Tag Archives: explain

How Massive Submarine Volcanism Could Explain Triassic Extinctions

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New Research Reveals Japanese and Australian Geologists Uncover Evidence Linking Oceanic Igneous Provinces to Low-Order Extinction Events During the Triassic Period

Early Earth. Image credit: Peter Sawyer/Smithsonian Institution.

“Mass extinctions represent profoundly catastrophic events in the history of Earth,” stated Dr. Jiang Jun Huang along with a team of geologists from Jilin University and Curtin University.

“While numerous mass extinctions have shaped Earth’s evolutionary timeline, five major events are particularly notable.”

“These pivotal extinctions radically altered the trajectory of life on our planet.”

“Besides the five major mass extinction events, numerous sub-extinctions frequently occur, such as the Norian-Rhaetian extinction of the Triassic period.”

“Although the causes of five major extinction events are well documented, the triggers of smaller, lower-order extinctions remain largely speculative.”

In this groundbreaking study, the researchers investigated remnants of oceanic islands, seamounts, and plateaus on the Tibetan Plateau, mapping the evolution of the Meso-Tethyan and Neo-Tethyan oceans.

Throughout the Triassic, three significant episodes of oceanic large igneous provinces (LIPs) materialized between 250 and 248 million years ago, 233 and 231 million years ago, and 210 and 208 million years ago.

By synthesizing the geological records of these LIP episodes with extensive Triassic geological datasets, the team established a link between marine LIPs and at least four extinctions in marine life, which were spurred by subsequent anoxic-oxic events.

“Marine LIPs account for half of the identifiable geologically induced extinctions during the Triassic,” the scientists reported.

“This suggests that oceanic LIPs were the primary initiators of the Triassic extinction events.”

“Although eruptions related to oceanic LIPs are frequent, evidence for ancient occurrences may significantly diminish due to subduction processes during the closure of ocean basins.”

“This destruction complicates the identification of such records, and even when identified, interpreting and dating them accurately poses challenges.”

“Orogenic belts, remnants of long-extinct oceanic basins, may harbor many unidentified ‘ghost’ ocean LIPs, whose eruptions likely played a critical role in other Phanerozoic extinctions, which remain under-recognized in current Earth system models.”

The team’s study is published in the journal Geology.

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Jian Jun Fan et al., “Large Oceanic Igneous Provinces: A Major Driver of Repeated Triassic Extinctions,” Geology, published online on January 20, 2026. doi: 10.1130/G53406.1

Source: www.sci.news

There is no link between vaccines and autism. Can you explain further?

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Robert F. Kennedy Jr.’s false claims linking autism to childhood immunizations have led to President-elect Donald Trump’s selection of him to lead the Department of Health and Human Services. As a result, it is undergoing new scrutiny. Budget is $1.7 trillion. He oversees research into both autism and vaccines.

The myth that autism is caused by childhood vaccines — proposed by a British doctor in 1998 He was later banned from practicing medicine In the UK — thoroughly exposed. hundreds of studies Vaccine found to be safe. The World Health Organization estimates that over the past 50 years, vaccinations have 154 million lives saved all over the world.

President Kennedy, who has espoused many health-related conspiracy theories, said the number of people diagnosed with autism has increased significantly in recent decades, from an estimated 1 in 150 in 2000 to 1 in 36 today. Vaccines are cited as an explanation for the rapid increase in cases among humans. Research shows that many of them increase This is due to increased awareness. and screening About the condition. redefining autism The spectrum includes milder symptoms that were not recognized in previous years. The same goes for advances in diagnostic technology.

“For far too long, the anti-vaccination movement has exploited families of autistic people, promoting a market for pseudoscientific treatments that don’t provide the answers they’re looking for and can expose autistic people to real harm.” ,” said Ari Nieman, co-founder of the nonprofit Autism Self-Advocacy Network and assistant professor of health policy and management at Harvard University’s T.H. Chan School of Public Health. “An even less credible conspiracy theory linking autism and vaccines is not the answer.”

Timothy Caulfield, director of research at Canada’s University of Alberta Health Law Institute, who studies health misinformation, said people are more susceptible to diseases than to disabling diseases, whose causes are complex and not fully understood. He said people are often inclined to believe conspiracy theories about illnesses such as autism. obvious cause.

For example, people seem less likely to speculate about long-known alternative explanations for Down syndrome, which causes intellectual disability. Caused by extra copies of chromosome 21.

“It’s really unfortunate because there are families out there who are vulnerable.” [of people with autism] These are the people who need our help,” said Judith Miller, clinical psychologist, senior scientist and training director at the Autism Research Center at Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia. “Every dollar and hour spent debunking a conspiracy theory is a dollar and hour spent understanding how to help families.”

complex conditions

Manish Arora, a professor of environmental medicine and climate science at the Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai in New York, said it’s difficult to pinpoint the cause of autism because it’s not a single disorder.

“Autism is a spectrum, not one narrow disease,” Arora says. “So many things come under one umbrella.”

People diagnosed with autism often similar strengths and assignment, “There are many pathways to autism, and there are many symptoms of autism,” Miller said.

Scientists have discovered a variety of risk factors for autism – most of which are exists before birth — But there is no single cause for neurological and developmental conditions. influence the way people interact Communicate, learn, and act with others.

Many traits that are sometimes seen in people with autism (for example, sensitivity to loud noises or difficulty interpreting social cues) are also found in people who have not been diagnosed with autism. Arora, founder and CEO of a start-up company researching biomarkers for autism and other neurological disorders, said doctors can diagnose autism based on a person’s behavior and that they can detect the coronavirus. Point out that there is no simple test for autism like there is for autism or diabetes.

Finding the cause of infections such as the flu, which is caused by the influenza virus, is much easier.

Researchers continue to study factors that influence the development of autistic traits, but “one thing we know that does not cause autism is vaccines,” says the University of California, Los Angeles said Katherine Lord, a psychologist and researcher at the Center for Autism Research and Treatment. Geffen School of Medicine.

genetic vulnerability

Doctors have long known that genes play a large role in autism, just because it can run in families. For example, in identical twins who share all their DNA, if one twin is autistic, the other will usually be autistic as well. For fraternal twins who share about half of their DNA, if one fraternal twin has autism, the chance that the other will also have autism ranges from 53% to 67%. According to the analysis of research studies.

Miller said scientists have identified more than 100 genes associated with autism, and 60 to 80 percent of autism cases are thought to be genetically involved.

“The genetics of autism are better understood than ever before,” said Dr. Gregory Sejas, medical director of the Autism Clinical Center and Fragile X Clinic at the University of Washington School of Medicine. “We are making breakthrough research into the known genetic causes of autism.”

However, it is clear that genes cannot explain all cases of autism.

Autism is very different from conditions such as sickle cell anemia or cystic fibrosis, which are caused by a single gene. Scientists believe that a combination of genetic vulnerability and environmental exposure causes people to develop autistic traits, Lord said.

“People are discovering so many different genetic patterns associated with autism, but none of them are exclusively associated with autism, and none of them are always associated with autism. It is not related to,” Lord said.

For example, Fragile X syndrome (caused by a mutated gene on the X chromosome) is the most common known cause Autistic. But only a small percentage of children with the gene mutation actually develop autism, Miller said. This mutation predisposes some people to developing autistic traits, while others with the same mutation are protected by as-yet-unidentified protective factors, making them less likely to develop autism. You may not develop the characteristics.

Some people blame the measles, mumps, and rubella vaccine for causing autism. This is because this condition often develops around 12 to 15 months of age, the same time infants receive vaccinations. But Miller says, “Most genetic conditions that affect our lives and health are not obvious at birth. Symptoms and characteristics may not appear until much later, but the genetic code remains with us. It is with you.”

Prenatal vulnerability

Many of the known risk factors for autistic traits occur before or during birth, Arora said. babies experience complications at birth Things like having the umbilical cord wrapped around your neck increase the risk of autism.

So is the baby born early It’s probably because something happened in the womb.

Children are more likely to be diagnosed with autism If you have an older father And if you have an older mother, that’s a possibility, Miller said. It’s unclear whether there is something biological about older parents that increases the risk of autism in their children, or whether socioeconomic issues play a role. Older parents may be more likely to have their child diagnosed with autism because they have better access to medical care.

Studies show that maternal health affects a child’s risk of autism in different ways. were exposed to high levels of air pollution or developed a serious infection influenza and pneumonia during pregnancy.

Neiman, of the Autism Self-Advocacy Network, said she is not opposed to basic biological research into autism and its causes, but that such research is a challenge that autistic people face in their daily lives. said it does little to overcome barriers.

He points out that only 8.4% of the $419 million spent on autism research in the United States has been spent. Dedicated to support and service For people with autism.

“We need an autism research agenda that reflects the real priorities of autistic people and our families: lifelong support and community inclusion.” he said.

Source: www.nbcnews.com

The Free Energy Principle: Is One Idea Enough to Explain the Existence of Everything?

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Neuroscience seems like an unlikely place to find fundamental truths that might apply to everything in the universe. The brain is a special object that does things that few other objects in the universe are expected to be able to do. they recognize. they act. They read magazine articles. Usually they are the exception, not the rule.

Perhaps this is why the free energy principle (FEP) has attracted so much attention. In the early 2000s, what began as a tool to explain cognitive processes such as perception and behavior began to be presented as a “unified brain theory.” FEP was then put forward as the definition of life beyond the brain and, inevitably, as the basis for a new kind of artificial intelligence capable of reasoning. Today, some proponents argue that FEP even encapsulates what it means for something to exist in the universe. “The free energy principle can be read as the physics of self-organization,” says its founder. carl friston At University College London. “It's a description of what lasts.”

But some researchers, frustrated by the changes in scope, are skeptical that the FEP can deliver on many of its loftiest promises. “It was a moving target,” he says Mateo Colomboa philosopher and cognitive scientist at Tilburg University in the Netherlands.

All of this makes FEP a source of both fascination and frustration. While notoriously difficult to understand, its dizzying breadth is key to its enduring appeal. Therefore, given the claim that it can be used to explain…

Source: www.newscientist.com

Leading neuroscientists explain why humans lack free will

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Are you truly in control of choosing to read this article, or is the decision merely a result of neurons firing in your brain due to biochemical reactions dictated by the laws of physics?

The question of whether humans have true decision-making agency may seem trivial: our experiences demonstrate our ability to choose to act or refrain from acting in any situation presented to us. If we were merely mindless automatons, even engaging in reading this article would seem bizarre.

However, Robert Sapolsky argues otherwise: he posits that the sense of being a free agent is an illusion created by biology and its interaction with our environment. Sapolsky, a distinguished professor of biology, neurology, and neurosurgery at Stanford University and recipient of the MacArthur Fellowship, explores this idea in his upcoming book, “Determination: The Science of Life Without Free Will,” expected to be a bestseller upon its release in late 2023.

In an interview with BBC Science Focus, Sapolsky delves into the complexities of free will, challenging the traditional understanding of human decision-making and emphasizing the role of biology and environment in shaping our choices.

So, what does this mean for our perception of free will?

Sapolsky highlights that the belief in free will often stems from individual decisions at a specific moment, overlooking the influences that have shaped our preferences and tendencies. He argues that our actions are a product of our biological makeup interacting with external stimuli, rather than a result of conscious choice.

Similarly, he differentiates between conscious decisions and involuntary actions, such as the reflex to remove your hand from a hot surface. While both processes involve neural activity, the former is a more intricate interplay between biological mechanisms and environmental factors.

Sapolsky debunks the notion that quantum physics introduces random elements that could enable free will, highlighting the deterministic nature of our biology and environment. He asserts that while external variables may introduce unpredictability, our responses are predetermined by our intrinsic makeup.

When considering how we derive meaning in a world without free will, Sapolsky emphasizes the beauty of human experience and appreciation for life. Despite our biological underpinnings, we have the capacity to find value, love, and gratitude in our existence. The complexity of our internal mechanisms does not diminish the significance of our emotions, relationships, and experiences.

About our expert, Robert Sapolsky

Robert Sapolsky is a prominent scholar, neuroscientist, and primatologist, holding the John A. and Cynthia Frye Gunn Professorship at Stanford University. His research and writings delve into the intricate connections between biology, behavior, and environment, challenging conventional notions of free will and agency.

Source: www.sciencefocus.com

Experts explain why Olympic marathon runners are highly susceptible to getting diarrhea

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From watching to cheering, or even dreaming of competing in the Olympics, every competition is thrilling. However, the excitement can quickly fade when considering the potential illnesses one may contract from participating. Experts have cautioned that athletes involved in the marathon swimming event in the River Seine in Paris are at risk of falling ill, most likely experiencing symptoms such as diarrhea.

“I would not have chosen the Seine,” stated Professor Davy Jones, an expert in Environmental Science and Public Health at Bangor University. He highlighted the high urbanization of the area, exposing the river to various chemicals and biological agents, increasing the risk of illness for athletes.

Concerns were raised after several training sessions in the Seine were canceled due to elevated levels of fecal matter in the water. Athletes, like Austrian swimmer Felix Aubeck, expressed apprehension about the water quality and its potential impact on their health.

Virus threat

Testing has shown unsafe levels of bacteria, including E. coli, in the water, prompting the need for further assessments and precautions to ensure the safety of athletes. Illnesses such as norovirus and ear infections have been observed as common post-swimming ailments.

The presence of these harmful substances in the water poses a significant health risk, with sewage overflow contributing to the contamination. Despite treatment efforts, the discharge of sewage into rivers remains a concern, particularly during heavy rains.

Experts emphasize the challenges of cleaning the Seine effectively to eliminate the risk of pathogens. While protective gear provides some defense, swimmers remain susceptible to exposure, especially during outdoor events in contaminated water.

Although the situation raises concerns, experts consider it an opportunity for a scientific study to understand the impact of water quality on athletes’ health. Ultimately, the decision to swim in the Seine remains a personal choice, with experts urging caution and thorough risk assessment.

About our experts

Professor Davy Jones: Professor of Environmental Science and Public Health at Bangor University, with expertise in advising governments and conducting research on various environmental issues.

David Warner: Professor of Environmental Systems Modeling at Newcastle University, known for his research on water quality and environmental pollution.

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Source: www.sciencefocus.com

Experts Explain the Harmful Effects of Nicotine Pouches

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It has been common knowledge for many years that smoking is highly detrimental to health. Quitting smoking or avoiding starting in the first place are among the most effective measures individuals can take to safeguard their well-being.

Nations worldwide are implementing comprehensive strategies to eradicate smoking from the realm of normal and socially acceptable behaviors, shedding light on the reality that smoking is a lethal addiction.

The reduction in smoking rates is attributed to initiatives such as increased tobacco taxes, graphic warnings on packaging, workplace smoking bans, and the cessation of alluring tobacco advertising campaigns.

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Recent data from the UK Office for National Statistics indicates that 12.9% of adults in the UK are current smokers. This marks a substantial decline compared to the 30% prevalence in the early 1990s. The success in tobacco control efforts is evident in this statistic.

Nevertheless, nicotine addiction continues to thrive as a lucrative industry. Rather than fading away quietly, the tobacco sector has introduced a new array of products appealing primarily to the youth demographic: flavored disposable e-cigarettes, heat-not-burn devices, and their latest novelty item—nicotine pouches.

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Nicotine pouches are typically packaged in small, pocket-sized containers resembling tea bags. They consist of a blend of vegetable fiber, sugar, flavorings, and, of course, nicotine.

Nicotine can either be synthesized in a laboratory or extracted from the tobacco plant. These pouches come in various flavors ranging from fruity to sweet and in different nicotine strengths, some containing more nicotine than regular cigarettes.

The user places the small pouch between their lips and gums, allowing the nicotine to be absorbed. Once the nicotine is fully absorbed, the pouch is discarded and replaced. These pouches are discreet, emit a pleasant aroma, and unlike chewing tobacco, do not require spitting post-use.

Although nicotine pouches are relatively new, they bear similarities to Scandinavian “snus,” the key distinction being the absence of tobacco in pouches. This regulatory loophole allows pouches to dodge tobacco product rules and regulations that apply to cigarettes.

Unlike cigarettes, pouches can legally be sold to individuals under 18 in the UK due to this lack of regulation. Other countries, such as the US, have taken steps to ban or restrict pouch sales to adults only.

What do we know about the health risks of pouches?

While nicotine pouches are gaining popularity globally, limited data exists to assess their health risks as they are relatively new in the market. Nonetheless, the World Health Organization advocates for a cautious approach emphasizing the importance of prioritizing health outcomes while permitting the sale and promotion of nicotine pouches, especially concerning the health of young individuals.

Usage of pouches exposes individuals to toxic nicotine, increasing the risk of nicotine addiction and potentially leading to the use of other products like e-cigarettes or cigarettes.

Aside from the addictive nature of nicotine, its consumption in pouch form can impact adolescent brain development and overall health, including cognitive functions. High doses of nicotine may induce symptoms such as dizziness, headaches, nausea, and abdominal cramps, particularly in individuals inexperienced with nicotine exposure.

It might be tempting to compare the health effects of nicotine pouches, e-cigarettes, and tobacco products to deem one product “safer” than another. However, 85% of the UK population never smoke; hence, young non-smokers would not derive health benefits from initiating pouch use.

Moreover, there’s no current evidence supporting the efficacy of pouches in smoking or vaping cessation. Rather than aiding cessation efforts, individuals who smoke or vape may resort to pouches when restricted from smoking or vaping easily, potentially increasing nicotine intake.

A handful of multinational corporations dominate the global tobacco industry, with British American Tobacco and Philip Morris International being the two largest manufacturers and sellers of nicotine pouches. Resembling vintage cigarette advertisements, pouch promotions employ motorsport, celebrity endorsements, and various lifestyle marketing techniques.

Tobacco industry practices have been alarmingly proficient in harmful marketing strategies. The widespread availability of addictive nicotine products and the absence of stringent regulations on pouch advertising and sales pose a genuine risk of escalating pouch use and nicotine addiction among the youth.

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Source: www.sciencefocus.com