh reviewed ground-based observations and satellite data spanning from 1997 to 2025. According to a study published in the Deep Earth Research Journal, a significant area of iron-rich fluid in the equatorial Pacific Ocean transitioned from weak westward migration to pronounced eastward migration.

https://c02.purpledshub.com/uploads/sites/41/2026/06/2605_026_AR_EN.mp4

This video illustrates large-scale flows in a molten core from 1997 to 2025.

Frederik Dahl Madsen, lead author of the study, stated, “The massive flow reversal beneath the Pacific Ocean raises new questions about the behavior of Earth’s deep interior.”

“Researchers are eager to determine whether this reversal signifies a short-lived fluctuation, part of a recurring oscillation, or a new stable equilibrium state of nuclear circulation.”

Elisabetta Iorfida, a geoscientist at the European Space Agency, remarked that the Pacific inversion challenges the prevailing notion that the outer core is characterized by a stable westward circulation.

“This study highlights how quickly regional changes can materialize within just 10 years,” she added. “Such discoveries could aid scientists in exploring potential interactions among Earth’s outer core, inner core, and lower mantle, leading to greater understanding of the core-mantle boundary—an essential region for deep Earth dynamics.”

Recent data from the ESA suggests that the eastward flow may be weakening again after peaking a few years ago, raising the possibility that this phenomenon could represent a temporary oscillation or part of a broader natural cycle of nuclear dynamics.

While these changes occur deep below the Earth’s surface and pose no immediate threat to people or climate, they are pivotal for understanding planetary processes and how the outer core generates Earth’s protective magnetic field.

The magnetic field is dynamic and evolves over time as core flows change, impacting navigation systems, spacecraft operations, and models of near-Earth space weather.

Read more:

Source: www.sciencefocus.com

How Earth’s Oldest Animals Thrived: A Lack of Evolutionary Pressure?

Posted on June 11, 2026 by Igor Mitreski

Fossils of the oldest known animals on Earth, dating back 574 million years to the Ediacaran period, indicate that asexual reproduction dominated the oceans, stalling evolutionary progress until environmental pressures prompted the emergence of sexual reproduction and triggered a surge in biodiversity.

Artist reconstruction of the Fructofusus community, showcasing a large specimen surrounded by medium-sized ones, with smaller specimens forming clusters. Image credit: CG Kensington.

Following billions of years of microbial life, the Ediacaran period, occurring approximately 635 to 539 million years ago, saw the emergence of larger and more complex organisms, including the first animals.

Among these early animals, some specimens of fructophusus could reach heights of up to 2 meters (6.6 ft), although most were much smaller.

These ancient creatures resembled ferns more than modern animals. Lacking mouths, internal organs, or means of movement, they are believed to have absorbed nutrients directly from their surrounding water.

Most Ediacaran life forms vanished from the fossil record at the dawn of the Cambrian period, around 540 million years ago, complicating efforts to connect them to contemporary organisms.

Previous studies revealed that these primitive animals reproduced asexually, using clones that spread via stolons and runners, similar to how modern strawberries propagate. They thrived in the nutrient-rich waters of the Ediacaran ocean.

“Life in Ediacaran times was favorable, minimizing the need for sexual reproduction,” stated Dr. Emily Mitchell, a researcher at the University of Cambridge.

“There was limited competition, which reduced the pressure for evolutionary change.”

Dr. Mitchell and her colleague, Professor Andrea Manica, utilized advanced techniques such as laser scanning, spatial analysis, and artificial intelligence to investigate Ediacaran fossils found at Mistaken Point in Newfoundland, Canada.

They demonstrated that asexual reproduction via stolons decreases competition and then created a computational model to simulate how early animal communities operated under various reproductive strategies.

Testing this model thousands of times, they applied simple neural networks to identify simulations that aligned best with the diversity patterns seen in the fossil record.

This method, known as Approximate Bayesian computation, enabled researchers to analyze actual data and estimate organism dispersal and resource competition intensity.

Through this process, they determined that the restricted dispersal linked to asexual reproduction accounts for the limited species diversity in early animal communities, while the transition to sexual reproduction coincided with a dramatic increase in evolutionary diversity.

For billions of years, competition and environmental stress were the primary forces behind evolution, yet in the Ediacaran sea, asexual reproduction prevailed, and competition was minimal.

“When organisms are interconnected through runners, they share nutrients rather than compete for them,” explained Manica.

As Ediacaran life gradually migrated from deeper to shallower waters, early animals encountered increasing pressure. Factors such as tides, storms, and fluctuations in temperature and nutrient availability all contributed to a more unstable living environment, thus intensifying competition for resources.

“Suddenly finding oneself in an environment where threats to survival arise multiple times a year drastically changes everything,” Dr. Mitchell remarked.

“Stress inherently prompts a shift to sexual reproduction, resulting in significantly increased dispersal as animals seek to colonize new areas due to heightened competition.”

“As these early animals adapted to new reproductive strategies and habitats, a notable increase in diversification occurred, leading to a ‘second wave’ of animal evolution during the Ediacaran, a trend that was further amplified in the Cambrian as animals became more mobile.”

For more information, refer to the study published in this week’s edition of Nature Ecology and Evolution.

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E. G. Mitchell and A. Manica. The influence of reproductive mode on resource competition and diversity patterns in early Ediacaran animal communities. Nat Ecol Evol, published online June 9, 2026. doi: 10.1038/s41559-026-03094-2

Source: www.sci.news

Unveiling Earth’s Mysterious Triple Symmetry and Its Impact on Climate Change

Posted on June 3, 2026 by Igor Mitreski

The 27 degrees east meridian divides the Earth into two equally reflective halves.

Planetary Visions Limited/Science Photo Library

The 27 degrees east meridian divides the Earth into two equally reflective halves.

Planetary Visions Limited/Science Photo Library

A significant line traversing Africa, Europe, Alaska, and the poles creates a division in the Earth that reflects equal amounts of light. This symmetry could have a vital influence on Earth’s climate system.

Research shows that the northern and southern hemispheres exhibit nearly equal albedo, with findings from Jiang Hao and colleagues from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration revealing an additional line of symmetry at 27 degrees east longitude and 153 degrees west longitude.

The hemispheres defined by this line demonstrate equality in three aspects: clear sky albedo, cloud reflectance, and ice-free ocean coverage. This symmetry has been consistent throughout 25 years of satellite data analyzed by Zhang et al.

Initially, Zhang suspected this symmetry might be coincidental. “Three factors led me to believe that East-West symmetry is significant: its uniqueness, its long-term persistence, and its triple symmetry nature,” he states. “Finding a stable, unique east-west split that balances land and ocean distribution alongside clear and cloudy sky reflectivity is no small feat, especially considering the dynamic nature of clouds.”

Analysis of 25 years of satellite data shows that while the east-west symmetry centers around 27 degrees east, its exact position shifts slightly year to year. Researchers have linked these minor fluctuations to the phases of the El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO), a global climate phenomenon tied to changes in Pacific Ocean temperatures.

“This symmetry could be more than just geometric happenstance,” says Zhang. “It may be involved in significant climate change mechanisms. ENSO could serve as a substantial adjustment factor that helps sustain long-term east-west symmetry centered at 27 degrees east.”

According to Ovind Hodnebrok from the International Center for Climate Research in Oslo, Norway, who was not part of the study, there were initial doubts regarding these findings.

“I was initially skeptical about the east-west symmetry at approximately 27 degrees east longitude. It seems intuitively less clear than the equatorial separation, leading me to suspect it could be coincidental,” Hodnebrok notes.

However, he now agrees that it may represent a “robust feature and potentially an intriguing characteristic of Earth.”

Hodnebrok also highlights the importance of ENSO connections. Unlike the north-south symmetry, which is reportedly weakening due to climate change impacts on sea ice and cloud formation, the east-west symmetry remains stable—though models suggest it could weaken over time, potentially indicating shifts in atmospheric circulation.

Martin Uecker and researchers at the University of New South Wales in Sydney assert that the east-west symmetry might simply be coincidental.

“Weather patterns and climate easily interact across longitudes due to the Earth’s rotation, which creates easterly and westerly wind bands that orbit the planet, facilitating east-west atmospheric perturbation propagation,” Uecker explains.

Zhang notes that mechanisms maintaining east-west symmetry could have significant implications for geoengineering initiatives. For instance, attempts to enhance albedo in one hemisphere might be undermined by broader feedback loops.

“To confidently assert claims about geoengineering effects, we must deepen our understanding of how clouds, circulation, precipitation, and planetary reflectivity interact within the Earth system,” Chan states.

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Source: www.newscientist.com

How Hidden Manganese Stores Contributed to Earth’s Oxygen Generation

Posted on June 2, 2026 by Igor Mitreski

Discovering Unusual Manganese Compounds Beneath Earth

Klaus Renau/Science Photo Library

Unusual manganese compounds found beneath Earth's surface — Discovering Unusual Manganese Compounds Beneath Earth

Klaus Renau/Science Photo Library

Deep beneath the Earth’s crust, researchers suggest that manganese may exist in a previously unidentified form. This subterranean repository could have significantly influenced the development of Earth’s oxygen-rich atmosphere.

Until around 2 billion years ago, our planet’s atmosphere was nearly devoid of oxygen. The Great Oxygenation Event (GOE)—a pivotal moment in Earth’s history—saw oxygen produced by microbial photosynthesis start to accumulate, paving the way for diverse life forms and transforming our planet.

Manganese is believed to have played a crucial role in early photosynthesis long before today’s oxygen-generating pathways evolved. Found in oxygen-rich ores, manganese began to accumulate in the Earth’s crust around the same period as the GOE.

According to Shi Jinmin from China’s Jiangsu Normal University, emerging research indicates that some of this ore may originate from as-yet-unknown manganese compounds located deep within the Earth’s mantle.

While many manganese oxides are recognized at standard pressure, Shi and his colleagues aimed to identify manganese oxides that remain stable under the extreme conditions found deep within the Earth. They utilized computer simulations to explore how various manganese and oxygen atom configurations behave at pressures up to 1.5 million times that of the Earth’s atmosphere, conditions comparable to those found nearly 2,900 kilometers below the surface.

This extensive investigation led to the discovery of several novel compounds, including ones notably rich in manganese with a ratio of four manganese atoms to every one oxygen atom. “We didn’t expect such a manganese-rich oxide to be stable across such a broad range of pressures. This was both surprising and intriguing,” Shi stated.

While the researchers lack direct evidence of these new compounds existing in the Earth’s mantle, their properties could help explain why seismic waves travel unusually slowly in certain areas where the mantle meets the core. This suggests there may be regions within the Earth’s interior that possess a high concentration of manganese, previously undetected in prior studies, Shi noted.

The newly identified manganese compounds likely migrated from the Earth’s interior to ancient ocean floors, partially explaining the surge in manganese ores during the GOE. Timothy Lyons from the University of California, Riverside, emphasizes, “[It’s] a critical aspect of the manganese cycle, influencing everything from early life evolution to modern steel and battery production and even human health.”

“This study is significant because high pressures can stabilize compounds that typically don’t exist near the Earth’s surface. Under extreme compression, atoms bond differently, resulting in unusual crystal structures and oxidation states,” remarked Caroline Peacock from the University of Leeds, UK.

However, she cautions that more evidence is required to draw definitive conclusions regarding manganese oxides in the Earth. Although the connections to seismic data, metal movements in the mantle, and the GOE are intriguing, they remain somewhat speculative.

Shi and his team aim to conduct further experiments that replicate the deep Earth conditions, employing specialized diamond equipment to achieve the necessary high pressures.

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Source: www.newscientist.com

How Pigeons Use Superparamagnetic Immune Cells in Their Livers to Detect Earth’s Magnetic Field

Posted on June 1, 2026 by Igor Mitreski

An international research team led by experts from the University of Bonn, University Hospital Bonn, and the Max Planck Institute for Animal Behavior has discovered supermagnetic macrophages in the livers of homing pigeons (Columba livia domestica). These specialized immune cells are believed to be crucial for navigation when solar cues are absent, unveiling a novel method of magnetic perception in animals.

Lisowski et al. employed various assays to reveal the presence of superparamagnetic macrophages in the livers of homing pigeons (Columba livia domestica). Image credit: Spainguitar101 / CC BY-SA 4.0.

The capability to navigate and maintain a trajectory towards a goal is vital for the survival of numerous species.

Field studies have indicated that diverse species depend on the Earth’s magnetic field for orientation, especially when visual indicators are lacking or inconsistent.

Birds serve as significant models to investigate this navigational ability. For instance, migratory songbirds are capable of sustaining a magnetically adjusted flight path over extensive distances, including at night or during overcast conditions.

Homing pigeons are assumed to utilize a mix of visual markers and environmental scents for positioning, alongside magnetic information.

To adhere to a designated path, birds employ either a solar or magnetic compass, both of which can function independently.

Unlike other vertebrate sensory mechanisms that feature distinct receptor organs, the processes underlying magnetic perception remain obscure and widely debated despite extensive research efforts.

“We never anticipated that immune cells could function as sensors for magnetic fields,” remarks Professor Christian Kurz from Bonn University Hospital.

“Our findings unveil an unprecedented mechanism of magnetic perception in animals.”

In this groundbreaking study, Professor Kurtz and colleagues have pinpointed a specialized population of macrophages in homing pigeon livers, exhibiting magnetic properties capable of responding to Earth’s geomagnetic field.

Upon the experimental removal of these cells, pigeons released under cloudy conditions completely lost their ability to navigate home.

In contrast, birds liberated on sunny days successfully returned even when macrophages were depleted, indicating that the liver’s magnetic system works optimally without visual cues.

Professor Martin Wikelski, director of the Max Planck Institute for Animal Behavior, states: “What might seem like ‘gut feeling’ in avian navigation potentially has a physical foundation.”

The macrophages in question are superparamagnetic, behaving like tiny magnets under low temperatures.

Researchers believe these cells acquire such properties through standard biological functions—breaking down aging red blood cells, accumulating iron released from hemoglobin, and storing it as ferritin.

Previously identified superparamagnetic macrophages in the spleens of mice and humans had not been associated with directional sensing until now.

In their experiment, the researchers trained 34 pigeons to navigate a 12-mile route from west to east.

The team then divided the birds, depleting macrophages in one group and subsequently releasing all under cloudy conditions.

Control birds successfully returned home within 70 minutes, while none of the macrophage-depleted pigeons made it back that day, instead drifting in random directions.

However, the same depleted birds were tested again under clear skies and managed to return home successfully.

Dr. Klivia Lisowski, a researcher at the University of Bonn and Bonn University Hospital, notes: “The liver and spleen’s magnetic characteristics arise from their role in red blood cell breakdown and iron storage.”

Dr. Ulf Wiedwald from the University of Duisburg-Essen adds: “The iron crystallizes with oxide nanoparticles, making the cells superparamagnetic and sensitive to magnetic fields.”

“Our strongest magnetic responses were detected in liver tissue.”

The authors suggest liver macrophages, located near nerve fibers, transmit geomagnetic signals to the brain via the vagus nerve, a recognized communication route linking peripheral organs to central processing.

They propose that multiple macrophages work collaboratively to sense geomagnetic fields, rather than a single cell independently detecting it.

If validated, this discovery could transform our understanding of magnetic reception beyond just pigeons.

“These findings offer the first tangible evidence of how the body’s perception of Earth’s magnetic field informs brain signals for movement,” concludes Dr. Lisowski.

“This study integrates established biological processes like iron metabolism with immune and nervous system communications, addressing fundamental questions about animal navigation.”

“Animal navigation remains one of nature’s most captivating phenomena,” Dr. Wikelski remarked.

“If immune cells play a role in avian direction sensing, it would significantly alter our comprehension of navigation.”

This important study was published in the Journal on May 28, 2026.

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Clivia Lisowski et al. 2026. Homing pigeon navigation relies on superparamagnetic macrophages under cloudy conditions. Science 392 (6801): 985-991; doi: 10.1126/science.ady2486

Source: www.sci.news

Did Earth’s Water Enable the Evolution of Intelligent Life? | Cyworthy

Posted on June 1, 2026 by Igor Mitreski

Earth is a distinctive planet with remarkable features such as a magnetic field, a large moon, and dynamic plate tectonics. It is the only planet currently known to support life. These characteristics lead to the rare Earth hypothesis, which suggests that extraterrestrial life has not been discovered because other planets may lack the essential conditions necessary for supporting life.

Approximately 30% of Earth’s surface is land, while around 70% is covered by oceans. Recent research by David Kipping, an assistant professor at Columbia University, explored the ratio of land to ocean on Earth’s surface and how this percentage of land contributes to Earth’s habitability for complex life forms, including intelligent beings like humans.

Kipping developed four statistical models to analyze how varying land distributions could influence the evolution of intelligent alien life. He first established an equation to determine the likelihood of a planet existing within its habitable zone, focusing on specific parcels of land known as
probability distributions. His models weighted the distribution, suggesting a higher likelihood of planets being either covered by a large landmass or a vast ocean, rather than a mix like Earth.

Kipping used this land proportion distribution to calculate the chances that a random planet with similar proportions could support intelligent life. He examined four scenarios: 1) intelligent life is more likely to emerge on land-dominant planets, 2) it is more common on ocean-dominant planets, 3) balanced land and ocean planets are more conducive, and 4) the emergence of intelligent life is independent of land proportion.

To establish the likelihood of intelligent aliens existing on planets with land distributions like Earth’s, Kipping compared probabilities by calculating the ratios of outcomes. Since Earth is the only planet confirmed to have intelligent life, models indicating a higher probability of human presence provide crucial insights.

Kipping considered a ratio exceeding 10 between model predictions as strong evidence favoring one model over another. He found no such threshold was met in his comparisons. However, models favoring ocean-dominated or balanced land-ocean planets showed a 2.5 to 3-fold greater likelihood of predicting human existence compared to land-dominant models, with balanced models claiming the highest probability of human emergence, albeit slightly.

Kipping also contemplated whether the discovery of more planets with intelligent life would affect which model is deemed most realistic, especially if evidence of ancient life on Mars surfaces. He identified two complications: the uncertainty about the extent of Mars’ ancient water coverage, estimated between 25% to 81% land, and the notion that evidence of life does not equate to confirmation of intelligent life.

Despite these uncertainties, Kipping recalibrated his model under the assumption that ancient Mars had an Earth-like land area. This approach yielded ratios similar to previous Earth-exclusive calculations, indicating no single model could firmly predict intelligent presence on both Earth and Mars by a margin of 10.

To determine conditions exceeding the 10x threshold, Kipping calculated the necessary findings: astronomers would need to discover 14 additional planets with intelligent life and known land proportions to conclusively establish whether intelligent life emerges more frequently on desert, ocean, or balanced planets.

Kipping concluded that we cannot yet definitively state whether the land distribution on Earth plays a unique role in the emergence of intelligent species. However, Earth’s existence suggests that intelligent life is less likely to develop on extreme desert planets, casting doubt on the prospect of finding Tatooine or Jackass within our galaxy. While this research does not disprove the rare Earth hypothesis, it does challenge the notion that the vastness of Earth’s oceans is the primary factor behind Earth’s uniqueness.

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Source: sciworthy.com

Scientists Warn of Unprecedented Changes in Earth’s Rotation: What You Need to Know

Posted on May 24, 2026 by Igor Mitreski

Every day, often unnoticed, the Earth takes a fraction longer to complete its rotation. While this change may only be milliseconds, the force driving it is astonishingly immense.

Recent research indicates that the current rate at which our days are lengthening is ‘unprecedented in 3.6 million years of geological history.

As polar ice sheets and glaciers melt due to climate change, the water previously confined in higher latitudes is now flowing into the oceans, advancing towards the equator.

This mass redistribution moves away from the Earth’s poles, slowing its rotation—similar to how a figure skater slows down by extending their arms during a spin.

A previous study indicated climate change has already made unexpected changes to the Earth’s rotation. A team from the University of Vienna and ETH Zurich explored geological timeframes to determine if current changes have ever been observed before.

The consensus is undeniably no.

Insights from Ancient Seashells

The precise length of a day is fluid. The Earth’s rotation is influenced by the moon’s gravitational pull, geological processes, and atmospheric changes.

These factors exert forces in varying directions, resulting in fluctuations in day length over geological timescales. Scientists are now establishing that climate change poses a significant force, potentially surpassing these traditional influences.

To trace changes back millions of years, researchers examined fossilized remnants of single-celled marine creatures known as benthic foraminifera.

The chemical composition of their shells tracks ancient sea level variations. By analyzing these data, scientists can infer how Earth’s rotation has fluctuated.

Specially designed machine learning algorithms, adept at navigating uncertainties in ancient data, enabled robust conclusions from samples dating back to the late Pliocene epoch, approximately 3.6 million years ago.

As ice melts, the planet bulges at the equator, resulting in a slower rotation – Photo credit: Getty

One clear standout throughout this timeframe is today.

The current rate at which climate change is increasing day length (1.33 milliseconds per century) may seem minimal. However, the mass redistribution involved is tremendous when considering the forces at play.

“Such alterations in day length require an immense redistribution of mass, moving around 1,000 gigatons from polar regions to the oceans,” explains Professor Benedict Soja from ETH Zurich and co-author of the study. “To visualize this, imagine a solid ice cube towering over New York City, 10 km high—higher than Mount Everest.”

In terms of the energy needed to facilitate such changes, Dr. Mostafa Kiani Shahvandi, lead author and a Ph.D. from the University of Vienna, states, “The change in Earth’s rotational energy is equivalent to a magnitude 9.0 earthquake,” highlighting not destruction, but sheer planetary force.

Potential Impacts by 2100

Research uncovered a geological moment around 2 million years ago where the rates of change mirrored today’s. However, this was an anomaly.

A “perfect storm” of fragile ice sheets coupled with a natural spike in carbon dioxide led to extensive ice sheet melting,” said Soja. “While this rare phenomenon hasn’t naturally recurred since, human activity has mimicked its planetary effects within just over a century.”

Looking ahead, if fossil fuel dependence continues, climate change is projected to become the foremost driver of day length variation by the century’s end, surpassing even the moon’s gravitational influence.

While milliseconds may appear insignificant, this alteration is critical for ultra-high precision timing necessary for GPS navigation on Earth and spacecraft operations throughout the solar system, Soja points out.

In a “business-as-usual” scenario with strong fossil fuel reliance and a 3-5 degrees Celsius increase in global temperatures, climate change’s impact on Earth’s rotation would surpass the moon’s gravitational effects – Photo credit: Getty

Furthermore, the changes we’re imposing on Earth’s rotation illustrate the extensive effects on our ecosystems. Severe mass redistribution will correlate with further extreme weather events and rising sea levels, fundamentally affecting safe living conditions for future generations.

“The critical takeaway is that humans are significantly altering the Earth system, resulting in changes to the way the Earth rotates,” Soja noted.

As for future research directions, the team is exploring other human-induced mass movements, particularly focusing on groundwater depletion and climate change impacts.

Initial calculations indicate these effects are smaller compared to ice melting, said Soja, but gaining complete understanding will provide clarity on the extent and speed at which we are altering Earth’s rotation.

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Source: www.sciencefocus.com

How Earth’s Aging Process Mirrors the Effects of Space Travel

Posted on May 22, 2026 by Igor Mitreski

NASA astronaut Scott Kelly spent 340 days in space on one mission.

NASA

NASA astronaut Scott Kelly spent 340 days in space on one mission.

NASA

The twin paradox is a classic thought experiment in physics first proposed by Albert Einstein in 1905. This fascinating scenario imagines astronauts journeying through space at nearly the speed of light while their twin remains on Earth. Upon their return, the space traveler discovers their twin has aged significantly more. This discrepancy in aging relates to the relative passage of time experienced by travelers moving at such extreme speeds compared to those stationary on Earth. This concept serves as a reflection on aging in our universe.

While traveling at light-speed remains theoretical, surprising evidence indicates that space travelers actually age more rapidly. Research shows that astronauts spending six months aboard the International Space Station (ISS) age 40 times faster than their Earthbound siblings, according to certain measurements.

As we continue our journey into understanding aging, it’s critical to recognize that many factors exacerbating accelerated aging are becoming increasingly prevalent here on Earth. The encouraging news is that insights gained from protecting astronauts can lead to solutions beneficial for everyone.

To date, about 781 individuals have ventured into space, with varying lengths of stay. While many were briefly aboard, nearly 300 astronauts have completed missions on the ISS, where they typically remain for over six months.

NASA has been vigilant regarding the health impacts of prolonged space missions and is actively researching these effects as we prepare for future Mars expeditions and beyond.

One notable study is the NASA Twin Study. Initiated in 1996, this groundbreaking research involved twin astronauts Scott and Mark Kelly. Both have taken part in shuttle missions, with Scott spending time on the ISS. Following his selection for a year-long ISS mission in 2015, NASA seized the chance to conduct a twin study—a method that assesses the interplay of genetic and environmental factors on health. Although the sample size was limited, significant findings emerged.

Researchers documented changes, particularly in inflammatory markers. Following a year in space, Scott exhibited heightened levels of inflammation and reduced levels of anti-inflammatory cells. These changes are aligned with the characteristics of aging, pinpointing that long-duration space living correlates with accelerated aging markers. Subsequent investigations into other astronauts have confirmed that extended stays in space evoke at least four aging characteristics, including chronic inflammation and mitochondrial dysfunction.

Astronauts also face rapid physiological aging symptoms, including declines in cardiovascular health, muscle and bone loss, cognitive impairments, and immune dysfunction. Notably, one cardiovascular measure indicates that astronauts may experience internal aging equivalent to two decades in just six months.

According to research from Daniel Weiner at the Buck Institute on Aging, four space-related factors play significant roles in accelerating aging: the absence of gravity induces muscle and bone atrophy; compressed light-dark cycles disrupt circadian rhythms; exposure to high levels of ionizing radiation; and social isolation, all of which are aging factors.

The negative effects of living in space are comparable to stressors on Earth.

Carly Photography/Getty Images

You may wonder about the relevance of this research to Earthbound individuals. Interestingly, many conditions faced by astronauts share similarities with challenges encountered daily by people. While we may not experience microgravity, a sedentary lifestyle impacts muscles and bones similarly. Moreover, disrupted circadian rhythms and social isolation affect countless individuals, while high levels of ionizing radiation can stem from naturally-occurring radon gas.

Although the mechanisms of aging remain complex, studies involving long-duration astronauts may illuminate these processes. According to Weiner, astronauts serve as exceptional model organisms for aging research; their experiences in space mimic an intense, acute version of chronic stressors contributing to age-related declines in terrestrial populations.

Research efforts focus on discovering anti-aging interventions, benefiting not only astronauts but the broader public as well. NASA remains committed to the health of its personnel and is collaborating with Weiner’s team to uncover molecules that could offset the aging effects of spaceflight. Over the last 70 years, NASA has contributed to various medical advancements, emphasizing the potential societal benefits of their ongoing research endeavors.

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Source: www.newscientist.com

How Ancient Crater Lakes Fostered Ideal Conditions for Earth’s Earliest Oxygen-Breathing Life

Posted on May 21, 2026 by Igor Mitreski

Groundbreaking research has unveiled the presence of stromatolites—layered structures created by microbial communities—within a 42,000-year-old asteroid crater in South Korea. This significant finding suggests that an ancient post-impact lake acted as an “oxygen oasis,” providing a vital habitat for early life.

A detailed analysis of stromatolites and lake sediments at the Hapcheon impact crater indicates that these formations may represent the oldest fossilized evidence of oxygen-producing microbial life on early Earth. Image credit: Lim et al., doi: 10.1038/s43247-026-03206-7.

“Stromatolites, which are layered organic sedimentary structures, have been identified as some of the earliest evidence of life on Earth, dating back approximately 3.5 billion years to the early Archean era,” stated lead author Dr. Jaesoo Lim and colleagues from the Korea Institute of Earth Science and Mineral Resources.

These layered structures form through the trapping and binding of sediment particles by microbial activity or through mineral precipitation triggered by microbial metabolic processes.

In the northwestern section of Hapcheon Crater, the research team discovered numerous stromatolites, each measuring between 10 to 20 centimeters in diameter.

“Geochemical analysis of the stromatolites unveiled crucial features, including traces of extraterrestrial materials and surrounding rock, as well as indications of alteration due to hydrothermal activity,” the researchers explained.

The inner layer exhibits a stronger hydrothermal signal, suggesting formation during an earlier, hotter phase.

“These findings collectively support the idea that stromatolites evolved in hydrothermal lakes that gradually decreased in temperature after the impact event,” they added.

Analysis indicates that the Hapcheon collision occurred roughly 42,300 years ago.

This discovery sheds light on the Great Oxidation Event, a significant period around 2.4 billion years ago when Earth’s atmospheric oxygen levels surged,” the scientists noted.

The impact-induced hydrothermal lake likely provided a unique habitat for oxygen-producing microorganisms to flourish.

Such environments have been referred to by the research team as “oxygen oases.”

The study also raises the prospect of similar habitats existing on early Mars.

Since Mars is believed to have had water-filled impact craters in its early history, these cratered environments could serve as promising sites in the search for signs of past life.

“This research presents the first comprehensive evidence that stromatolites can form in hydrothermal lakes generated by asteroid impacts,” Lim remarked.

“Such conditions may have favored the development of early microbial ecosystems.”

For more details, refer to the study published in the Journal, Communication Earth and Environment, on April 16, 2026.

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J. Lim et al. 2026. Discovery of stromatolite formation in post-impact hydrothermal lake environments and its significance for early Earth. Communication Earth and Environment 7, 334; doi: 10.1038/s43247-026-03206-7

Source: www.sci.news

Research Reveals Earth’s First Organisms Used Molybdenum for Biochemical Processes

Posted on May 6, 2026 by Igor Mitreski

A groundbreaking study reveals that approximately 3.4 billion years ago, during the Archean Era, ancient microbes were not only reliant on molybdenum—a rare metal at the time—but also explored the use of tungsten. This discovery has the potential to transform how astrobiologists search for extraterrestrial life.

Early Earth. Image credit: Peter Sawyer/Smithsonian Institution.

Geochemical evidence indicates that the concentration of molybdenum in early Earth’s anoxic oceans was extremely limited; however, modern organisms are largely dependent on this essential element.

Previous theories proposed that life initially utilized tungsten before transitioning to molybdenum as it became more abundant.

Professor Betül Kaçar from the University of Wisconsin-Madison and her research team aimed to test this hypothesis.

“The transition metal molybdenum presents a puzzling evolutionary narrative in relation to biological systems,” the researchers stated.

“Molybdenum plays a significant role in vital biogeochemical processes involving carbon, nitrogen, and sulfur, which previous studies suggest have deep-rooted evolutionary histories.”

In their research, the authors analyzed genome databases to pinpoint species with genes responsible for molybdenum transport, storage, and enzymatic functions.

They applied a technique known as phylogenetic matching to trace the evolutionary lineage of molybdenum- and tungsten-utilizing proteins within the current tree of life.

Moreover, they investigated the mechanisms of molybdenum movement and utilization within living cells, focusing on intracellular transport from uptake to catalysis.

Simultaneously, they explored the historical context of biological tungsten use for similar functions.

The researchers compiled existing data regarding molybdenum’s prevalence over time and found that, despite its scarcity, ancient microorganisms on Earth found ways to utilize it, dating back to between 3.3 and 3.7 billion years ago.

“Counterintuitively, geochemical records suggest that the abundance of molybdenum on early Earth was significantly lower billions of years ago, particularly prior to the emergence of oxygenic photosynthesis,” noted Dr. Aya Cross, a student at the University of Wisconsin-Madison.

“Yet, life persisted in evolving biochemical pathways that depended on molybdenum, despite its limited availability.”

“These processes have been passed down to modern organisms.”

“Understanding the elemental dependencies of early life could aid astrobiologists in identifying other planets capable of supporting life,” Professor Kaçar remarked.

“This study illustrates that a lack of an element in the environment doesn’t negate the potential for life to adapt and exploit it in innovative ways.”

“Life exhibits remarkable adaptability, and insights like these remind us that the quest for extraterrestrial life may necessitate considering possibilities previously unimagined.”

A research paper detailing these findings was published in the latest edition of Nature Communications.

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AS Cross et al. 2026. The biological utilization of molybdenum and tungsten dates back 3.4 billion years. Nat Commun 17, 3943; doi: 10.1038/s41467-026-72133-0

Source: www.sci.news

Understanding Earth’s Slow Magnetic Field Reversal: Should You Be Concerned?

Posted on May 2, 2026 by Igor Mitreski

What Causes the Earth’s Magnetic Field?

The Earth’s magnetic field originates from moving charges. In a typical bar magnet, these moving charges are electrons orbiting in atoms. However, inside the Earth, the magnetic field is produced by electrons in circulating flows of molten iron.

The exact processes are not fully understood. Essentially, the hot material in the Earth’s outer liquid iron core expands and rises as it becomes less dense than its surroundings. As it cools, it should sink again; yet, Earth’s rotation complicates this process.

Consequently, fluid circulation occurs around the core, generating friction between the various layers, similar to a plastic comb rubbing against a nylon sweater. It’s this movement of charges that ultimately creates the Earth’s magnetic field.

Thus, two essential factors for planetary magnetism are a liquid core and rotation. This is evident because, despite Venus being nearly the size of Earth and having a liquid core, it lacks a significant magnetic field due to its slow rotation speed of once every 243 Earth days.

Why Do the Earth’s Magnetic Poles Move?

Tracking the true position of magnetic north is essential for accurate navigation – Credit: Alamy

The Earth’s magnetic field resembles that of a bar magnet with distinct north and south poles; however, the processes that generate it are complex and lead to fluctuations in the magnetic poles.

Historically, the North Pole has shifted approximately 15 km (9 miles) annually. Since the 1990s, this acceleration has intensified, with the pole currently moving towards Siberia at a rate of about 55 kilometers (34 miles) per year. Speculatively, this shift might signal an impending magnetic reversal, where the magnetic north and south poles swap positions—an event recorded 171 times over the past 71 million years.

Satellite observations suggest that these movements arise from competing clusters of unusually strong magnetic fields deep within the Earth. Despite various theories, the exact reasons for the reversal of Earth’s poles remain uncertain.

What Happens If the Magnetic Field Disappears?

Auroras visualize magnetic fields that protect us from harmful radiation – Credit: Getty

Scientists discovered the concept of magnetic reversal by studying fields on either side of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, where molten rock emerges and solidifies. As it does so, crystals align with the Earth’s magnetic field, leaving a historical record of reversals.

The reversal is believed to take place over a period of 1,000 to 10,000 years, during which the magnetic field can shrink to zero before re-emerging with the opposite polarity. This process implies that there may be extended periods when Earth had no magnetic field.

This absence poses risks for life, as the magnetic field extends far into space, creating a protective bubble that shields the Earth’s surface from harmful solar wind particles and cosmic rays.

These particles usually funnel toward the poles, resulting in stunning auroras. Without this protective shield, the increase in radiation could elevate mutation rates in living cells and potentially lead to cancer in various organisms. Despite these challenges, life has withstood many such magnetic field events.

How Stable Is Earth’s Magnetic Field?

Earth’s core is as hot as the sun’s surface – Credit: Getty

The reliance of the Earth’s magnetic field on electrical currents flowing through molten material means that the field is inherently variable. This variability is evident in the current movement of the magnetic north pole, while the south pole’s movement is less pronounced.

Nonetheless, it’s crucial to recognize that the magnetic field remains relatively stable 99.9% of the time. This stability has played a key role in protecting life on Earth for nearly 3.8 billion years.

How Do Animals Use Magnetic Fields for Navigation?

Pigeons can sense Earth’s magnetic field, enhancing their incredible homing instincts – Credit: Getty

Many animals exhibit remarkable navigation abilities, leading to the hypothesis that they possess a magnetic sense to detect magnetic field lines. However, identifying the underlying mechanisms has proven challenging.

In the 1970s, American researcher Richard Blakemore observed that certain single-celled organisms responded to magnetic fields, leading biologists to discover that these organisms contain small sacs of magnetic iron oxide or sulfide.

Currently, Noboru Ikeya and Jonathan Woodward from the University of Tokyo have demonstrated that magnetic fields can induce chemical changes affecting cell behavior. They found that the presence of a magnet could alter cellular chemicals by up to 3.5%, shedding light on the connection between magnetic fields and biological responses.

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Source: www.sciencefocus.com

Artemis II Astronauts Experience Moon’s Gravity: Stronger Than Earth’s Pull

Posted on April 6, 2026 by Igor Mitreski

Breaking News: The Artemis II astronaut crew has officially joined the ranks of the lunar space exploration community.

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The crew’s Orion capsule entered the Moon’s gravitational influence at 12:41 a.m. ET on Monday, marking a significant moment as they navigate an area dominated by the moon’s gravity.

“This represents a critical milestone in our mission,” stated NASA Flight Director Rick Henfling during a recent press conference.

The Moon’s sphere of influence is a mathematical boundary, not a tangible one, which indicates an astronaut’s proximity to the lunar body.

This milestone is a major achievement for NASA, marking the first human entry into the Moon’s sphere of influence since Apollo 17 in 1972.

On Sunday, astronauts shared images of their “last glimpse of Earth before approaching the moon,” capturing the planet as a distant crescent through the Orion spacecraft’s window.

The Artemis II astronauts—Reed Wiseman, Christina Koch, Victor Glover, and Canadian astronaut Jeremy Hansen—began their Sunday with a special wake-up message from Apollo 16 astronaut Charlie Duke.

“John Young and I landed on the moon in 1972 with a lunar module we named Orion,” Duke shared in a recorded message. “It’s exciting to see a new kind of Orion leading the way for humans to return to the moon.”

Artemis II crew members (from left) Jeremy Hansen, Reid Wiseman, Christina Koch, and Victor Glover respond to reporter questions on Thursday.
NASA

The astronauts tested newly designed spacesuits for this flight, essential for both launch and emergency situations.

Orange spacesuits are worn during launch and can provide a breathable atmosphere for up to six days in case the Orion capsule loses pressurization, as highlighted by NASA.

The Orion spacecraft conducted a crucial 14-second engine burn on Sunday to maintain an accurate orbit around the moon. Although correction burns were planned for other dates, this was the first time one was required since leaving Earth’s orbit.

“Orion demonstrated a precise orbit, so the initial two corrections were unnecessary,” Henfling explained.

The crew will orbit the moon on Monday, reaching an approximate distance of 452,760 miles from Earth, a new record for human distances traveled from home. They are poised to surpass the Apollo 13 crew’s record of 248,655 miles.

During their lunar flyby, Wiseman, Koch, Glover, and Hansen will dedicate about seven hours to observing and photographing the moon, starting at 2:45 p.m. ET. They will explore never-before-seen areas of the moon’s surface.

NASA will deliver live coverage of the flyby starting at 1 p.m. ET.

NASA estimates the Orion spacecraft will reach a distance of 4,070 miles from the moon’s surface at its closest approach around 7 p.m. ET.

The astronauts will utilize two Nikon D5 cameras and one Nikon Z9 camera to capture stunning imagery during their mission.

Focusing on 30 scientific objectives, crew members will investigate the Oriental Basin, a 3.8 billion-year-old crater formed by a large impactor. The approximately 600-mile-wide basins on both sides of the moon harbor geological features that provide insight into ancient impacts, as per NASA.

The crew will also examine the Hertzsprung basin located on the moon’s far side. Unlike the well-preserved Oriental Basin, the 400-mile-wide crater showcases features affected by subsequent lunar impacts, providing a unique opportunity to compare lunar topographical changes over time.

To guide their observations, the crew will employ advanced software tools designed for scientific targets.

Kelsey Young, Artemis II’s lunar science director, noted the busy schedule but emphasized the need for flexibility. “They are scientists on a mission and are encouraged to deviate from the agenda if something compelling captures their attention,” she stated.

Towards the end of their lunar viewing period, astronauts will witness a solar eclipse lasting approximately one hour from their vantage point in space. This eclipse will begin at 8:35 PM ET, obstructing light from the Orion capsule’s perspective.

During this time, the moon will appear predominantly dark, offering astronauts the chance to observe the sun’s corona and detect flashes from meteoroids impacting the lunar surface.

Astronauts will also photograph other visible planets during the eclipse, including Mercury, Venus, Mars, and Saturn, as mentioned by Young.

“This crew stands at the forefront of lunar exploration, with the unparalleled opportunity to view the moon from a unique perspective,” she added.

“This is exploration,” Young concluded. “We have received valuable data from orbiting spacecraft, but these subtle observations are what we truly need to uncover new discoveries.”

Source: www.nbcnews.com

New Theory: Earth’s Formation from Two Distinct Solar Rings

Posted on March 24, 2026 by Igor Mitreski

New Models Suggest Flawed Understanding of Early Solar System

Image Credit: Panther Media Global / Alamy

Early solar system model — New Models Suggest Flawed Understanding of Early Solar System

Image Credit: Panther Media Global / Alamy

The formation of the inner solar system may not align with previous scientific beliefs. Traditionally, researchers posited that rocky planets emerged from a singular disc of dust and debris originating from the early solar system. However, groundbreaking new simulations indicate the possible existence of two distinct disks.

Models relying on a single disk or ring of material surrounding the young Sun tend to fall short in replicating several observable features of our solar system. For instance, Earth’s unique rock composition suggests a blend of two different types, which raises questions about their originating from a singular ring. Moreover, single-ring models often render Mercury and Mars disproportionately large while placing Venus and Earth too closely together, leading to composition similarities between Earth and Mars that seem out of place.

Bill Bottke, along with his team at Colorado’s Southwest Research Institute, conducted a series of sophisticated simulations exploring how planets could evolve from a shared reservoir of material. Yet they faced persistent challenges.

“For six months, we tried different simulations without success,” Bottke explained during a recent presentation at the Lunar and Planetary Science Conference held in Texas on March 16th. “In a moment of desperation, we considered testing a second reservoir and discovered that this approach yielded a viable model for creating terrestrial planets, while addressing many of the outstanding concerns.”

The optimal model proposed involved two separate disks: one situated about half the current distance from the Sun to Earth and the other approximately 1.7 times that distance. The simulation resulted in planets of proper size and distance.

This theory also aligns with the compositions of the Earth, Moon, and Mars. “We believe Earth predominantly formed from material sourced from the inner solar system, with only a minor contribution from outside,” noted Jan Hermann, who delivered a related presentation the same day at the Max Planck Institute for Solar System Research in Germany. In contrast, Mars appears to have formed mainly from the outer disk, explaining the contrasting compositions of the two planets.

Nonetheless, some researchers express concern that this model relies on very specific initial conditions that may not be entirely understood. “Small alterations in the shape of the disk can significantly affect the outcome of where terrestrial planets are positioned,” Bottke cautioned.

Current efforts are focused on refining the model and exploring additional factors that may influence solar system formation. “We’re investing considerable computational resources to examine every logical possibility,” Bottke indicated. If successful, this new perspective could illuminate various solar system enigmas, from anomalous asteroids to mysterious lunar rocks.

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Source: www.newscientist.com

Top Ocean Predators Thrive Even After Earth’s Largest Mass Extinction

Posted on March 4, 2026 by Igor Mitreski

Artwork of *Hibodus* sharks—predators from the late Permian period that outlasted mass extinctions.

Credit: Christian Darkin/Science Photo Library

Artwork of Hibodus Sharks — Artwork of *Hibodus* sharks—predators from the late Permian period that outlasted mass extinctions.

Credit: Christian Darkin/Science Photo Library

The largest mass extinction in history led to the loss of over 80% of marine life. Remarkably, certain ecosystems continued to thrive, and various species, including apex predators, managed to survive this catastrophic event.

This research indicates that the survival of specific ecosystems was influenced by their unique species compositions. A similar pattern may be observed in today’s marine ecosystems, which are under significant threat from climate change.

Approximately 252 million years ago, the end-Permian extinction was likely triggered by extensive volcanic eruptions in present-day Siberia, causing rapid global warming and diminishing ocean oxygen levels. Notably, some groups, like trilobites and eurypterids (sea scorpions), faced total extinction, while others experienced dramatic losses. In the aftermath, new species groups emerged, including dinosaurs and ichthyosaurs.

Despite the extinction of numerous species, researchers speculate that ecosystems may have become less complex. A functioning ecosystem relies on diverse interdependent species—plants that produce energy, herbivores that consume them, and predators that eat herbivores. Top predators may face extinction as they depend on prey for survival. Thus, a significant extinction event, such as the one at the end of the Permian, would simplify ecosystems.

To investigate this hypothesis, Baran Kalapunar and a team from the University of Leeds assessed preserved remains from seven marine ecosystems globally, both before and after the extinction. They analyzed the ecosystem structures based on the species present. Kalapunar declined to provide an interview as the study is yet to undergo peer review.

Even with species losses reaching 96%, five of the seven ecosystems sustained at least four trophic levels.

In regions, particularly near the poles, slow-moving herbivores caused the most significant damage, while free-swimming organisms, such as fish, were less severely impacted.

Ecosystem recovery varied based on proximity to the equator. Tropical ecosystems were primarily populated by low-trophic-level species, while those nearer to the poles experienced the addition of trophic levels as fish predators relocated away from extreme heat near the equator.

These findings imply that present-day marine ecosystems also respond differently to climate change and other anthropogenic impacts.

“I’m not aware of any other study that encompasses so many regions,” states Peter Roopnarine from the California Academy of Sciences in San Francisco. He concurs with the conclusions that many ecosystems sustain trophic levels despite extinctions, as previous smaller-scale studies indicated.

However, Roopnarine cautions against placing too much emphasis on the specifics of researchers’ ecosystem models. The fossil record does not clarify which organisms survived and which did not, requiring researchers to combine all photosynthetic organisms together without predicting outcomes if these species became extinct. “These findings are firmly supported by the fossil record, yet it remains incomplete,” he remarks.

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Source: www.newscientist.com

Are Aliens Picking Up Earth’s Radio Waves? – Cyworthy Insights

Posted on March 3, 2026 by Igor Mitreski

Radio signals are a fundamental element of the first contact subgenre in science fiction. Carl Sagan’s Contact features a compelling narrative that centers around Liu Cixin’s discovery of encrypted radio signals from the planet Vega. Another notable work, The Three-Body Problem by Vince Gilligan, explores the ramifications of a scientist establishing covert radio contact with extraterrestrial beings. The story of Pluribus focuses on the consequences of scientists following instructions transmitted to Earth through radio signals. What is the likelihood of us receiving alien radio signals, or vice versa?

A team of researchers from Pennsylvania State University and the California Institute of Technology delved into this intriguing question. They identified radio signals as a critical component in the quest for intelligent extraterrestrial life. Astronomers have established that intelligent species, like humans, can create machines that both generate and detect radio signals.

The research team specifically focused on a subset of radio transmissions from Earth that relay signals between ground stations and spacecraft located far from our planet. This system is known as NASA’s Deep Space Network, or DSN. It comprises three sites located in the United States, Spain, and Australia, each featuring 70-meter (230 feet) and 34-meter (112 feet) radio antennas.

The detectability of signals from these antennas depends on several factors, including the strength of the signal, the duration of the observation, the bandwidth of the signal, and the required distinction from background noise. Using a formula based on the typical input power of DSN signals, the researchers calculated the possible distance at which extraterrestrial intelligence could detect signals from Earth. They assumed that the telescope used by an alien civilization would have specifications similar to those of Earth’s signals. Using the observation time of the Green Bank Telescope of 30 minutes, they estimated that signals could be detected within a radius of approximately 7 parsecs, equating to 200 trillion kilometers or 100 trillion miles, which is only about 0.02% of the Milky Way’s diameter.

Following this analysis, the astronomers posed two related questions: First, from which direction in the sky is Earth likely to be detected by radio signals? Second, in what direction are the planetary systems most likely to send radio signals to detect extraterrestrial life?

To answer the first question, the researchers examined the distribution of DSN signals transmitted from Earth to various satellites and telescopes, including the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST). By comparing the DSN patterns to those that extraterrestrial intelligence might generate, astronomers could identify where distant observers are most likely to detect signals from Earth. They utilized publicly available DSN schedules to map the sky and assess where and when antennas were transmitting radio signals.

Their findings revealed that a significant portion of Earth’s radio signals emanate from spacecraft like the Advanced Composition Explorer, the Deep Space Climate Observatory, and the Solar Heliosphere Observatory, primarily along the Sun’s apparent path in the sky, known as the ecliptic. Remarkably, up to 79% of Earth’s deep space radio signals are within 5° of the ecliptic, with minor but notable peaks directed towards Mars, Mercury, Jupiter, Saturn, and the JWST.

These insights bring several implications for the search for extraterrestrial intelligence. First, astronomers should prioritize scanning for radio signals from distant planetary systems, especially where exoplanets transit between Earth and their host star. This could increase the likelihood of capturing stray signals from alien civilizations directed at their own satellites and probes positioned near the ecliptic.

Second, astronomers should focus efforts during times when exoplanets orbiting their stars pass behind one another. This increases the probability that a distant observer might detect Earth’s signals to 12%. If alien civilizations are broadcasting signals towards stars resembling Jupiter or Mars, there are substantial chances of detection.

Lastly, as most of Earth’s deep space radio signals are concentrated near the ecliptic, astronomers should particularly investigate stars positioned close to this ecliptic plane. These stars are more likely to be recipients of signals from Earth, and they may even be attempting to reply. Following this strategy, the researchers identified 128 star systems within a seven parsec radius of Earth where civilizations possessing intelligence could potentially detect signals from Earth through DSN communications and vice versa. Therefore, for the most promising avenue in the search for extraterrestrial life, attention should be directed along the path of the Sun.

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Source: sciworthy.com

Ganymede’s Aurora Patch: Discovering Similarities with Earth’s Aurora Physics

Posted on March 3, 2026 by Igor Mitreski

Scientists from the United States, Europe, and China utilized the Ultraviolet Spectrometer (UVS) on NASA’s Juno spacecraft to meticulously map the auroral patch structure on Ganymede, Jupiter’s moon, revealing similarities to Earth’s auroras. Their groundbreaking research indicates that interactions between magnetic fields and charged particles could be the universal driver of auroras, enhancing our understanding of magnetospheres across the solar system.

Artist’s concept of the aurora borealis on Jupiter’s moon Ganymede. Image credits: NASA/ESA/G. Bacon, STScI/J. Saur, University of Cologne.

Ganymede stands out as the only known moon to possess its intrinsic magnetic field, creating a miniature magnetosphere nested within the vast magnetosphere of Jupiter.

The auroral emissions primarily stem from oxygen at wavelengths of 130.4 nm and 135.6 nm, triggered by precipitating electrons.

In a recent groundbreaking study, researcher Philippe Gusbin from the University of Liège and his team examined ultraviolet observations of Ganymede conducted on June 7, 2021, by the Juno spacecraft.

They identified multiple auroral spots in Ganymede’s leading downstream hemisphere.

These patches typically measure about 50 km in size, with brightness levels soaring to around 200 Rayleigh.

“Auroras on Ganymede are driven by the precipitation of electrons into its thin oxygen atmosphere,” explained Gusbin.

“Previous observations of Ganymede’s auroras were limited in detail due to the spatial constraints of ground-based methods, which couldn’t resolve the fine structures commonly observed in planetary auroras.”

The morphology and scale of Ganymede’s auroras closely resemble the auroral ‘beads’ found on Earth prior to magnetospheric substorms and in Jupiter during ‘dawn storms.’

The lack of a similar patch in the southern hemisphere could stem from observational geometry, but it may also reflect an asymmetry tied to Ganymede’s location in Jupiter’s plasma disk.

“Auroral ‘beads’ are also present in the auroras of Earth and Jupiter, where they correlate with substorms and dawn storms—major magnetospheric reorganizations that release significant energy and induce intense auroral activity,” noted Dr. Alessandro Moirano, a postdoctoral researcher at the University of Liège and the National Institute of Astrophysics in Rome.

This discovery implies that similar physical processes may govern magnetospheres, despite variations in scale and environmental conditions.

“Juno’s close flyby of Ganymede lasted under 15 minutes, and it will not revisit Ganymede, leaving us unsure about the frequency of these patches or how they may evolve,” remarked Dr. Bertrand Bonfont, an astrophysicist at the University of Liège.

“Fortunately, ESA’s JUICE mission is currently en route to Jupiter and is set to arrive in 2031. This mission will conduct detailed observations of Ganymede.”

“Equipped with a similar ultraviolet spectrometer to that of Juno, this spacecraft will facilitate long-term observations that could reveal more about the evolution of Ganymede’s aurora and potentially uncover new mysteries.”

For further reading, refer to a paper published in Astronomy and Astrophysics.

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A. Moirano et al. 2026. High spatial resolution ultraviolet observations of Ganymede’s aurora patches by Juno. Constraints on the magnetospheric source region. A&A 706, L16; doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/202558379

Source: www.sci.news

Uncovering Hidden Bacteria: How They Thrive in Earth’s Deep Soils – Sciworthy

Posted on February 21, 2026 by Igor Mitreski

Beneath the Earth’s surface lies a largely unexplored ecosystem known as the critical zone. This unique area of soil stretches from the Earth’s surface to the base of the groundwater zone, acting as a dynamic interface where rock, water, air, and life converge. Despite their low content of carbon and nutrients compared to surface soils, the microbial communities found in these deep soils are remarkably diverse. Scientists are still uncovering how these microorganisms manage to thrive under such nutrient-scarce conditions.

To explore how microbes survive in the critical zone, researchers focused on a little-known group of bacteria identified globally in deep soils. Known as CSP1-3 Gate, these bacteria were first discovered in 2006 within a geothermal system in Yellowstone National Park. Since then, they have been found in various oxygen-limited and nutrient-poor environments, yet their exact role and characteristics remain mysterious.

Researchers collected soil samples from seven deep soil cores spanning 20 meters (approximately 65 feet) in Shaanxi province, China, and western Iowa, USA. By extracting and sequencing environmental DNA from these samples, they pieced together draft genomes of the microorganisms inhabiting these depths. Through metagenomic analyses, they aim to uncover where CSP1-3 microbes live, their dietary habits, their nutrient cycling processes, and the adaptations that facilitate their survival.

Analysis revealed CSP1-3 bacteria were abundant in deeper soils, comprising over 10% of all microorganisms found in 30 out of 86 soil layers below 5 meters (16 feet). In some layers, such as those at 17 meters (56 ft) and 22 meters (72 ft) deep, CSP1-3 accounted for up to 60% of the microbial population. Using DNA copy-counting methods, researchers estimated that nearly 50% of CSP1-3 cells in these deep soils were actively replicating.

Based on the assembled metagenomes, the research indicated that CSP1-3 bacteria utilize a flexible metabolism to thrive in deep soils. They identified genes that allow these bacteria to alternate between two methods of obtaining energy: autotrophy, which involves producing their own food, and heterotrophy, which entails consuming organic matter from their environment. This adaptability, referred to as mixotrophy, allows them to respond to varying nutrient availability.

Additionally, researchers uncovered genes enabling CSP1-3 bacteria to utilize diverse energy sources such as carbon monoxide (CO) and diatomic hydrogen (H2), both prevalent in deep soils. They also identified genes allowing these microbes to generate energy under varying oxygen conditions, providing an advantage in environments where oxygen levels fluctuate. Genes related to sugar synthesis, such as trehalose, contribute further to their endurance in resource-limited conditions, alongside genes linked to carbon, nitrogen, and sulfur management.

The team analyzed 521 genomes from diverse environments globally, including aquatic habitats, topsoil, and deep soil, to trace the evolutionary lineage of CSP1-3. Genome analysis indicated that these bacteria’s ancestors originated in aquatic settings before transitioning to topsoil and ultimately to deep soil, with significant genomic changes that augmented their carbohydrate and energy metabolism to facilitate adaptation to terrestrial ecosystems.

The researchers concluded that CSP1-3 bacteria are evolutionarily suited to thrive in deep, nutrient-poor soils due to their specialized metabolism and low-energy survival strategies. They posited that CSP1-3 plays a crucial role in energy and nutrient cycling, potentially influencing global environmental processes by enhancing soil fertility and nutrient availability, thereby stabilizing deep soil ecosystems. The ability of these microorganisms to utilize gaseous energy in nutrient-deficient environments offers compelling insights into their survival strategies under extreme conditions, contributing to ongoing planet protection efforts. However, further investigations are necessary to fully comprehend how these deep soil microbes impact soil chemistry and ecosystem functions over time.

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Source: sciworthy.com

Massive Heat Within Earth’s Core May Have Disrupted the Magnetic Field

Posted on February 18, 2026 by Igor Mitreski

Earth’s Magnetic Field Extends Thousands of Kilometers into Space

Getty Images/iStockphoto

Earth's Magnetic Field Representation — Earth’s Magnetic Field Extends Thousands of Kilometers into Space

Getty Images/iStockphoto

Recent studies reveal that two massive, enigmatic rock formations beneath Africa and the Pacific Ocean may play a crucial role in generating Earth’s magnetic field. These formations could have contributed to the field’s destabilization over millions of years.

Scientists have long been aware of these continent-sized rock blocks, which stretch nearly 1000 kilometers from the outer core to the upper mantle. They exhibit unique properties that slow seismic wave passage, although their depth complicates measurements, making precise differentiation challenging.

Andrew Biggin, a researcher from the University of Liverpool, explored Earth’s magnetic field for insights. This protective magnetic field, created over billions of years by molten iron convection in the core, extends thousands of kilometers into space, shielding our planet from solar winds and cosmic radiation.

The magnetic field’s shape is influenced by the heat energy transfer from the hot core to cooler zones. Biggin and his team theorized that analyzing changes in the magnetic field could unveil details about heat movement within the Earth’s core.

To trace the evolution of the magnetic field, researchers compared ancient volcanic rock records that captured magnetic orientations over millions of years. They simulated the heat flow in the core with and without the influence of large hot rock masses, correlating results with actual magnetic measurements.

Findings indicated that simulations incorporating these rock blocks aligned most closely with ancient magnetic data. “These convection simulations can reproduce notable features of the core’s magnetic field only when considering significant variability in heat flow at the core’s upper layer,” says Biggin.

This implies that these hot regions have likely maintained higher temperatures than their surroundings for millions of years, leading to diminished heat exchange between the core and mantle. Such discrepancies in heat flow may have significantly contributed to the creation and stabilization of the Earth’s magnetic field.

While many geologists view the Earth’s magnetic field evolution as symmetrical over time, Biggin’s research revealed inherent asymmetries in ancient fields, likely instigated by these rock formations. This discovery could refine how geologists interpret the movement of ancient rocks and reveal changes in Earth’s deep structure over time, according to Biggin.

If accurate, these temperature contrasts in the rock formations could also exist in the upper outer core, potentially detected through seismic wave analysis.

However, Sanne Kottar from Cambridge University expresses skepticism. “Mapping core variations is extremely challenging due to the vast mantle material we must analyze before accessing the core,” she explains.

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Source: www.newscientist.com

Fossil Discovery Sheds Light on the Origins of Earth’s First Fish

Posted on February 4, 2026 by Igor Mitreski

Paleontologists from Australia and China have conducted two groundbreaking studies on the fossilized remains of a remarkable Devonian lungfish. Utilizing advanced imaging technology, they have unearthed previously overlooked anatomical details, significantly enhancing our understanding of early vertebrate evolution. Their findings have been published in the Canadian Journal of Zoology and the journal Current Biology.

Paleolophus yunnanensis, a unique lungfish species that thrived in southern China’s waters 410 million years ago. Image credit: Brian Choo, Flinders University.

In a recent study, lead researcher Alice Clement, a paleontologist at Flinders University, investigates The Mystery of Kainokara, a fossil known from a single specimen found in the Late Devonian Gogo Formation of Western Australia.

“New research, including the analysis of previously neglected specimens, is gradually uncovering the rich diversity of lungfishes found in Australia’s significant fossil sites,” said Dr. Clement.

“One particularly enigmatic specimen originates from Australia’s earliest ‘Great Barrier Reef’, a Devonian reef located in the Kimberley region of northern Western Australia.”

“When first described in 2010, this unusual specimen was so perplexing that the authors speculated it might represent an entirely new type of fish never documented in science.”

“Using advanced scanning techniques, we developed comprehensive digital images of both the external and internal structures of the skull, revealing the complexity of this fascinating lungfish’s brain cavity.”

“In fact, we confirmed that earlier interpretations may have been from an upside-down perspective.”

“We were also able to compare the well-preserved inner ear region with other lungfishes,” noted Flinders University paleontologist Hannah Thiele.

“This provides an essential data point in the rich collection of lungfish and early vertebrate species.”

“This research enhances our understanding of the evolutionary progression of these ancient lobe-finned fishes, both in Gondwana and globally.”

In a separate study, Flinders University paleontologist Brian Chu and colleagues reveal a newly discovered species of lungfish from the Devonian period in China, Paleolophus yunanensis.

“The discovery of Paleolophus yunanensis offers unprecedented insight into the transitional phase between the early appearance of lungfish and their extensive diversification millions of years later,” said Dr. Chu.

“At this time, this group was just beginning to develop unique feeding adaptations that would serve them well throughout the remainder of the Devonian period and into the present.”

“Lungfish, including the ancient lineage found in Queensland, Australia, have fascinated researchers due to their close evolutionary relationship with tetrapods, the four-limbed vertebrates that include humans.”

“The distinctive skull of the newly discovered lungfish from 410-million-year-old rock formations in Yunnan offers crucial insights into the rapid evolutionary changes during the Early, Middle, and Late Devonian periods.”

“The new specimens exhibited both similarities and differences compared to the earliest known specimens, such as Diabolepis fossils from southern China and uranolophus found in locations like Wyoming and Australia.

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Hannah S. Thiele et al., deciphering The Mystery of Kainokara from the Late Devonian Gogo Formation, Australia. Canadian Journal of Zoology, published online January 28, 2026. doi: 10.1139/cjz-2025-0109

Tuo Qiao et al., 2026. New fish fossil sheds light on the rapid evolution of early lungfish. Current Biology 36 (1): 243-251; doi: 10.1016/j.cub.2025.11.032

Source: www.sci.news

How Two Massive Clumps of Superheated Material Influence Earth’s Magnetic Field

Posted on February 3, 2026 by Igor Mitreski

Two colossal, ultra-hot rock formations, positioned 2,900 kilometers beneath the Earth’s surface in Africa and the Pacific Ocean, have influenced Earth’s magnetic field for millions of years, according to groundbreaking research led by Professor Andy Biggin from the University of Liverpool.

Giant superheated solid masses at the Earth’s mantle base impact the liquid outer core. Image credit: Biggin et al., doi: 10.1038/s41561-025-01910-1.

Measuring ancient magnetic fields and simulating their generation presents significant technical challenges.

To explore these deep Earth features, Professor Biggin and his team used paleomagnetic data in conjunction with advanced Earth Dynamo simulations. The flow of liquid iron in the outer core generates Earth’s magnetic field, akin to a wind turbine producing electricity.

Numerical models reconstructed critical insights about magnetic field behavior over the past 265 million years.

Even with supercomputers, conducting these long-term simulations poses enormous computational challenges.

The findings showed that temperature at the upper layer of the outer core is not uniform.

Instead, localized hot areas are accompanied by continent-sized rock structures exhibiting significant thermal contrasts.

Some regions of the magnetic field were found to remain relatively stable over hundreds of millions of years, while others displayed considerable changes over time.

“These results indicate pronounced temperature variations in the rocky mantle just above the core, suggesting that beneath hotter regions, liquid iron in the core may be stagnant, rather than flowing intensely as observed beneath colder areas,” Professor Biggin stated.

“Gaining such insights into the deep Earth over extensive timescales enhances the case for utilizing ancient magnetic records to comprehend both the dynamic evolution and stable properties of deep Earth.”

“These discoveries also bear significant implications for understanding ancient continents, including the formation and breakup of Pangea, and could help address long-standing uncertainties in ancient climate studies, paleontology, and natural resource formation.”

“It has been hypothesized that, on average, Earth’s magnetic field acts as a perfect bar magnet aligned with the planet’s rotation axis in these regions.”

“Our findings suggest that this may not be entirely accurate.”

This study is published in today’s edition of Nature Earth Science.

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AJ Biggin et al. Inhomogeneities in the mantle influenced Earth’s ancient magnetic field. Nature Earth Science published online on February 3, 2026. doi: 10.1038/s41561-025-01910-1

Source: www.sci.news

How Mars’ Gravity May Influence Earth’s Ice Age Cycles

Posted on January 26, 2026 by Igor Mitreski

Mars’ Significant Impact on Earth’s Climate

Credit: NASA/JPL/Malin Space Science Systems

Composite photo of Mars — Mars’ Significant Impact on Earth’s Climate

Credit: NASA/JPL/Malin Space Science Systems

Despite Mars being smaller than Earth, it profoundly affects Earth’s climate cycle. Understanding how smaller planets influence the climates of exoplanets is crucial for assessing their potential for habitability.

According to Stephen Cain, researchers at the University of California, Riverside, discovered this phenomenon by simulating various scenarios to analyze Mars’ effect on Earth’s orbit across different masses, from 100 times its current mass to its complete removal. “Initially, I was skeptical that Mars, only one-tenth the mass of Earth, could so significantly affect Earth’s cycles. This motivated our study to manipulate Mars’ mass and observe the effects,” says Cain.

Earth’s climate is influenced by long-term cycles tied to its orbital eccentricity and axial tilt. These cycles are dictated by the gravitational forces of the Sun and other planets, determining significant climate events such as ice ages and seasonal shifts.

One crucial cycle, referred to as the Grand Cycle, spans 2.4 million years, involving the elongation and shortening of Earth’s orbital ellipse. This directly influences the amount of sunlight reaching Earth’s surface, thus controlling long-term climate changes.

The research indicates that eliminating Mars would not only remove the Grand Cycle but also another essential eccentricity cycle lasting 100,000 years. “While removing Mars wouldn’t completely halt ice ages, it would alter the frequency and climate impacts associated with them,” Cain explains.

As Mars’ simulated mass increases, the resulting climate cycles become shorter and more intense. However, a third eccentricity cycle, enduring approximately 405,000 years, remains predominantly influenced by Venus and Jupiter’s gravitational pulls, illustrating that while Mars is notably influential, it is not the only player.

Mars also affects Earth’s axial tilt, which oscillates over about 41,000 years. Cain and colleagues observed that Mars seems to stabilize these cycles—more mass leads to less frequent cycles, while a smaller Mars results in more frequent ones.

The precise impact of Mars’ absence or increased mass on Earth remains speculative, but it would undoubtedly lead to changes. The pursuit of Earth-like exoplanets with climates suitable for life continues, underscoring the need to evaluate the influence of smaller planets more thoroughly. “A comprehensive understanding of exoplanet system architectures is essential for predicting possible climate changes on these worlds,” warns Sean Raymond from the University of Bordeaux, France.

However, deciphering these structures can be challenging. “This serves as a cautionary note: small planets like Mars may wield a greater influence than we realize, making it imperative not to overlook these difficult-to-detect celestial bodies,” concludes Cain.

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Source: www.newscientist.com

How Plate Tectonics, Not Volcanoes, Shaped Earth’s Climate Over the Last 540 Million Years

Posted on January 21, 2026 by Igor Mitreski

A revealing new study challenges traditional beliefs by showing that mid-ocean ridges and continental rifts, rather than volcanic eruptions, significantly influence atmospheric carbon fluctuations and long-term climate change in Earth’s geological history.

Cryogenic Earth. Image credit: NASA.

Over the past 540 million years, Earth’s climate has gone through dramatic shifts, alternating between icy icehouse conditions and warm greenhouse phases.

Icehouse conditions prevailed during key geological periods, including the Late Ordovician, Late Paleozoic, and Cenozoic eras.

Notably, warmer periods were associated with increased atmospheric carbon dioxide, while declines in greenhouse gases led to global cooling and extensive glaciation.

Research conducted by Ben Mather and a team at the University of Melbourne reconstructed carbon movements between volcanoes, oceans, and the deep Earth over the past 540 million years.

“Our findings challenge the long-accepted view that volcanic chains formed by tectonic plate collisions are the primary natural source of Earth’s atmospheric carbon,” Dr. Mather stated.

“Instead, it appears that carbon emissions from deep-sea crevices and mid-ocean ridges, driven by tectonic movements, have been crucial in shaping the transitions between icehouse and greenhouse climates throughout most of Earth’s history.”

“For example, we discovered that carbon released from volcanoes in the Pacific Ring of Fire only emerged as a significant carbon source in the last 100 million years, prompting us to reevaluate current scientific understanding.”

This study presents the first robust long-term evidence indicating that Earth’s climate change is primarily driven by carbon released at divergent plate boundaries rather than convergent ones.

“This insight not only reshapes our understanding of past climates but will also enhance future climate models,” Dr. Mather noted.

By integrating global plate tectonics reconstructions with carbon cycle models, the research team traced the storage, release, and recycling of carbon as continents shift.

Professor Dietmar Müller from the University of Sydney remarked, “Our findings illustrate how variations in carbon release from plate spreading influenced long-term climate shifts, clarifying historical climate changes, such as the late Paleozoic ice ages, the warm Mesozoic greenhouse world, and the rise of present-day Cenozoic icehouses.”

This research holds vital implications for understanding the ongoing climate crisis.

“This study contributes to the growing body of evidence that atmospheric carbon levels are a significant factor driving major climate shifts,” Dr. Mather emphasized.

“Comprehending how Earth managed its climate historically underscores the extraordinary pace of current climate change.”

“Human activities are releasing carbon at a staggering rate, far surpassing any natural geological processes previously recorded.”

“The climate balance is tipping alarmingly fast.”

For more on this groundbreaking research, you can view the findings published in the journal Communication Earth and Environment.

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B.R. Mather et al. 2026. Carbon emissions along divergent plate boundaries influence climate shifts between icehouses and greenhouses. Communication Earth and Environment 7, 48; doi: 10.1038/s43247-025-03097-0

Source: www.sci.news

Ancient Volcanoes: Understanding Low Greenhouse Gas Emissions in Earth’s History

Posted on January 19, 2026 by Igor Mitreski

Arc-shaped volcanoes like Japan’s Sakurajima release carbon dioxide from the Earth’s interior

Asahi Shimbun via Getty Images

Arc volcanoes like Sakurajima releasing carbon dioxide — Arc-shaped volcanoes like Japan’s Sakurajima release carbon dioxide from the Earth’s interior

Asahi Shimbun via Getty Images

New research suggests that the impact of volcanoes on Earth’s climate may not be as ancient as previously believed.

The Earth’s climate has experienced shifts between “icehouse” and “greenhouse” conditions, largely dictated by greenhouse gas levels like carbon dioxide.

Volcanic arcs, including significant eruptions from mountain ranges such as Japan’s, release CO2 from deep within the Earth. Recent findings indicate that dinosaurs became a substantial source of carbon emissions only towards the end of their reign, approximately 100 million years ago, according to Ben Mather and his team from the University of Melbourne.

This correlates with the emergence of phytoplankton featuring calcium carbonate scales in the oceans approximately 150 million years ago. When these organisms perish, they deposit large amounts of calcium carbonate on the ocean floor.

As tectonic plates shift, these significant reservoirs of carbon are pushed into the mantle and recycled into the Earth’s molten core via a process known as subduction.

“Most of the carbon derived from plankton on the subducting oceanic plate mixes into the melt interior, but a portion is released through volcanic arcs,” explains Mather.

Before the emergence of scaly plankton, volcanic arc emissions contained relatively lower levels of CO2, according to Mather.

Through modeling, Mather and colleagues examined tectonics’ long-term impact on the carbon cycle over the past 500 million years. They discovered that much of the carbon stored within Earth throughout its history was released through crustal fractures in a process termed rifting, not primarily through volcanic arcs.

Rifting, a geological process where continents separate, can occur on land (as in the East African Rift) or along mid-ocean ridges.

“As tectonic plates separate, they effectively ‘roof off’ parts of the molten Earth,” Mather states. “This process generates new crust at mid-ocean ridges, releasing carbon.” The amount of carbon entering the atmosphere from continental fractures and mid-ocean ridges relies on the cracks’ length and the rate at which they separate, a process that has remained relatively stable. However, emissions from volcanic arcs have surged in the last 100 million years due to new carbon reservoirs formed by plankton.

Currently, Earth is in a temporary warm phase called an interglacial period, nested within a larger ice age that began 34 million years ago. One reason for the persistent cold phases is that phytoplankton sequester substantial amounts of carbon from the ocean, depositing it on the sea floor. Although volcanic emissions are rising, they still pale in comparison to the carbon stored by phytoplankton and that sequestered through tectonic movements.

According to Alan Collins and his team from the University of Adelaide, modeling studies like this are crucial for comprehending how volcanic and tectonic activities have influenced climate patterns over geological timescales.

“The composition of marine sediments has shifted as new organisms evolved, utilizing diverse elements, including the rise of calcium carbonate-based zooplankton,” Collins emphasizes.

Reference journal: Nature Communications Earth and Environment, DOI TK

Explore the Land of Fire and Ice: Iceland

Embark on an unforgettable journey through Iceland’s breathtaking landscapes. Experience volcanic and geological marvels by day, and chase the mesmerizing Northern Lights by night (October).

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Source: www.newscientist.com

Data Reveals 2025 as Earth’s Third Hottest Year on Record

Posted on January 14, 2026 by Igor Mitreski

According to Copernicus, the European Union’s climate monitoring service, last year ranked as the third warmest on record in modern history.

This finding aligns with existing trends; Copernicus data reveals that the last 11 years have consistently been the warmest in history.

In 2025, the average global temperature soared to approximately 1.47 degrees Celsius (2.65 degrees Fahrenheit) above the baseline period from 1850 to 1900. This reference period is significant as it predates the industrial era, marking a time before extensive carbon emissions entered our atmosphere.

“Annual surface temperatures exceeded average levels across 91 percent of the globe,” stated Samantha Burgess, head of climate strategy at the European Center for Medium-Range Forecasts, which operates Copernicus. “The primary contributor to these record temperatures is the accumulation of greenhouse gases, largely from fossil fuel combustion.”

Under the 2015 Paris Agreement, global leaders committed to limiting warming to 1.5 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels. However, this goal appears increasingly unachievable as temperatures have neared or surpassed this threshold for three consecutive years.

Mauro Facchini, director of Earth Observation at the European Commission’s Directorate-General for Defense, Industry, and Space, noted at a press conference: “A three-year average temperature exceeding 1.5 degrees Celsius compared to pre-industrial levels is a milestone we never anticipated.” He emphasized the urgent need to address climate change.

A woman shields herself from the scorching sun near the Colosseum in Rome during July.
Tiziana Fabi/AFP via Getty Images File

The U.S. government is anticipated to unveil its 2025 climate metrics on Wednesday. NASA provides its reports separately from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, owing to differing methodologies in calculating average annual temperatures, which often leads to variations in findings.

Nevertheless, the overarching trend is unmistakable: the planet is warming at an alarming rate, possibly faster than scientists had predicted.

Europe faces bleak climate data, compounded by the U.S. administration’s aggressive moves to roll back climate regulations and retreat from international efforts to mitigate warming.

Last week, the Trump administration announced its withdrawal from the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, diminishing the U.S. role in global climate change discussions. Additionally, plans to withdraw support from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, which produces crucial reports on climate change impacts, were made public.

The United States is set to officially leave the Paris Agreement later this month, following a one-year waiting window.

A child enjoys a refreshing mist under a fog system in Milan during July.
Luca Bruno / AP File

President Donald Trump has labeled climate change “the work of con artists,” and his administration has actively sought to downplay critical climate reports such as the National Climate Assessment. Efforts are underway to reduce the Environmental Protection Agency’s ability to regulate greenhouse gas emissions, a primary cause of global warming.

Simultaneously, steps are being taken to promote the coal industry, including ordering coal-fired power plants to continue operations (coal is notorious for generating significant greenhouse gas emissions). The administration is also attempting to reverse many of the Biden administration’s climate initiatives, including subsidies for electric vehicles.

According to preliminary findings from Rhodium Group, an independent research firm monitoring U.S. emissions, climate pollution in the United States is projected to rise by approximately 2.4% in 2025. This increase may not stem directly from President Trump’s policies, as many regulations are yet to be implemented. The rise is likely due to high natural gas prices, growth in energy-intensive data centers, and particularly cold winters.

Rhodium Group anticipates that U.S. emissions will eventually decrease as renewable energy sources become more economically feasible compared to fossil fuels. However, the expectation of emission reductions is now less optimistic than prior to Trump’s administration.

The greenhouse gases that trap heat are intensifying weather patterns, resulting in more extreme conditions and increasing the likelihood of heavy rainfall, heatwaves, and flooding.

Last year emerged as the third-costliest year for weather-related disasters, an analysis by the nonprofit organization Climate Central revealed. In 2025, it was reported that 23 meteorological events inflicted damages surpassing $1 billion, resulting in 276 fatalities and $115 billion in total damages.

In Fleurance, France, a pharmacy thermometer indicates a scorching 45 degrees Celsius, equivalent to 113 degrees Fahrenheit.
Isabel Souliment / Hans Lukas, from Reuters file

While greenhouse gas emissions remain the principal driver of rising global temperatures, natural fluctuations also contribute. La Niña patterns, characterized by colder-than-average water in the central Pacific, generally lead to lower global temperatures, while El Niño events can raise them.

Though the La Niña pattern emerged in late 2025, NOAA scientists expect a return to neutral conditions early this year.

Source: www.nbcnews.com

Researchers Say Europa’s Spider-Like Structures Mirror Earth’s Lake Stars

Posted on December 10, 2025 by

Europa, Jupiter’s frigid moon, is an oceanic environment that stands out as a key player in the quest for extraterrestrial life. Its surface is characterized by various landforms believed to originate from salty water sources beneath its icy crust, potentially making it the most accessible body of liquid water in the solar system. Notably, the asterisk-shaped “spider” located in the center of Manannan Crater was identified during NASA’s Galileo mission. Planetary scientists have recently introduced a novel hypothesis regarding the formation of this spider-like structure, drawing on morphological analysis and initial analog modeling. They propose that it may have formed through a process akin to the creation of dendritic “lake stars,” a seasonal phenomenon observed in frozen terrestrial ponds and lakes.

Damkhan Alla topographic map of Manannan. Image credit: McCune et al., doi: 10.3847/PSJ/ae18a0.

“The spider-like feature may have resulted from an eruption of molten salt water following the Manannan impact,” explains Dr. Elodie Lesage from the Planetary Science Institute.

“This presents an opportunity to understand the subsurface characteristics and the salt water composition at the impact’s time.”

Dr. Lesage and colleagues are also researching similar “spiders” on Mars, which are tree-like formations in the regolith near the planet’s south pole.

Their findings on Mars have been applied to other celestial bodies, including Europa.

Martian spiders develop as a result of gases escaping beneath a seasonal dry ice layer; however, the Europa study speculates that the “asterisk-shaped” features could have emerged post-impact.

“Lake stars are radial branching designs that occur when snow accumulates on a frozen lake, creating holes in the ice due to the snow’s weight, allowing water to flow through and spread out energetically,” stated Dr. Lauren McCune from the University of Central Florida and NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory.

“We believe a similar process could have happened on Europa, with subsurface brine erupting after the impact and dispersing through the porous surface ice.”

The research team has informally designated the Europa feature as Damhan Alla, which translates to “spider” in Irish, differentiating it from Martian spider formations.

To validate their hypothesis, they studied lake stars in Breckenridge, Colorado, and conducted field as well as lab experiments using a cryogenic glovebox equipped with a Europa ice simulator cooled by liquid nitrogen.

“In our experiments where we passed water through these simulants at various temperatures, we observed similar star-like formations even at extremely low temperatures (-100 degrees Celsius or -148 degrees Fahrenheit), lending support to the idea that such mechanisms could occur on Europa after the impact,” Dr. McCune remarked.

Scientists also created models showing how the saltwater beneath Europa’s surface would react following an impact, including an animation illustrating the process.

While observations of Europa’s icy features are primarily reliant on images captured by the Galileo spacecraft in 1998, the researchers aim to explore this further with high-resolution images from NASA’s Europa Clipper mission, anticipated to arrive at the Jupiter system in April 2030.

“Although lake stars offer significant insights, terrestrial conditions differ vastly from those on Europa,” Dr. McCune notes.

“Earth possesses a nitrogen-rich atmosphere, while Europa’s environment features extremely low pressures and temperatures.”

“This investigation combined field data and laboratory trials to better simulate Europa’s surface conditions.”

The team will further examine how low-pressure systems affect the formation of these landforms and explore whether such structures can form beneath Europa’s icy crust, akin to how flowing lava generates smooth, rope-like textures known as pahoehoe on Earth.

While the primary focus was geomorphology, this discovery sheds light on subsurface activity and habitability, crucial for future astrobiological studies.

“By employing numerical modeling of saline reservoirs, we assessed the potential depth of the reservoir (up to 6 km, or 3.7 miles below the surface) and its longevity (potentially several thousand years post-impact),” Dr. Lesage stated.

“This data is invaluable for upcoming missions investigating viable ecosystems beneath ice shells.”

The team’s results were published in Planetary Science Journal.

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Lauren E. McCune et al. 2025. A lake star as an Earth analogue of Europa’s Manannan Crater Spider feature. Planet. Science. J 6,279; doi: 10.3847/PSJ/ae18a0

Source: www.sci.news

Three Key Factors That Likely Shaped the Moon’s Formation in Earth’s Early History

Posted on December 3, 2025 by

The moon may have had a more intricate formation than previously believed.

NASA/NOAA

Recent theories suggest that multiple collisions with Earth might better elucidate the Moon’s origin than the traditionally accepted single massive impact 4.5 billion years ago, potentially addressing one of its greatest enigmas.

Tracing the Moon’s origin has proven challenging. The prevailing theory is that it formed early in the solar system’s evolution due to a catastrophic collision between Earth and Theia, a Mars-sized body, and its formation likely originated closer to the sun than Earth’s current position. This impact would have expelled debris that ultimately coalesced into the large natural satellite we recognize today. At that period, matter around the sun was highly intermixed, making collisions frequent.

However, this prevailing model encounters complications, as the chemical compositions of Earth and the Moon are remarkably similar, suggesting that the Moon should retain more material from Theia than our planet does. “This presents a significant dilemma for the standard model,” comments Philip Carter, a researcher at the University of Bristol, UK.

Carter and his team propose a paradigm shift, suggesting that a series of impacts with Earth over millions of years may provide a more coherent explanation for the compositional similarities between Earth and the Moon. They propose that three or more significant impacts in the early solar system, involving bodies from the size of the modern Moon to those approaching Mars in size, could account for the Moon’s creation as we observe it today.

In this revised model, each impact creates smaller moons, known as microsatellites, orbiting Earth. Over eons, these smaller bodies would progressively merge under gravitational attraction, forming a singular large entity. “They will be drawn to one another and collide,” explains Carter. “The probability of sustaining a stable system with multiple large moonlets is exceedingly low.”

Previous models also posited multiple impacts as the origin of the Moon; however, they typically required a more rigorous series of impacts than this current framework. “After three significant collisions, we introduced sufficient mass into orbit to form a full Moon,” stated Carter.

Robert Citron, a researcher at the Southwest Research Institute in Colorado, suggests that fewer impacts might be more favorable since too many collisions could displace smaller satellites from Earth’s orbit and hinder Moon formation. However, as more impacts occur, the compositional alignment between Earth and the Moon increases, accurately reflecting their current similarities. “When multiple impacts are involved, you are averaging out more influencing factors,” Citron notes.

The unique relationship between Earth and the Moon underscores the necessity of understanding the Moon’s formation. “It is a remarkably distinctive satellite,” Citron emphasizes. “Its size relative to Earth is vast, whereas the moons of Mars appear minuscule in comparison to Mars, and the moons of gas giants are diminutive compared to their planets.”

Establishing which hypothesis is correct necessitates more intricate modeling to assess the impact’s intensity on Earth and the volume of material expelled. Carter remarks, “Calculating all these details remains exceedingly complex.” He adds, “Personally, I prefer the multi-impact model over the traditional single-impact theory.”

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Source: www.newscientist.com

Coral Reefs Triggered Major Global Warming Events in Earth’s History

Posted on December 1, 2025 by

Corals construct their skeletons from calcium carbonate, releasing carbon dioxide as a byproduct.

Reinhard Dirscherl/Alamy

For the last 250 million years, coral reef systems have been crucial to the Earth’s climate, but perhaps not in the manner you might assume.

Coral reefs generate excess carbon dioxide because the formation of calcium carbonate, which constitutes coral skeletons, involves the release of greenhouse gases.

Certain plankton species utilize calcium carbonate to form their shells, and when these organisms perish, the mineral becomes buried on the ocean floor. In ecosystems dominated by coral, calcium and carbonate ions that typically nourish deep-sea plankton are rendered inaccessible.

Tristan Salles and his team at the University of Sydney conducted a modeling study on the interactions among shallow corals and deep-sea plankton over the last 250 million years, incorporating reconstructions of plate tectonics, climate simulations, and variations in sediment contribution to the ocean.

They determined that tectonic activity and geographic features foster periods with extensive shallow continental shelves, which provide optimal conditions for reef-building corals, thereby disrupting the coral-plankton dynamics.

As the area covered by coral reefs diminishes, calcium and alkali levels accumulate in the ocean, enhancing plankton productivity and increasing the burial of carbonate in the deep ocean. This shift contributes to lower CO2 concentrations and cooler temperatures.

The study revealed three significant disruptions in the carbon cycle over the past 250 million years. During these events—specifically in the Mid-Triassic, Mid-Jurassic, and Late Cretaceous—extensive coral reefs consumed vast amounts of calcium carbonate, resulting in notable ocean temperature increases.

Once the balance between shallow-sea corals and deep-sea plankton is disrupted, realignment can require hundreds of thousands to millions of years, noted Salles.

“Even if the system recovers from a significant crisis, achieving equilibrium will be a prolonged process, significantly extending beyond human timelines,” Salles elaborated.

On a brighter note, Salles observes that corals excel at absorbing excess nutrients to aid in reef building, even if planktonic nutrient growth gets excessive.

Currently, human-induced carbon dioxide emissions are driving unprecedented global warming and ocean acidification, endangering both corals and plankton, according to Salles. While the outcomes remain uncertain, the potential impact on ecosystems could be catastrophic.

“The feedback mechanisms we modeled span deep time and may not be relevant today. The current rate of change is too rapid for carbonate platform feedbacks to maintain similar significance.”

Alexander Skiles from the Australian National University in Canberra remarks that this research illustrates a “profoundly interconnected feedback cycle between ecosystems and climate.”

He suggested that while species are presumed to evolve and adapt to the climatic conditions dictated by “immutable physical and chemical processes,” it is increasingly evident that certain species are actively shaping the climate itself, leading to co-evolutionary feedback loops.

“Beyond corals, ancient microbial colonies like stromatolites have significantly influenced atmospheric carbon regulation,” Skiles pointed out.

“It is well-recognized that carbon is accelerating climate warming at an alarming rate. Corals contribute to this dynamic over extensive geological time, which may elucidate fluctuations between warmer and cooler periods.”

Source: www.newscientist.com

Experts Suggest Earth’s Prehistoric Oceans Might Not Have Been Blue

Posted on November 28, 2025 by

Our planet has hosted oceans for approximately 3.8 billion years, but their current blue appearance is relatively recent. Research indicates that it hasn’t always been this way.

In the ocean’s depths today, the water appears blue because it absorbs longer wavelengths of sunlight, particularly those at the red end of the spectrum.

This absorption allows shorter, bluer wavelengths to penetrate further and scatter back into our eyes. Billions of years ago, various colors may have masked the blue waters.

During that era, the earliest life forms emerged in the oceans, particularly unicellular cyanobacteria. These organisms were crucial in shaping our planet’s habitability by capturing sunlight energy through photosynthesis, resulting in Earth’s first oxygen availability.

Researchers in Japan have recently developed a computer model demonstrating that the initial oxygen released by cyanobacteria reacted with dissolved iron in the seawater, leading to the formation of oxidized iron that turned the ocean’s surface green.

Moreover, early cyanobacteria likely adapted to thrive in the greenish water.

In their study, scientists engineered cyanobacteria that possess a specific type of photosynthetic pigment responsive to green light, known as phycoerythrobilin.

Japanese researchers created a model showing how early cyanobacteria’s oxygen interacted with dissolved iron, resulting in a green ocean surface. – Image credit: Getty Images

In contrast, most current plants utilize red and blue light through chlorophyll pigments.

In laboratory settings, these modified cyanobacteria were cultivated in tanks filled with green water, revealing a phenomenon that also occurs naturally.

The waters surrounding Iwo Jima in Japan are naturally high in iron oxide, imparting a unique green hue. The cyanobacteria prevalent along its coastlines possess pigments that make use of elevated green light levels.

This study suggests that exobiologists searching for extraterrestrial life should not only consider blue liquid water but also various shades of green that may hint at primitive life forms.

This article addresses the inquiry (by Philip Burke of Somerset): “Has the sea always been blue?”

If you have any questions, please reach out via email at: questions@sciencefocus.com or send us a message facebook, ×or Instagram page (please remember to include your name and location).

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Source: www.sciencefocus.com

Astronomers Unveil Moon Concealed in Earth’s Shadow

Posted on October 25, 2025 by

Astronomers have identified a peculiar “moon” that casts a shadow on Earth as it navigates through space. Dubbed quasi-moons, these entities don’t orbit our planet in a traditional manner, yet they maintain proximity as they travel around the sun.

According to a new study published in the American Astronomical Society Research Notes, this space rock may have been a companion to Earth for as long as 60 years.

The object, identified as 2025 PN7, is small enough that it might have evaded earlier detections. While its exact dimensions remain uncertain, researchers estimate it to be around 30 meters (98 feet) in diameter—approximately the wingspan of a typical short-haul airliner—making it the tiniest known quasi-moon associated with Earth.

“With rapid technological progress, we’re identifying near-Earth objects faster than ever,” said Dr. Darren Baskill, an astronomy lecturer at the University of Sussex, in BBC Science Focus. “The sensitivity of digital cameras has improved, allowing us to detect these faint objects, and computers can effectively process vast data sets.”

At its closest approach, this object comes within 300,000 km (186,400 miles) of Earth. Usually, it remains about 384,000 km (238,600 miles) away, but its horseshoe-shaped orbit can take it as far as 297 million km (185 million miles) from our planet.

Consequently, it’s only detectable when nearby, as occurred in August 2025, when researchers from Spain’s Complutense University of Madrid spotted it from the PanSTARRS Observatory in Hawaii.

Upon reviewing historical records, scientists identified it as a potential Earth companion for decades.

“The primary question is, where did 2025 PN7 originate?” Baskill noted. “At its closest, 2025 PN7 will be roughly the same distance from Earth as the Moon, providing insights into the Moon’s possible origin.

“Another clue can be observed on a clear night: the Moon is full of craters. Each impact casts debris into the atmosphere, and some material may escape the Moon’s gravity and be launched into space.”

Moon’s craters offer clues to the origin of space rocks – Photo credit: Getty

Another hypothesis suggests that the space rock originated in the asteroid belt, but Baskill states, “It’s challenging to gather sufficient light from such a moving object to determine its chemical composition and origin.”

He further added, “Astronomers must be patient and wait to observe PN7 when it’s at its brightest, closest to Earth.”

2025 PN7 is just one of seven quasi-satellites currently orbiting near Earth. The other is the space rock Kamooarewa, which is the target of China’s Tianwen-2 mission. Launched in May 2025, Tianwen-2 aims to collect samples from asteroids to understand more about Earth’s origins and asteroid formation.

“These near-Earth objects, due to their occasional close passes, might become prime targets for the inaugural mining operations beyond Earth, or even enter Earth’s atmosphere,” Baskill remarked.

PN7 will remain in existence until 2085 when it will be pulled from orbit by gravitational forces.

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Source: www.sciencefocus.com

Breathtaking Images Showcase the Battle to Safeguard Earth’s Diverse Biodiversity

Posted on October 10, 2025 by Igor Mitreski

Malaysian tropical longhorn beetle

Kim Hee Yu

“It had an unusual expression, reminiscent of an alien, but it wasn’t hostile. It remained motionless on the branch throughout,” said Kim Hui Yu, the photographer of the long-eared longhorn beetle during a family visit to Gunung Jerai on Malaysia’s west coast.

A light bulb inside the mosquito net drew invertebrates during the night. In the morning, she selected the most vibrant ones for photographs. “I want to raise awareness that every creature, even the tiniest, has its place. So we must protect our forests.”

The image titled alien is one of eight featured in the Natural History Museum’s 2025 Biodiversity Exhibit. Visit the Wildlife Photographer of the Year exhibition, opening in London on October 17th. The collection includes images from past contests.

The exhibit also showcases a large map illustrating biodiversity levels based on the Biodiversity Intact Index developed by museum researchers.

4 month old black rhino calf

Hilary O’Leary

Hannah McCartney, who oversees the contest, emphasizes the significant influence of images. The aim is to motivate viewers to notice and act. A prime example includes Innocent Betrayed by Hilary O’Leary, showcasing a four-month-old black rhino calf interacting with an anti-poaching scout, captured while the calf was lost in the brush.

Berchtesgaden National Park in the German Alps

marc graff

high and wild, captured by Mark Graf, presents a different perspective on the potential losses of nature. This shot shows trees and rocks emerging from sunlit clouds within Berchtesgaden’s national park.

Intimate moments between harlequin toads

Jaime Culeblas

Jaime Culebras’ happy couple captures mating harlequin toads in Colombia’s Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta National Natural Park, home to numerous endangered species.

Caitlin Woods, marine ranger off Lord Howe Island

Justin Gilligan

rich reflections by Justin Gilligan captures marine ranger Caitlin Woods snorkeling among the vibrant seaweed off Lord Howe Island, located between Australia and New Zealand.

A close encounter between a pygmy rabbit and a stink bug, both found in rabbit burrows, was captured in burrow mate by Morgan Heim in the Columbia Basin, Washington.

Red kite takes off in the UK

owen hearn

flight path: Owen Hearn’s image juxtaposes the close-up of a red kite with a distant airplane silhouette. This pivotal photo was taken at a Bedfordshire site once selected as London’s third major airport, a project halted due to public opposition. Currently, this location offers a unique vantage point for wildlife photography. While the red kite population has dramatically recovered following its near extinction due to historical persecution, Britain remains one of the most depleted nations in terms of wildlife.

Life beneath the ice off the coast of Antarctica

Laurent Ballesta

Laurent Ballesta’s pyramid of life illustrates the biodiversity thriving beneath East Antarctica’s ice, featuring giant ribbon worms and starfish.

The Wildlife Photographer of the Year competition is celebrating its 61st year, with judges evaluating a record 60,000 entries, compared to just 341 in 1965. Winners will be revealed on October 14th.

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Source: www.newscientist.com

Echoes of Rock: A Personal Exploration of Earth’s Geological History

Posted on October 9, 2025 by Igor Mitreski

The rocks lining Britain’s Jurassic Coast are roughly 185 million years old

James Osmond/Alamy

Whispers of Rock
Anjana Khatwa, Bridge Street Press (UK). Basic Books (USA, releasing November 4th)

Stones are often overlooked. How frequently do we consider the materials beneath our feet, or the origins of the beach pebbles we idly collect?

And how often do we recognize the role of geology when discussing nature and our pressing discussions about climate change? Any efforts towards addressing climate change and the future of our planet must include our relationship with the elements that constitute our world.

We are fortunate to gain insights from geoscientist Anjana Khatwa through her latest book, Whispers of Rock: Stories from Earth. This work, described as “an exhilarating journey through deep time,” is a heartfelt tribute that is sure to resonate with readers. Khatwa has dedicated a significant part of her life to promoting an understanding of geology, providing the scientific detail that highlights her profound knowledge.

In this book, she methodically covers topics such as the formation of mountains, craters, and slate, interspersing fascinating anecdotes. For instance, the iconic Taj Mahal of India, a symbol of love, was constructed from ivory-white Makrana marble that dates back approximately 2 billion years, originating from ancient landmass collisions. This complex genesis involved tectonic shifts, cyanobacteria, photosynthesis, and calcium carbonate, all coming together to create the stones used in this magnificent structure.

Once the scientific framework is laid down, Khatwa breathes life into the narrative of rocks and minerals, transforming it into a sensory experience far removed from the geology classes of my past. She invites readers to appreciate the negative spaces carved in Petra, Jordan, which form breathtaking structures and the unexpected beauty found within. She describes the markings on the stone as remnants of an ancient river, illustrating her deep connection to these geological marvels, becoming a “keeper of the stories of time.”

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A recipe that involved tectonic movements, photosynthesis, and more resulted in the marble utilized in the Taj Mahal.
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Khatwa’s passion for stones began in her childhood, walking on solidified lava flows in southeastern Kenya. Throughout her book, she takes readers on a global journey, including her hometown of Dorset, England, where she enjoyed 20 years of geological history at the Jurassic Coast World Heritage Site.

This adventure reveals how rocks have shaped her life and the lives of many others. We explore the colossal sarsen stones of Stonehenge in England, delve into the science and folklore of New Zealand’s Ponamu greenstone, and trace the socio-political history of the Black Belt, a fertile region in the American South shaped by cotton plantations after the removal of indigenous communities.

However, what truly distinguishes this book is Khatwa’s personal narrative. She openly addresses the lack of diversity in the environmental sector in the UK and shares her experiences as a mother, imparting a sense of vulnerability along the journey.

She reflects on how she was “transformed by the whiteness of my working environment” and came to realize that her cultural and spiritual identity often took a backseat to her scientific persona. This book is essential reading for anyone grappling with that duality or wishing to understand it better. We stand with Khatwa as she navigates the space between belonging and the feeling of being an outsider.

Whispers of Rock is packed with such insight that it requires contemplation after each chapter. Khatwa is also intentionally provocative, acknowledging that the intersection between science and spirituality may make some readers uncomfortable, as it challenges their preconceived notions. Yet, this provocative approach sparks a genuinely enlightening exploration.

Dhurti Shah is a freelance journalist based in London.

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Source: www.newscientist.com

The Mystery of Earth’s Ancient Frozen Nuclei Unveiled: Discovering the Reasons Behind Their Existence

Posted on September 23, 2025 by Igor Mitreski

We may finally understand what caused the inner core of the Earth to freeze.

The inner core is a sphere of iron approximately 2,400 km (1,500 miles) in diameter, enveloped by a molten outer core. Its growth is responsible for generating the Earth’s magnetic field, which shields the planet from harmful solar radiation. However, the precise process by which the core first crystallized has remained unclear.

Recent research published in Nature Communications suggests a mechanism that hinges on deep Earth chemistry. By utilizing advanced computer simulations, scientists examined how various factors influence the freezing of iron under extreme pressure and temperature at the planet’s center.

They found that incorporating carbon allows iron to solidify under realistic conditions, positioning it as a key component in understanding the ingredients that contributed to the formation of the inner core billions of years ago.

“By investigating how Earth’s inner core formed, we gain insights not only into the planet’s history,” said Dr. Alfred Wilson from the University of Leeds, who led the study.

“We get rare insights into the chemistry of a region that we can never physically reach, and we can only speculate on how it might change in the future.”

The inner core lies deep within the planet, beneath layers of rock and magma – Credit: Getty Images/EPS Vector

At the extreme pressures found 5,000 km beneath our feet, iron doesn’t simply freeze when it drops below its melting point; it requires “super-cooling” of the crystals before they form. Pure iron must be cooled to as low as 1,000°C (1832°F), resulting in a significantly larger core than the one we see today.

New computer modeling indicates that the presence of carbon alters this equation. With less than 4% carbon in the mix, iron can crystallize at much lower temperatures, producing a core that aligns with seismic observations.

Scientists believe that the Earth’s center likely continues to host a mixture of elements. However, this research firmly highlights the critical role of carbon in one of geology’s greatest mysteries.

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Source: www.sciencefocus.com

Experts Predict Continued Recovery of the Earth’s Ozone Layer for Decades Ahead

Posted on September 18, 2025 by Igor Mitreski

The ozone layer has shown significant improvement, with the Antarctic ozone holes in 2024 being smaller than in prior years. New Report from the World Meteorological Organization (WMO).

This map depicts the size and shape of the Antarctic ozone hole on October 5th, 2022. Image credit: Earth Observatory by Joshua Stevens/NASA.

The depth of the Antarctic ozone hole in 2024 (which typically appears every spring) was below the average levels measured from 1990 to 2020, with the maximum ozone mass deficit recorded on September 29th at 46.1 million tons.

From 2020 to 2023, it remained smaller than a significantly larger hole.

Its development was relatively gradual, with ozone depletion slowing by September, followed by a quicker recovery after reaching the maximum deficit.

“This consistent progression is considered a strong indicator of early recovery in the Antarctic ozone holes,” stated WMO experts.

The alarm was initially sounded by scientists in 1975 when the WMO reported “changes in the ozone layer due to human activities and certain geophysical factors.”

If current policies remain in effect, the latest assessment for 2022 indicates that the ozone layer is projected to return to 1980 levels (prior to the appearance of ozone holes) around 2066, 2045 in the Arctic, and globally by 2045.

“Despite the significant success of the Montreal Protocol over the years, this effort remains ongoing, and continuous monitoring of stratospheric ozone and ozone-depleting substances is essential,” experts noted.

“WMO’s scientific research on the ozone layer spans decades,” remarked Celeste Sauro, WMO executive director.

“It relies on trust, international collaboration, and a commitment to free data exchange—fundamental principles of the world’s most successful environmental agreements.”

“To date, the Montreal Protocol has resulted in over 99% reduction in the production and consumption of controlled ozone-depleting substances used in refrigeration, air conditioning, fire foam, and even hairsprays.”

“Consequently, the ozone layer is on course to recover to 1980 levels by the middle of this century, significantly lowering the risk of ecosystem damage from skin cancer, cataracts, and UV overexposure.”

Source: www.sci.news