Fossil Discovery Sheds Light on the Origins of Earth’s First Fish

Posted on February 4, 2026 by Igor Mitreski

Paleontologists from Australia and China have conducted two groundbreaking studies on the fossilized remains of a remarkable Devonian lungfish. Utilizing advanced imaging technology, they have unearthed previously overlooked anatomical details, significantly enhancing our understanding of early vertebrate evolution. Their findings have been published in the Canadian Journal of Zoology and the journal Current Biology.

Paleolophus yunnanensis, a unique lungfish species that thrived in southern China’s waters 410 million years ago. Image credit: Brian Choo, Flinders University.

In a recent study, lead researcher Alice Clement, a paleontologist at Flinders University, investigates The Mystery of Kainokara, a fossil known from a single specimen found in the Late Devonian Gogo Formation of Western Australia.

“New research, including the analysis of previously neglected specimens, is gradually uncovering the rich diversity of lungfishes found in Australia’s significant fossil sites,” said Dr. Clement.

“One particularly enigmatic specimen originates from Australia’s earliest ‘Great Barrier Reef’, a Devonian reef located in the Kimberley region of northern Western Australia.”

“When first described in 2010, this unusual specimen was so perplexing that the authors speculated it might represent an entirely new type of fish never documented in science.”

“Using advanced scanning techniques, we developed comprehensive digital images of both the external and internal structures of the skull, revealing the complexity of this fascinating lungfish’s brain cavity.”

“In fact, we confirmed that earlier interpretations may have been from an upside-down perspective.”

“We were also able to compare the well-preserved inner ear region with other lungfishes,” noted Flinders University paleontologist Hannah Thiele.

“This provides an essential data point in the rich collection of lungfish and early vertebrate species.”

“This research enhances our understanding of the evolutionary progression of these ancient lobe-finned fishes, both in Gondwana and globally.”

In a separate study, Flinders University paleontologist Brian Chu and colleagues reveal a newly discovered species of lungfish from the Devonian period in China, Paleolophus yunanensis.

“The discovery of Paleolophus yunanensis offers unprecedented insight into the transitional phase between the early appearance of lungfish and their extensive diversification millions of years later,” said Dr. Chu.

“At this time, this group was just beginning to develop unique feeding adaptations that would serve them well throughout the remainder of the Devonian period and into the present.”

“Lungfish, including the ancient lineage found in Queensland, Australia, have fascinated researchers due to their close evolutionary relationship with tetrapods, the four-limbed vertebrates that include humans.”

“The distinctive skull of the newly discovered lungfish from 410-million-year-old rock formations in Yunnan offers crucial insights into the rapid evolutionary changes during the Early, Middle, and Late Devonian periods.”

“The new specimens exhibited both similarities and differences compared to the earliest known specimens, such as Diabolepis fossils from southern China and uranolophus found in locations like Wyoming and Australia.

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Hannah S. Thiele et al., deciphering The Mystery of Kainokara from the Late Devonian Gogo Formation, Australia. Canadian Journal of Zoology, published online January 28, 2026. doi: 10.1139/cjz-2025-0109

Tuo Qiao et al., 2026. New fish fossil sheds light on the rapid evolution of early lungfish. Current Biology 36 (1): 243-251; doi: 10.1016/j.cub.2025.11.032

Source: www.sci.news

How Two Massive Clumps of Superheated Material Influence Earth’s Magnetic Field

Posted on February 3, 2026 by Igor Mitreski

Two colossal, ultra-hot rock formations, positioned 2,900 kilometers beneath the Earth’s surface in Africa and the Pacific Ocean, have influenced Earth’s magnetic field for millions of years, according to groundbreaking research led by Professor Andy Biggin from the University of Liverpool.

Giant superheated solid masses at the Earth’s mantle base impact the liquid outer core. Image credit: Biggin et al., doi: 10.1038/s41561-025-01910-1.

Measuring ancient magnetic fields and simulating their generation presents significant technical challenges.

To explore these deep Earth features, Professor Biggin and his team used paleomagnetic data in conjunction with advanced Earth Dynamo simulations. The flow of liquid iron in the outer core generates Earth’s magnetic field, akin to a wind turbine producing electricity.

Numerical models reconstructed critical insights about magnetic field behavior over the past 265 million years.

Even with supercomputers, conducting these long-term simulations poses enormous computational challenges.

The findings showed that temperature at the upper layer of the outer core is not uniform.

Instead, localized hot areas are accompanied by continent-sized rock structures exhibiting significant thermal contrasts.

Some regions of the magnetic field were found to remain relatively stable over hundreds of millions of years, while others displayed considerable changes over time.

“These results indicate pronounced temperature variations in the rocky mantle just above the core, suggesting that beneath hotter regions, liquid iron in the core may be stagnant, rather than flowing intensely as observed beneath colder areas,” Professor Biggin stated.

“Gaining such insights into the deep Earth over extensive timescales enhances the case for utilizing ancient magnetic records to comprehend both the dynamic evolution and stable properties of deep Earth.”

“These discoveries also bear significant implications for understanding ancient continents, including the formation and breakup of Pangea, and could help address long-standing uncertainties in ancient climate studies, paleontology, and natural resource formation.”

“It has been hypothesized that, on average, Earth’s magnetic field acts as a perfect bar magnet aligned with the planet’s rotation axis in these regions.”

“Our findings suggest that this may not be entirely accurate.”

This study is published in today’s edition of Nature Earth Science.

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AJ Biggin et al. Inhomogeneities in the mantle influenced Earth’s ancient magnetic field. Nature Earth Science published online on February 3, 2026. doi: 10.1038/s41561-025-01910-1

Source: www.sci.news

How Mars’ Gravity May Influence Earth’s Ice Age Cycles

Posted on January 26, 2026 by Igor Mitreski

Mars’ Significant Impact on Earth’s Climate

Credit: NASA/JPL/Malin Space Science Systems

Composite photo of Mars — Mars’ Significant Impact on Earth’s Climate

Credit: NASA/JPL/Malin Space Science Systems

Despite Mars being smaller than Earth, it profoundly affects Earth’s climate cycle. Understanding how smaller planets influence the climates of exoplanets is crucial for assessing their potential for habitability.

According to Stephen Cain, researchers at the University of California, Riverside, discovered this phenomenon by simulating various scenarios to analyze Mars’ effect on Earth’s orbit across different masses, from 100 times its current mass to its complete removal. “Initially, I was skeptical that Mars, only one-tenth the mass of Earth, could so significantly affect Earth’s cycles. This motivated our study to manipulate Mars’ mass and observe the effects,” says Cain.

Earth’s climate is influenced by long-term cycles tied to its orbital eccentricity and axial tilt. These cycles are dictated by the gravitational forces of the Sun and other planets, determining significant climate events such as ice ages and seasonal shifts.

One crucial cycle, referred to as the Grand Cycle, spans 2.4 million years, involving the elongation and shortening of Earth’s orbital ellipse. This directly influences the amount of sunlight reaching Earth’s surface, thus controlling long-term climate changes.

The research indicates that eliminating Mars would not only remove the Grand Cycle but also another essential eccentricity cycle lasting 100,000 years. “While removing Mars wouldn’t completely halt ice ages, it would alter the frequency and climate impacts associated with them,” Cain explains.

As Mars’ simulated mass increases, the resulting climate cycles become shorter and more intense. However, a third eccentricity cycle, enduring approximately 405,000 years, remains predominantly influenced by Venus and Jupiter’s gravitational pulls, illustrating that while Mars is notably influential, it is not the only player.

Mars also affects Earth’s axial tilt, which oscillates over about 41,000 years. Cain and colleagues observed that Mars seems to stabilize these cycles—more mass leads to less frequent cycles, while a smaller Mars results in more frequent ones.

The precise impact of Mars’ absence or increased mass on Earth remains speculative, but it would undoubtedly lead to changes. The pursuit of Earth-like exoplanets with climates suitable for life continues, underscoring the need to evaluate the influence of smaller planets more thoroughly. “A comprehensive understanding of exoplanet system architectures is essential for predicting possible climate changes on these worlds,” warns Sean Raymond from the University of Bordeaux, France.

However, deciphering these structures can be challenging. “This serves as a cautionary note: small planets like Mars may wield a greater influence than we realize, making it imperative not to overlook these difficult-to-detect celestial bodies,” concludes Cain.

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Source: www.newscientist.com

How Plate Tectonics, Not Volcanoes, Shaped Earth’s Climate Over the Last 540 Million Years

Posted on January 21, 2026 by Igor Mitreski

A revealing new study challenges traditional beliefs by showing that mid-ocean ridges and continental rifts, rather than volcanic eruptions, significantly influence atmospheric carbon fluctuations and long-term climate change in Earth’s geological history.

Cryogenic Earth. Image credit: NASA.

Over the past 540 million years, Earth’s climate has gone through dramatic shifts, alternating between icy icehouse conditions and warm greenhouse phases.

Icehouse conditions prevailed during key geological periods, including the Late Ordovician, Late Paleozoic, and Cenozoic eras.

Notably, warmer periods were associated with increased atmospheric carbon dioxide, while declines in greenhouse gases led to global cooling and extensive glaciation.

Research conducted by Ben Mather and a team at the University of Melbourne reconstructed carbon movements between volcanoes, oceans, and the deep Earth over the past 540 million years.

“Our findings challenge the long-accepted view that volcanic chains formed by tectonic plate collisions are the primary natural source of Earth’s atmospheric carbon,” Dr. Mather stated.

“Instead, it appears that carbon emissions from deep-sea crevices and mid-ocean ridges, driven by tectonic movements, have been crucial in shaping the transitions between icehouse and greenhouse climates throughout most of Earth’s history.”

“For example, we discovered that carbon released from volcanoes in the Pacific Ring of Fire only emerged as a significant carbon source in the last 100 million years, prompting us to reevaluate current scientific understanding.”

This study presents the first robust long-term evidence indicating that Earth’s climate change is primarily driven by carbon released at divergent plate boundaries rather than convergent ones.

“This insight not only reshapes our understanding of past climates but will also enhance future climate models,” Dr. Mather noted.

By integrating global plate tectonics reconstructions with carbon cycle models, the research team traced the storage, release, and recycling of carbon as continents shift.

Professor Dietmar Müller from the University of Sydney remarked, “Our findings illustrate how variations in carbon release from plate spreading influenced long-term climate shifts, clarifying historical climate changes, such as the late Paleozoic ice ages, the warm Mesozoic greenhouse world, and the rise of present-day Cenozoic icehouses.”

This research holds vital implications for understanding the ongoing climate crisis.

“This study contributes to the growing body of evidence that atmospheric carbon levels are a significant factor driving major climate shifts,” Dr. Mather emphasized.

“Comprehending how Earth managed its climate historically underscores the extraordinary pace of current climate change.”

“Human activities are releasing carbon at a staggering rate, far surpassing any natural geological processes previously recorded.”

“The climate balance is tipping alarmingly fast.”

For more on this groundbreaking research, you can view the findings published in the journal Communication Earth and Environment.

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B.R. Mather et al. 2026. Carbon emissions along divergent plate boundaries influence climate shifts between icehouses and greenhouses. Communication Earth and Environment 7, 48; doi: 10.1038/s43247-025-03097-0

Source: www.sci.news

Ancient Volcanoes: Understanding Low Greenhouse Gas Emissions in Earth’s History

Posted on January 19, 2026 by Igor Mitreski

Arc-shaped volcanoes like Japan’s Sakurajima release carbon dioxide from the Earth’s interior

Asahi Shimbun via Getty Images

Arc volcanoes like Sakurajima releasing carbon dioxide — Arc-shaped volcanoes like Japan’s Sakurajima release carbon dioxide from the Earth’s interior

Asahi Shimbun via Getty Images

New research suggests that the impact of volcanoes on Earth’s climate may not be as ancient as previously believed.

The Earth’s climate has experienced shifts between “icehouse” and “greenhouse” conditions, largely dictated by greenhouse gas levels like carbon dioxide.

Volcanic arcs, including significant eruptions from mountain ranges such as Japan’s, release CO2 from deep within the Earth. Recent findings indicate that dinosaurs became a substantial source of carbon emissions only towards the end of their reign, approximately 100 million years ago, according to Ben Mather and his team from the University of Melbourne.

This correlates with the emergence of phytoplankton featuring calcium carbonate scales in the oceans approximately 150 million years ago. When these organisms perish, they deposit large amounts of calcium carbonate on the ocean floor.

As tectonic plates shift, these significant reservoirs of carbon are pushed into the mantle and recycled into the Earth’s molten core via a process known as subduction.

“Most of the carbon derived from plankton on the subducting oceanic plate mixes into the melt interior, but a portion is released through volcanic arcs,” explains Mather.

Before the emergence of scaly plankton, volcanic arc emissions contained relatively lower levels of CO2, according to Mather.

Through modeling, Mather and colleagues examined tectonics’ long-term impact on the carbon cycle over the past 500 million years. They discovered that much of the carbon stored within Earth throughout its history was released through crustal fractures in a process termed rifting, not primarily through volcanic arcs.

Rifting, a geological process where continents separate, can occur on land (as in the East African Rift) or along mid-ocean ridges.

“As tectonic plates separate, they effectively ‘roof off’ parts of the molten Earth,” Mather states. “This process generates new crust at mid-ocean ridges, releasing carbon.” The amount of carbon entering the atmosphere from continental fractures and mid-ocean ridges relies on the cracks’ length and the rate at which they separate, a process that has remained relatively stable. However, emissions from volcanic arcs have surged in the last 100 million years due to new carbon reservoirs formed by plankton.

Currently, Earth is in a temporary warm phase called an interglacial period, nested within a larger ice age that began 34 million years ago. One reason for the persistent cold phases is that phytoplankton sequester substantial amounts of carbon from the ocean, depositing it on the sea floor. Although volcanic emissions are rising, they still pale in comparison to the carbon stored by phytoplankton and that sequestered through tectonic movements.

According to Alan Collins and his team from the University of Adelaide, modeling studies like this are crucial for comprehending how volcanic and tectonic activities have influenced climate patterns over geological timescales.

“The composition of marine sediments has shifted as new organisms evolved, utilizing diverse elements, including the rise of calcium carbonate-based zooplankton,” Collins emphasizes.

Reference journal: Nature Communications Earth and Environment, DOI TK

Explore the Land of Fire and Ice: Iceland

Embark on an unforgettable journey through Iceland’s breathtaking landscapes. Experience volcanic and geological marvels by day, and chase the mesmerizing Northern Lights by night (October).

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Source: www.newscientist.com

Data Reveals 2025 as Earth’s Third Hottest Year on Record

Posted on January 14, 2026 by Igor Mitreski

According to Copernicus, the European Union’s climate monitoring service, last year ranked as the third warmest on record in modern history.

This finding aligns with existing trends; Copernicus data reveals that the last 11 years have consistently been the warmest in history.

In 2025, the average global temperature soared to approximately 1.47 degrees Celsius (2.65 degrees Fahrenheit) above the baseline period from 1850 to 1900. This reference period is significant as it predates the industrial era, marking a time before extensive carbon emissions entered our atmosphere.

“Annual surface temperatures exceeded average levels across 91 percent of the globe,” stated Samantha Burgess, head of climate strategy at the European Center for Medium-Range Forecasts, which operates Copernicus. “The primary contributor to these record temperatures is the accumulation of greenhouse gases, largely from fossil fuel combustion.”

Under the 2015 Paris Agreement, global leaders committed to limiting warming to 1.5 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels. However, this goal appears increasingly unachievable as temperatures have neared or surpassed this threshold for three consecutive years.

Mauro Facchini, director of Earth Observation at the European Commission’s Directorate-General for Defense, Industry, and Space, noted at a press conference: “A three-year average temperature exceeding 1.5 degrees Celsius compared to pre-industrial levels is a milestone we never anticipated.” He emphasized the urgent need to address climate change.

A woman shields herself from the scorching sun near the Colosseum in Rome during July.
Tiziana Fabi/AFP via Getty Images File

The U.S. government is anticipated to unveil its 2025 climate metrics on Wednesday. NASA provides its reports separately from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, owing to differing methodologies in calculating average annual temperatures, which often leads to variations in findings.

Nevertheless, the overarching trend is unmistakable: the planet is warming at an alarming rate, possibly faster than scientists had predicted.

Europe faces bleak climate data, compounded by the U.S. administration’s aggressive moves to roll back climate regulations and retreat from international efforts to mitigate warming.

Last week, the Trump administration announced its withdrawal from the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, diminishing the U.S. role in global climate change discussions. Additionally, plans to withdraw support from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, which produces crucial reports on climate change impacts, were made public.

The United States is set to officially leave the Paris Agreement later this month, following a one-year waiting window.

A child enjoys a refreshing mist under a fog system in Milan during July.
Luca Bruno / AP File

President Donald Trump has labeled climate change “the work of con artists,” and his administration has actively sought to downplay critical climate reports such as the National Climate Assessment. Efforts are underway to reduce the Environmental Protection Agency’s ability to regulate greenhouse gas emissions, a primary cause of global warming.

Simultaneously, steps are being taken to promote the coal industry, including ordering coal-fired power plants to continue operations (coal is notorious for generating significant greenhouse gas emissions). The administration is also attempting to reverse many of the Biden administration’s climate initiatives, including subsidies for electric vehicles.

According to preliminary findings from Rhodium Group, an independent research firm monitoring U.S. emissions, climate pollution in the United States is projected to rise by approximately 2.4% in 2025. This increase may not stem directly from President Trump’s policies, as many regulations are yet to be implemented. The rise is likely due to high natural gas prices, growth in energy-intensive data centers, and particularly cold winters.

Rhodium Group anticipates that U.S. emissions will eventually decrease as renewable energy sources become more economically feasible compared to fossil fuels. However, the expectation of emission reductions is now less optimistic than prior to Trump’s administration.

The greenhouse gases that trap heat are intensifying weather patterns, resulting in more extreme conditions and increasing the likelihood of heavy rainfall, heatwaves, and flooding.

Last year emerged as the third-costliest year for weather-related disasters, an analysis by the nonprofit organization Climate Central revealed. In 2025, it was reported that 23 meteorological events inflicted damages surpassing $1 billion, resulting in 276 fatalities and $115 billion in total damages.

In Fleurance, France, a pharmacy thermometer indicates a scorching 45 degrees Celsius, equivalent to 113 degrees Fahrenheit.
Isabel Souliment / Hans Lukas, from Reuters file

While greenhouse gas emissions remain the principal driver of rising global temperatures, natural fluctuations also contribute. La Niña patterns, characterized by colder-than-average water in the central Pacific, generally lead to lower global temperatures, while El Niño events can raise them.

Though the La Niña pattern emerged in late 2025, NOAA scientists expect a return to neutral conditions early this year.

Source: www.nbcnews.com

Researchers Say Europa’s Spider-Like Structures Mirror Earth’s Lake Stars

Posted on December 10, 2025 by

Europa, Jupiter’s frigid moon, is an oceanic environment that stands out as a key player in the quest for extraterrestrial life. Its surface is characterized by various landforms believed to originate from salty water sources beneath its icy crust, potentially making it the most accessible body of liquid water in the solar system. Notably, the asterisk-shaped “spider” located in the center of Manannan Crater was identified during NASA’s Galileo mission. Planetary scientists have recently introduced a novel hypothesis regarding the formation of this spider-like structure, drawing on morphological analysis and initial analog modeling. They propose that it may have formed through a process akin to the creation of dendritic “lake stars,” a seasonal phenomenon observed in frozen terrestrial ponds and lakes.

Damkhan Alla topographic map of Manannan. Image credit: McCune et al., doi: 10.3847/PSJ/ae18a0.

“The spider-like feature may have resulted from an eruption of molten salt water following the Manannan impact,” explains Dr. Elodie Lesage from the Planetary Science Institute.

“This presents an opportunity to understand the subsurface characteristics and the salt water composition at the impact’s time.”

Dr. Lesage and colleagues are also researching similar “spiders” on Mars, which are tree-like formations in the regolith near the planet’s south pole.

Their findings on Mars have been applied to other celestial bodies, including Europa.

Martian spiders develop as a result of gases escaping beneath a seasonal dry ice layer; however, the Europa study speculates that the “asterisk-shaped” features could have emerged post-impact.

“Lake stars are radial branching designs that occur when snow accumulates on a frozen lake, creating holes in the ice due to the snow’s weight, allowing water to flow through and spread out energetically,” stated Dr. Lauren McCune from the University of Central Florida and NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory.

“We believe a similar process could have happened on Europa, with subsurface brine erupting after the impact and dispersing through the porous surface ice.”

The research team has informally designated the Europa feature as Damhan Alla, which translates to “spider” in Irish, differentiating it from Martian spider formations.

To validate their hypothesis, they studied lake stars in Breckenridge, Colorado, and conducted field as well as lab experiments using a cryogenic glovebox equipped with a Europa ice simulator cooled by liquid nitrogen.

“In our experiments where we passed water through these simulants at various temperatures, we observed similar star-like formations even at extremely low temperatures (-100 degrees Celsius or -148 degrees Fahrenheit), lending support to the idea that such mechanisms could occur on Europa after the impact,” Dr. McCune remarked.

Scientists also created models showing how the saltwater beneath Europa’s surface would react following an impact, including an animation illustrating the process.

While observations of Europa’s icy features are primarily reliant on images captured by the Galileo spacecraft in 1998, the researchers aim to explore this further with high-resolution images from NASA’s Europa Clipper mission, anticipated to arrive at the Jupiter system in April 2030.

“Although lake stars offer significant insights, terrestrial conditions differ vastly from those on Europa,” Dr. McCune notes.

“Earth possesses a nitrogen-rich atmosphere, while Europa’s environment features extremely low pressures and temperatures.”

“This investigation combined field data and laboratory trials to better simulate Europa’s surface conditions.”

The team will further examine how low-pressure systems affect the formation of these landforms and explore whether such structures can form beneath Europa’s icy crust, akin to how flowing lava generates smooth, rope-like textures known as pahoehoe on Earth.

While the primary focus was geomorphology, this discovery sheds light on subsurface activity and habitability, crucial for future astrobiological studies.

“By employing numerical modeling of saline reservoirs, we assessed the potential depth of the reservoir (up to 6 km, or 3.7 miles below the surface) and its longevity (potentially several thousand years post-impact),” Dr. Lesage stated.

“This data is invaluable for upcoming missions investigating viable ecosystems beneath ice shells.”

The team’s results were published in Planetary Science Journal.

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Lauren E. McCune et al. 2025. A lake star as an Earth analogue of Europa’s Manannan Crater Spider feature. Planet. Science. J 6,279; doi: 10.3847/PSJ/ae18a0

Source: www.sci.news

Three Key Factors That Likely Shaped the Moon’s Formation in Earth’s Early History

Posted on December 3, 2025 by

The moon may have had a more intricate formation than previously believed.

NASA/NOAA

Recent theories suggest that multiple collisions with Earth might better elucidate the Moon’s origin than the traditionally accepted single massive impact 4.5 billion years ago, potentially addressing one of its greatest enigmas.

Tracing the Moon’s origin has proven challenging. The prevailing theory is that it formed early in the solar system’s evolution due to a catastrophic collision between Earth and Theia, a Mars-sized body, and its formation likely originated closer to the sun than Earth’s current position. This impact would have expelled debris that ultimately coalesced into the large natural satellite we recognize today. At that period, matter around the sun was highly intermixed, making collisions frequent.

However, this prevailing model encounters complications, as the chemical compositions of Earth and the Moon are remarkably similar, suggesting that the Moon should retain more material from Theia than our planet does. “This presents a significant dilemma for the standard model,” comments Philip Carter, a researcher at the University of Bristol, UK.

Carter and his team propose a paradigm shift, suggesting that a series of impacts with Earth over millions of years may provide a more coherent explanation for the compositional similarities between Earth and the Moon. They propose that three or more significant impacts in the early solar system, involving bodies from the size of the modern Moon to those approaching Mars in size, could account for the Moon’s creation as we observe it today.

In this revised model, each impact creates smaller moons, known as microsatellites, orbiting Earth. Over eons, these smaller bodies would progressively merge under gravitational attraction, forming a singular large entity. “They will be drawn to one another and collide,” explains Carter. “The probability of sustaining a stable system with multiple large moonlets is exceedingly low.”

Previous models also posited multiple impacts as the origin of the Moon; however, they typically required a more rigorous series of impacts than this current framework. “After three significant collisions, we introduced sufficient mass into orbit to form a full Moon,” stated Carter.

Robert Citron, a researcher at the Southwest Research Institute in Colorado, suggests that fewer impacts might be more favorable since too many collisions could displace smaller satellites from Earth’s orbit and hinder Moon formation. However, as more impacts occur, the compositional alignment between Earth and the Moon increases, accurately reflecting their current similarities. “When multiple impacts are involved, you are averaging out more influencing factors,” Citron notes.

The unique relationship between Earth and the Moon underscores the necessity of understanding the Moon’s formation. “It is a remarkably distinctive satellite,” Citron emphasizes. “Its size relative to Earth is vast, whereas the moons of Mars appear minuscule in comparison to Mars, and the moons of gas giants are diminutive compared to their planets.”

Establishing which hypothesis is correct necessitates more intricate modeling to assess the impact’s intensity on Earth and the volume of material expelled. Carter remarks, “Calculating all these details remains exceedingly complex.” He adds, “Personally, I prefer the multi-impact model over the traditional single-impact theory.”

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Source: www.newscientist.com

Coral Reefs Triggered Major Global Warming Events in Earth’s History

Posted on December 1, 2025 by

Corals construct their skeletons from calcium carbonate, releasing carbon dioxide as a byproduct.

Reinhard Dirscherl/Alamy

For the last 250 million years, coral reef systems have been crucial to the Earth’s climate, but perhaps not in the manner you might assume.

Coral reefs generate excess carbon dioxide because the formation of calcium carbonate, which constitutes coral skeletons, involves the release of greenhouse gases.

Certain plankton species utilize calcium carbonate to form their shells, and when these organisms perish, the mineral becomes buried on the ocean floor. In ecosystems dominated by coral, calcium and carbonate ions that typically nourish deep-sea plankton are rendered inaccessible.

Tristan Salles and his team at the University of Sydney conducted a modeling study on the interactions among shallow corals and deep-sea plankton over the last 250 million years, incorporating reconstructions of plate tectonics, climate simulations, and variations in sediment contribution to the ocean.

They determined that tectonic activity and geographic features foster periods with extensive shallow continental shelves, which provide optimal conditions for reef-building corals, thereby disrupting the coral-plankton dynamics.

As the area covered by coral reefs diminishes, calcium and alkali levels accumulate in the ocean, enhancing plankton productivity and increasing the burial of carbonate in the deep ocean. This shift contributes to lower CO2 concentrations and cooler temperatures.

The study revealed three significant disruptions in the carbon cycle over the past 250 million years. During these events—specifically in the Mid-Triassic, Mid-Jurassic, and Late Cretaceous—extensive coral reefs consumed vast amounts of calcium carbonate, resulting in notable ocean temperature increases.

Once the balance between shallow-sea corals and deep-sea plankton is disrupted, realignment can require hundreds of thousands to millions of years, noted Salles.

“Even if the system recovers from a significant crisis, achieving equilibrium will be a prolonged process, significantly extending beyond human timelines,” Salles elaborated.

On a brighter note, Salles observes that corals excel at absorbing excess nutrients to aid in reef building, even if planktonic nutrient growth gets excessive.

Currently, human-induced carbon dioxide emissions are driving unprecedented global warming and ocean acidification, endangering both corals and plankton, according to Salles. While the outcomes remain uncertain, the potential impact on ecosystems could be catastrophic.

“The feedback mechanisms we modeled span deep time and may not be relevant today. The current rate of change is too rapid for carbonate platform feedbacks to maintain similar significance.”

Alexander Skiles from the Australian National University in Canberra remarks that this research illustrates a “profoundly interconnected feedback cycle between ecosystems and climate.”

He suggested that while species are presumed to evolve and adapt to the climatic conditions dictated by “immutable physical and chemical processes,” it is increasingly evident that certain species are actively shaping the climate itself, leading to co-evolutionary feedback loops.

“Beyond corals, ancient microbial colonies like stromatolites have significantly influenced atmospheric carbon regulation,” Skiles pointed out.

“It is well-recognized that carbon is accelerating climate warming at an alarming rate. Corals contribute to this dynamic over extensive geological time, which may elucidate fluctuations between warmer and cooler periods.”

Source: www.newscientist.com

Experts Suggest Earth’s Prehistoric Oceans Might Not Have Been Blue

Posted on November 28, 2025 by

Our planet has hosted oceans for approximately 3.8 billion years, but their current blue appearance is relatively recent. Research indicates that it hasn’t always been this way.

In the ocean’s depths today, the water appears blue because it absorbs longer wavelengths of sunlight, particularly those at the red end of the spectrum.

This absorption allows shorter, bluer wavelengths to penetrate further and scatter back into our eyes. Billions of years ago, various colors may have masked the blue waters.

During that era, the earliest life forms emerged in the oceans, particularly unicellular cyanobacteria. These organisms were crucial in shaping our planet’s habitability by capturing sunlight energy through photosynthesis, resulting in Earth’s first oxygen availability.

Researchers in Japan have recently developed a computer model demonstrating that the initial oxygen released by cyanobacteria reacted with dissolved iron in the seawater, leading to the formation of oxidized iron that turned the ocean’s surface green.

Moreover, early cyanobacteria likely adapted to thrive in the greenish water.

In their study, scientists engineered cyanobacteria that possess a specific type of photosynthetic pigment responsive to green light, known as phycoerythrobilin.

Japanese researchers created a model showing how early cyanobacteria’s oxygen interacted with dissolved iron, resulting in a green ocean surface. – Image credit: Getty Images

In contrast, most current plants utilize red and blue light through chlorophyll pigments.

In laboratory settings, these modified cyanobacteria were cultivated in tanks filled with green water, revealing a phenomenon that also occurs naturally.

The waters surrounding Iwo Jima in Japan are naturally high in iron oxide, imparting a unique green hue. The cyanobacteria prevalent along its coastlines possess pigments that make use of elevated green light levels.

This study suggests that exobiologists searching for extraterrestrial life should not only consider blue liquid water but also various shades of green that may hint at primitive life forms.

This article addresses the inquiry (by Philip Burke of Somerset): “Has the sea always been blue?”

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Astronomers Unveil Moon Concealed in Earth’s Shadow

Posted on October 25, 2025 by

Astronomers have identified a peculiar “moon” that casts a shadow on Earth as it navigates through space. Dubbed quasi-moons, these entities don’t orbit our planet in a traditional manner, yet they maintain proximity as they travel around the sun.

According to a new study published in the American Astronomical Society Research Notes, this space rock may have been a companion to Earth for as long as 60 years.

The object, identified as 2025 PN7, is small enough that it might have evaded earlier detections. While its exact dimensions remain uncertain, researchers estimate it to be around 30 meters (98 feet) in diameter—approximately the wingspan of a typical short-haul airliner—making it the tiniest known quasi-moon associated with Earth.

“With rapid technological progress, we’re identifying near-Earth objects faster than ever,” said Dr. Darren Baskill, an astronomy lecturer at the University of Sussex, in BBC Science Focus. “The sensitivity of digital cameras has improved, allowing us to detect these faint objects, and computers can effectively process vast data sets.”

At its closest approach, this object comes within 300,000 km (186,400 miles) of Earth. Usually, it remains about 384,000 km (238,600 miles) away, but its horseshoe-shaped orbit can take it as far as 297 million km (185 million miles) from our planet.

Consequently, it’s only detectable when nearby, as occurred in August 2025, when researchers from Spain’s Complutense University of Madrid spotted it from the PanSTARRS Observatory in Hawaii.

Upon reviewing historical records, scientists identified it as a potential Earth companion for decades.

“The primary question is, where did 2025 PN7 originate?” Baskill noted. “At its closest, 2025 PN7 will be roughly the same distance from Earth as the Moon, providing insights into the Moon’s possible origin.

“Another clue can be observed on a clear night: the Moon is full of craters. Each impact casts debris into the atmosphere, and some material may escape the Moon’s gravity and be launched into space.”

Moon’s craters offer clues to the origin of space rocks – Photo credit: Getty

Another hypothesis suggests that the space rock originated in the asteroid belt, but Baskill states, “It’s challenging to gather sufficient light from such a moving object to determine its chemical composition and origin.”

He further added, “Astronomers must be patient and wait to observe PN7 when it’s at its brightest, closest to Earth.”

2025 PN7 is just one of seven quasi-satellites currently orbiting near Earth. The other is the space rock Kamooarewa, which is the target of China’s Tianwen-2 mission. Launched in May 2025, Tianwen-2 aims to collect samples from asteroids to understand more about Earth’s origins and asteroid formation.

“These near-Earth objects, due to their occasional close passes, might become prime targets for the inaugural mining operations beyond Earth, or even enter Earth’s atmosphere,” Baskill remarked.

PN7 will remain in existence until 2085 when it will be pulled from orbit by gravitational forces.

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Source: www.sciencefocus.com

Breathtaking Images Showcase the Battle to Safeguard Earth’s Diverse Biodiversity

Posted on October 10, 2025 by Igor Mitreski

Malaysian tropical longhorn beetle

Kim Hee Yu

“It had an unusual expression, reminiscent of an alien, but it wasn’t hostile. It remained motionless on the branch throughout,” said Kim Hui Yu, the photographer of the long-eared longhorn beetle during a family visit to Gunung Jerai on Malaysia’s west coast.

A light bulb inside the mosquito net drew invertebrates during the night. In the morning, she selected the most vibrant ones for photographs. “I want to raise awareness that every creature, even the tiniest, has its place. So we must protect our forests.”

The image titled alien is one of eight featured in the Natural History Museum’s 2025 Biodiversity Exhibit. Visit the Wildlife Photographer of the Year exhibition, opening in London on October 17th. The collection includes images from past contests.

The exhibit also showcases a large map illustrating biodiversity levels based on the Biodiversity Intact Index developed by museum researchers.

4 month old black rhino calf

Hilary O’Leary

Hannah McCartney, who oversees the contest, emphasizes the significant influence of images. The aim is to motivate viewers to notice and act. A prime example includes Innocent Betrayed by Hilary O’Leary, showcasing a four-month-old black rhino calf interacting with an anti-poaching scout, captured while the calf was lost in the brush.

Berchtesgaden National Park in the German Alps

marc graff

high and wild, captured by Mark Graf, presents a different perspective on the potential losses of nature. This shot shows trees and rocks emerging from sunlit clouds within Berchtesgaden’s national park.

Intimate moments between harlequin toads

Jaime Culeblas

Jaime Culebras’ happy couple captures mating harlequin toads in Colombia’s Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta National Natural Park, home to numerous endangered species.

Caitlin Woods, marine ranger off Lord Howe Island

Justin Gilligan

rich reflections by Justin Gilligan captures marine ranger Caitlin Woods snorkeling among the vibrant seaweed off Lord Howe Island, located between Australia and New Zealand.

A close encounter between a pygmy rabbit and a stink bug, both found in rabbit burrows, was captured in burrow mate by Morgan Heim in the Columbia Basin, Washington.

Red kite takes off in the UK

owen hearn

flight path: Owen Hearn’s image juxtaposes the close-up of a red kite with a distant airplane silhouette. This pivotal photo was taken at a Bedfordshire site once selected as London’s third major airport, a project halted due to public opposition. Currently, this location offers a unique vantage point for wildlife photography. While the red kite population has dramatically recovered following its near extinction due to historical persecution, Britain remains one of the most depleted nations in terms of wildlife.

Life beneath the ice off the coast of Antarctica

Laurent Ballesta

Laurent Ballesta’s pyramid of life illustrates the biodiversity thriving beneath East Antarctica’s ice, featuring giant ribbon worms and starfish.

The Wildlife Photographer of the Year competition is celebrating its 61st year, with judges evaluating a record 60,000 entries, compared to just 341 in 1965. Winners will be revealed on October 14th.

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Source: www.newscientist.com

Echoes of Rock: A Personal Exploration of Earth’s Geological History

Posted on October 9, 2025 by Igor Mitreski

The rocks lining Britain’s Jurassic Coast are roughly 185 million years old

James Osmond/Alamy

Whispers of Rock
Anjana Khatwa, Bridge Street Press (UK). Basic Books (USA, releasing November 4th)

Stones are often overlooked. How frequently do we consider the materials beneath our feet, or the origins of the beach pebbles we idly collect?

And how often do we recognize the role of geology when discussing nature and our pressing discussions about climate change? Any efforts towards addressing climate change and the future of our planet must include our relationship with the elements that constitute our world.

We are fortunate to gain insights from geoscientist Anjana Khatwa through her latest book, Whispers of Rock: Stories from Earth. This work, described as “an exhilarating journey through deep time,” is a heartfelt tribute that is sure to resonate with readers. Khatwa has dedicated a significant part of her life to promoting an understanding of geology, providing the scientific detail that highlights her profound knowledge.

In this book, she methodically covers topics such as the formation of mountains, craters, and slate, interspersing fascinating anecdotes. For instance, the iconic Taj Mahal of India, a symbol of love, was constructed from ivory-white Makrana marble that dates back approximately 2 billion years, originating from ancient landmass collisions. This complex genesis involved tectonic shifts, cyanobacteria, photosynthesis, and calcium carbonate, all coming together to create the stones used in this magnificent structure.

Once the scientific framework is laid down, Khatwa breathes life into the narrative of rocks and minerals, transforming it into a sensory experience far removed from the geology classes of my past. She invites readers to appreciate the negative spaces carved in Petra, Jordan, which form breathtaking structures and the unexpected beauty found within. She describes the markings on the stone as remnants of an ancient river, illustrating her deep connection to these geological marvels, becoming a “keeper of the stories of time.”

“
A recipe that involved tectonic movements, photosynthesis, and more resulted in the marble utilized in the Taj Mahal.
“

Khatwa’s passion for stones began in her childhood, walking on solidified lava flows in southeastern Kenya. Throughout her book, she takes readers on a global journey, including her hometown of Dorset, England, where she enjoyed 20 years of geological history at the Jurassic Coast World Heritage Site.

This adventure reveals how rocks have shaped her life and the lives of many others. We explore the colossal sarsen stones of Stonehenge in England, delve into the science and folklore of New Zealand’s Ponamu greenstone, and trace the socio-political history of the Black Belt, a fertile region in the American South shaped by cotton plantations after the removal of indigenous communities.

However, what truly distinguishes this book is Khatwa’s personal narrative. She openly addresses the lack of diversity in the environmental sector in the UK and shares her experiences as a mother, imparting a sense of vulnerability along the journey.

She reflects on how she was “transformed by the whiteness of my working environment” and came to realize that her cultural and spiritual identity often took a backseat to her scientific persona. This book is essential reading for anyone grappling with that duality or wishing to understand it better. We stand with Khatwa as she navigates the space between belonging and the feeling of being an outsider.

Whispers of Rock is packed with such insight that it requires contemplation after each chapter. Khatwa is also intentionally provocative, acknowledging that the intersection between science and spirituality may make some readers uncomfortable, as it challenges their preconceived notions. Yet, this provocative approach sparks a genuinely enlightening exploration.

Dhurti Shah is a freelance journalist based in London.

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Source: www.newscientist.com

The Mystery of Earth’s Ancient Frozen Nuclei Unveiled: Discovering the Reasons Behind Their Existence

Posted on September 23, 2025 by Igor Mitreski

We may finally understand what caused the inner core of the Earth to freeze.

The inner core is a sphere of iron approximately 2,400 km (1,500 miles) in diameter, enveloped by a molten outer core. Its growth is responsible for generating the Earth’s magnetic field, which shields the planet from harmful solar radiation. However, the precise process by which the core first crystallized has remained unclear.

Recent research published in Nature Communications suggests a mechanism that hinges on deep Earth chemistry. By utilizing advanced computer simulations, scientists examined how various factors influence the freezing of iron under extreme pressure and temperature at the planet’s center.

They found that incorporating carbon allows iron to solidify under realistic conditions, positioning it as a key component in understanding the ingredients that contributed to the formation of the inner core billions of years ago.

“By investigating how Earth’s inner core formed, we gain insights not only into the planet’s history,” said Dr. Alfred Wilson from the University of Leeds, who led the study.

“We get rare insights into the chemistry of a region that we can never physically reach, and we can only speculate on how it might change in the future.”

The inner core lies deep within the planet, beneath layers of rock and magma – Credit: Getty Images/EPS Vector

At the extreme pressures found 5,000 km beneath our feet, iron doesn’t simply freeze when it drops below its melting point; it requires “super-cooling” of the crystals before they form. Pure iron must be cooled to as low as 1,000°C (1832°F), resulting in a significantly larger core than the one we see today.

New computer modeling indicates that the presence of carbon alters this equation. With less than 4% carbon in the mix, iron can crystallize at much lower temperatures, producing a core that aligns with seismic observations.

Scientists believe that the Earth’s center likely continues to host a mixture of elements. However, this research firmly highlights the critical role of carbon in one of geology’s greatest mysteries.

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Source: www.sciencefocus.com

Experts Predict Continued Recovery of the Earth’s Ozone Layer for Decades Ahead

Posted on September 18, 2025 by Igor Mitreski

The ozone layer has shown significant improvement, with the Antarctic ozone holes in 2024 being smaller than in prior years. New Report from the World Meteorological Organization (WMO).

This map depicts the size and shape of the Antarctic ozone hole on October 5th, 2022. Image credit: Earth Observatory by Joshua Stevens/NASA.

The depth of the Antarctic ozone hole in 2024 (which typically appears every spring) was below the average levels measured from 1990 to 2020, with the maximum ozone mass deficit recorded on September 29th at 46.1 million tons.

From 2020 to 2023, it remained smaller than a significantly larger hole.

Its development was relatively gradual, with ozone depletion slowing by September, followed by a quicker recovery after reaching the maximum deficit.

“This consistent progression is considered a strong indicator of early recovery in the Antarctic ozone holes,” stated WMO experts.

The alarm was initially sounded by scientists in 1975 when the WMO reported “changes in the ozone layer due to human activities and certain geophysical factors.”

If current policies remain in effect, the latest assessment for 2022 indicates that the ozone layer is projected to return to 1980 levels (prior to the appearance of ozone holes) around 2066, 2045 in the Arctic, and globally by 2045.

“Despite the significant success of the Montreal Protocol over the years, this effort remains ongoing, and continuous monitoring of stratospheric ozone and ozone-depleting substances is essential,” experts noted.

“WMO’s scientific research on the ozone layer spans decades,” remarked Celeste Sauro, WMO executive director.

“It relies on trust, international collaboration, and a commitment to free data exchange—fundamental principles of the world’s most successful environmental agreements.”

“To date, the Montreal Protocol has resulted in over 99% reduction in the production and consumption of controlled ozone-depleting substances used in refrigeration, air conditioning, fire foam, and even hairsprays.”

“Consequently, the ozone layer is on course to recover to 1980 levels by the middle of this century, significantly lowering the risk of ecosystem damage from skin cancer, cataracts, and UV overexposure.”

Source: www.sci.news

Mars Once boasted a Thicker Atmosphere Than Earth’s Today

Posted on September 16, 2025 by Igor Mitreski

Modern Mars has a minimal atmosphere

NASA/JPL/USGS

Mars’ atmosphere may have once been far thicker, providing a protective layer against the frequent asteroid impacts that destroyed other celestial bodies.

Our solar system began forming around 4 billion years ago, and by that time, Mars was nearly fully developed. The planet existed within a vast reservoir of hot gas and dust swirling around a youthful sun, known as the solar nebula, which some planets absorbed into their atmosphere. However, it was believed that as the solar nebula dissipated, Mars would lose this gas, resulting in a thinner atmosphere.

Recently, Sarah Jollett from Paris’ Collège de France and her team propose that Mars retained this gas for a longer period, forming a primordial atmosphere akin to a sustained soup.

Shortly after the nebula receded, it was believed that the orbits of significant planets like Jupiter and Saturn influenced each other, subsequently disturbing the paths of comets and asteroids that headed towards the inner solar system, impacting rocky planets. While chemical signatures of these impacts can be found on Earth, evidence on Mars remains limited.

“All terrestrial planets faced bombardments from comets during this time, and Mars was no exception, so we should observe remnants of this cometary assault on Mars,” Jollett stated at the Europlanet Science Congress held on September 11th in Helsinki, Finland.

Jollett and her colleagues suggest that the dense, hydrogen-rich atmosphere during this era may have diluted comet material that was available for absorption by Mars. By running simulations of the early solar system, they estimated the potential amount of material impacting Mars and compared it to the detectable quantity. They deduced that the original Martian atmosphere had a mass equivalent to 2.9 bars, around three times the atmospheric pressure we experience on the surface today.

However, this atmosphere dissipated relatively swiftly over about a million years, according to Raymond Pierre Hambart from Oxford University, who was not involved in the study. This loss primarily occurred before liquid water could come to the surface of Mars. The necessary clear atmospheric conditions, rich in carbon dioxide, were likely not present in that thick primordial atmosphere.

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The Extinction of a Dinosaur: A Dramatic Transformation of Earth’s Landscape

Posted on September 15, 2025 by Igor Mitreski

Large dinosaurs such as Titanosaurus significantly influenced their ecosystems

Christian Jegou/Science Photography Library

The extinction of dinosaurs had profound consequences for Earth, leading to significant alterations in the planet’s landscapes, including shifts in river systems.

There is a clear distinction between various rock formations in North America before and after the end of the dinosaurs during the Cretaceous-Paleogene (K-PG) extinction event approximately 66 million years ago, triggered by the Chicxulub asteroid impact in the Yucatan Peninsula.

For example, the Green Gray Mudstone, recognized as the Hell Creek Formation from the dinosaur period, transitions into the more vivid pajama-striped layers of the Fort Union Formation, which hosts many lignite-rich charcoals from plant material that surfaced with the rise of mammals.

This transition was initially attributed to the direct impacts of asteroid strikes, such as increased rainfall. However, Luke Weaver from the University of Michigan and his team propose another explanation.

They examined floodplain areas in the western United States, revealing abrupt geological changes around the K-PG boundary, particularly in the Williston Basin, stretching across parts of Wyoming, Montana, and the Dakotas.

The multifaceted colorful layers from the Post-dinosaur period are believed to be deposits formed by rising water levels, creating temporary ponds. However, Weaver and his colleagues did not find supporting literature on water level changes during this era.

“There’s no evidence of extremely high water tables or particularly wet conditions,” he says. While there was an intrusion of seawater inland, the nearest instance occurred at least 300,000 years after the K-PG boundary.

Weaver’s team argues that significant sandstone layers formed post-K-PG boundary are indicative of large, stable rivers, known as Point Bar deposits, instead of temporary pond deposits. These layers can exceed 10 meters in thickness, reflecting the stability of these rivers.

Researchers attribute these findings to the extinction of dinosaurs. They propose that, like today’s large herbivores, dinosaurs were ecological engineers, disrupting vegetation, trampling, and grazing seedlings, inhibiting new plant growth.

“These creatures were colossal compared to modern fauna,” Weaver notes. For instance, while a contemporary elephant weighs around 5,000 kilograms, a Triceratops could weigh at least double that.

As they moved through and destroyed vegetation, the rivers would have flooded periodically instead of winding through forests. This change ultimately led to the expansion of marshy mudstone, according to Weaver. Once the dinosaurs vanished, tree roots stabilized the sediments, allowing water to flow through a meandering riverbed, thus creating point bars.

“This illustrates a landscape where biology plays a crucial role,” Weaver observes. Animals, he argues, significantly modify their environments, much like humans have drastically altered Earth’s landscapes.

Christopher Doughty from Northern Arizona University believes this perspective better explains the observed geological transformations than earlier theories. “In contemporary studies where large animals are removed from ecosystems, tree cover significantly increases,” he mentions. “With the extinction of dinosaurs, there were no longer large animals capable of uprooting trees. This led to a decrease in herbivory and reduced the disturbance of seedlings giving rise to robust tree growth.”

However, Cat Schroder from the University of New Mexico remains skeptical. “While there seems to be a correlation between large dinosaurs and open nutritional landscapes, causality hasn’t been established yet,” she says. “Forests thrived before, during, and after the age of dinosaurs.”

Doughty is using isotopic analysis of fossil leaves to investigate how forest structures have shifted since the dinosaurs went extinct.

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Strata Review: Unveiling the Captivating Narratives in Earth’s “Boring” Layered Rocks

Posted on September 1, 2025 by Igor Mitreski

Rock layers reveal insights into our planet’s deep past, such as these in Canada

Paul Andreassen/Alamy

hierarchy
Laura Poppick (WW Norton)

The narrative of Earth is one of transformation. Over 4.5 billion years, our planet has evolved from a scorching mass of molten rock and poisonous gases into a temperate and vibrant habitat teeming with diverse life forms. This evolution was punctuated by pauses, restarts, and cataclysmic events, as the intricate biogeochemical processes shaped the most extraordinary phases in Earth’s history.

Our understanding of this vast tale is largely thanks to rocks. They preserve the chronology of events that contributed to the surface’s stratification through various deposits. This intricate ordering is understood through hierarchies, and the scientific discipline dedicated to interpreting them is known as stratigraphy.

In Strata: A Story from Deep Time, journalist Laura Poppick delves into this nuanced science of rock interpretation, offering insights on how planets respond to and recover from periods of upheaval. “Through these layers, we glimpse ancient versions of our planet, gaining contextual awareness as we traverse through the present,” she observes.

Poppick highlights several transformative periods in Earth’s history, selecting four key episodes. The first examines the development of oxygen-rich atmospheres, tracking the evolution of photosynthesizing microorganisms and significant oxidative events that led to mass extinctions around 2.4 billion years ago.

The second segment discusses “Snowball Earth,” a period approximately 720 million years ago when many regions are believed to have frozen over. Following this, she explores the advent of mud and the subsequent rise of vegetation. Finally, the Mesozoic era, dominated by dinosaurs, records atmospheric carbon dioxide levels much higher than today’s due to volcanic activity, offering a framework to understand planetary responses to climate shifts.

“
Sedimentary rocks maintain a distinct layer system that clearly records the events that have shaped our planet’s surface.
“

Throughout each episode, Poppick introduces geologists working to unravel the numerous unanswered questions regarding the timing and causes of these changes. She visits significant geological sites, from Newfoundland to the Australian Outback, where one can observe the strata that articulate these narratives.

The recurring theme emphasizes the importance of paying attention to rocks. To an untrained observer, they may appear ordinary; however, Poppick reminds us that “a trained eye discerns physical and chemical indicators—proxies—that reveal the characteristics of our planet during the formation of these rocks.” She underscores the value of geologists’ expertise.

This book is a remarkable attempt to make stratigraphy engaging. At times, it falters, and Poppick’s fragmented writing style led me to lose the thread of the narrative.

Her comparisons of geological transformations to human-centric changes sometimes felt uneasy. For instance, she likens the Mesozoic greenhouse climate to modern carbon emissions, though the historical era’s temperatures were so extreme that such analogies may be misleading, even at optimistic emission projections.

Another limitation lies in the currently incomplete nature of geoscience. Some of the pivotal questions raised by Poppick—including the true cause of Snowball Earth—remain unresolved or are subject to debate among different factions. By the end, I was left with a sense of uncertainty about what can be definitively stated. Yet, that unpredictability might be intrinsic to geology itself. “Nothing is immutable in stone as our understanding of geology continues to evolve, just like the rocks,” Poppick states.

Nevertheless, the book effectively captures the grandeur of the story embedded in rocks. It does so particularly well by showing how seemingly mundane observations about rocks can lead directly to profound insights into Earth’s history. Such revelations illuminate the stratigraphic process as Poppick examines overlooked outcrops, encouraging us to perceive the rocks in our surroundings with renewed appreciation.

“Hierarchies are, in many ways, love letters from a maturing Earth,” she argues. This book abundantly reveals the reasons to uncover the secrets they hold.

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Climate Change Feedback Loops Are Degrading Earth’s Carbon Sinks

Posted on August 20, 2025 by Igor Mitreski

Wildfires in Greece are diminishing the Earth’s natural carbon sink

Thanassis Stavrakis/AP Photo/Alamy

Climate change is increasingly compromising the ability of the Earth’s natural carbon sinks to absorb excess carbon dioxide. This results in greenhouse gases emitted by human activity lingering in the atmosphere, contributing to further warming.

These feedback loops account for roughly 15% of the rise in CO2 levels since 1960, according to Pierre Friedlingstein from the University of Exeter, UK.

The land and oceans serve as carbon sinks, absorbing nearly half of the extra CO2 produced by humans. While higher CO2 levels can enhance plant growth, leading to greater CO2 uptake by vegetation, extreme temperatures, droughts, and wildfires associated with global warming can counteract this CO2 fertilization effect.

Friedlingstein is part of the Global Carbon Project, which aims to clarify the amounts of CO2 being emitted, how it is absorbed by different sources, and how this process evolves over time. Previously, his research team used climate models to project a 27% increase in land sinks in the absence of drought or other feedbacks.

His latest estimates have adjusted this figure to 30%, as he shared at the Exeter Climate Conference last month. He mentioned that ocean sinks also increase CO2 by 6% without feedback effects.

Together, land and oceans contribute over 15% of atmospheric CO2. Since 1960, CO2 levels have surged to around 100 parts per million (ppm), indicating that 15 ppm can be traced back to the feedback effects impacting the sinks. “The sink hasn’t collapsed, but its recovery is slow,” Friedlingstein noted.

There remains uncertainty regarding the sink’s capacity, as David Armstrong McKay from the University of Sussex has observed. “It aligns with expectations, but it’s not encouraging news that we’re marginally off what we projected,” McKay stated. “As warming intensifies, it will challenge land sinks’ adaptability to increased CO2, with extreme events like the recent El Niño-enhanced drought hampering the positive effects on vegetation growth.”

The pressing question is what will unfold next. With the rise in warming, droughts, and fires, research has indicated that land sinks have made minimal net CO2 contributions in the past two years.

This has raised concerns that the effectiveness of land sinks might significantly decrease in the near future, opposing the gradual decline most climate scientists anticipate.

Nonetheless, Friedlingstein referred to these short-term fluctuations as “blips” that may not accurately predict future trends. “What we should focus on is the long term,” he emphasized.

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Source: www.newscientist.com

Niger Probes $5 Million Sale of Earth’s Largest Martian Rock

Posted on August 12, 2025 by Igor Mitreski

Dakar, Senegal – the largest meteorite discovered on Earth – a 54-pound (25 kilograms) rock that fetched over $5 million at a New York auction last month, setting a world record.

However, in a West African nation where rusty red rocks have been excavated from the Sahara desert, authorities have initiated an investigation into what they describe as “illegal international trafficking,” suggesting it may have been smuggled from the country.

Here’s what you should know about meteorites and legal controversies:

How was it discovered

According to Sotheby’s, the rock, designated NWA 16788, was dislodged from the surface of Mars by a massive asteroid collision and journeyed 140 million miles (225 million kilometers) to Earth.

It was uncovered in the Sahara, northwest Niger by an unnamed meteorite hunter in November 2023, as per the auction house’s report. The identities of buyers remain undisclosed.

In the arid regions of the Sahara like Niger, meteorite hunting is on the rise. While meteorites can fall anywhere on Earth, the Sahara has emerged as a prime location for their discovery due to its climate, which is conducive to conservation.

Hunters often seek space rocks to sell to collectors and scientists. The most coveted and valuable meteorites are from Mars and the Moon.

As reported by the Heritage Academic Journal, the rock was sold to international dealers and eventually made it to a private gallery in Italy. Last year, a team of scientists from the University of Florence examined the rock to determine its structure and origins before it fell to Earth.

The meteorite was briefly showcased in Rome before appearing at the New York auction last month.

Why Niger is investigating

Following the sale, Niger raised concerns about how the meteorite was made available for auction.

Last month, the Niger government launched an inquiry into the discovery and sale of meteorites, stating that it resembles “illegal international trafficking.”

Last week, President Abdullah Hamanetiani halted the export of precious stones, semi-precious stones, and meteorites to ensure proper traceability.

In a statement to the Associated Press, Sotheby’s maintained that the meteorite was exported from Niger and transported in line with all applicable international regulations.

“In selling this item, all necessary documentation was obtained at each stage of the journey, consistent with best practices and the requirements of the involved countries,” the statement indicated.

Niger authorities did not respond to inquiries from the Associated Press.

What international law says

Patti Garstenblis, a cultural heritage attorney and expert on illegal trade, noted that rare minerals like meteorites are recognized as cultural property under the UNESCO Cultural Property Treaty, which both Niger and the United States have ratified.

However, Garstenbliss pointed out that Niger needs to establish ownership and that the meteorite was stolen.

“I doubt Niger could reclaim the meteorite if it wasn’t stolen and was properly declared upon entering the U.S.,” she stated to the Associated Press.

Paleontologist Paul Sereno, who has spent years uncovering dinosaur fossils in Niger’s Sahara, is advocating for the return of the nation’s cultural and natural heritage, including meteorites.

“When laws clearly state that rare minerals like meteorites are cultural artifacts, unique and valuable items cannot just be claimed without consideration for the country,” he told the AP.

“We are no longer in a colonial era,” he added.

In certain countries, including Morocco, a major source of meteoritic specimens for international markets, if an object is found on their territory, compensation is required. Nonetheless, due to the expansive desert regions and the informal trading networks, enforcement remains challenging.

Source: www.nbcnews.com

Unlocking the Mysteries of Earth’s Extraordinary Deep Biosphere: Our Next Great Frontier

Posted on July 31, 2025 by Igor Mitreski

Microbial life thrives in this thermal vent in the Pacific Ocean

Galih/Alamy

Within the Earth
Karen G. Lloyd (Princeton University Press)

While many shelves are filled with titles about forests, oceans, and deserts, the deep biosphere, an important and intriguing habitat beneath our feet, is often overlooked. Despite a few notable exceptions, literature on ecosystems ranging from the Amazon to Antarctica largely ignores this underground world.

Not anymore. Within the Earth: Discover the Strangest Life on Earth by Karen G. Lloyd serves as a crucial field guide to the underground life we’ve started to uncover. “In fact, we have yet to find the limits of where life ceases to exist,” she states.

The general unawareness of the deep biosphere’s existence reflects our surface-centric worldview. However, Lloyd, a microbial biogeochemist at the University of Tennessee, Knoxville, argues that learning about this life can profoundly change our understanding of existence itself.

She defines the deep biosphere as areas below the seafloor or beneath land where life thrives without sunlight, the primary energy source for most surface organisms. These environments encompass a variety of metabolic processes, from methane production arising from decomposed plants beneath a few centimeters of marsh mud to chemical processes with microbes three kilometers underground.

Discussing these microorganisms, she notes, “It’s as if there are millions of small, low-energy suns scattered throughout the Earth’s crust, each supporting its own underground ecosystem.”

How much life is present? It’s difficult to say. However, Lloyd contends that all estimates are likely underestimated. One claim suggests that marine sediments alone could hold 2.9 x 10²⁹ cells, potentially twice as many as those in continental fractures and pores, presenting astonishing figures.

Advances in genetic sequencing and field research are illuminating these rich ecosystems. Lloyd helps researchers differentiate between microbial species and deduce metabolic functions through DNA alone. This is especially helpful since many deep-dwelling bacteria and archaea have proven impossible to cultivate in surface laboratories.

It’s like a movie. Be careful not to slip on the volcanic glass shards. Don’t fall into the acid lake!

The fieldwork section discusses how scientists obtain new DNA samples—whether from hydrothermal vents, excavated continental rocks, or dripping water in deep mines. “To understand limits, one sometimes must become the explorer,” Lloyd notes.

Through engaging prose, she recounts her adventures tracking microorganisms from the high deserts of the Andes to the perilous peaks of Costa Rican volcanoes. These stories resemble scenes from action films—caution is essential to avoid slipping on volcanic glass fragments or falling into acid lakes!

Fortunately, this book transcends a mere expedition narrative. It features an extensive and approachable explanation of the chemistry that enables a deep biosphere. Although the equations involved can be complex, Lloyd adeptly guides readers to grasp the chemical frameworks that support these creatures living on the “edge of energy.”

To facilitate this challenging learning curve, she draws parallels between surface ecosystems and our dietary habits to illuminate the underground world. For instance, bacteria that metabolize sulfides are likened to “couch potatoes,” competing with methane-producing “freeloaders” by preserving hydrogen, a universal nutrient—a dramatic ecological narrative reminiscent of the Serengeti. Sulfate-reducing agents in Svalbard’s fjords “have access to a permanently stocked refrigerator.” Engaging and thrilling, her exploration of biogeochemistry is no small feat.

However, the highlight of Lloyd’s book is her assertion that certain forms of deep life may possess a sluggish metabolism, allowing individuals to survive for thousands, or even millions of years. These “eonophiles” (once confirmed to have extraordinarily long life spans) “redefine our preconceived notions about the nature of life,” she asserts. Truly, these lifestyles are alien, and how fortunate we are to uncover more about them right here on Earth!

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Surviving and Thriving in One of Earth’s Most Hostile Environments

Posted on July 31, 2025 by Igor Mitreski

The deep-sea environment is largely dominated by marine tube worms

Institute of Deep Sea Science and Engineering, CAS

Marine tube worms in deep-sea habitats — The deep-sea environment is largely dominated by marine tube worms

Institute of Deep Sea Science and Engineering, CAS

Over 9,500 meters of ecosystems fueled by chemicals from tectonic plate interactions have been uncovered beneath the northwest Pacific Ocean.

“Their resilience and beauty captivated me,” says Mengrand Du from the Chinese Academy of Sciences in Sanya. “The striking crimson tentacles unfurl like delicate blossoms of the trench.”

Du and her team undertook 24 dives between July 8 and August 17, 2024, exploring 2,500 kilometers west of the Krill Kamchatka trench and Aleutian trench, at depths ranging from 5,800 to 9,533 meters. In a frozen section beyond 6,000 meters deep, the Hadal zone experiences crushing pressure and is devoid of light.

This region is referred to as the Hadal biosphere, which derives energy from nutrients descending from surface photosynthesis or exists via chemical bonds relying on chemicals as energy sources.

Taxonomic and genetic data gathered during the dives indicated that many organisms in the Hadal zone utilize compounds such as hydrogen sulfide and methane, which are released through fault lines formed as tectonic plates slide against each other.

“We have discovered a chemically-synthesized community thriving at an astonishing depth of 9,533 meters,” Du states. These findings, made during 19 dives, illustrate their extensive distribution.

The chemically-driven community was primarily composed of bivalve mollusks and marine tube worms known as ciboglinid polychaetes. Some populations consisted of thousands of individuals, sprawling for kilometers.

Numerous bivalve mollusks are also present.

Institute of Deep Sea Science and Engineering, CAS

A notable characteristic of many of these organisms is their dependence on chemical energy rather than sunlight, according to Du. “While other organisms, such as sea cucumbers and amphipods, might inhabit greater depths, they cannot harness chemicals like hydrogen sulfide for energy and must rely on organic matter instead.”

This finding indicates “the deepest and most extensive known chemical synthesis community on our planet.”

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Source: www.newscientist.com

Ancient Rocks Reveal the First Signs of Earth’s Structural Activity

Posted on July 15, 2025 by Igor Mitreski

The Pilbara Craton in Western Australia features rocks that date back 3.5 billion years.

Elizabeth Czitronyi / Alamy

Rocks from Australia reveal that tectonic plates were shifting as far back as 3.5 billion years ago, a breakthrough that alters our understanding of the onset of plate tectonics over subsequent hundreds of millions of years.

Currently, along with roughly eight major hard rock plates on Earth’s surface, several smaller plates are interacting with the softer rock layer beneath. When these plates’ edges grind against one another, it can lead to sudden geological upheavals, such as earthquakes, and gradual processes like mountain range formation.

However, there is disagreement among geologists regarding the configurations of these ancient plates and their movements. Some researchers claim to have found indications of tectonic activity as far back as 4 billion years ago when the planet was significantly hotter; others argue that more compelling evidence is noted after 3.2 billion years ago.

Much of this data derives from the chemical compositions of rocks, which suggest past movements. Despite this, records detailing the interactions of early plates remain scarce, which is regarded as critical evidence supporting plate tectonics.

Recently, Alec Brenner and his team from Yale University claim to have uncovered substantial evidence of relative plate movement dating back 3.5 billion years in the eastern Pilbara Craton of Western Australia. They traced the magnetic orientation of rocks aligned with Earth’s magnetic field, observing shifts similar to how a compass needle changes direction when the ground moves.

Brenner and colleagues initially dated the rock using radioisotope analysis, establishing that at certain times, the rock’s magnetism remained unchanged. By observing this magnetization shift, they demonstrated that the rock mass progressively moved at a rate of several centimeters each year. They compared these findings to similarly examined rocks in the Barberton Greenstone Belt in South Africa, which exhibited no such movement.

“This suggests that some type of plate boundary must exist between these two regions to accommodate that relative movement,” remarked Brenner during his presentation at the Goldschmidt Geochemical Conference in Prague, Czech Republic, on July 9.

“Approximately 3.8 billion years ago, the Pilbara plate transitioned from medium to high latitudes, eventually reaching proximity to Earth’s magnetic poles and, possibly millions of years later, to the latitude of Svalbard.”

“If two plates are moving relative to one another, there must be various dynamic interactions happening between them,” noted Robert Hazen from the Carnegie Institute of Science in Washington, DC. “It cannot be an isolated event.”

Nonetheless, multiple interpretations exist regarding the underlying causes of this movement, according to Hazen. The variability in plate movement rates adds to the confusion, and existing data could align with various theories regarding Earth’s interior structure at that time.

At the very least, this discovery indicates the presence of structural boundaries, according to Michael Brown from the University of Maryland. However, he argues that the nature of rock movement appears dissimilar to contemporary understanding of plate tectonics. “Essentially, the Pilbara plate moved to higher latitudes to prevent stagnation, which is atypical within any current plate structural model.”

Brown posits that this aligns with the theory suggesting the Earth’s crust consisted of numerous smaller plates propelled by a thermal mantle plume during that period. He believes the remnants of these small plates examined by Brenner and his team provide evidence of movement; however, due to their limited representation of the crust, they may not accurately reflect broader Earth movements.

Brenner’s team also discovered indications that the Earth’s magnetic field underwent reversals around 3.46 billion years ago. Unlike today’s magnetic field reversals, which occur every million years, these ancient magnetic shifts seemed to happen much more frequently, over spans of tens of millions of years. This could imply a fundamentally different set of energies and mechanisms at play, as noted by Brenner.

Hazen emphasized that the scarcity of magnetic data leads to ongoing debates about the state of Earth’s magnetic field during that era of its evolution. “I believe this discovery raises the bar significantly,” he asserts. “It represents a vital breakthrough in understanding early magnetic reversals, shedding light on the core’s geomechanics in ways previously unexplored.”

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Source: www.newscientist.com

Unique Plants Aid in Reconstructing Ancient Earth’s Climate

Posted on July 10, 2025 by Igor Mitreski

Smooth equestrian plants have split stems

piemags/nature/alamy

The peculiar plants that existed since the dawn of terrestrial animals can process water to remarkable extremes, resembling water from metstones more than typical groundwater. Not only do they play a crucial role in today’s ecosystems, but their fossilized remnants also provide insights into Earth’s ancient climate and hydrological systems during the age of dinosaurs.

Almost every oxygen atom in water contains eight neutrons, though some rare heavy isotopes possess nine or ten neutrons. When water evaporates, lighter isotopes do so more readily than their heavier counterparts, leading to predictable shifts in their ratios. Researchers can utilize this information to trace the origin of a specific water sample, determining whether it originated from groundwater, fog, or the rate at which it traversed through plants and the humidity levels experienced by those plants in the past.

Nevertheless, due to the minimal presence of heavier isotopes, acquiring reliable data on how these ratios fluctuate can be quite challenging, making it hard for scientists to draw definitive conclusions.

During examinations of water samples from desert flora and fauna, Zachary Sharp from the University of New Mexico and his colleagues discovered discrepancies between the observed data and the anticipated outcomes based on laboratory models.

Sharp and his team believe they have addressed the issue through a remarkable plant known as horsetail, which has been on Earth since the Devonian period approximately 400 million years ago and features segmented, hollow stems. “It’s a tall cylinder with countless holes, evenly spaced, a marvel of engineering,” states Sharp. “We couldn’t replicate this design in our lab.”

As water flows through each segment of the horsetail stem, it undergoes a process of repeated distillation. Sharp and his colleagues collected water samples at various points along the smooth idiot stem (Equisetum) cultivated near the Rio Grande in New Mexico.

By the time the water reaches the top of the stem, its isotopic composition markedly differs from other terrestrial waters. “If you encounter this sample, I suspect it originates from metstone, as it doesn’t come from Earth. [The oxygen isotope ratios],” Sharp remarked during a presentation at the Goldschmidt Geochemical Conference in Prague, Czech Republic, on July 7.

These horsetail analyses enable Sharp and his team to ascertain the variations in the water’s isotopic ratios under near-ideal conditions, allowing them to enhance model accuracy with these values.

By reassessing desert plant data with these refined models, previously inexplicable observations suddenly made sense. Sharp posits that these findings could illuminate other challenging observations, especially in arid regions.

Reaching heights of 30 meters, far surpassing today’s descendants, ancient horsetails provide even more extreme isotopic ratios and could serve as a key to understanding ancient water systems and climates, according to Sharp. Small, sand-like grains known as plant stone threads within horsetail stems can endure to the present day and may feature unique isotopic signatures influenced by atmospheric humidity. This factor affects the evaporation rate. “This could serve as a paleofat meter [humidity indicator]—how fascinating,” Sharp concludes.

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Source: www.newscientist.com

Fresh Challenge: Lowering Earth’s Temperature

Posted on July 8, 2025 by Igor Mitreski

Unwanted Thoughts

Sometimes our minds become cluttered with confusing thoughts. What can we do when we’re unable to release them? Here are some tips to manage these thoughts and soothe your mind:

Pups vs. Parenting

In recent years, many individuals have opted for furry companions over raising children. When it comes to achieving happiness, which is preferable: owning a dog or raising a child?

Asteroids and the Apocalypse

Meet the dedicated scientists, astronomers, and mathematicians who tirelessly monitor the skies, keeping a watchful eye on asteroids that could threaten our world.

Feelings of Isolation

Loneliness encompasses the negative emotional state we experience when we lack sufficient personal time. While social interactions are essential, carving out quality time for yourself can significantly lower stress levels.

Plus

Eliminate Fluoride from US Water: US Health Secretary Robert F. Kennedy Jr. has urged the CDC to cease recommendations for water fluoridation. Dental experts express concerns about potential impacts on oral health. Explore the facts.
Cyborg Advancements: Imagine a future where humans possess extraordinary strength, enhanced vision, and the ability to fly—it may sound far-fetched, but it’s already in progress. Discover the leading “cyborg technology” that will soon be commercially available.
Q&A: This month’s burning questions answered! Can animals become intoxicated? What’s the best way to use a defibrillator? What are tufted ground squirrels? How much exercise do you require? Do you really control my blood pressure? What if a Super Collider were built around the moon? What’s the ideal sleeping position? How do you combat compassion fatigue? Are there other sites akin to Stonehenge? And more…

Issue 421 Available on Tuesday, July 8th, 2025

Don’t forget, BBC Science Focus is accessible on all major digital platforms. You can find it on Android, Kindle Fire and Kindle e-readers, as well as on the iOS App for iPhone and iPad.

Source: www.sciencefocus.com

How Ancient Mass Extinctions Revealed Earth’s Evolution into a Super Greenhouse

Posted on July 4, 2025 by Igor Mitreski

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Current forest die-offs due to global warming resemble those from the Permian and Triassic extinction events.

Ina Fassbender/AFP via Getty Images

Following a dramatic increase in carbon dioxide levels 252 million years ago, the death of forests resulted in enduring climate alterations, with the greenhouse effect persisting for millions of years.

Researchers striving to comprehend this phenomenon, which triggered the largest mass extinction in Earth’s history, caution that ongoing greenhouse gas emissions may lead to similar outcomes.

The extinction events of the Permian and Triassic are believed to have been triggered by extensive volcanic activity in what is now Siberia, elevating atmospheric CO2 concentrations.

The planet’s surface temperature soared by as much as 10°C, with average temperatures in the equatorial regions climbing to 34°C (93°F)—a rise of 8°C above the current average.

These extreme conditions persisted for roughly 5 million years, causing over 80% of marine species and upwards of 70% of terrestrial vertebrate families to become extinct, according to some estimates.

Although some scientists have recently posited that these mass extinction events may have limited effects on terrestrial ecosystems, Andrew Meldis from the University of Adelaide expresses confidence that life was nearly extinguished 252 million years ago.

“Small pockets of life might survive mass extinctions in isolated enclaves, but many areas within the Permian-Triassic fossil record reveal a complete ecosystem collapse,” notes Meldis.

He and his team scrutinized the fossil record to investigate why the Super Greenhouse event, which drives mass extinction, lasted five million years—far longer than the 100,000 years predicted by climate models.

The findings revealed that vast expanses of forests, originally with canopies of around 50 meters, were supplanted by resilient underground flora, typically ranging from 5 cm to 2 meters in height. Additionally, peat marshes, significant carbon storage ecosystems, vanished from tropical areas.

Employing computer models of Earth’s climatic and geochemical systems, researchers indicated that the depletion of these ecosystems contributes to elevated CO2 levels persisting for millions of years. This predominantly occurs because vegetation plays a crucial role in weathering, the mechanism that extracts carbon from the atmosphere and sequesters it in rocks and soil over extensive timescales.

With atmospheric CO2 levels rising rapidly, the parallels to the present are striking, asserts Meldis. As temperatures escalate, tropical and subtropical forests may find it increasingly challenging to adapt, potentially surpassing thresholds where vegetation ceases to maintain climate equilibrium.

Meldis explains that simply restoring former ecosystems will not lead to a “ping-pong effect.” He emphasizes that the atmosphere cannot be swiftly rejuvenated after the loss of the equatorial forest.

“You’re not transitioning from an ice house to a greenhouse and then back; the Earth will find a new equilibrium, which may differ significantly from prior states,” he elaborates.

Catlin Maisner, a researcher at the University of New South Wales—who was not involved in the study—describes reconstructing these events as analogous to “trying to assemble a jigsaw puzzle with many missing pieces,” yet acknowledges the team’s arguments as “plausible.”

However, she notes considerable uncertainty regarding oceanic processes during this period. “The ocean harbors far more carbon than land and atmosphere combined, and we still lack a comprehensive understanding of how marine biology, chemistry, and physical circulation were affected during that event,” cautions Meissner.

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Climate change/
Paleontology

Feel free to adjust any sections as needed!

Source: www.newscientist.com

Canada’s Nuvvuagittuq Greenstone Belt Contains Fragments of Earth’s Oldest Crust, Research Reveals

Posted on June 28, 2025 by Igor Mitreski

Geologists have found significant evidence indicating the preservation of Hadean Rocks, with an age of 4.16 billion years. The Nuvvuagittuq Greenstone Belt offers a rare glimpse into the early Earth.

Canadian Nuvvuagittuq Green Stone Belt. Image credit: Jonathan O’Neill.

The earliest geological history of Earth remains largely unclear due to the scarcity of rocks and minerals from the Hadean period (over 4.3 billion years ago).

These ancient materials are often altered or destroyed as the planet’s crust undergoes continual recycling through various geological processes.

“One potential survivor of the Hadean era crustal rock is the Nuvvuagittuq Greenstone Belt,” stated Dr. Christian Saul, a senior author from the University of Ottawa and his colleagues.

“However, this perspective is contentious. Some researchers argue that the isotopic data backing these estimates might instead reflect later geological mixing rather than the true age of the layers.”

“If proven to be of Hadean origin, the Nuvvuagittuq Greenstone Belt would represent the oldest known preserved rock sequence on Earth.”

“This could yield critical insights into early geology and possible environments for the emergence of life.”

To refine the age of the Nuvvuagittuq Greenstone Belt, researchers concentrated on specific types of ancient rock intrusions known as metagabbro within the belt.

These intrusions intersect with ancient basaltic rocks, enabling the authors to utilize combined uranium-lead (U-Pb) dating to determine the minimum age limits of older layers, along with both short and long-lived samarium-neodymium (Sm-Nd) isotopic analysis.

Sm-Nd data yielded a consistent age of approximately 4.16 billion years, irrespective of the sample location or mineral composition.

The convergence of both isotope systems producing the same age in rocks with clear evidence of magma differentiation strongly supports their Hadean era crystallization.

This is in accordance with the Hadean Eon surviving within the Nuvvuagittuq Greenstone Belt.

“Studying these rocks allows us to trace back to the origins of our planet,” noted Dr. Jonathan O’Neill, a researcher at the University of Ottawa.

“This will enable us to gain a better understanding of how the first continent formed and help reconstruct the environment in which life emerged.”

Survey results published in the journal Science.

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C. Sole et al. 2025. Evidence of Hadean Mafic invasion in the Canadian Nuvvuagittuq Greenstone Belt. Science 388 (6754): 1431-1435; doi: 10.1126/science.ads8461

Source: www.sci.news

These Rocks May Be the Final Remnants of Earth’s Early Crust

Posted on June 27, 2025 by Igor Mitreski

Canadian Nuvvuagittuq Green Stone Belt may contain the world’s oldest rock

Jonathan O’Neill

About four billion years ago, magma from Earth’s mantle intruded the primitive crust of a nascent planet. Over the next period, nearly all of the planet’s early crust melted back into the mantle, leaving behind a small remnant near the site of this intrusion that still exists today.

This remnant is part of the Nuvvuagittuq Greenstone Belt along Hudson Bay’s coast in Canada. Recent analyses of the rock’s radioisotope signatures have sparked debates among geologists about whether it is indeed the oldest rock on Earth or simply very ancient.

In a study published in 2008, Jonathan O’Neill from the University of Ottawa and his team posited that the surrounding rocks could be as old as 4.3 billion years, dating back to the Hadean eon—just a few hundred million years after Earth’s formation.

While there have been discoveries of older mineral grains, these ancient Hadean rocks provide critical insights into Earth’s formative years, possibly shedding light on geological enigmas like the onset of plate tectonics and early ocean compositions.

The method used for dating the rocks has drawn controversy, particularly regarding the claimed age of 4.3 billion years. Traditionally, old rocks are dated utilizing a robust mineral known as zircon, but these volcanic rocks lack zircon. “No one can date these rocks using the popular techniques,” O’Neill remarks.

Instead, researchers analyzed the isotopes of neodymium and samarium within the rock. As samarium decays, it generates different isotopes of neodymium at predictable rates, allowing the ratio of isotopes to serve as a “clock” marking the time since the rock crystallized from magma. Interestingly, two isotopes of samarium can decay at differing rates, acting as two parallel chronometers. Disagreement arose among researchers about whether the rock was genuinely Hadean, as the two clocks provided inconsistent age estimates.

“I’m not convinced that most of the early Earth research community agrees,” states Richard Walker at the University of Maryland.

Currently, O’Neill’s team is assessing the neodymium and samarium isotopes in the rock formations dating back 4.3 billion years. By definition, such intrusions are younger than the surrounding rock layers, implying that dating an intrusion yields the minimum age for the enclosing rocks.

Detailed view of the Canada Nuvvuagittuq Green Stone Belt

David Hutt/Alamy

In the findings, the two chronological indicators tell the same tale, indicating the rocks’ age to be approximately 4.16 billion years. “Both clocks yield identical results,” O’Neill states. This consistency bolsters the theory that the surrounding rocks were indeed solidified during the Hadean eon, making them potentially the only known remnants of Earth’s ancient crust.

“I believe they present the strongest argument possible,” asserts Graham Pierson from the University of Alberta, Canada.

“The simplest interpretation of this data is that these represent the oldest rocks on Earth,” says Jesse Reimink at Pennsylvania State University. Nevertheless, he cautions that this may not be the final word on the subject, stating, “When it comes to the oldest rocks and minerals, absolute certainty is hard to come by.”

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Source: www.newscientist.com

The Earth’s Sensitivity to Greenhouse Gases is Greater Than We Realized

Posted on June 24, 2025 by Igor Mitreski

Climate change might be even more severe than previously estimated

kapook2981/getty images

The Earth’s climate appears to be more responsive to the pollution caused by greenhouse gases than previously assumed, making it harder to keep global temperature increases below 2°C.

This is concerning news for global efforts to combat climate change, according to Gunnar Myhre from Cicero International Climate Research Centre in Norway.

Researchers have long been aware that releasing greenhouse gases into the atmosphere can lead to climate warming with widespread consequences. However, the extent of potential warming due to these emissions remains uncertain. Specifically, how sensitive is the Earth’s climate to this pollution?

The primary uncertainty arises from how clouds react to warming atmospheres, as shifts in cloud systems could exacerbate warming through feedback loops.

Most predictions regarding warming by the century’s end are derived from climate models that incorporate various sensitivity assumptions. The model utilized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change indicates that if atmospheric concentrations double compared to pre-industrial levels, warming could range between 2°C and 5°C, prompting organizations to adopt a median estimate of 3°C.

Myhre and his team sought to align climate model predictions with satellite data showing the Earth’s energy imbalance—a measure of excess heat within our climate system, reflecting its sensitivity levels.

They discovered that less sensitive climate models, which suggest that the Earth’s climate is more resistant to greenhouse gas emissions, did not align with satellite data collected since the turn of the millennium. According to Myhre, models asserting that the Earth’s climate is less resistant to these gases are “more common.” He added, “Models predicting minimal warming are increasingly rare.”

The findings challenge the reliability of climate models forecasting warming below 2.9°C with doubled greenhouse gas concentrations. Instead, the data imply that warming beyond this threshold is more probable for the same level of pollution.

This has been corroborated by recent record-high temperatures observed both on land and in the sea since 2023, described as “strong climate feedback” in the atmosphere by Myhre.

A more sensitive climate necessitates a quicker reduction in emissions to maintain the same temperature trajectory. In essence, the world must accelerate decarbonization efforts to meet its climate commitments.

Johannes Kuas from the University of Leipzig in Germany argues that the study presents a “very plausible contention” that the Earth is indeed more sensitive to global warming than some models suggest, stating it “reduces the margin” for model estimations that scientists should follow. “It highlights the urgent need for political action against climate change,” he emphasized.

Richard Allen from the University of Reading in the UK notes that “natural climate change” could also be part of the narrative, by pointing out that satellite records date back only to 2001. Nevertheless, he describes the study as “rigorous” and adds, “there is further evidence that simulations predicting less warming are increasingly unrealistic in the long-term.”

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Source: www.newscientist.com

Hidden Plumes in Earth’s Mantle May Drain Heat from the Core

Posted on June 14, 2025 by Igor Mitreski

The Al Haja Mountains of Oman

l_b_photography/shutterstock

Researchers have discovered the first known “ghost plume” beneath Oman, suggesting a column of hot rock rising from the lower mantle with no visible volcanic activity on the surface.

The mantle plume is a mysterious intrusion of molten rock believed to transfer heat from the core-mantle boundary to the Earth’s surface, sometimes occurring beneath the heart of continental plates, as seen in regions like Yellowstone and East Africa. Notably, “these scenarios typically feature surface volcanoes,” states Simone Pilia from King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals in Saudi Arabia. Oman lacks such volcanic indicators.

Pilia first hypothesized the existence of this “accidental” plume while examining new seismic data from Oman. The analysis revealed that seismic waves from distant earthquakes travel more slowly through a cylindrical region beneath eastern Oman, indicating it is less dense than surrounding materials due to elevated temperatures.

Additional independent seismic assessments identified critical boundaries where Earth’s deep minerals undergo changes that align with the hot plume’s characteristics. This evidence suggests the plume extends over 660 km from the surface.

The presence of these plumes also explains why the region continues to elevate despite geological compression, a process where the crust is squeezed together. This discovery fits models that explain alterations in Indian tectonic plate movements.

“The more evidence we collected, the more convinced we became it was a plume,” remarks Pilia, who has named this geological feature the “Dinni plume” after her son.

“It’s plausible that this plume exists,” agrees Saskia Goes at Imperial College London, adding that this study is “thorough.” Nevertheless, she emphasizes that identifying narrow plumes is notoriously challenging.

If verified, the existence of a “ghost plume” trapped within Oman’s relatively thick rocky layers suggests there might be others. “We are confident that the Dinni plume is not alone,” says Pilia.

If multiple hidden plumes exist, it could indicate that heat from the core is transferring more readily through the mantle in these regions, influencing our understanding of Earth’s evolutionary history.

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Source: www.newscientist.com

The Earth’s Atmosphere Reaches CO2 Levels Not Seen in Millions of Years

Posted on June 5, 2025 by Igor Mitreski

Recent data from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration at the University of California, San Diego, indicates that the Earth’s atmosphere contains millions, and potentially tens of millions, of carbon dioxide molecules.

For the first time ever, the global average concentration of carbon dioxide—a greenhouse gas emitted from burning fossil fuels—surpassed 430 parts per million (ppm) in May. These measurements represent a record high, with an increase of over 3 ppm from last year.

The findings suggest that efforts to curtail greenhouse gas emissions and reverse the growing accumulation of CO2 are insufficient.

“Another year, another record,” stated Ralph Keeling, a professor of climate science, marine chemistry, and geochemistry at the Scripps Institution of Oceanography in San Diego, California; he commented. “I am saddened.”

Carbon dioxide, like other greenhouse gases, traps heat from the sun and can persist in the atmosphere for centuries. High levels of these gases contribute to rising global temperatures and other adverse effects of climate change, including increased sea levels, polar ice melt, and more frequent extreme weather events.

Since the pre-industrial era, CO2 levels in the atmosphere have sharply risen, primarily due to human activities that release greenhouse gases.

Just a few decades ago, crossing the 400 ppm threshold seemed unimaginable. This means that for every million molecules of gas in the atmosphere, over 400 would be carbon dioxide. The planet reached this daunting milestone in 2013. Current warnings suggest that CO2 levels could approach 500 ppm within the next 30 years.

Human society is now in uncharted territory.

According to Keeling, the planet likely experienced such high atmospheric CO2 levels over 30 million years ago, during a time with very different climatic conditions.

He noted the remarkable speed at which CO2 levels are rising.

“It’s changing very quickly,” he told NBC News. “If humans had evolved in an environment with high CO2 levels, the absence of suitable habitats would have likely shaped our evolution. We could have adapted to that world, but instead, we’ve constructed society and civilization based on the climate of the past.”

CO2 levels are typically illustrated using the Keeling Curve, named in honor of Keeling’s father, Charles David Keeling, who began daily atmospheric CO2 measurements in 1958 from the Mauna Loa Observatory in Hawaii.

The Keeling Curve prominently displays the steep rise in CO2 since the Industrial Revolution, attributed to human-induced climate change.

Ralph Keeling and his colleagues at the Scripps Oceanographic Institute reported that the average atmospheric CO2 concentration for May was 430.2 ppm, while NOAA’s Global Monitoring Institute, which has been conducting separate daily measurements since 1974, noted an average of 430.5 ppm for the same month.

Monitoring atmospheric carbon dioxide levels is crucial for understanding how human activities impact the Earth’s climate. These measurements also serve as key indicators of the planet’s overall health.

“These measurements provide insight into the health of the entire system with just one data point,” Keeling explained. “We achieve a comprehensive view of the atmosphere through relatively simple measurement techniques.”

Source: www.nbcnews.com

Striking Visuals Reflect the Earth’s Vulnerability and Strength

Posted on May 23, 2025 by Igor Mitreski

Panda Keeper assesses health of giant panda Xi May’s turnips at Wolong Nature Reserve

Ami Vitale

These photographs from the Earth Photo 2025 competition convey a vivid, thrilling, and surprising narrative about our planet’s climate and biodiversity.

In photographer Ami Vitale’s image Pandamonium, we see a giant panda keeper examining the health of panda cubs in Ulong National Nature Reserve, Sichuan Province, China. The keeper’s attire is designed to minimize human impact on these bears. Following this, there’s another captivating shot by Sue Flood titled Craveter sticker, captured on a glacial ice floe in the waters south of the Antarctic Peninsula. Such images can unveil the area’s grandeur to those unable to visit.

Crabeater Seals in the Southern Ocean near the Antarctic Peninsula

Sue Flood

From Paradise, La Palma – The photo below depicts the aftermath of the 2021 Cumbre Vieja volcanic eruption on this Spanish Canary island. A resident is seen redoing their garden, clearing away lava that destroyed mature palm trees and replacing them with new plants.

La Palma, Canary Islands. Two Years Post-Cumbre Vieja Eruption

Jonathan Browning

The concluding image below features Vincenzo Montefinese’s Lost Oasis, taken in Tinzouline, Draa Valley, Morocco. Here, an individual is seen adjusting solar panels that operate the water pump for irrigating nearby palm trees. Due to climate change and water scarcity, the valley’s oases have diminished by two-thirds over the past century, prompting farmers to illegally dig wells to access groundwater.

Tinzouline, Draa Valley, Morocco

Vincenzo Montefinese

The featured images were curated by New Scientist photo editor Tim Bodhis and David Stock, the director of editorial videos. The winners will be announced on June 16th, and the Earth Photo 2025 exhibition will take place at the Royal Geographical Society in London from June 17 to August 20, followed by a tour across the UK.

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Source: www.newscientist.com

The Earth’s Rotation is Acting Strangely – The Explanations Revealed

Posted on April 20, 2025 by Igor Mitreski

For the past two decades, the rotation of the Earth has shown unusual behavior. Scientists have now identified a surprising cause for this phenomenon: the loss of water from the land.

A recent study published in Science reveals that significant changes in the Earth’s axis since the early 2000s, resulting in a wobble of about 45 cm, were not due to changes in the core, ice loss, or glacial rebound. Instead, they were caused by underestimated changes in soil moisture across the planet.

Between 2000 and 2002, over 1,600 Gigatonnes of water were lost from the soil worldwide. This water, when discharged into the ocean, impacted the Earth’s balance and influenced its rotation.

According to Professor Clark Wilson, a geophysicist at the University of Texas at Austin and co-author of the study, there was a period in the early 2000s when significant water losses occurred from the continents, aligning with certain climate models’ predictions.

Research led by Professor Ki-Weon Seo from Seoul National University in Korea used satellite radar data and soil moisture models to track changes in Earth’s water reservoirs from the late 20th to early 21st centuries. They discovered a sudden drop in soil moisture between 2000 and 2002, contributing to a yearly rise in the global sea level.

This decrease in soil moisture continued from 2003 to 2016, with an additional loss of 1,000 Gigatonnes of water. By 2021, soil moisture levels had still not recovered, indicating a significant and lasting shift in Earth’s land water storage.

The study emphasizes how changes in terrestrial water, particularly soil moisture, can influence Earth’s axis and rotation, leading to observable effects on the planet’s vital signs. The researchers suggest that this trend of drying soil is likely irreversible and could have far-reaching consequences on global water security, agriculture, ecosystems, and climate patterns.

Experts Involved

Clark Wilson: Professor Emeritus at the University of Texas at Austin, specializing in Earth and Planetary Sciences.

Ki-Weon SEO: Associate Professor at Seoul National University with a focus on ice mass losses and sea level rise.

Jay Famiglietty: Global Futures Professor at ASU’s School of Sustainability, specializing in water innovation and sustainable food systems.

This study highlights the importance of improving climate models to better understand and predict future climate conditions in the face of changing water dynamics on Earth.

Source: www.sciencefocus.com

Xavier Le Pichon, Renowned Geophysicist Who Pioneered Earth’s Crust Movement Modeling, Passes Away at 87

Posted on April 9, 2025 by Igor Mitreski

Xavier Le Pichon, a French geophysicist who revolutionized the way in which a pioneering model of the Earth’s tectonic plates was able to understand the movement of the Earth’s crust, and died on March 22 at his sister’s home in southern France. He was 87 years old.

His death was announced in a statement from Collegie de France, France’s premier educational institution. There, Dr. Le Picon was Professor Emeritus and Chairman of Geodynamics.

Dr. Le Picheon, who internized in Japanese concentration camps as a child, continued to build a second career as a deep sea explorer, working with Mother Teresa of India for a while. However, it was in the field of geodynamics that he made his biggest contribution. Use a computer to create a model of the Earth plate.

His formulation has six such plates, as he said when he won in 2002, “for what is essential to the structural symptoms of the Earth’s surface.” Balzan PrizeAwarded in science fields not covered by Nobel.

Plate tectonics with Earth’s surface studies is a “framework” for understanding earthquakes, volcanoes, and the Earth’s long-term “climate stability.” David BelkovichYale geophysicist. He added that Dr. Le Picon was one of the architects of the framework.

Professor Bercovici emailed him “one of the giants of the plate structure revolution, especially when practicing its mathematical theory.”

His work was built on the theory of plate tectonics developed by Princeton scientist W. Jason Morgan in 1967. “Now we are entering an age of quantification for tectonics,” wrote Dr. Le Picon.

“The University of Rochester has a great opportunity to develop a new world of geophysics,” said John Taldono, professor of geophysics at the University of Rochester.

Dr. Pichon came to view the Earth as “an extraordinary creature with ocean and continental movement.”

After years of studying the ocean and its floors, including Columbia University, Dr. Lupicheon achieved a breakthrough in the mid-1960s. He called the “incredibly unpleasant” months of cruise hosted by Columbia, and observed a 37,000-mile-long ridge in the South Atlantic and Southwest Indian oceans.

The object was to detect seismic activity along the coat of arms of the ridge and test predictions made in the 1950s by Jean Pierre Rothet, another French scientist. “We went zigzag on this famous earthquake line for nine months,” Dr. Le Picon wrote in his 2003 book, Plate Tectonics: The Insider’s History of Modern Theory of the Earth.

The trip confirmed it and he continued to earn his Ph.D. Based on that study, at the University of Strasbourg in 1966.

“As such, the central ridge has achieved a victory over tectonics, becoming the most important structure in the world due to stroke,” he wrote.

But this was in the early 1960s, and he ran “in what we call “fixed mentors,” things weren’t moving.” Like he put it down On the 2009 episode of the podcast “Being With Krista Tippett.”

“The Earth was considered everything to be a static place,” he said. “Things were moving up and down, but never sideways. The continent was always there. The ocean was always there.”

Dr. Le Picon initially defended these concepts, but he realized they were wrong. He returned from the lab one day and told his wife, “My paper’s conclusions are wrong.”

Rather, I felt that he was an American geologist. Harry Hess The assumption in 1962 that the seabed had continued expansion was correct. After all, there was seismic activity along the top of the ridge. Measuring magnetic anomalies along the ridge is important in proofing Dr. Hess’s hypothesis.

Dr. Le Pichon recalled his Eureka moment in an episode of the podcast. “I worked all night on a computer, and one night I put it all together and found out that Hawaii approaches Tokyo at 8 centimeters each year.”

He recalls what he told her: “I discovered how the Earth works. I really know that now.” And I was so excited. ”

His passion for what was happening under the ocean developed quickly. After growing up in what was a French protectorate in Vietnam at the time, he was interrupted by his family during World War II when Japan invaded.

“When I was in the concentration camp, we were on the Pacific coast, and I was wondering what was under the water, and I was on the beach,” Dr. Le Picon said in 2009.

After publishing his groundbreaking paper in 1968, Columbia and Massachusetts Institute of Technology presented the first quantitative global model of plate boundaries and movement, offering him a teaching position. However, he instead led the Institute of Oceanography in Brittany, France, where he began his second career as an underwater ocean explorer, advancing into the depths of small submarines on joint Franco-American expeditions.

In 1973, he said he had taken such a ship 3,000 meters below him while exploring the ridges in the Mid-Atlantic Ocean.

“I had the impression that I was a religious man and had the return to Genesis,” he added. Other sea floor trips in Greece and Japan followed.

Dr. Lupichon, a Roman Catholic who attended Mass every day since childhood, experienced what was called a “great crisis in my life” in 1973 and worked for Mother Teresa in the city of Calcutta, India.

“I was very immersed in my research. I wasn’t looking at anyone else anymore,” he said. “In particular, I didn’t see people suffering and difficulties. It was a very strong crisis.”

His experience in Calcutta changed him by his account, and then he, his wife and his children engaged in charity and charity in the French Lach community for people with intellectual disabilities. They lived there for nearly 30 years. He and his family then find a similar community and help them live there.

Xavier Thaddée Le Pichon was born on June 18, 1937 in Quy Nhon, Vietnam, France, to Jean Louis Le Pichon and Helene Pauline (Tyl) Le Pichon, rubber plantation managers.

The family moved to France in 1945, with Xavier attending the Institute of Cherbourg Saint Paul and the Lyce Sainte Geneviève in Versailles. In 1960 he received his Bachelor of Engineering from the Institut de Physique Du Globe He received a Fulbright Fellowship in Strasbourg to study at Columbia University’s Lamont Daughertier Observatory.

His original works will be carried out over the next decade, and in 1973 he wrote with Jean Bonnin and Jean Franciteau.

In the 1970s and 1980s, Dr. Le Picheon taught at the Sorbonne and Ecole Normal Superfoil. He became a professor at the French Collège de France in 1986 and remained there until his retirement in 2008. Besides Balzan, he won many awards and was a member of the National Academy of Sciences in the United States.

He was survived by his wife Bridget Suzanne (Barselmee) le Pichon, a pianist. His children, Jean Baptist, Marie, Emmanuel, Raffaère, Jean Marie and Pierre Guien. 14 grandchildren; 5 great grandchildren.

In lectures and interviews, Dr. Le Picon linked his discoveries to his Catholic faith as a scientist and the prayer work it stimulated. The bridge between them was his concept of “vulnerability,” and he said, “is the essence of men and women, at the heart of humanity.”

The earth is also vulnerable. “I have a very close relationship with the Earth, so I think a little like a mother,” he said in 2009.

Sheila McNeill and Daphne Angles Contributed research.

Source: www.nytimes.com

New Phylums of Bacteria Uncovered in Earth’s Deep Soil by Biologists

Posted on April 9, 2025 by Igor Mitreski

Deep Soils – Depending on the type and area of soil, ranges from less than 30 cm (12 inches) to several hundred meters are neglected ecosystems within important zones of the Earth. Biologists have now discovered a wide and relatively abundant bacterial phyla, named CSP1-3, in deep soils, and evaluated its phylogenetic, ecology, metabolism, and evolutionary history.

A diagram showing the history of evolution from aquatic organisms and adaptive characteristics of CSP1-3 phylums in each habitat. Image credit: Michigan State University.

“The key zone extends from above the trees through the soil to a maximum of 213 m (700 feet),” said Professor James Tiedee of Michigan State University.

“This zone supports most life on the planet as it regulates critical processes such as soil formation, water circulation and nutrition cycling, which are essential for food production, water quality, and ecosystem health.”

“Despite its importance, the deep critical zone is a new frontier, as it is a relatively unexplored part of the Earth.”

Professor Tiedje and his colleagues discovered a completely different microbial phylum called CSP1-3 in this huge, unexplored world of microorganisms.

This new gate was identified in soil samples ranging from both Iowa and China up to 70 feet (21 m) deep.

“Why Iowa and China? Because these two regions have very deep and similar soils and I want to know if their occurrence is more common than just one region,” Professor Tiedje said.

Researchers extracted DNA from these deep soils and discovered that CSP1-3 ancestors lived in water millions of years ago.

They undergo at least one major habitat transition to colonize the soil environment. It is in the first topsoil and the deep soil that followed, within its evolutionary history.

Scientists also discovered that CSP1-3 microorganisms are active.

“Most people think that these organisms are like spores and dormant,” Professor Thiedeye said.

“But one of the important findings we found by examining DNA is that these microorganisms are growing actively and slowly.”

The authors were also surprised that these microorganisms were not unusual members of the community, but dominated. In some cases, they made up more than 50% of the community, but this is by no means the case in surface soils.

“I think this happened because deep soils are very different environments and this group of organisms evolved over a long period of time to adapt to this poor soil environment,” Professor Tiedje said.

a paper The explanation of the survey results was published on March 18th. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.

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Wenlu Feng et al. 2025. Diversification, niche adaptation, and evolution of candidate phylums that thrive in deep critical zones. pnas 122 (12): E2424463122; doi: 10.1073/pnas.2424463122

Source: www.sci.news

Human activity has profound impacts on the Earth’s upper mantle

Posted on April 7, 2025 by Igor Mitreski

Ship cemetery in the desert of the Aral Sea in Uzbekistan

s@owwl / alamy

Unsustainable irrigation and drought have caused changes that have empty almost all of the waters of the Aral Sea since the 1960s, extending all the way to the Earth’s upper mantle, the layer below the Earth’s crust. This is perhaps the deepest recorded example of human activity that will change the solid inner earth.

“To do something that will affect us [upper mantle] It’s like whoa.” Sylvain Barbott At the University of Southern California. “It shows how powerful it is to change the environment.”

The Aral Sea in Central Asia was once one of the largest waters in the world, covering almost 70,000 square kilometers. However, Soviet irrigation programs that began in the 1960s and later droughts empty the oceans. By 2018, it had shrunk by almost 90% and lost about 1,000 cubic kilometres of water.

Wang Ten At Peking University in China, I was interested in the Aral Sea after reading a book about the consequences of this environmental disaster on the surface of the earth. “We’ve noticed that these huge mass changes stimulate the deep Earth’s response,” he says.

He and his colleagues, including Barbot, used satellite measurements to track subtle changes in the elevation of the oceans that were empty between 2016 and 2020. Much of the ocean water disappeared decades ago, but it was found that the uplifts were underway, with on average rising surfaces about 7 millimeters a year.

Next, we used a model of the crust and mantle beneath the Aral Sea to test the mantle beneath the Aral Sea when it came to leading to the uplift of this observed pattern. “We found that the observations were perfectly compatible with a deep response to this change,” says Barbot.

When the weight of the water was removed, the shallow crust first responded, according to the model. This prompted a response at a depth of 190 km from the surface as the viscous rocks in the upper mantle creeped up to fill the blanks. “The uncurved things create space and the rocks want to flow into it,” Barbot says. This delayed reaction in hot, weak areas of the mantle, called the athenosphere, is why the uplift is ongoing, even decades after the water is removed, he says.

The upper mantle rebound is known to occur after other major changes in surface mass, such as glacier advancement and retreat, says Roland Bürgmann At the University of California, Berkeley. But the response to drainage in the Aral Sea may be the deepest example of human-caused changes on solid earth.

Other human-induced changes, such as filling large reservoirs and pumping groundwater, are said to have also caused rebounds. Manoochehr Shirzaei At Virginia Tech. But the wider range of the Aral Sea means the impact of emptying it is likely to run deeper, he says.

In addition to explaining the enormous scale of human activity, the uplift below the Aral Sea offers an extraordinary opportunity to estimate small differences in viscosity of the mantle, particularly under the interior of the continent, Bürgmann says. “It’s really important for people trying to understand plate tectonics to know how that layer behaves under the continent.”

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Source: www.newscientist.com

The groundbreaking role of giant glaciers in shaping Earth’s surface and fostering complex life

Posted on February 27, 2025 by Igor Mitreski

By chemically analyzing ancient rock crystals, scientists at Curtin University, Portsmouth University and St. Francis Xavier University discovered that glaciers were carved to mark the landscape after the events of the neoplasm of the Snowman Earth, releasing the main minerals that transformed the sea shells. This process has had a major impact on the composition of the planet, creating conditions that allow complex life to evolve.

Impressions of the artist “Snowman Earth.” Image credit: NASA.

“Our research provides valuable insight into how the natural systems of the Earth are deeply interconnected,” says Chris Kirkland, professor of Curtin University, the study's lead author.

“When these huge ice sheets melted, they caused a huge flood that washed out mineral and uranium-containing chemicals into the ocean.”

“This influx of elements changed marine chemistry as more complex lives began to evolve.”

“This study highlights how Earth's land, oceans, atmosphere and climate are closely connected. Even ancient glacial activity triggers the chemical chain reaction that formed the planet.”

This study also offers a new perspective on modern climate change.

It shows how past changes in the global climate have caused large-scale environmental transformations.

“This research is a clear reminder that while the Earth itself can withstand, the conditions that make it habitable can change dramatically,” Professor Kirkland said.

“These ancient climate changes demonstrate the profound and lasting impact of changes in the natural and human-driven environment.

“Understanding these past events will help us to better predict how today's climate change will reconstruct our world.”

Survey results Published in a journal Geological.

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CL Kirkland et al. Neoproterozoic glacial broom. GeologicalPublished online on February 25th, 2025. doi: 10.1130/g52887.1

Source: www.sci.news

Potential Massive Energy Sources Await Discovery in Earth’s Mountainous Regions

Posted on February 21, 2025 by Igor Mitreski

In the quest for clean energy and a shift away from fossil fuels, scientists may have uncovered new sources of power, potentially hidden in our mountains. A team of researchers from Germany has identified a vast reservoir of hydrogen gas, generated by rocks formed millions of years ago, through advanced simulations.

This discovery is significant as hydrogen (H₂) as a power source does not emit greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, making it a more sustainable alternative to fossil fuels that contribute to climate change. Additionally, the production of hydrogen results in water instead of harmful emissions. However, the challenge lies in the fact that natural hydrogen production is rare, with the current synthetic production relying on fossil fuels.

The main hurdle in hydrogen production is sourcing it naturally. While geological processes can generate natural hydrogen without the need for fossil fuels, the availability of large accessible reserves remains uncertain. The recent study conducted by German researchers could potentially address this issue.

“We may be on the brink of a new era in natural hydrogen exploration,” said Dr. Frank Zworn, the lead author of the study published in the journal Advances in Science. “This could pave the way for a new natural hydrogen industry.”

https://c02.purpledshub.com/uploads/sites/41/2025/02/Earths-mantle.mp4

The rocks that produce hydrogen gas originate from the Earth’s mantle, constituting a significant portion beneath the Earth’s crust. Video Credits: Getty Images

Researchers at the GFZ Helmholtz Center for Geosciences in Germany utilized simulations of plate tectonic processes to identify a substantial reserve of natural hydrogen.

Natural hydrogen can be generated through various methods, such as bacterial transformation of organic matter or the splitting of water molecules due to radioactivity in the Earth’s crust. However, one of the most promising natural methods involves a geological process known as “serpentinization,” where rocks from the Earth’s mantle react with water to release H2 gas.

According to researchers, when these hydrogen-rich rocks are situated near the Earth’s surface, they can create potential zones for large-scale hydrogen production via excavation. These rocks are brought closer to the surface through processes such as continental rifting and mountain formation over millions of years.

As the crustal plates collide and create mountains, deep mantle rocks push up to the surface of the Earth. ‘Hot spots’ of hydrogen gas were identified where these rocks surfaced. – Image credit: CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 USGS/ESEU Frankswaan edition, GFZ

By analyzing two processes, researchers determined that mountain formation offers ideal conditions for hydrogen generation. The combination of cold environments in mountains and increased water circulation could enhance hydrogen levels significantly. Simulations showed that rocks emerging through mountain formations have 20 times the hydrogen capacity compared to those brought to the surface via continental rifting.

Signs of natural hydrogen production have already been observed in mountainous regions such as the Pyrenees, European Alps, and Balkans. The research team anticipates that their findings will inspire further exploration of natural hydrogen in these areas and other mountainous regions.

Professor Sasha Brune, the head of the geodynamic modeling section at GFZ, emphasized the economic prospects tied to natural hydrogen. He stated, “It is now crucial to delve deeper into the migration pathways of microbial ecosystems that consume hydrogen, both shallow and deep, and to gain a better understanding of where potential hydrogen reservoirs can be formed.”

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Source: www.sciencefocus.com

Scientists are puzzled by potential shifts in Earth’s core shape

Posted on February 11, 2025 by Igor Mitreski

It is not unusual for the Earth’s core to experience changes in its rotational speed and shape over time. However, recent research has revealed some unexpected developments.

Scientists have been debating the reasons behind peculiar alterations in seismic waves caused by earthquakes. One side argues that changes in the rotational speed affect the travel time of the waves, while the other side suggests that alterations in the shape of the inner core are responsible. A new study published in Natural Earth Science by Chinese and US scientists indicates that it could be a combination of both factors.

The study reveals that in 2010, the Earth’s inner core started to rotate faster than other planets, potentially impacting seismic waves with changes near the surface of the core. These waves, similar to X-rays, provide insights into the planet’s interior. The findings are expected to provide more information about the core’s properties and structure.

“These findings present observable changes that offer a clearer understanding of how the inner core evolves over a few years. There could be more surprises in store,” said Professor John Emilio Vidale, the lead author of the study, to BBC Science Focus.

The Earth’s core is almost as hot as the sun’s surface and is located approximately 6,500 km (4,000 miles) below the Earth’s surface, with pressure exceeding that of the deepest ocean depths. Due to these extreme conditions, direct exploration of the core is not feasible.

Scientists rely on seismic waves generated by earthquakes to study the core. By analyzing how these waves travel through different layers of the Earth, including the core, scientists can gain a better understanding of its structure and movement.

In this recent research, the team focused on seismic waves from 121 repeat earthquake pairs in the South Sandwich Islands between 1991 and 2023. By examining changes in the arrival times and waveforms of these signals over decades, the team identified minor shifts in core movement.

These findings revealed interesting trends in the Earth’s inner core. It rotated faster than the mantle and crust for decades before slowing down around 2010. However, some earthquakes showed no significant time shifts, indicating occasional pauses or reversals in rotations.

https://c02.purpledshub.com/uploads/sites/41/2025/02/GettyImages-2148441484.mp4

The Earth’s core is composed of four main layers: the crust, mantle, outer core, and inner core.

The study also made secondary findings, suggesting that factors other than rotation might be affecting the inner core. The team believes that viscous transformations near the inner core’s boundary could be influencing its behavior.

While this behavior may appear unstable, further data is needed to confirm its normality and deepen our understanding of how the Earth’s core functions.

According to Vidale, the simplest explanation is that the movement of the outer core initiates rotations in the inner core, readjusting its position over decades. However, the exact mechanisms behind these adjustments remain uncertain.

“The inner core’s movements may not follow a harmonious pattern, as they seem to align with the outer core’s movements,” he explained.

While this study presents intriguing insights into the Earth’s core behavior, it could pave the way for more discoveries in the future. Vidale suggests that further analysis may reveal more about the core’s activity and its potential impact on Earth’s magnetic field and other phenomena.

This could help researchers understand unpredictable occurrences that may affect satellite operations and compass readings, although they may not have a direct impact on daily life.

About our experts

John Vidale is a professor of Earth Sciences and Dean at the University of Southern California. His research focuses on earthquakes, the Earth’s structure, volcanoes, and seismic hazards. Vidale has held various roles in earthquake research institutions and warning systems, contributing significantly to our understanding of seismic events.

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Source: www.sciencefocus.com

The power of subterranean pressure is reshaping the Earth’s inner core.

Posted on February 10, 2025 by Igor Mitreski

Diagram showing the inner structure of the Earth

Rostislav Zatonskiy/Alamy

The inner core of Earth’s solids appears to have changed shape over the last 20 years or so, according to seismic wave measurements, but the behavior of these waves can also be explained by other shifts at the center of the planet.

Since the 1990s, models and earthquake measurements have shown that the inner core of Earth’s iron nickel moves at its own pace. Over decades, the inner core rotation is faster, slower than other planets, affecting the length of the day and more.

These rotational changes are primarily due to magnetic forces produced by convection in the Earth’s liquid outer core, they say. John Vidale At the University of Southern California. “That flow constantly torques the inner core.”

These magnetic forces, or related processes, can change the shape of the inner core and its rotation. In fact, previous measurements of seismic waves passing through the center of the planet seem to show just that. However, uncertainty regarding the rotation of the core made it impossible to distinguish between rotational changes and shape changes.

Now, Vidale and his colleagues are analyzing seismic waves generated by 128 earthquakes off the coast of South America between 1991 and 2023. All waves were measured by Alaskan instruments after passing through the planet.

From these, researchers have identified 168 sets of seismic waves that have passed through or near the same area of the inner core, but have been away for years. It was only possible to identify these matches Recent work Vidale says it will better constrain the variation in rotation of the inner core.

Both waves of each pair that did not pass through the inner core shared a similar pattern, suggesting that in the region within the planet nothing had changed between the first and second earthquakes. Masu. However, the waves of the pair crossed with the inner core did not match.

Researchers say this suggests that the inner core not only slows down and speeds up rotation for decades but also changes shape. They say that these changes are magnetically pulled at the less viscous edge of the inner core of the solid or interaction between the inner core and the structure of the planetary core and the lower mantle. They say it is likely caused by interactions between the layers. The crust.

hrvojetkalčić At Australian National University, which was not involved in the study, this is a “step” to resolve changes in the internal core beyond rotation. However, he says that the shape change is not the only explanation for the seismic waves of incongruity.

As Vidale and his colleagues acknowledge, these differences can also be caused by unrelated changes in the outer core, convection within the inner core itself, or by eruption of melted material from the inner core. There is. “It’s really hard to tell,” Bidal says. He suggests that studying more repeated earthquakes in the future will help identify changes in more detail.

Tkalčić says seismological measurements in remote areas such as the seabed are also useful. “This is important for understanding the deepest inner evolution of Earth, from the time of the planetary layers to the present,” he says.

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Source: www.newscientist.com