Tag Archives: vaccines

U.S. mRNA Cancer Vaccines: Projected Costs Exceed $75 Billion

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Vaccine Development

Significant Economic Benefits of mRNA Cancer Vaccines Currently Under Development

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In August 2025, the United States announced a $500 million cut in funding for vaccine development, jeopardizing the potential advantages of mRNA cancer vaccine research. According to Alison Galvani from Yale University and colleagues, this reduction poses significant risks to future developments.

The team’s analysis indicates that the treatment advancements observed in current clinical trials could prevent nearly 50,000 deaths, translating to an economic value of $75 billion. “This estimate is based on just one annual cohort of patients for each cancer type,” stated the researchers.

Experts caution that diminishing federal investment in mRNA vaccine technology risks undermining these crucial benefits.

Recent research highlights that many of the most effective cancer treatments leverage the body’s immune response to combat tumors. mRNA vaccines can specifically activate the immune system to identify proteins unique to cancer cells, offering a tailored approach to cancer treatment.

To evaluate the potential impact of these vaccines, Galvani and her team analyzed 32 ongoing mRNA cancer vaccine clinical trials in the U.S. They identified the top 11 promising trials and estimated the additional years of life these treatments could provide if widely administered to eligible patients within a year.

Furthermore, the researchers calculated the annual value of an additional year of life, utilizing statistical measures regarding how much individuals would pay for such benefits. They applied values established by the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services to assess the implications of potential regulatory shifts.

Although the annual estimates may be optimistic—given that some vaccine candidates may not gain approval—Oliver Watson from Imperial College London employed a similar framework, estimating that COVID-19 vaccines have yielded global health and economic benefits ranging from $5 trillion to $38 trillion.

If researchers evaluated the cumulative value of multiple cohorts receiving cancer treatments and extended their analysis over a longer time frame, the potential benefits would be substantially greater. “These estimates are undoubtedly conservative,” Watson notes.

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Source: www.newscientist.com

What Enhancements Are Coming in the Next Generation of mRNA Vaccines?

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Computer illustration of a cross-section (orange strands) of a lipid nanoparticle carrying viral mRNA

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Virus-like vaccines typically trigger strong immune reactions; however, mRNA versions are significantly quicker and less expensive to manufacture. We now benefit from mRNA vaccines that encode for virus-like nanoparticles instead of individual proteins, as is the case with current COVID-19 mRNA vaccines.

Grace Hendricks and her team at the University of Washington in Seattle have demonstrated that an mRNA version of a coronavirus nanoparticle vaccine provokes immune responses in mice that are up to 28 times stronger than those elicited by standard mRNA vaccines.

According to Hendricks, some mild but unpleasant side effects of mRNA vaccines result from the body’s immediate response to the injected mRNA and the lipid particles encapsulating it. A more potent vaccine could enable lower dosages. “This means we can maintain the essential immune response while reducing the dose, thus minimizing side effects,” she explains.

The first vaccine was comprised of a weakened “live” virus and is highly effective, yet poses risks for individuals with compromised immune systems. This was followed by inactivated vaccines containing “dead” viruses, which are safer but challenging to produce.

The advancement continued with protein subunit vaccines that generally include only the exterior proteins of the virus. These are even safer than inactivated vaccines, but airborne proteins often fail to induce robust immune responses.

As a solution, vaccine developers began embedding viral proteins into tiny spheres to create spiky structures resembling viruses to the immune system, yet as safe as protein subunit vaccines. This is achieved by modifying existing proteins to self-assemble into small spheres with protruding viral proteins known as vaccine nanoparticles.

During the pandemic, Hendricks’s colleagues worked on a COVID-19 nanoparticle vaccine called Skycovion. Although it received approval in South Korea in 2022, mRNA vaccines had already made significant advances by that time, leading to limited use of Skycovion.

mRNA vaccines are significantly faster and more straightforward to produce than protein-based vaccines, as they provide a recipe for protein assembly, while the challenging task of protein synthesis is executed by the body’s cells. The viral proteins coded by these first-generation mRNA vaccines eventually protrude from the cell surface, inducing a more effective immune response compared to free-floating proteins but still falling short of the efficacy seen with nanoparticle vaccines.

Currently, Hendricks and her colleagues have merged the advantages of both methods by developing a vaccine that consists of mRNA encoding Skycovion. After the vaccine proteins are produced within cells, they organize into nanoparticles that have shown efficacy in mouse studies.

“This was merely a proof of concept for this gene transfer,” Hendricks stated. She and her team are already advancing what they term mRNA-launched nanoparticle vaccines targeting influenza, Epstein-Barr virus (which can lead to cancer), and various other viruses.

“I am excited about the potential of mRNA-launched protein nanoparticle vaccines.” said William Sheeff from The Scripps Research Institute in California, who is working on an HIV vaccine. “My colleagues and I have published impressive immunogenicity results with two mRNA-launched nanoparticles in clinical trials and several similar particles in mouse models. This new research enhances the existing body of work.” Despite this promising trajectory, the United States has announced significant cuts to funding for the development of mRNA vaccines.

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Source: www.newscientist.com

Essential Insights on mRNA Vaccines in Response to RFK’s Claims

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Robert F. Kennedy Jr., Director of the U.S. Health Bureau

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The U.S. Secretary of Health has claimed that mRNA vaccines are ineffective against respiratory illnesses and announced a $5 billion cut in funding for mRNA vaccine research. This contradicts existing scientific evidence, which shows that many mRNA vaccines are not only effective but often outperform other vaccine types. Here’s what you should know to assess these statements:

During his announcement, Robert F. Kennedy Jr., the head of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, stated, “These vaccines cannot effectively protect against upper respiratory tract infections such as COVID and influenza.” He indicated that funding would shift “to a safer, more versatile vaccine platform that remains effective even as the virus mutates.”

There are currently various vaccine types available: live viruses, inactivated viruses, genetically engineered viral shells, individual viral proteins, and mRNAs that encode viral proteins. The effectiveness of these vaccines is often influenced more by the virus than by the vaccine itself.

For instance, the MMR vaccine has a 100% effectiveness rate in preventing measles outbreaks when vaccination coverage exceeds 90%. This high effectiveness is due to the measles virus being a stable target and requiring complex routes deep within the body, allowing ample opportunities for the immune system to respond before symptoms develop or transmission occurs.

In contrast, respiratory viruses, which cause colds and flus, initially infect cells in the upper respiratory tract. This setting complicates the generation of sufficient protective antibodies, making it significantly harder to prevent infection and transmission compared to measles.

Moreover, viruses responsible for colds, influenza, and COVID-19 are continuously mutating, driving evolutionary pressures for changes that can evade immunity from both infection and vaccination. Consequently, no influenza or COVID-19 vaccine can offer the same long-term protection as the measles components of MMR vaccines. However, mRNA vaccines perform comparably well.

For example, some mRNA COVID-19 vaccines are over 90% effective against symptomatic infections and provide enhanced protection against severe outcomes. In contrast, the effectiveness of non-mRNA vaccines for annual influenza prevention ranges from 20% to 60%. Additionally, a recent trial involving a combined COVID-19 and influenza mRNA vaccine has shown potential to surpass existing non-mRNA influenza vaccines for individuals over 50, who are most at risk.

Thus, Kennedy’s assertion regarding ineffectiveness is misguided. While this does not imply that mRNA vaccines will always be superior to others, new vaccines must outperform existing ones in clinical trials. If mRNA vaccines were ineffective, they would not receive approval.

Kennedy also posits that other vaccine types might sustain their effectiveness amidst viral mutations, likely referencing the concept of a “universal vaccine.” This idea aims to create a single vaccine effective against all variants of, for example, influenza or coronaviruses by targeting stable parts of the virus. However, achieving this is challenging since viruses often conceal stable regions beneath variable structures.

Despite extensive research efforts over the decades, developing a reliable universal vaccine has yet to be successful. Thus, investing heavily in this area may be unwise. Additionally, mRNA technology has been utilized in experimental settings for creating universal vaccines, making Kennedy’s second statement equally flawed.

Finally, effectiveness is just one factor; safety, cost, and the rapidity of vaccine development are also critical considerations. In this regard, mRNA technology provides significant advantages: it is safer than vaccines derived from live viruses, less expensive than those based on a single viral protein, and can be developed rapidly—essential in the context of quickly evolving respiratory viruses, especially during pandemics.

Moreover, mRNA vaccine technology has broader applications for developing a variety of other treatments. The funding cuts announced by Kennedy, based on erroneous claims, could impede progress by deterring companies from investing in this promising technology.

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Source: www.newscientist.com

Human Trials Illuminate Pathway for mRNA Vaccines Targeting HIV

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Electron micrographs of HIV pathogens

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Creating effective HIV vaccines may necessitate intricate formulations containing various viral proteins. Presently, two trials utilizing potential mRNA components have shown encouraging outcomes. The aim is to leverage mRNA technology for administering vaccines as a single dose rather than requiring multiple injections.

Typically, vaccines feature the virus’s outer protein, prompting the immune system to react against it. However, developing HIV vaccines poses significant challenges due to the virus’s proteins being heavily coated with sugars, which makes it tough for the immune system to generate antibodies. There’s also considerable variation across strains; therefore, even if an individual’s immune system can produce effective antibodies, these may only target a specific variant of the virus.

Nevertheless, a few individuals generate broadly neutralizing antibodies that are effective across multiple strains. Research in animals suggests that vaccines incorporating sequences of HIV proteins in various configurations can reliably elicit this broadly protective response, according to William Schief at the Scripps Institute in California.

The initial part of the vaccine comprises a modified viral protein aimed at stimulating the body to produce the essential B cells required for generating broadly neutralizing antibodies. The booster then encourages these cells to produce antibodies targeting external proteins.

This method highlights the advantages of mRNA vaccine technology, as mRNAs can be developed swiftly and conveniently, Schief states. “That’s a significant benefit.”

A single mRNA vaccine could encode multiple viral proteins simultaneously and has the potential to produce them in the body at different intervals, he adds. This implies that the mRNA HIV vaccine could potentially be administered as a single dose, even though several boosters typically follow. “Ideally, I’d prefer to administer one vaccine, with some components being released later,” Schief explained.

Earlier this year, his team shared promising results from preliminary human trials of the initial primers developed to stimulate B cells. Currently, his team is evaluating one of the subsequent boosters in another small study.

When volunteers received mRNA instructions for HIV external proteins integrated into the cell membrane, 80% generated antibodies shown to block infection in laboratory tests.

In this study, these antibodies were specific to one strain. Researchers anticipate that when boosters are administered sequentially, each component will be produced within the body in the correct order.

However, both trials reported a higher incidence of volunteers experiencing hive reactions, which have persisted for years. This reaction hasn’t been seen in any other mRNA vaccine trials or in non-mRNA vaccines incorporating HIV proteins, Schief notes. There appears to be an unknown factor related to delivering HIV proteins via mRNA that leads to this side effect. “It remains a scientific mystery at this time,” he states.

“The uncertainty surrounding the cause of this adverse effect makes it challenging to mitigate,” notes Hildegund Ertl, a vaccine expert associated with a company currently under exploration, Pharma5 in Morocco.

Ertl concurs that mRNA technology enables rapid testing of vaccine components but believes that the optimal final product could be delivered through different types of vaccines, such as those using empty viral shells. These alternatives can be stored at room temperature, unlike others that may require freezing, she points out.

Currently, there’s a medication called renacapavir, which offers nearly complete protection from HIV infection with two injections a year. Nevertheless, Schief believes a vaccine is still necessary. “We’re all striving to achieve this as quickly as possible,” he states, but even with the advancements in mRNA technology, an approved HIV vaccine may still be decades away.

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Source: www.newscientist.com

One Antiviral Shot Offers Superior Protection Compared to Influenza Vaccines

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Influenza virus particles observed through an electron microscope, color enhanced

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A promising long-term antiviral medication may offer protection against all strains of influenza, providing hope for the most vulnerable populations.

The flu results in the loss of thousands of lives annually, and the swift emergence of new variants poses a risk for future pandemics. Each year, scientists reformulate flu vaccines to correspond with the strains that are projected to be prevalent in the upcoming season. These vaccines prompt the immune system to generate antibodies that block the virus from infiltrating the cells.

Efforts are underway to develop a universal influenza vaccine capable of safeguarding individuals from all strains, yet these vaccines face challenges.

“Even if the first approved universal influenza vaccine is created, individuals exhibit varying immune responses, meaning not everyone will be effectively protected,” says Jeffrey Stein, CEO of Cidara. For instance, vaccines often show reduced efficacy in older adults or in those with compromised immune systems.

To tackle this issue, Stein and his team have developed a treatment known as CD388, which includes Zanamivir, an antiviral drug authorized for treating infections caused by all influenza variants that affect humans. Normally, Zanamivir is eliminated from the body within hours, but the research team has modified it to rapidly neutralize the invasive influenza virus. “It’s not part of the immune system,” Stein explains.

For testing, the team enrolled 5,000 participants aged 16-64 from the US and the UK at the beginning of the 2024 flu season. None of the participants were at elevated risk for flu-related complications or had received that year’s flu vaccine. They divided the participants into four approximately equal groups. Three groups received one injection of CD388 at low, moderate, or high doses, while the final group received a placebo.

About six months later, researchers assessed the number of individuals with symptomatic flu infections during the flu season, defined by the presence of influenza virus DNA in nasal swabs and flu-like symptoms such as cough and fever.

Thirty-three individuals in the placebo group reported symptomatic flu, whereas only eight participants in the high-dose CD388 group did, marking a risk reduction of around 76%. The moderate and low-dose groups saw a 61% and 58% decrease in risk of symptomatic infections, respectively. “All doses demonstrated significant protection against influenza illness,” states Nicole Dhabapana, Chief Medical Officer of Sidara. Side effects, such as injection site tenderness, were consistent across both the treatment and placebo groups.

The results indicate that CD388 may offer a more straightforward means of protecting individuals compared to vaccines. “[Unlike vaccines, it] does not need to match the circulating strain, and could be more effective during a ‘poor match’ year or for pandemic preparedness, especially if new flu strains, such as H5N1, transmit to humans,” remarks Pennyword from King’s College London. She adds that, based on previous data on Zanamivir, it is unlikely that influenza strains will develop resistance to it.

This approach is likely to be effective for older individuals and those known to have poor vaccination responses, including the immunocompromised. Davalpana mentions that the team plans to conduct tests on individuals aged 12 and older with compromised immune systems.

Instead of replacing vaccines, Stein suggests that the drug may work best in conjunction with them, although this has yet to be tested. Nevertheless, the findings are timely given the growing hesitance surrounding vaccinations. “We aim to bypass the controversy that unfortunately surrounds vaccines,” Stein remarks.

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Source: www.newscientist.com

US Halts Support for COVID-19 Vaccines for Children—Are Other Vaccines Next?

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US Secretary of Health and Human Services Robert F. Kennedy JR

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One of the leading vaccine specialists at the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Lakshmi Panagiotakopoulos, resigned on June 4th, just a week after Robert F. Kennedy JR announced that the Covid-19 vaccine would no longer be advised for most children and pregnancies.

This declaration prompted several days of uncertainty regarding the availability of the Covid-19 vaccine in the U.S. Although there has not been a significant shift in access, parents may face new challenges when trying to vaccinate their children. Nonetheless, Kennedy’s statement reflects a concerning departure from established public health practices.

“My career in public health and vaccinology began with a deep-seated desire to assist the most vulnerable members of our population. This is not something I can continue in this role,” Reuters reported.

Panagiotakopoulos was part of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP) since 1964. However, last week, Kennedy, as the highest authority in public health in the country, reversed decades of protocol. “As of today, we are unable to announce that the Covid vaccine for healthy children and pregnant women has been removed from the CDC’s recommended vaccination schedule,” he stated in a video shared on the social media platform X on May 27th.

Despite his directive, the CDC has only made minor modifications to its recommendations regarding the Covid-19 vaccine. Rather than a full endorsement for children, it is now recommended “Based on shared clinical decisions,” meaning parents should consult their doctors prior to making a decision. It remains uncertain how this will impact vaccine access in various situations, but it may complicate obtaining vaccinations for children at pharmacies.

The CDC’s guidance on vaccination during pregnancy is rather unclear as well. The relevant website still recommends Covid-19 shots during pregnancy, noting that “This page will be updated to reflect your new vaccination schedule.”

Kennedy’s declaration also stands in stark contrast to the positions of major public health organizations. Both the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG) and the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) have expressed opposition to this stance.

“The CDC and HHS advise individuals to consult healthcare providers regarding personal medical choices,” a spokesperson for HHS told New Scientist. “Under Secretary Kennedy’s leadership, HHS is re-establishing the connection between doctors and patients.”

However, Linda Eckart of Washington University in Seattle argues that these conflicting messages create confusion for the public, stating, “It opens doors for misinformation and undermines overall confidence in vaccines. I cannot fathom that vaccination rates will not decline.”

Numerous studies have demonstrated the safety and efficacy of Covid-19 vaccinations during adolescence and pregnancy. In fact, Martin McCurry, head of the U.S. Food and Drug Administration, emphasized this in a risk assessment for severe Covid-19 published a week before Kennedy’s announcement, further complicating the government’s public health message.

Kennedy’s announcement aligns with similar community policies in several countries. For instance, Australia and the UK do not recommend the Covid-19 vaccine for children unless they are at high risk of severe illness. Likewise, they advise against Covid-19 vaccinations during pregnancy for those already vaccinated.

Asma Khalil, a member of the UK’s Joint Committee on Vaccination and Immunization, stated that the UK’s choice is informed by a reduced risk from omicron variants, the cost-effectiveness of vaccinations, and high herd immunity. Nevertheless, these variables can differ from one country to another. Eckart notes that the UK population generally has better access to healthcare than that of the U.S. “These evaluations necessitate a meticulous consideration of risks and benefits for the national populace,” Khalil asserts. HHS did not respond to New Scientist regarding whether a similar assessment influenced Kennedy’s decision.

Perhaps the most concerning aspect of Kennedy’s announcement is its circumvention of the expected ACIP vote on proposed revisions to COVID-19 vaccine recommendations, which was slated for later this month. “This method of decision-making—by individual professionals who carefully review conflicts of interest and scrutinize the data—has never occurred in our country,” Eckart emphasizes. “We are traversing uncharted territory,” and she fears that Kennedy’s actions could establish precedents for other vaccine recommendations. “I am aware there are numerous vaccines he has actively opposed,” she continues, recalling Kennedy’s previous denunciations of vaccines linked to autism and false claims regarding the polio vaccine.

“What this implies is that [Kennedy] is undermining established scientific guidelines,” stated Amesh Adalja from Johns Hopkins University.

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Source: www.newscientist.com

Essential Information About mRNA Vaccines

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Health Secretary Robert F. Kennedy Jr. has raised concerns about the safety of mRNA vaccines for Covid-19. Scientists have sought funding from the National Institutes of Health: Scrub their grants of mRNA references. State legislatures nationwide are debating bills that aim to ban or limit these vaccines. Weapons of mass destruction.

Messenger RNAs (mRNAs) have gained significant attention recently, though they were first discovered in 1961. Since then, scientists have explored their potential in preventing infections and treating cancer and rare diseases.

mRNA is a large molecule present in all cells, serving as a template to produce the proteins encoded by our DNA. It carries instructions from the DNA in the nucleus to the cell’s protein synthesis machinery. According to Jeff Koller, a professor of RNA biology and therapy at Johns Hopkins University, a single mRNA molecule can generate multiple copies of a protein, and is designed to break down after fulfilling its role.

Currently, there are three FDA-approved mRNA vaccines for older adults. These vaccines utilize strands of mRNA that encode specific viral proteins.

Upon receiving a Covid-19 vaccine, the mRNA chains, encapsulated in tiny fat particles, enter muscle and immune cells, explained Robert Alexander Wesselhoif, director of the RNA Therapy Institute at Mass General Brigham’s Institute of Genetic and Cell Therapy. These intracellular factories then use mRNA instructions to produce proteins resembling those on the Covid-19 virus surface. The body perceives these proteins as foreign, triggering an immune response.

While most mRNA degrades within days, the body keeps a “memory” in the form of antibodies, noted Dr. Koller. As with other vaccines, immunity may wane over time, requiring updates for new variants.

In the mid-2000s, researchers at the University of Pennsylvania discovered a method to introduce foreign mRNA into human cells without it degrading first, paving the way for vaccine development.

Currently, the primary application of these vaccines is to prevent infectious diseases like Covid-19 and RSV, according to Dr. Wesselhoeft, who founded a company focused on RNA therapy. mRNA vaccines can be developed quickly, as the non-RNA components remain consistent across different vaccines.

This rapid development could aid in creating annual flu vaccines, stated Florian Krammer, a virologist from the Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai. Typically, choice of flu vaccine strains is made in late winter, but mRNA vaccines can adapt more swiftly, allowing for better efficacy against circulating strains.

A common question is whether mRNA vaccines can impact DNA. Dr. Boucher clarified that this is not possible; mRNA cannot be converted into DNA or integrated into the genome.

Covid-19 vaccines may cause temporary muscle pain and other mild side effects, as noted by Dr. Krammer.

Dr. Adam Ratner, a pediatric infection specialist in New York, remarked that in the over four years since the rollout of the Covid-19 vaccine, there have been “no long-term safety signals.” He noted parental concerns regarding myocarditis, an inflammation of the heart, but emphasized that the risks associated with actual Covid-19 infections far outweigh those of vaccination.

mRNA-based vaccines may target a variety of diseases, including cancer, cardiovascular conditions, autoimmune disorders like type 1 diabetes, and rare diseases such as cystic fibrosis.

For cancer, the concept is that mRNA can encode tumor-associated proteins, prompting an immune response against tumors. In genetic disorders like cystic fibrosis, mRNA can produce a functional version of a missing protein, restoring normal function in affected tissues.

A recent paper published in Nature outlined an experimental mRNA vaccine for pancreatic cancer, which elicited immune responses in some patients post-surgery. Those who experienced immune activation had improved survival rates compared to those who did not.

Another study on monkeys investigated inhaled mRNA therapy aimed at producing proteins necessary for cilia formation, which play a crucial role in clearing mucus in the airways. This therapy targets dysfunctions associated with primary ciliary dyskinesia.

This research is in its preliminary stages, with the Phase I trial for pancreatic cancer involving only 16 patients, which may lead to variability in survival outcomes. Dr. Stephen Rosenberg, an expert in cancer immunotherapy at the National Cancer Institute, has indicated that interventions can stimulate immune responses without significantly altering patient outcomes.

Dr. Richard Boucher, a pulmonary scientist at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, noted that targeting the correct cells with mRNA-carrying particles for lung diseases is particularly challenging.

Overall, Dr. Ratner described mRNA vaccines as “exciting” and holding promise for treating conditions where prior technologies have struggled. However, he cautioned that mRNA therapies should be seen as one of many drug technologies, with varying efficacy depending on the illness.

Source: www.nytimes.com

Shingles Vaccines Linked to Reduced Risk of Various Common Heart Issues

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The shingles vaccine appears to offer additional benefits

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Vaccination against shingles, also known as herpes zoster, not only prevents this painful infection but also lowers the chance of cardiovascular issues.

A recent observational study involving over 1 million participants has revealed that individuals who receive the shingles vaccine Zostavax have a 26% reduced risk of developing heart disease, heart attacks, or heart failure compared to those who are unvaccinated.

“Shingles is known to cause inflammation in blood vessels,” notes a researcher. “Thus, by preventing the infection, vaccines could potentially reduce the risk of cardiovascular diseases.”

Shingles manifests when the varicella-zoster virus, which causes chickenpox, reactivates after lying dormant in the body. This reactivation can happen due to factors like stress or prolonged chemotherapy, leading to painful rashes.

While cardiovascular complications are not commonly highlighted, research has shown a link between shingles and increased risks for conditions such as stroke and heart attack, especially within the first year post-infection, with stroke risk rising by approximately 30% and heart attack risk by 10%.

To investigate whether vaccinations mitigate these risks, Lee and colleagues analyzed data from 1,271,922 individuals over 50, gathered by the South Korean National Health Registry Bureau from 2012 to 2024. They assessed who received the live vaccine and compared it with the later onset of 18 cardiovascular diseases, including heart failure, stroke, and arrhythmias, while also considering various health-related factors like age, gender, and lifestyle.

Throughout a six-year average follow-up period, the study found that the risk of cardiovascular events post-vaccination was 23% lower than in unvaccinated individuals.

The reduction was more pronounced in men, with a 27% lower risk compared to a 20% decrease in women. Among those under 60, there was a 27% reduction in risk, while in older populations, it was 16%. Rural residents showed a 25% risk reduction versus 20% in urban settings, and low-income groups had a 26% decrease, while higher earners experienced a 20% reduction. The data also indicated that risk reduction decreased as BMI increased.

For specific cardiovascular incidents, vaccinated people were found to be 26% less likely to experience a stroke, heart attack, or heart failure, and 26% less likely to die from heart disease. Additionally, the risk of coronary artery disease was reduced by 22%.

The benefits were most significant in the two to three years following vaccination, gradually tapering off over the subsequent five years.

The findings support the notion that shingles vaccination “enhances our confidence” in its capability to lower cardiovascular risk by decreasing vascular inflammation potentially triggered by the shingles virus, states Galen Faulke from Pennsylvania State University.

“Zoster itself has a notably high incidence of pain and postherpetic neuralgia, which can be extremely distressing,” he adds. “However, healthcare systems globally can significantly reduce cardiovascular ailments by advocating the use of cost-effective shingles vaccines.”

While further research is necessary, scientists theorize that the vaccine may indirectly contribute to lowering cardiovascular risks associated with shingles.

Initially, the focus was on Zostavax, which uses viral proteins, but more attention is now directed towards Shingrix.

“That’s why it is more effective at preventing shingles. I believe recombinant vaccines could offer even stronger cardiovascular protection,” Lee explains.

Despite the study design not establishing causality as in randomized trials, researchers can identify risk correlations across a large population. Such extensive data can reveal risk patterns that clinical trials might overlook, Lee explains.

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Source: www.newscientist.com

Kennedy Encourages New Parents to “Conduct Your Own Research” on Vaccines

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Health Secretary Robert F. Kennedy Jr. advised new parents to “conduct their own research” prior to “conducting their own research” during a television interview regarding infant vaccinations.

In a conversation with talk show host Phil, Kennedy stated that aired on Merritt on Monday, the 100th day of the Trump administration. He reiterated his stance, saying, “To prevent the spread of measles, getting the vaccine is your best option.”

However, Kennedy maintained that the choice rests with individuals. By suggesting that the vaccine poses risks, he undermines decades of guidance from public health professionals, including officials from the CDC.

“We live in a democracy, and part of being a responsible parent is to do your own research,” he replied to questions from women in the audience regarding vaccine safety advice for new parents. “You should investigate strollers, the food they consume, and the medications they receive.”

The phrase “I did my research” has emerged as a significant cultural and political term during the COVID-19 pandemic. Pro-vaccination advocates have criticized individuals primarily from the political left who opted out of vaccination. This expression evolved into a meme and has appeared in mock gravestones at Halloween-themed cemeteries in liberal areas.

The Department of Health and Human Services did not respond promptly to requests for comments.

Kennedy’s remarks were made amidst the largest measles outbreak in the U.S. in nearly 25 years, which has resulted in the deaths of two young children and one adult.

Dr. Paul Offit, a pediatrician and vaccine authority at Philadelphia Children’s Hospital, remarked that while he often disagrees with Kennedy, “it’s perfectly reasonable to be skeptical about a vaccine.” However, parents who wish to research should be mindful of their information sources.

“When you talk about doing your own research, it’s important to consult individuals with expertise in the area, or at least seek information from credible online sources. This doesn’t mean relying solely on chat rooms or social media,” said Dr. Offit. He emphasized that while good information exists, “many poor sources can mislead you about your options, and Robert F. Kennedy Jr. exemplifies that.”

Another vaccine specialist, Dr. Peter Hotez from Baylor School of Medicine, contended that Kennedy was being misleading. “He claims people are doing their own research—what parents often download is a flood of misinformation, steering away from expert health advice toward dubious influences.”

Kennedy further suggested that measles vaccinations could lead to various illnesses without substantiation. “Would you like to stop measles?” he inquired. “Certainly, but does it cause other issues like seizures or autoimmune diseases? We don’t know. No one can answer that.”

In reality, studies indicate that with rare exceptions, vaccinated individuals are less likely than those infected to develop autoimmune illnesses, concluding that vaccines “not only shield patients from infections but also from complications, including autoimmune symptoms.”

Kennedy’s statements in the interview were generally flawed. He proclaimed, “New medications are approved by external panels, not by the FDA or CDC.”

This is inaccurate. While external expert panels advise the FDA on controversial drug approvals, only the FDA holds the authority to sanction or reject new medications, vaccines, and treatments; the CDC does not partake in this process.

“Kennedy must understand the role of the FDA in drug development and marketing decisions,” asserted Dr. Robert Califf, the FDA’s commissioner under President Joseph R. Biden Jr.

Kennedy also erroneously asserted that vaccines were not subjected to safety evaluations prior to or following approval. “There is no initial safety research, and there’s no monitoring system afterward,” he claimed. “Vaccines are the only medical products exempt from pre-licensure safety assessments.”

In fact, the FDA licenses vaccines after an extensive year-long process involving thorough lab and animal testing, followed by human trials. Rigorous research on vaccine safety and efficacy is mandated. Typically, thousands participate in large clinical trials, as emphasized by Dr. Peter Marks, head of the vaccine division, who recently announced his resignation.

“I am uncertain about the origin of this misconception,” remarked Dr. Marks, critical of Kennedy. “Vaccines undergo extensive safety evaluations. Since they are administered to healthy individuals, safety is of utmost importance.”

Upon licensing, vaccines are monitored through various databases. Vaccine Safety Data Links employ electronic health records nationwide to detect unusual side effects, including rare myocarditis cases reported in young men post-COVID-19 vaccination.

Another system, the Vaccine Adverse Event Reporting System, established in 1990 as the “National Early Warning System,” relies on reports from both patients and healthcare providers. Many vaccine skeptics, including Kennedy, have cited Vaers data to argue that vaccines are harmful, but it is not intended to ascertain causality regarding health issues; rather, it flags potential concerns for further investigation.

The FDA operates an additional safety monitoring program known as BEST, focusing on biologics effectiveness and safety initiatives.

Dr. Sean O’Leary, chair of the American Academy of Pediatrics’ Infectious Diseases Committee, stated that it is incorrect to assert that federal officials do not surveil vaccine safety. “I am uncertain about the source of this claim,” he noted.

He added, “We recognize various rare adverse events. If it becomes evident that the risks approach or surpass the benefits, the vaccine will be withdrawn from the market.”

Source: www.nytimes.com

Numerous methods Kennedy is currently undermining vaccines

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At a Senate confirmation hearing to become Health Secretary, Robert F. Kennedy Jr. presented himself as a vaccine advocate. But he, and the agency he leads, have taken widespread, sometimes subtle steps to undermine confidence in the effectiveness and safety of the vaccine.

National Institutes of Health I stopped the funds For researchers who wanted to study vaccine hesitancy and find ways to overcome it. They also cancelled a program aimed at discovering new vaccines to prevent future pandemics.

The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention shelved an advertising campaign for influenza shots. Kennedy inaccurately says that scientists advising the CDC on vaccines have it “Serious, serious conflict of interest” Advertising your product means you can’t trust it.

Ministry of Health and Welfare It cuts billions of dollars to state health agencies, including the funds needed to modernize state programs for childhood immunization. Kennedy said in a televised interview Wednesday that he was unaware of the widely reported development.

The Food and Drug Administration canceled a public meeting with its scientific advisor on the flu vaccine and later kept it behind closed doors. a Top Official Pause Agency Reviews Novavax Covid Vaccine. In a TV interview last week, Kennedy mistakenly stated that a similarly created vaccine would not work against the respiratory virus.

Some scientists say they saw the pattern: efforts to erode support for everyday vaccination, and scientists who have long maintained it as a public health goal.

“It’s a simultaneous process that increases the likelihood of hearing him and reducing the likelihood of hearing other voices,” said Kathleen Hall Jamieson, director of the Annenberg Public Policy Center, of Kennedy.

He “recognizes the voices of other authorities,” she said.

The HHS opposed Mr Kennedy’s opposition to the vaccine.

“Secretary Kennedy is not an anti-vaccine, he’s safe,” department spokesman Andrew Nixon said in a statement. “His focus has always been to ensure that the vaccines were rigorously tested for efficacy and safety.”


Source: www.nytimes.com

HHS discontinues research on vaccines and treatments for potential pandemics

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The Trump administration has cancelled funds for dozens of research seeking new vaccines and treatments for Covid-19 and other pathogens that could cause a future pandemic.

The government’s rationale is that, according to internal NIH documents viewed by the New York Times, the community’s pandemic has ended and “provides a cause for the end of COVID-related grants.”

However, the research was not merely about Covid. 9 finished Award-funded center We will conduct research on antiviral drugs to combat so-called priority pathogens that could create an entirely new pandemic.

“This includes anti-viral projects designed to cover a wide range of families that could cause outbreaks or pandemics,” said a senior NIH official who spoke on condition of anonymity for fear of retaliation.

Vaccine research also didn’t focus on Covid, but on other coronaviruses that would one day jump from animals to humans.

Describing all studies as COVID-related is “completely inaccurate and merely a way to reduce infectious disease research,” officials said. Health Secretary Robert F. Kennedy Jr. said the NIH is focusing too much on infections, officials noted.

The funding suspension was first reported Science and Nature. The cancellation surprised scientists who relied on government support.

“The idea that there’s no need for further research to learn how to treat health issues caused by the coronavirus and prevent future pandemics is because “Covid-19 is over” is ridiculous,” says Pamela Bjorkman, a structural biologist at Caltech, who was studying the new vaccine.

The goal of the project was to prepare vaccines and drugs if a new pandemic hits it, rather than developing valuable months from scratch.

“In the last pandemic, we were really knocking down our pants,” said Paul Vienias, a virologist at Rockefeller University, working with Dr. Bjorkman.

“And unless you learn that lesson and prepare better for the next pandemic, you’ll rarely do better than last time.”

Dr. Beanius, Dr. Bjorkman and his colleagues were developing a vaccine that could protect them from a wide range of coronavirus species.

Researchers have discovered new strategies for caxing the immune system and learned how to recognize molecular features common to one or more viruses. The results of animal experiments were promising.

But now, their funds have been cut suddenly, and scientists say they doubted they could build on those outcomes. Dr. Vienias said the fire made him “angry, disappointed and frustrated.”

Other scientists were working on antiviral therapy, part of a program launched in 2021.

$577 million With support from the NIH, the lab’s nationwide network was studying how the virus was replicated and searching for drugs that could block them.

The researchers focused on the Viridae family, which contains the most worrying known pathogens, such as Ebola and Nipah virus. Scientists discovered many promising molecules and were moving forward towards clinical trials.

Reuben Harris, a molecular virologist at UT Health San Antonio, said the promising compounds revealed by the program include antiviral drugs that stop Ebola-related viruses from entering cells.

“We can deploy to help a lot of people quickly,” Dr. Harris said.

Several compounds appeared to work against many viral families. “We’ve seen a lot of experience in the world,” said Nevan Krogan, a systems biologist at the University of California, San Francisco.

On Wednesday morning, Dr. Krogan and dozens of colleagues gathered in the campus meeting room to confirm their results. And they also discussed what they could now, if any.

“One student asked me, ‘Well, I booked an experiment with this microscope tomorrow – can I do that?” “And I’m like, ‘Well, I don’t know.’ ”

Dr. Harris said that without ongoing support, the promising drugs he and others have discovered will not move into clinical trials. “It’s tragic – I don’t have too many words to explain it now,” he said.

In 2023, Kennedy said he wanted to take it. “break” From infectious disease research, instead focuses on chronic diseases.

Jason McClellan, a virologist at the University of Texas at Austin, was working on an antiviral drug program, but saw cancellations of pandemic research follow that promise.

Dr. McClellan, whose previous research was based on the creation of the 2020 Covid vaccine, said this week’s cuts made him wonder whether he could continue to study the pandemic in the United States.

“We’re starting to have conversations and plan to gather more information,” he said, noting the possibility of moving abroad.

“My lab is a structural virology lab focused on structural-based vaccine design,” he added. “If the focus is on chronic diseases, it doesn’t leave us much of a funding.”

Source: www.nytimes.com

Early trials suggest mRNA vaccines hold potential for treating pancreatic cancer

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Personalized mRNA vaccines, including those for pancreatic cancer treatment, are currently in phase 1 of clinical trials. The research was recently published in Nature.

Pancreatic cancer has one of the lowest survival rates among cancer types, with less than 13% of patients surviving beyond five years after diagnosis. The disease is often diagnosed at an advanced stage, with nearly 90% of cases already progressing when detected.

Pancreatic cancer cells have a high tendency to spread rapidly to other parts of the body, usually after the primary tumor has grown large. Symptoms typically only appear in late stages, and there are currently no routine screening methods like mammograms or colonoscopies for this cancer.

Effective treatments for pancreatic cancer are limited, with survival rates remaining around 10% despite the best available therapies. The development of personalized mRNA vaccines for cancer treatment aims to change this narrative.

Before the widespread use of mRNA vaccines for Covid-19, researchers were exploring their potential for cancer treatment. These vaccines work by training the immune system to identify and attack cancer cells, essentially turning the body’s immune response into a cancer-fighting mechanism. Current research is focused on melanoma, colorectal cancer, and other solid tumors.

The success of mRNA cancer vaccines relies on generating a robust response from T cells, a type of immune cell that recognizes and fights off intruders. These T cells need to be durable and capable of detecting and eliminating cancer cells, including those in pancreatic cancer which present unique challenges due to limited mutation targets.

A recent clinical trial evaluated the efficacy of an mRNA vaccine in pancreatic cancer patients who had undergone surgery to remove the tumor. Results showed that the vaccine elicited a response in half of the participants, generating tumor-targeting T cells that persisted for years. This promising outcome underscores the potential of mRNA vaccines in improving outcomes for pancreatic cancer patients.

The study also highlighted the need for further research to determine the long-term impact of these vaccines on patient outcomes. The development of ready-made mRNA vaccines that target common mutations in pancreatic cancer tumors is another area of ongoing investigation, offering a more standardized approach to treatment.

Overall, early findings suggest that mRNA vaccines hold promise in enhancing the body’s immune response against pancreatic cancer, offering hope for improved survival rates and outcomes in the future.

Source: www.nbcnews.com

There is no link between vaccines and autism. Can you explain further?

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Robert F. Kennedy Jr.’s false claims linking autism to childhood immunizations have led to President-elect Donald Trump’s selection of him to lead the Department of Health and Human Services. As a result, it is undergoing new scrutiny. Budget is $1.7 trillion. He oversees research into both autism and vaccines.

The myth that autism is caused by childhood vaccines — proposed by a British doctor in 1998 He was later banned from practicing medicine In the UK — thoroughly exposed. hundreds of studies Vaccine found to be safe. The World Health Organization estimates that over the past 50 years, vaccinations have 154 million lives saved all over the world.

President Kennedy, who has espoused many health-related conspiracy theories, said the number of people diagnosed with autism has increased significantly in recent decades, from an estimated 1 in 150 in 2000 to 1 in 36 today. Vaccines are cited as an explanation for the rapid increase in cases among humans. Research shows that many of them increase This is due to increased awareness. and screening About the condition. redefining autism The spectrum includes milder symptoms that were not recognized in previous years. The same goes for advances in diagnostic technology.

“For far too long, the anti-vaccination movement has exploited families of autistic people, promoting a market for pseudoscientific treatments that don’t provide the answers they’re looking for and can expose autistic people to real harm.” ,” said Ari Nieman, co-founder of the nonprofit Autism Self-Advocacy Network and assistant professor of health policy and management at Harvard University’s T.H. Chan School of Public Health. “An even less credible conspiracy theory linking autism and vaccines is not the answer.”

Timothy Caulfield, director of research at Canada’s University of Alberta Health Law Institute, who studies health misinformation, said people are more susceptible to diseases than to disabling diseases, whose causes are complex and not fully understood. He said people are often inclined to believe conspiracy theories about illnesses such as autism. obvious cause.

For example, people seem less likely to speculate about long-known alternative explanations for Down syndrome, which causes intellectual disability. Caused by extra copies of chromosome 21.

“It’s really unfortunate because there are families out there who are vulnerable.” [of people with autism] These are the people who need our help,” said Judith Miller, clinical psychologist, senior scientist and training director at the Autism Research Center at Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia. “Every dollar and hour spent debunking a conspiracy theory is a dollar and hour spent understanding how to help families.”

complex conditions

Manish Arora, a professor of environmental medicine and climate science at the Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai in New York, said it’s difficult to pinpoint the cause of autism because it’s not a single disorder.

“Autism is a spectrum, not one narrow disease,” Arora says. “So many things come under one umbrella.”

People diagnosed with autism often similar strengths and assignment, “There are many pathways to autism, and there are many symptoms of autism,” Miller said.

Scientists have discovered a variety of risk factors for autism – most of which are exists before birth — But there is no single cause for neurological and developmental conditions. influence the way people interact Communicate, learn, and act with others.

Many traits that are sometimes seen in people with autism (for example, sensitivity to loud noises or difficulty interpreting social cues) are also found in people who have not been diagnosed with autism. Arora, founder and CEO of a start-up company researching biomarkers for autism and other neurological disorders, said doctors can diagnose autism based on a person’s behavior and that they can detect the coronavirus. Point out that there is no simple test for autism like there is for autism or diabetes.

Finding the cause of infections such as the flu, which is caused by the influenza virus, is much easier.

Researchers continue to study factors that influence the development of autistic traits, but “one thing we know that does not cause autism is vaccines,” says the University of California, Los Angeles said Katherine Lord, a psychologist and researcher at the Center for Autism Research and Treatment. Geffen School of Medicine.

genetic vulnerability

Doctors have long known that genes play a large role in autism, just because it can run in families. For example, in identical twins who share all their DNA, if one twin is autistic, the other will usually be autistic as well. For fraternal twins who share about half of their DNA, if one fraternal twin has autism, the chance that the other will also have autism ranges from 53% to 67%. According to the analysis of research studies.

Miller said scientists have identified more than 100 genes associated with autism, and 60 to 80 percent of autism cases are thought to be genetically involved.

“The genetics of autism are better understood than ever before,” said Dr. Gregory Sejas, medical director of the Autism Clinical Center and Fragile X Clinic at the University of Washington School of Medicine. “We are making breakthrough research into the known genetic causes of autism.”

However, it is clear that genes cannot explain all cases of autism.

Autism is very different from conditions such as sickle cell anemia or cystic fibrosis, which are caused by a single gene. Scientists believe that a combination of genetic vulnerability and environmental exposure causes people to develop autistic traits, Lord said.

“People are discovering so many different genetic patterns associated with autism, but none of them are exclusively associated with autism, and none of them are always associated with autism. It is not related to,” Lord said.

For example, Fragile X syndrome (caused by a mutated gene on the X chromosome) is the most common known cause Autistic. But only a small percentage of children with the gene mutation actually develop autism, Miller said. This mutation predisposes some people to developing autistic traits, while others with the same mutation are protected by as-yet-unidentified protective factors, making them less likely to develop autism. You may not develop the characteristics.

Some people blame the measles, mumps, and rubella vaccine for causing autism. This is because this condition often develops around 12 to 15 months of age, the same time infants receive vaccinations. But Miller says, “Most genetic conditions that affect our lives and health are not obvious at birth. Symptoms and characteristics may not appear until much later, but the genetic code remains with us. It is with you.”

Prenatal vulnerability

Many of the known risk factors for autistic traits occur before or during birth, Arora said. babies experience complications at birth Things like having the umbilical cord wrapped around your neck increase the risk of autism.

So is the baby born early It’s probably because something happened in the womb.

Children are more likely to be diagnosed with autism If you have an older father And if you have an older mother, that’s a possibility, Miller said. It’s unclear whether there is something biological about older parents that increases the risk of autism in their children, or whether socioeconomic issues play a role. Older parents may be more likely to have their child diagnosed with autism because they have better access to medical care.

Studies show that maternal health affects a child’s risk of autism in different ways. were exposed to high levels of air pollution or developed a serious infection influenza and pneumonia during pregnancy.

Neiman, of the Autism Self-Advocacy Network, said she is not opposed to basic biological research into autism and its causes, but that such research is a challenge that autistic people face in their daily lives. said it does little to overcome barriers.

He points out that only 8.4% of the $419 million spent on autism research in the United States has been spent. Dedicated to support and service For people with autism.

“We need an autism research agenda that reflects the real priorities of autistic people and our families: lifelong support and community inclusion.” he said.

Source: www.nbcnews.com

COVID-19 vaccines may be less effective due to intestinal parasites

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Duodenal hookworms (Ancylostoma duodenale) cause one of the most common intestinal parasitic infections worldwide.

Katerina Conn/Shutterstock

People with intestinal parasitic infections, quarter This has been suggested by experiments in mice infected with the parasite, which had significantly weaker immunity after receiving a COVID-19 vaccination compared to mice not infected with the parasite.

Previous studies have shown that people with intestinal parasitic infections have a weakened immune response to vaccines for diseases such as tuberculosis and measles because the parasites suppress the processes that vaccines trigger to confer immunity, such as activating pathogen-killing cells. Intestinal parasitic infections are most common in tropical and subtropical regions, where they often occur because of limited access to clean water and sanitation.

Scientists have not tested whether these pathogens reduce the effectiveness of COVID-19 vaccines. Michael Diamond Researchers at Washington University in St. Louis, Missouri, vaccinated 16 mice with a COVID-19 mRNA vaccine, half of which had been infected 12 days earlier with an intestinal parasite that lives only in rodents. They gave each mouse a booster shot three weeks after the first vaccination.

About two weeks after the booster shot, the researchers analyzed the animals' spleens to measure concentrations of CD8+ T cells, specialized white blood cells that are important for eliminating other cells infected with the SARS-CoV-2 virus. They found that the spleens of mice infected with the intestinal parasite had about half the number of cells as mice without the parasite, suggesting a weakened immune response to the vaccine.

The researchers repeated the vaccination process in another group of 20 mice, half of which were infected with the intestinal parasite, exposing them to the highly infectious Omicron variant of the SARS-CoV-2 virus. After five days, the lungs of vaccinated rodents infected with the intestinal parasite had, on average, about 20% more virus than uninfected ones.

These findings suggest that intestinal parasites may reduce the effectiveness of COVID-19 vaccines in people, but different types of intestinal parasites are known to affect immunity differently, the researchers say. Keke Fairfax The University of Utah researchers said it's unclear whether the parasite's infection in humans would have the same effect on vaccinating against COVID-19 as it did in mice, and the situation is further complicated by the fact that humans tend to harbor multiple types of intestinal parasites at the same time, they said.

Still, understanding how to alter the immune response to vaccination is important given the prevalence of parasitic infections, and these findings suggest that researchers may need to further evaluate the vaccine's effectiveness in parts of the world where a high proportion of the population is infected with intestinal parasites, Fairfax says.

topic:

Source: www.newscientist.com

Effectiveness of coronavirus vaccines diminishes with passage of time, study finds

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A study by the UK Health and Safety Executive that analyzed more than 10 million coronavirus patients found that vaccination significantly reduced the risk of death, with the most significant benefit seen within six months of vaccination. Became. The results of this study support the success of vaccination programs and the need for booster vaccinations. Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine. Credit: SciTechDaily.com

According to a study by the UK Health and Safety Executive, COVID-19 (new coronavirus infection) Vaccination significantly reduces the risk of death, especially within 6 months after vaccination, highlighting the importance of booster vaccination.

The risk of dying from COVID-19 is significantly reduced after vaccination, but this protection wears off after six months, providing evidence to continue giving booster shots, a new study has found.

Researchers from the UK Health and Safety Agency (UKHSA) analyzed more than 10 million coronavirus infections in adults between May 2020 and February 2022. The result is Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine (JRSM).

Vaccination and mortality reduction

Cross-referencing vaccination status with case fatality risk (CFR), the proportion of cases that result in death, revealed a clear association between vaccination and lower mortality rates. Of note, this study highlights a critical period (within 6 months of last vaccination) in which CFR was consistently lowest across all age groups. After this time, the protective effect started to decrease and the CFR increased.

Noteworthy findings in the elderly

The study highlights that the COVID-19 vaccination program has been successful in reducing mortality rates.

Among adults aged 50 years and older, CFR was 10 times higher among those who had not been vaccinated (6.3%) compared with those who had received the vaccine within 6 months of testing positive (0.6%). The study also found a sharp decline in CFR in early 2021, coinciding with the initial vaccine rollout.

Florence Halford, from UKHSA’s Covid-19 Vaccines and Epidemiology Unit, said: ‘The risk of dying from Covid-19 is reduced after vaccination, and those vaccinated up to six months before the sample collection date. This was the lowest of all age groups.” This provides some evidence for the continuation of booster doses in the elderly group. ”

Reference: “Temporal changes in the risk of adult mortality from COVID-19 after vaccination in the UK from May 2020 to February 2022: a national surveillance study” Florence Halford, Kathryn Yates, Tom Clare , by Jamie Lopez Bernal, Megan Karl, and Hester Allen, December 13, 2023, Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine.
DOI: 10.1177/01410768231216332

Source: scitechdaily.com