New Research Reveals Japanese and Australian Geologists Uncover Evidence Linking Oceanic Igneous Provinces to Low-Order Extinction Events During the Triassic Period
Early Earth. Image credit: Peter Sawyer/Smithsonian Institution.
“Mass extinctions represent profoundly catastrophic events in the history of Earth,” stated Dr. Jiang Jun Huang along with a team of geologists from Jilin University and Curtin University.
“While numerous mass extinctions have shaped Earth’s evolutionary timeline, five major events are particularly notable.”
“These pivotal extinctions radically altered the trajectory of life on our planet.”
“Besides the five major mass extinction events, numerous sub-extinctions frequently occur, such as the Norian-Rhaetian extinction of the Triassic period.”
“Although the causes of five major extinction events are well documented, the triggers of smaller, lower-order extinctions remain largely speculative.”
In this groundbreaking study, the researchers investigated remnants of oceanic islands, seamounts, and plateaus on the Tibetan Plateau, mapping the evolution of the Meso-Tethyan and Neo-Tethyan oceans.
Throughout the Triassic, three significant episodes of oceanic large igneous provinces (LIPs) materialized between 250 and 248 million years ago, 233 and 231 million years ago, and 210 and 208 million years ago.
By synthesizing the geological records of these LIP episodes with extensive Triassic geological datasets, the team established a link between marine LIPs and at least four extinctions in marine life, which were spurred by subsequent anoxic-oxic events.
“Marine LIPs account for half of the identifiable geologically induced extinctions during the Triassic,” the scientists reported.
“This suggests that oceanic LIPs were the primary initiators of the Triassic extinction events.”
“Although eruptions related to oceanic LIPs are frequent, evidence for ancient occurrences may significantly diminish due to subduction processes during the closure of ocean basins.”
“This destruction complicates the identification of such records, and even when identified, interpreting and dating them accurately poses challenges.”
“Orogenic belts, remnants of long-extinct oceanic basins, may harbor many unidentified ‘ghost’ ocean LIPs, whose eruptions likely played a critical role in other Phanerozoic extinctions, which remain under-recognized in current Earth system models.”
The team’s study is published in the journal Geology.
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Jian Jun Fan et al., “Large Oceanic Igneous Provinces: A Major Driver of Repeated Triassic Extinctions,” Geology, published online on January 20, 2026. doi: 10.1130/G53406.1
Transforming seawater into potable water has been a costly and energy-heavy endeavor for many regions globally. However, a pioneering approach by Flocean, a Norwegian company, is set to revolutionize this process. They aim to unveil the world’s first commercial-scale seabed desalination plant by 2026, significantly slashing both costs and energy consumption.
Global freshwater demand is surging due to factors like population growth, climate change, and industrial needs. Meanwhile, fresh water is increasingly scarce due to droughts, deforestation, and over-irrigation practices.
Currently, terrestrial desalination provides merely 1% of the world’s freshwater supply, with over 300 million people depending on it for their daily needs. The largest plants are located in the Middle East, where low energy costs enhance the feasibility of desalination technologies amid rising water scarcity.
Reverse osmosis is the primary technology employed in desalination today, which entails pressurizing seawater to force it through membranes that only allow water molecules to pass. This process is notoriously energy-intensive.
Flocean’s innovative strategy involves deploying underwater pods that filter seawater at significant depths, enabling separation of freshwater from salt while returning the salt back to the ocean. These reverse osmosis pods take advantage of hydrostatic pressure to filter seawater with reduced energy requirements.
The company asserts that their method can cut energy usage by approximately 40-50% compared to traditional desalination methods. Additionally, the deeper the pods are submerged, the cleaner the seawater, resulting in less pre-treatment before it reaches the membrane. Nikko zone conditions contribute to this purity.
“From a process perspective, it’s relatively straightforward,” states Alexander Fuglsang, Founder and CEO of Flocean. “The salinity, temperature, and pressure conditions remain stable, with minimal bacterial interference that can lead to biofouling.” The hydrostatic pressure also aids in diffusing the brine by-product, which is claimed not to have harmful chemicals for marine ecosystems.
Over the past year, Flocean has been successfully desalinating water at a depth of 524 meters at its test site located at the Mønstad Industrial Park, Norway’s leading marine supply base. The upcoming commercial facility, dubbed Flocean One, is set to produce 1,000 cubic meters of freshwater daily upon its launch next year. This scalable approach allows for the addition of more desalination pods as needed.
“We opt to maintain uniformity within the subsea units while expanding through replication, instead of constantly developing larger machinery,” explains Fugelsang. Nevertheless, scaling introduces engineering challenges, particularly in optimizing power distribution and permeation manifolds for increased efficiency.
This desalination technology has the potential to offer affordable freshwater solutions if properly implemented and costs are minimized, but large-scale viability has yet to be established, notes Nidal Hilal from New York University Abu Dhabi. “Successfully integrating this solution into municipal systems will require overcoming various technological and financial hurdles over time.”
Reducing costs is crucial for wider adoption of this technology, given that traditional water acquisition methods, such as lake or aquifer pumping, remain cheaper. Key expenses for Flocean stem from membrane cleaning and maintenance. Innovations in membrane technology are underway, with Hilal’s research focusing on conductive membranes that electrically repel salt and other contaminants, which may enhance cleanliness and throughput. Efforts are also being made to recycle single-use plastics into membrane materials to boost sustainability and drive down costs. “Durable membranes and high-efficiency pumps can further decrease operational costs, while incorporating renewable energy can lower electricity expenditures,” Hilal adds.
Flocean One is anticipated to start freshwater production in the second quarter of 2026. If all goes as planned, this technology could pave the way for larger plants in different locations. “The greatest challenge lies in achieving the right alignment,” Fugelsang concludes. “We seek clients, government approvals, and robust financial partnerships.”
The deployment of flying drones during the Ukraine conflict has drastically transformed ground combat strategies. A similar evolution appears to be underway beneath the waves.
Global navies are in a race to incorporate autonomous submarines. The Royal Navy is set to introduce a fleet of unmanned underwater vehicles (UUVs) aimed at tracking submarines and safeguarding undersea cables and pipelines for the first time. Australia has committed $1.7 billion (£1.3 billion) to develop a ‘Ghost Shark’ submarine to combat the growing presence of Chinese submarines. Concurrently, the expansive US Navy is investing billions in multiple UUV initiatives, including one already operational that can be deployed from nuclear submarines.
Scott Jamieson, managing director of sea and land defense solutions at BAE Systems—the UK’s foremost arms manufacturer and nuclear submarine builder—asserted that autonomous unmanned submarines signify “a significant shift in the underwater combat domain.” New unmanned vessels under development will enable the Navy to “scale operations in ways not previously possible” at “a fraction of the cost of manned submarines,” he noted.
Established defense giants like BAE Systems, General Dynamics, and Boeing are competing with innovative startups such as Anduril, creator of the Ghost Shark, and Germany’s Hellsing for lucrative new market possibilities. Startups argue that they can deliver solutions more rapidly and cost-effectively.
Anduril’s Ghost Shark is a large autonomous underwater vehicle (XLAUV) commissioned by the Royal Australian Navy. Photo: Rodney Braithwaite/Australian Defense Force/AFP/Getty Images
The contest for underwater dominance has persisted almost continuously for the last century, both during peacetime and in conflict.
The first nuclear-powered submarine, the American Nautilus—named after Jules Verne’s fictional vessel—was launched in 1954. Today, nuclear-powered vessels constitute the backbone of the military forces of six nations: the United States, Russia, Britain, France, China, and India, with North Korea potentially joining this group recently. This occurs amidst ongoing debates about the value of such costly weapons and their effectiveness as deterrents.
Naval forces engage in a constant game of hide and seek beneath the waves. Submarines seldom surface to evade detection. Recently, due to maintenance issues with other vessels, some British submarines spent an unprecedented nine months submerged, carrying Trident nuclear missiles that could be deployed at a moment’s notice.
Monitoring Russia’s underwater nuclear capabilities, which have been largely inactive in recent years, is crucial for the Royal Navy, especially around the Greenland-Iceland-UK (GIUK) Gap, a critical juncture for NATO allies to observe Russian activities in the North Atlantic. An executive from an arms company mentioned that the South China Sea represents another promising opportunity as China and its neighbors confront each other in a protracted territorial standoff.
Underwater drones have the potential to enhance the tracking of competing submarines. Some sensors are designed to be deployed by other unmanned probes and can remain underwater for extended periods, as per the aspirations of executives looking to market them to Britain.
A growing concern is the increase in attacks on oil and gas pipelines, exemplified by the 2022 Nord Stream incident, where a Ukrainian suspect was identified, and the 2023 attack on the Baltic Connector pipeline linking Finland and Estonia. Undersea power and internet cables are vital for the global economy, as evidenced by the disruption caused to an undersea power cable between Finland and Estonia last Christmas—just two months following the severing of two communication cables in the Baltic Sea.
Parliament’s Defense Select Committee has raised alarms about the UK’s susceptibility to undersea sabotage—so-called “grey zone” actions—which can lead to significant disruptions without escalating to outright war. The committee warned that damage to any of the 60 undersea data and energy cables around the British Isles could “have a devastating effect on the UK.”
Andy Tomis, CEO of Cohort, a British military technology firm renowned for developing sonar sensors, highlighted that traditional manned ships, aircraft, and submarines used to track nuclear-powered submarines and potential sabotage vessels are “highly sophisticated and costly.” However, he added, “by integrating unmanned vessels with these systems, we can achieve human-like decision-making capabilities without endangering lives.”
BAE is already testing Herne’s underwater drone. Photo: BAE Systems
Cohort hopes to implement some of its towed sensors (named Crait after a sea snake) on smaller autonomous vessels.
Modern naval ships are equipped with five times more sonar sensors than active submarines. Reduced power needs are crucial for small unmanned vessels, which cannot accommodate nuclear reactors. Passive sensors that do not emit sonar “pings” complicate detection and destruction.
The Royal Navy, along with the British Army, has historically lagged in rapidly adopting the latest technologies. However, lessons from the Ukrainian military underscore the importance of swiftness and cost-effectiveness in drone production for aerial and maritime applications. In response, the Defense Ministry is advocating for the swift development of a technology demonstrator under Project Cabot.
BAE has already conducted tests using a candidate dubbed Herne. Hellsing is establishing a facility to manufacture underwater drones in Portsmouth, the Royal Navy’s home base. Anduril, led by Donald Trump fundraiser Palmer Lackey, is planning to set up a manufacturing site in the UK.
Initial contracts are expected to be awarded this year, with tests likely to take place in north-west Scotland conducted by defense company QinetiQ. A full-scale order for one or two companies, including Atlantic Net, is anticipated to address sensor needs in the GIUK area.
Sources indicate that the Royal Navy has termed the initiative “anti-submarine warfare as a service,” a play on the phrase “software as a service.” A £24 million tender announcement was published in May.
Anduril’s Dive LD autonomous underwater vehicle. American companies are considering manufacturing bases in the UK. Photo: Holly Adams/Reuters
Sidharth Kaushal, a senior fellow specializing in seapower at the Royal United Services Institute think tank, emphasized that the submarine-hunting strategies employed in recent decades “are not scalable in conflict” due to their reliance on costly and highly specialized assets.
The warship will tow a cable extending over 100 meters, equipped with an array of sonar sensors designed to detect the faintest sounds and lowest frequency vibrations. Aircraft from Britain’s fleet, like the Boeing P-8s, deploy disposable sonobuoys to locate deep-sea submarines. Simultaneously, satellites monitor the surface for wake trails left by submarine communication antennas and observe for patrols of hunter-killer submarines lurking below.
The proposal that inexpensive drones could handle much of this task is intriguing. However, Kaushal cautioned that the cost benefits “remain to be verified.” Industry leaders have indicated that large UUV fleets will still incur significant maintenance costs.
Safeguarding submarine cables presents a dual challenge, as sabotage may become more accessible and less expensive. One executive remarked that the likelihood of drones engaging each other underwater is “entirely plausible.”
The Ministry of Defense describes this initiative as “contractor-owned, contractor-operated, and naval-surveilled,” marking the first instance in which a civilian-owned vessel might partake in anti-submarine missions, thus raising the potential of becoming a military target.
“Russia’s immediate response will likely be to test and gauge this capability,” commented Ian McFarlane, head of underwater systems sales at Thales UK. Thales currently supplies the Royal Navy with sonar arrays for submarine detection, unmanned surface craft, and aerial drones, aiming to contribute to Project Cabot by integrating relevant data.
However, Mr. McFarlane insisted that involving private firms is crucial as the Royal Navy and its allies require “mass and resilience now” to address the threats posed by “increasing aggressors.”
Submarine canyons are vast, deep formations located on the majority of the world’s continental margins. Antarctica plays a pivotal role in marine processes that significantly influence global climate and ocean circulation. The understanding of oceanographic, climatic, geological, and ecological importance is often hindered by the limitations in Canyon data. In a recent study, researchers from University College Cork and the University of Barcelona aimed to develop the most comprehensive catalogue of Antarctic submarine canyons and gullies. They discovered 332 drainage networks consisting of 3,291 river segments, which is nearly five times the number of canyons recorded in earlier research.
This map shows a network of 332 submarine canyons on the seabed of Antarctica. Image credits: Riccardo Arosio & David Amblas, doi: 10.1016/j.margeo.2025.107608.
Submarine canyons are prevalent features found along all continental margins.
These canyons are typically V-shaped valleys with narrow, flexible morphology, beginning at the edge of the continental shelf or continental slope and extending into either the continental rise or abyssal plains.
Short channels less than 10 km in length are referred to as submarine gullies, and they are commonly found within canyon systems on continental slopes.
Submarine canyons are crucial for transporting sediments and nutrients from coastal areas to deeper waters, establishing biodiverse habitats by linking shallow and deep marine environments.
While approximately 10,000 submarine canyons exist globally, only 27% of the ocean floor is mapped at high resolution, indicating a likely higher total number of canyons.
Despite their ecological, oceanographic, and geological significance, submarine canyons are often underrepresented, especially in polar regions.
“Similar to the submarine canyons in the Arctic, those in Antarctica mirror canyons found elsewhere in the world,” stated Dr. David Amblàs, a researcher at the University of Barcelona.
“Yet, they tend to be larger and deeper due to the prolonged effects of polar ice and the considerable volume of sediment that glaciers deposit onto the continental shelf.”
For their research, the authors utilized version 2 of the International Bathymetric Chart of the Southern Ocean (IBCSO V2), the most comprehensive and detailed seabed map for the region.
They employed new high-resolution seabed data alongside semi-automated methods to identify and analyze these canyons.
Overall, they described 15 morphometric parameters that displayed notable differences between the southeastern and western canyons.
“Some of the submarine canyons we examined exceed depths of 4,000 meters,” remarked Dr. Amblàs.
“The most impressive among them is located in East Antarctica and consists of a complex, divergent canyon system.”
“It originates from multiple canyons near the edge of the continental shelf and converges into a single main channel that descends steeply into deep water.”
Dr. Ricardo Arosio from Cork University commented:
“The canyons in East Antarctica exhibit more complexity and branching patterns, forming varied canyon channel systems characterized by the often typical U-shaped cross sections.”
“This indicates a significant influence of long-term development under persistent glacial activity alongside erosion and sediment deposition processes.”
“On the contrary, West Antarctic canyons are short and steep, featuring a V-shaped cross section.”
“This morphological distinction supports the hypothesis that the East Antarctic ice sheet developed earlier and underwent a longer maturation process,” explained Dr. Amblàs.
“This was previously suggested by studies of sedimentary records but lacked explanation through large-scale seabed geomorphology.”
“Thanks to the high resolution of the new seabed measurement database—500 m per pixel, compared to 1-2 km per pixel in earlier maps—we can effectively apply semi-automated technology for canyon identification, profiling, and analysis,” Dr. Arosio stated.
“The strength of our research lies in the integration of various methods previously used but now brought together into robust and systematic protocols.”
“We’ve also developed a GIS software script that enables the calculation of numerous canyon-specific morphometric parameters with just a few clicks.”
The team’s research will be featured in the journal Marine Geology.
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Riccardo Arosio & David Amblas. 2025. Topographic measurements of the Antarctic Submarine Canyon. Marine Geology 488:107608; doi:10.1016/j.margeo.2025.107608
Recent reports indicate an increasing risk of assaults on submarine cables supported by Russia and China, which facilitate international internet traffic, particularly amid ongoing tensions in the Baltic Sea and Taiwan.
Submarine cables represent 99% of global intercontinental data traffic and have experienced various disruptive incidents allegedly tied to state activities in the past 18 months.
A study conducted by the US cybersecurity firm Recorded Future has highlighted nine incidents expected in the Baltic Sea and near Taiwan in 2024 and 2025, suggesting a predictive pattern for further harmful actions.
According to the analysis, while genuine accidents could lead to damage to many submarine cables, the situations in the Baltic Sea and Taiwan suggest a rise in malicious actions attributed to Russia and China.
“The operations linked to Russia in the Baltic region and China in the Western Pacific are likely to increase as tensions elevate,” the firm noted.
The report points to several incidents, including the disconnection of two submarine cables from Lithuania to Sweden in November, with accusations directed at an anchor dragged by a Chinese vessel. Also in December, a Russian oil tanker was detained after severing cables between Finland and Estonia.
In Taiwan, recent incidents include cable damage caused by a Chinese-operated cargo vessel zigzagging over the line to Peng Island in February. One month prior, another Chinese vessel was suggested as a likely source of damage to the Taiwan-US cable.
The analysis states, “While deterring state-sponsored sabotage linked to the Baltic and Taiwan incidents is challenging, such activities align with the strategic goals of Russia and China, as well as observed operations and their existing deep-sea capabilities.”
Recorded Future emphasizes that successful attacks on multiple cables are likely to result in prolonged disruptions, typically requiring intervention in deeper waters and likely involving state-level threat actors due to the complexities of accessing these sites. Such actions may occur prior to a full-scale conflict, the report suggests.
The firm noted 44 distinct cable damages have been recorded over the past 18 months. A significant portion is attributed to “unclear causes,” while nearly a third remains unexplained, with 16% due to seismic activity or other natural events.
Submarine cables installed in the Baltic Sea. Analysts suggest sabotaging these cables is a strategic move, as it can be framed as accidental damage. Photo: Lehtikuva/Reuters
Analysts believe that targeting subsea cables presents a strategic advantage, as such actions can disguise as accidental damage or implicate vessels without direct connections to any suspected attackers.
To mitigate the risk of incidents damaging multiple cables and resulting in “long-term connectivity issues,” Recorded Future recommends enhanced cable monitoring, improved security measures, and robust stress testing of subsea infrastructure.
Notably, despite incidents in the Baltic and Taiwan regions, the most severe cases unfolded elsewhere. In February last year, a missile from Houthi forces struck a ship’s anchor, severely disrupting communications in the Middle East. A month later, in West Africa, an underwater landslide caused significant issues, followed by another critical incident off the coast of South Africa in May 2024 related to cable drifting.
The implications of the Red Sea and African incidents reveal that the longest-lasting disruptions occur in regions with limited alternative cable options and insufficient repair capabilities, irrespective of the specific causes.
In contrast, two cable incidents in the Baltic Sea last November had minimal repercussions due to their relatively low impact and the resilience of European internet infrastructure. However, the report highlights that three EU island nations—Malta, Cyprus, and Ireland—are more susceptible due to their heavy dependence on submarine cables for global communications.
The recent strategic defense assessment from the UK government acknowledged the potential threats to submarine cables and recommended a greater and more coordinated role for the Royal Navy in safeguarding the submarine infrastructure that carries vital information, energy, and goods relied upon by citizens.
President Trump has ordered the US government to take a major step towards mining vast areas below the sea. This is a move opposed by almost every other country, taking into account international waters from international waters for this type of industrial activity.
The executive order, signed Thursday, will circumvent a decades-old treaty ratified by all major coastal states except the United States. This is the latest example of the Trump administration’s willingness to ignore international institutions, and is likely to spark protests from American rivals and allies.
The order “establishes the United States as a global leader in submarine mineral exploration and development within and outside the national jurisdiction.” Text released by the White House.
Trump’s order directs the promotion of mining permits in both the National Maritime and Atmospheric Administration’s international waters and US territory.
Part of the seabed is covered with potato-sized nodules containing valuable minerals such as nickel, cobalt and manganese. These are essential to advanced technologies that the United States considers to be important to economic and military security, but its supply chain is increasingly controlled by China.
No commercial scale submarine mining has been carried out to date. The technical hurdles were high and there were serious concerns about the environmental impact.
As a result, in the 1990s, most countries agreed to join independent international submarine authorities that dominate the seabed mining of international waters. The Trump administration is relying on the US as it is not a signator The vague 1980 law This allows the federal government to issue submarine mining permits in international waters.
Many countries want to see undersea mining become a reality. But so far, it has been that economic orders should not take priority over the risk that mining could damage fisheries and marine food chains, or that it could affect the essential role of the ocean in absorbing carbon dioxide that warms the planet from the atmosphere.
Trump’s order comes after years of delays at the ISA in setting up a regulatory framework for undersea mining. Authorities have not yet agreed to the set of rules.
The executive order paves the way for metal companies, a well-known undersea mining company, to receive the first permission from NOAA to actively mine. A public company based in Vancouver, British Columbia It was disclosed in March It would ask the Trump administration to approve it through a US subsidiary to mine in international waters. The company has already spent more than $500 million on exploratory work.
“We have production-ready boats,” Gerald Baron, the company’s chief executive, said in an interview Thursday. “We have the means to process materials in friendly partner nations of the Alliance. We are missing out on permission to allow us to start.”
In anticipation of mining as a final allowance, companies like him have invested heavily in developing technologies to mine the seabed. They include a ship with huge claws that stretch to the seabed, and a self-driving vehicle mounted on a giant vacuum cleaner that scrutinizes the bottom of the ocean.
Some analysts have questioned the need to rush towards submarine mining, given the current excess of nickel and cobalt from traditional mining. Furthermore, manufacturers of electric vehicle batteries, one of the main markets in metals, are heading towards battery designs that rely on other factors.
Nevertheless, the projection of future demand for metals generally remains high. And Trump’s escalating trade war with China threatens to limit America’s access to some of these important minerals. These include rare earth elements that can also be found in trace amounts of submarine nodules.
US Geological Survey It is estimated Nodules in a single belt of the Eastern Pacific, known as the Clarion Kriparton Zone, contain more nickel, cobalt and manganese than all ground reserves combined. The area in the open ocean between Mexico and Hawaii is about half the size of the continent of the United States.
The Metals Company’s contract site is located in the Clarion-Clipperton zone, with the oceans averaged around 2.5 miles deep. The company will first apply for exploitation permission under the 1980 law.
Meta has revealed plans to construct the longest underwater cable project in the world that will connect the US, India, South Africa, Brazil, and other regions.
The tech company, now known as Meta, announced that Project Waterworth will span 50,000km (31,000 miles) of submarine cable.
With a 24-pair fiber system, the cable will have increased capacity to support AI projects, according to Meta, the parent company of Facebook, Instagram, and WhatsApp.
In a blog post, Meta stated: “Project Waterworth will provide top-tier connectivity to the US, India, Brazil, South Africa, and other major regions.”
“This initiative aims to facilitate greater economic collaboration, enhance digital inclusion, and create opportunities for technological advancement in these regions.
“In countries like India, where significant growth and investment in digital infrastructure have already been seen, Waterworth will further accelerate progress and support the nation’s ambitious digital economy plans.”
Over the past decade, Meta has collaborated with various partners to develop over 20 submarine cables, including multiple deployments of industry-leading cables with 24 fiber pairs compared to the typical 8-16 pairs of other systems.
The UK currently has around 60 submarine cables, through which 99% of data is connected to the global network.
Submarine cables handle over 95% of internet traffic worldwide, raising concerns about vulnerability to attacks, accidents, and geopolitical tensions during conflicts.
NATO initiated a mission in January to increase surveillance of Baltic vessels following incidents that damaged key submarine cables the previous year.
The UK Parliamentary Committee recently requested evidence on the nation’s ability to safeguard subsea cable infrastructure from threats and ensure national resilience in the event of significant and prolonged damage.
In 2018, the Trump administration imposed sanctions on Russian companies allegedly involved in providing underwater capabilities to Moscow to monitor the underwater network.
In July, much of Tonga experienced a blackout after submarine internet cables connecting the island network were damaged, causing disruption for local businesses.
Meta stated in a blog post that the cable systems will be laid at depths of 7,000 meters and will utilize enhanced burial techniques in high-risk fault areas, such as shallow waters near the coast, to avoid hazards like ship anchors.
In January, Meta CEO Mark Zuckerberg announced the completion of professional fact-check reviews on Facebook and Instagram, aiming to “dramatically reduce censorship,” a move that garnered significant criticism.
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