The Black Death, a devastating outbreak of bubonic plague that decimated up to 60 percent of medieval Europe’s population, may have been triggered by volcanic eruptions around 1345.
The bacterium responsible for the plague is Yersinia pestis, transmitted by fleas that infest rodents and infect humans through bites. The origin of the 14th-century epidemic in Europe remains unclear, though historical accounts indicate that grain shipments from the Black Sea to Italy could have played a role.
“The Black Death was pivotal in the Middle Ages, and we sought to understand why such immense quantities of grain were transported to Italy, particularly in 1347,” states Martin Bauch of the Leibniz Institute for the History and Culture of Eastern Europe, Germany.
To explore this, Bork and his colleagues, including Wolf Bungen from the University of Cambridge, examined climate data stemming from tree rings, ice cores, and historical accounts.
Reports from Japan, China, Germany, France, and Italy revealed a decline in sunlight and an increase in cloud cover from 1345 to 1349, likely due to a sulfur-rich volcanic eruption or multiple eruptions in an unidentified tropical region, according to Bauch and Büngen.
Data from Greenland and Antarctica’s ice cores and thousands of tree-ring samples across eight native European areas indicate significant climate shifts may have occurred during this period.
Moreover, researchers uncovered records showing that Italian officials, faced with famine due to harsh weather and poor harvests, took preemptive measures in 1347 to import grain from the Mongols of the Golden Horde near the Sea of Azov.
“They operated with exceptional professionalism and efficiency to mitigate soaring prices and impending starvation through grain imports before hunger led to mortality,” Bauch explained. “As these societies had effective famine-response strategies, the plague bacterium likely traveled alongside the grain.”
During that era, the causes of the plague were shrouded in mystery, with many attributing the outbreak to “astral alignments and toxic vapors emitted by earthquakes.”
Though the plague might have eventually invaded Europe, Bauch suggests the population decline would have been less severe without this proactive approach. “My point isn’t against preparedness but rather to highlight that successful measures in one area can inadvertently create challenges in others.”
Aparna Lal, a researcher at the Australian National University in Canberra, asserts that a “perfect storm of conditions” likely facilitated the Black Death’s arrival in Europe. “Rising food prices, well-documented hunger issues, and colder, wetter climates could have impaired immune defenses due to nutritional deficiencies and behavioral changes, including increased indoor congregation,” she says.
However, she notes that further research is necessary to clarify cause-and-effect dynamics. “The immediate disturbances caused by the eruptions seem to have significantly influenced local weather patterns, but, as mentioned previously, additional evidence is essential to confirm their role in the Black Death’s entry into Europe,” Lal emphasizes.
Science of the Renaissance: Italy
From the works of Brunelleschi and Botticelli to the genius of polymaths like Leonardo da Vinci and Galileo Galilei, delve into the remarkable scientific minds and breakthroughs of the Renaissance that established Italy’s prime position in scientific advancement.
In 2026, a group of astronauts is floating inside a gleaming white cylinder, positioned hundreds of kilometers above the Earth.
They gaze down at our planet through a 1.1-meter dome window and rest in an inflatable bed engineered for zero gravity, while conducting experiments focusing on human physiology, plant development, and protein crystallization.
Yet, this isn’t the International Space Station (ISS). It’s not managed by NASA, Roscosmos, or the China National Space Administration. This is Haven-1, the world’s inaugural commercial space station constructed by a private company named Vast.
Set to launch in May 2026 aboard the SpaceX Falcon 9, Haven-1 signifies transformative shifts in how we live and work in space.
“If you can achieve this prior to securing a NASA contract [to replace the ISS], using our funds, we have numerous CEOs,” says Max Haot to BBC Science Focus. “We will not only be the first commercial space station but also the sole predicted bidders to accomplish this.”
Minimum viable space station
Vast’s strategy is quick, concentrated, straightforward, and practical. Rather than constructing an extensive orbital laboratory, they designed a carefully constrained system that prioritizes safety and quality.
With a volume of 45m3 (1,590 feet)3, Haven-1 provides roughly the interior space of a small tour bus. Its life support system operates on a simpler “open loop” model, adapted from previous NASA technology and utilized during the space shuttle era.
The crew will stay for shorter durations compared to the ISS. Instead, four astronauts will visit for approximately 10 days, arriving aboard the SpaceX Dragon spacecraft. Over Haven-1’s projected three-year orbital lifespan, only four such missions are planned.
“As a demonstration of a minimally viable product space station, safety is our top priority,” Haot states. “The second priority is achieving this within an unprecedented timeline. A swift timeline leads to reduced costs.”
Simplifying processes enables Vast to accelerate progress. The main structure is already assembled and will undergo testing this summer after completion in July. By early next year, the entire system should be integrated, and final tests will commence.
Haven-1 hosts four crew members at a time on a 10-day mission. – Extensive
Stations that look like the future
Aesthetically, Haven-1 is a remarkable departure from its predecessor. While the ISS is an engineering marvel, it often resembles a floating plumbing workshop. Haven-1 is designed with a science fiction aesthetic. Its interior is clean, functional, and sleek for space habitats.
This aesthetic reimagining is not solely for show. It’s about functionality. “We go to space to work,” Haot explains. “It’s straightforward to understand that better rest, well-being, and communication lead to increased productivity.”
Here, Vast’s Human Factors team plays a crucial role, led by veteran NASA astronaut Drew Feestel.
For instance, sleep is facilitated using an inflatable bed that applies gentle pressure, mimicking the physical sensations astronauts crave in microgravity.
“Astronauts have various preferences for sleeping on the ISS,” says Haot. “Many opt for pressure against their bodies while they sleep.”
read more:
What occurs aboard the ship?
Each mission to Haven-1 will be shorter yet packed with activities. Scientists can engage approximately 40 crew members throughout the station’s lifespan, given the limited opportunities for human time in orbit.
“Humanity has limited time to learn about space habitation and test technology,” notes Haot. “We believe that you can be incredibly productive within that time.”
Already lined up are research projects addressing human biology, drug screening, plant development, and protein crystal formation. Vast has established partnerships with Redwire Space (USA), Yuri (Germany), and Exobios Fair (Luxembourg).
A French company, Interstellar Lab, is investigating plant growth in microgravity.
Between missions, the station will be utilized to experiment with artificial gravity systems. This is an early step toward enhancing safety and feasibility for long-duration space travel.
Haven-1 is more than just a research platform; it’s a strategic maneuver in a much broader competition.
NASA intends to retire the ISS around 2030 and is currently reviewing bids for the next-generation orbital platform. Haot aims to secure that contract, and launching Haven-1 early with private funding is a bold way to leap ahead of competitors.
“Our goal is to present the most compelling strategy among all contenders,” Haot explains. “We’ve already achieved this by being ahead in technology development, teams, facilities, and certification processes.”
However, winning the race is not guaranteed. A competing spaceflight company, Axiom Space, has already secured a $140 million contract from NASA to connect at least one module to the ISS. Work is ongoing at Axiom, with the inaugural launch slated for late 2026.
Other companies, including Blue Origin, Northrop Grumman, and Starlab, are also in the running.
If successful, the Vast team will be well-positioned when NASA makes its decisions in 2026. If NASA’s objectives do not come to fruition, they may explore opportunities with foreign governments and private entities interested in utilizing the station.
“We remain optimistic about the future of Vast, but our primary focus is internally,” affirms Haot. “Winning this opportunity is of pivotal significance—it’s the largest market opportunity currently in the space station sector.”
Despite shorter time frames, astronauts onboard will conduct hundreds of experiments. – Extensive
From Haven-1 to a comprehensive orbital hub
Haven-1 is just the beginning. Vast’s subsequent venture is Haven-2, a more advanced module adhering to the same philosophy. Starting in 2028, the company plans to launch new modules every six months, ultimately assembling a complete commercial station by 2032.
This modular future facilitates more frequent crew missions, civil research programs, and, ultimately, a broader orbital economy.
Thanks to a partnership with SpaceX, Haven-1 will also become the first space station connected to Starlink, providing ORBIT Gigabit Speed Internet.
“If you want to operate Haven-1 and communicate continuously, you can,” Haot asserts. “This will significantly change how the public and crew interact.”
Redefining space
Haven-1 may not be the largest or the most sophisticated station in orbit, but it will be the first entirely constructed, funded, and operated by private enterprises. That’s the crux of its significance.
Vast aims to reshape the landscape of low Earth orbit, illustrating that space infrastructure can be efficient, elegant, and commercially viable. Whether in science, exploration, or industry, HAOT believes the future of space belongs not to nations, but to those who reach the stars first.
“The goal isn’t to erect luxury hotels in space to attract tourists,” emphasizes Haot. “The aim is to create a robust environment that supports exploration.”
“It’s not without risks. We need to observe what transpires in reality.”
read more:
About our experts
Max Hat is an entrepreneur with a background in aerospace, appliances, and the internet. He currently serves as the CEO of Vast.
Leprosy can be caused by two types of bacteria: Mycobacterium leprae and Mycobacterium lepromatosis.
Nobeastsofierce Science/Alamy
Contrary to popular belief, the influence of leprosy existed among the American populace long before Europeans arrived.
“The narrative was that Europeans introduced this dreadful disease to America,” states Nicholas Lascovan from the Pasteur Institute in Paris. “Our findings challenge that notion.”
Globally, the majority of leprosy instances result from the bacteria Mycobacterium leprae. However, in 2008, Xiang-Yang Han and his team from the University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center identified a second causative agent, M. lepromatosis, in two individuals from Mexico afflicted with leprosy. Since then, more occurrences of this pathogen have been noted in the US, Canada, Brazil, and Cuba, as well as in four people from Singapore and Myanmar.
Driven to explore this less-studied pathogen, Lascovan collaborated with Han, other researchers, and indigenous communities to analyze ancient DNA from 389 individuals who lived in America before European contact.
They discovered M. lepromatosis at one archaeological site near the Alaska-Canada border and two locations along Argentina’s southeastern coastline, all carbon-dated to roughly 1,000 years ago. The bacterial genome exhibited slight variations, indicating a distinct strain separated by about 12,000 kilometers. “It has rapidly spread across the continent for centuries,” explains Lascovan.
DNA analysis from numerous modern cases, primarily in the US and Mexico, showed that nearly all contemporary strains are closely related, with minor variations from ancient times. Nonetheless, the team also recognized a rare and unusually ancient strain in modern populations that wasn’t found in archaeological sites, suggesting the existence of at least two distinct strains. Notably, M. lepromatosis is still present in North America today, alongside M. leprae, which was introduced by Europeans.
The findings imply that these bacteria have diverged and evolved within the United States for approximately 10,000 years. About 3,000 years ago, a lineage of the pathogen mutated into its current form, capable of infecting red squirrels in the UK and Ireland, causing issues such as skin swelling and unpleasant lesions.
Regarding their origins, genetic data indicate that M. lepromatosis and M. leprae diverged from a shared ancestor over 700,000 years ago, yet the precise location of this divergence remains unidentified.
Modern cases of M. lepromatosis appear to primarily affect the blood vessels of the feet, while M. leprae targets nerves, according to Han. Those infected with M. lepromatosis may experience blocked blood flow, tissue death, and skin breakdown, leading to potentially fatal complications from severe secondary infections caused by bacteria like Staphylococcus aureus. The disease can also progress to internal organs such as the liver and spleen, resulting in some individuals succumbing before the skeletal system exhibits leprosy signs.
This may help clarify why archaeologists have not identified leprosy in ancient artifacts from the Americas, as Han mentions. While skeletal remains from Europe and Asia frequently show clear signs of leprosy-related bone damage, the ancient Canadian individuals examined in this study exhibited only ambiguous jaw lesions, which could arise from various conditions.
Annemieke Geluk from Leiden University in the Netherlands remarked that this “remarkable study” necessitates a rethink of the disease’s history. “My teaching materials indicate that there was no leprosy in the Americas before European colonization,” she noted, “I will need to revise my materials!”
Beyond its historical implications, this research also highlights pressing public health concerns. Leprosy is resurging in certain global regions, and rising antibiotic resistance complicates treatment. “Understanding this is highly critical,” says Geluk. “We need collaborative efforts worldwide to map existing strains.”
The discovery of stone tools, hearths and cooked food waste at a cave site in Latniya on the Mediterranean island of Malta indicates that hunter-gatherers had crossed at least 100 km of open water to arrive on the island 8,500 years ago.
Hunters and Gatherers had crossed at least 100 km of open water to arrive in Malta 8,500 years ago. Image credits: Daniel Clark/MPI GEA.
Maltese archipelago is a chain of smallest islands in the Mediterranean.
Humans were not thought to have reached and lived such a small, isolated island, about 7,500 years ago, until the Neolithic regional shift to life.
In the standard view, the limited resources and ecological vulnerability of the small island, combined with the technical challenges of long-distance sailors, meant that hunter-gatherers were unable or unfulfilled to take these journeys.
“Relying on the use of sea-level currents and wind breezes, as well as the practice of exploring landmarks, stars and other paths, there is a crossing of about 100 km per hour at a speed of about 4 km per hour.
“Even on the longest day of the year, these sailors would have been open water in the darkness of hours.”
At the site of a cave in Latniya in the northern Merry area of Malta, researchers discovered human traces in the form of stone tools, hearths and cooked food waste.
“At this location, we recovered a variety of animals, including hundreds of bodies of deer, birds, turtles and foxes,” said Dr. Matthew Stewart, a researcher at Griffith University.
“Some of these wildlife were long thought to have been extinct by this point,” added Professor Eleanor Scerri, a geographer at the Max Planck Institute and a researcher at the University of Malta.
“They were hunting and cooking red deer with turtles and birds.
In addition to this, scientists have found clear evidence regarding the exploitation of marine resources.
“We found that seals, groupers, thousands of edible marine gastropods, crabs and sea urchin debris all cooked undoubtedly,” said Dr. James Brinkhorn, a geography researcher at the University of Liverpool and the Max Planck Institute.
“The diverse range of terrestrial areas, particularly the incorporation of the ocean fauna into their diet, have enabled these hunter-gatherers to maintain themselves on an island as small as Malta,” Dr. Stewart said.
These findings raised questions about the extinction of endemic animals in Malta and other small Mediterranean islands, and whether distant Messium Age communities are linked through seafarers.
“The results add a millennium to Maltese prehistoric times and enforce a reassessment of the capabilities of Europe’s last hunter-gatherer sailors, and its connections and ecological impacts,” Professor Scerri said.
Team’s paper It was published in the journal today Nature.
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EML Scerri et al. The marine voyage of hunter-gatherers has been extended to remote Mediterranean islands. NaturePublished online on April 9, 2025. doi:10.1038/s41586-025-08780-y
La Niña increases the risk of drought in certain regions, as occurred in California in 2022
David McNew/Getty Images
A weak La Niña weather pattern has emerged in the Pacific Ocean several months later than originally expected. Although this will reduce average global temperatures, it will increase the risk of droughts and heavy rains in parts of the world.
The eastern tropical Pacific Ocean transitions from hot to cold and back again in a temperature cycle known as El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO). La Niña is the cold phase of the cycle. It typically occurs about every three to five years when trade winds strengthen, pushing cold water westward from off the coast of South America.
Sea surface temperatures in that part of the Pacific Ocean have been below average in recent months, but never below the threshold needed to declare a La Niña event. Until nowaccording to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). Wind patterns also now reflect La Niña conditions.
The agency expects La Niña to last until April 2025, before temperatures return to normal.
Even as a weak event, below-average sea surface temperatures are expected to have a unique impact on global weather patterns, increasing the risk of drought in parts of North and South America and torrential rain in Australia and the Southeast. has been. Asia.
He also notes that La Niña events tend to lower global average temperatures, and that this cooling effect is proportional to the strength of the event. Pedro Dinegio At the University of Colorado Boulder. Dinezio said the transition from warm El Niño conditions to neutral La Niña conditions has brought temperatures down, but they are still above average in many parts of the world.
That also applies to the ocean. A transition to La Niña means temperatures in the eastern tropical Pacific Ocean are colder than average. However, global sea surface temperatures are still rising 0.5℃ or more Above average.
“The oceans, in particular, were record warm and slow to cool in mid-to-late 2023,” he said. Karin Gleeson He spoke at a press conference at NOAA in December, before La Niña officially occurred.
It is not unusual for a La Niña event to occur this late, even after a strong El Niño event. But that change will occur several months later than forecasters expected. It remains unclear why predictions were so far off and whether anthropogenic climate change played a role in the delay.
aIn recent years, affordable new electric family cars have become scarce in Europe, particularly those manufactured in the EU. Campaign group Transport and Environment reports that no electric models produced domestically and priced below €25,000 (£20,740) will be available for sale across the EU in 2022-23.
However, the landscape has shifted in recent months with the introduction of new cars like the Fiat Grande Panda, Citroën ë-C3, Hyundai Instar, Dacia Spring, and Renault 5. This sudden influx has provided buyers with more options.
This change is not coincidental. As stricter EU carbon emissions targets take effect on January 1, car manufacturers are facing the need to sell more electric vehicles to avoid fines. The industry is pushing for relaxed rules, while environmentalists are advocating for a firm stance from the EU.
Globally, automakers are grappling with weak demand for both battery-powered and internal combustion engine models. This profit decline occurs at a challenging time as the industry seeks funding for the costly shift to electric vehicles (EVs).
While 2024 saw record-breaking electric vehicle sales worldwide, driven by China’s growing industry, European markets are experiencing a slowdown. Analyst Matthias Schmidt predicts a 1.4% sales decrease in the 18 largest Western and Northern European markets over the past year.
The decline can be attributed to the cessation of generous subsidies for new EVs in Germany, the largest EV market in Europe. The end of a €5,000 incentive per car has posed challenges, impacting EV sales not only in Germany but also in other countries like France.
Some automakers are faring better than others in meeting emissions targets. While Ford struggles with Cologne-made electric car sales, BMW, Stellantis, Tesla, Polestar, and Volvo are ahead of their targets, allowing them to sell “credits” to competitors.
The sales dip has put political leaders on alert, as automakers blame regulations for potential factory closures. Volkswagen announced plans to close up to three factories in Germany, while Ford is cutting jobs in Europe. This has led industry associations to lobby for relaxed emissions standards to protect jobs.
In the UK, manufacturers have successfully argued against fines, leading to calls for a unified approach. The European Automobile Manufacturers Association is urging the European Commission to provide clarity on emissions standards to safeguard jobs.
fiat grande panda. Stellantis has repeatedly halted assembly operations at its headquarters factory in Mirafiori, Italy. Photo: LaPresse/Alamy
European policymakers may consider easing emissions regulations, with discussions set to begin in January. Efforts to relax rules are being led by some EU governments.
However, concerns persist about the long-term impact of deregulation. Analysts and activists warn that relaxing targets could jeopardize European industry, allowing Chinese EV startups to gain ground in the market.
aArtificial intelligence (AI) will soon be coming to iPhones in a move that Apple says will completely change how people use the devices. The iPhone maker’s AI tools, branded “Apple Intelligence”, will include an enhanced voice assistant, Siri, in partnership with ChatGPT owner OpenAI.
Apple isn’t the first smartphone maker to adopt AI: the technology is already available in phones like Google’s latest Pixel and Samsung’s Galaxy series.
But the sheer volume of data required for AI raises concerns about data privacy. Apple has built its reputation on privacy. Its advertisements state: Privacy. That’s the iPhone. – so this is an area where the company claims to be different.
What is Apple Intelligence and when is it available?
Apple Intelligence is the iPhone maker’s collective name for its AI features, including the ChatGPT-4o integration that will arrive in the iOS 18 software upgrade.
The first version of iOS 18 will debut alongside Apple’s iPhone 16 models in September, while the AI features will arrive later in the iOS 18.1 update scheduled for mid-to-late October.
The first iOS 18.1 Apple Intelligence features available in the beta include new writing tools, suggested replies in the Messages app, email summaries, transcription of phone calls, and more.
Other features coming later this year or in early 2025 include Image Playground, which lets you create your own animated images within the app, and custom emojis called Genmoji. Meanwhile, long-awaited AI enhancements to Apple’s chatbot, Siri, include ChatGPT integration, richer language understanding, and more. Deeper integration Within individual apps, Siri will be able to look at your calendar, photos and messages and improve responses to texts — for example, if you ask when your mom’s flight is going to land, Siri will make an inference based on recent messages and emails, Apple said.
Apple Intelligence is set to roll out globally, but regulatory concerns are expected to mean significant delays in the EU and China.
Because AI requires powerful hardware, the feature won’t be compatible with older devices: Apple says that to access all the features, you’ll need an iPhone 15 or later, or an Apple device with an M1 or M2 chip.
How will it change the way you use your iPhone?
The feature is being rolled out gradually, so you won’t see any dramatic changes right away. But with Apple Intelligence enabled, you’ll notice your interactions become more personalized and your tasks get done faster. For example, using the summary tool to write emails on the go can help. Call recording and transcription “After you’ve asked for permission, of course.”It can make everyday tasks easier and more enjoyable to perform, says Adam Biddlecombe, co-founder of AI newsletter Mindstream.
Similar to ChatGPT, Apple’s intelligent assistant will develop the ability to provide contextual responses, i.e. remember the threads of previous Siri conversations. On the privacy front, a new visual indicator around the Siri icon will let you know if Siri is listening.
But it’s worth noting that, like any shiny new technology, Apple’s AI may have some hiccups at launch. AI models need data to work, and while the technology is improving, even Apple’s CEO Tim Cook admits he’s “not 100% sure” Apple’s minds don’t hallucinate“I’m confident it’s going to be very high quality,” he said in a recent interview, “but to be honest with you, I’m nowhere near 100 percent. I would never say I’m 100 percent.”
So unless you have full confidence in the chatbot’s accuracy, we recommend double-checking the airline’s website to see when your mom’s flight will land.
How is ChatGPT on iPhone different from using the ChatGTP app?
Apple uses ChatGPT as a backup to perform functions it can’t control itself: Users ask Siri questions, but when Apple’s chatbot can’t answer more complex requests, it hands the baton over to ChatGPT.
The same thing Creating text and creating imagesWhile Apple Intelligence offers these features, and ChatGPT can write text and create images from scratch, Apple still isn’t that good at them.
Camden Woolven, head of the AI group at consulting firm GRC International Group, said the main difference between the app and ChatGPT on the iPhone is how it handles data: “When you use ChatGPT directly, your queries go directly to OpenAI’s servers. There’s no middleman.”
But when using Siri’s ChatGPT integration, Apple acts as a “privacy-focused intermediary,” he says.
“Siri will attempt to fulfill your request directly on your device, but if it can’t, it will send some data to Apple servers in an encrypted and anonymized form,” he explains.
If both your device and Apple’s servers can’t process the request, Siri will contact ChatGPT, “but even in that case, the request still goes to Apple first, where it’s anonymized and encrypted before being sent to OpenAI,” Woollven says. “This means that when you use Siri, your data gets an extra layer of privacy protection that you don’t get when using ChatGPT directly.”
Users can access the GPT-4o-powered Siri for free without creating an account, and ChatGPT subscribers can connect their account to access paid features, including larger message limits and access to enhanced features like a new voice mode that lets you communicate with ChatGPT over real-time video.
Are my conversations tracked or stored anywhere? If so, by whom?
Apple says that there are built-in privacy protections for users who access ChatGPT, and most of the processing is done on-device, so your data never leaves your iPhone.
IP addresses are hidden, OpenAI does not store your requests, and users who choose to connect their accounts are subject to ChatGPT’s data usage policy.
For more complex queries that require the cloud, Apple says it anonymizes and encrypts the data end-to-end before sending it to its servers or to ChatGPT. “This means that neither Apple nor even OpenAI can see the contents of your request, only the encrypted and anonymized version,” Woollven said.
But even anonymized data can still be linked to you if it’s specific enough, Woolven warns: “So while Apple isn’t directly storing your conversations in a way that can be linked to you, there is still a small risk that very specific queries could potentially be linked to you.”
More broadly, all Apple Intelligence requests that need to be processed off-device are sent to the company’s private cloud. Private Cloud Computing claims to protect your data from external sources.
Apple says it will be transparent about when it uses your data, providing a detailed on-device report called the Apple Intelligence Report that shows how your Siri requests were processed, so you can see for yourself what data was used and where it was sent.
But AI needs a lot of information to function, and to perform these functions, Apple will need access to more of your data: “Apple will be able to read your messages, monitor your calendar, track your maps and location, record your calls, view your photos, and understand other personal information,” Moore said.
I’m not sure about this, can I opt out?
Yes, you must turn on Apple Intelligence in Settings, so even if you’re concerned about data privacy or have doubts about the accuracy or usefulness of these features, you’re under no obligation to use them.
a New Researchpublished in the journal Geoscience Reviewhelps resolve one of the longest-running debates in paleoanthropology: when did early humans arrive in Europe?
Ancient humans. Image courtesy of Ninara / CC BY 2.0.
“chronology Homo “Migration out of Africa has expanded substantially over the past 40 years,” said paleoanthropologist Luis Hibbert of the University of Barcelona and his colleagues.
“In 1982, Homo The Asian volcano has been paleomagnetically dated to 900,000 years ago in Java and 700,000 years ago in Italy, Europe.
“Forty years later, the early Homo Outside of Africa, the South Caucasus dates back 1.8 million years, China 1.7-2.1 million years ago, and Java 1.5-1.3 million years ago.
“In Europe, several sites are found to have layers of paleomagnetic polarity reversal several metres deep, indicating that they are more than 770,000 years old.”
In the study, the authors used magnetostratigraphic dating, a method that uses the state of the Earth's magnetic field at the time the sediments were deposited, to date five paleontological localities in the Orce region of Spain.
“The technique is a relative dating method based on the study of the planet's magnetic pole reversals due to the dynamics of the Earth's interior,” they explained.
“These changes have no particular periodicity, but they are recorded in minerals and it is possible to establish periods from various magnetic events.”
“What's unique about these sites is that they are layered and sit within a very long sedimentary layer, over 80 metres long,” Dr Zibert said.
“Typically these sites are found in caves or within very short geological sequences, so it's not possible to develop long paleomagnetic sequences where you can find the different magnetic reversals.”
Global distribution of humans before 1 million years ago (orange) with major dated sites showing potential dispersal routes. The diagram shows Oldowan sites over 2 million years ago in Africa and over 1 million years ago in Eurasia (black dots). White dots indicate the earliest Acheulean sites in Africa (over 1.5 million years ago) and Eurasia (1 million to 800,000 years ago). The oldest Oldowan and Acheulean tools have been found in East Africa, over 2.5 million years ago and over 1.7 million years ago, respectively. In Asia, the oldest Oldowan and Acheulean tools have been found in the Caucasus (7) at 1.8 million years ago and in the Levantine Corridor (9) at 1.2 million years ago, respectively. In Europe, the oldest Oldowan and associated humans have been found in Spain (1, 2) and are debated to be between 1.6 and 900,000 years ago. Images/Photos Courtesy of: Gibert others., doi: 10.1016/j.earscirev.2024.104855.
The oldest remains at the Orce site, which have no evidence of human activity, date to 1.6 million and 1.35 million years ago, according to the study.
The top three sites containing evidence of early humans are dated 1.32 million years ago (Venta Misena), 1.28 million years ago (Barranco Leon 5), and 1.23 million years ago (Fuente Nueva 3).
These chronologies suggest that the Strait of Gibraltar acted as a filter bridge for African species such as hominins. Theropithecus Oswaldand the early Pleistocene hippopotamus.
“This new dating adds to other evidence and supports European colonization through the Strait of Gibraltar rather than the alternative route back to the Mediterranean via Asia,” the scientists said.
“We also support the hypothesis that they arrived from Gibraltar, as no older evidence has been found elsewhere along the alternative route.”
“Our results show a dating gap between the earliest occupation of Asia, 1.8 million years ago, and the earliest occupation of Europe, 1.3 million years ago. This means that African humans arrived in southwestern Europe more than 500,000 years after they first left Africa around 2 million years ago.”
“These differences in human expansion can be explained by the fact that Europe is isolated from Asia and Africa by difficult-to-surmount biogeographical barriers both to the east (the Bosphorus, the Dardanelles and the Sea of Marmara) and to the west (the Strait of Gibraltar),” Dr. Zibert said.
“When humans arrived in Europe, they had the technology necessary to cross the maritime barrier, just as happened a million years ago on the Indonesian island of Flores.”
“In this sense, the Gibraltar route currently requires crossing a sea channel of up to 14 kilometres, although in the past this distance could have been shorter at certain times due to the tectonically active nature of the region and sea-level changes favourable for migration.”
“We found that African animals were migrating through Gibraltar both 6.2 million years ago and 5.5 million years ago, when the Strait of Gibraltar was very narrow.”
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Lewis Guibert othersMagnetic strata dating of Europe's oldest human remains. Geoscience ReviewPublished online July 2, 2024; doi: 10.1016/j.earscirev.2024.104855
Here’s a question you probably shouldn’t think about while eating. What is the fastest peeing animal on earth? Elephants? Lions? Horse?
According to the magazine’s recent research, there’s one surprising candidate. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences: cicada. After studying urine flow throughout the animal kingdom, some scientists (preferably wearing goggles) have discovered that this tiny insect can spray pee at speeds of up to 3 meters per second. This is about three times faster than the average human.
So far so bad. But when you add that to the fact that a once-in-200-year event will soon see billions, perhaps trillions, of birds across the United States, you might start to feel a little nervous about your summer plans…
Now, is it time to hide out until the cicada storm passes? Experts say it probably is, but not for the reasons you might think…
What are cicadas and why do they come towards us?
“Cicadas are truly fascinating insects, known for their unique life cycles and unique sounds.” Dr. Elio Charita says the lead author of their urinary study. BBC Science Focus. “They belong to the order Hemiptera, are sap-feeding insects, and are found in temperate and tropical regions around the world.”
Cicadas can grow quite large, in some cases as large as hummingbirds, but in reality they really are quite noisy. In fact, their cries, clicks, and crackles are as noisy as a chainsaw.
“One of the most interesting things about cicadas is that they have a long larval stage, during which they stay underground for several years and feed on plant roots. Depending on the species, this stage lasts anywhere from a few years to 17 years. It can continue,” Charita continues.
This year, two “family members” of the so-called periodic cicadas (one emerges every 13 years, the other every 17 years) are synchronizing in some parts of the eastern United States. This is something that hasn’t happened since 1803 and will not happen again until 2245.
If you want to know more about the cicada life cycle, you can read all about cicadas in our explanatory article.
Is it time to prepare for the pee apocalypse?
Before we started buying canned goods and toilet paper in bulk in preparation for a summer spent indoors, the University of Kentucky entomologist said, Dr. Jonathan Larson, tells you BBC Science Focus Really, there’s no need to worry too much.
“For many people, the idea of a six-legged teenage insect invasion sounds like something out of a science fiction movie, but in reality, it’s a beautiful life experience, just like Mardi Gras.”
Although cicadas are large, they are harmless to people, animals, and crops.
Larson also pointed out that the cicadas found in the recent study were a species that lives in Peru and emerges every year. As a result, they spend more time feeding and urinating than the U.S. species we expect this summer.
read more:
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“For species in the United States, we’re talking about species that feed much less as adults than some of the species studied. The periodicals here say that once they emerge as adults, it all comes down to finding a mate,” Larson says.
However, it takes a while for them to eat and pee. Charita explains that periodic cicadas have been observed to urinate on jets before. It was also captured on camera.
…
Another good thing (or should we call it that?) is that cicada pee is completely different from animal pee. As mentioned above, cicadas feed exclusively on the xylem sap of trees. This is the same thing that forms the basis of maple syrup. Therefore, what comes out is a sweet, watery liquid known as “honeydew.”
Despite its delicious name, we don’t recommend drinking cicada pee while walking around this summer, but at least you’ll feel a little less sick if cicada pee falls on your head during a walk.
In other words, as Larson says, “With these cicadas, you can leave your umbrella at home.” Phew.
“Please watch your step.”
So cicadas pee surprisingly fast, but that’s not really a problem. In fact, the bigger problem for Larson would be when he dies, not when he goes to the bathroom.
“They die in groups, so you get big piles of carcasses. If they get stepped on, they can make sidewalks slippery. I think it’s a bigger liquid nightmare,” Larson says.
How bad could this be? In 1990, there was a report as follows. Chigoan has to use a snow shovel to remove dead insects from the sidewalk.
To make matters worse, billions of bugs die and rot at the same time, leaving a terrible stench in the air. Several people explained this. Hmm, a unique smell like rotten nuts.
Billions of cicadas come out of the ground, mate, and then die one after the other. – Image credit: Getty
On the positive side, this process returns many nutrients, including nitrogen, to the ground. So, while they may stink, they benefit the ecosystems they end up in.
How cicada pee can help build future robots
The fact that cicadas urinate in such powerful jets was surprising for two reasons, Charita said.
Most insects do not urinate because it takes a lot of energy to urinate in a jet like larger animals do. Instead, they are excreted as droplets. Cicadas in particular feed on tree sap, which has little nutritional value, making their energetic eviction even more troublesome.
Not only is jet peeing less energy efficient, previous research suggested it would be impossible for animals weighing less than 1 kilogram because their orifices are too small to produce a dense jet.
Understanding this process is important for several reasons. Especially since cicada populations number in the trillions and the impact their excrement has on the environment can be significant.
“We still don’t fully understand the ecological impact of cicada excretion on surrounding flora and fauna, especially in the case of periodic cicadas,” Charita says.
Cicadas can produce jets that travel at speeds of up to 3 meters per second. – Image credit: Elio Challita
When feeding, cicadas can consume 300 times their body weight in sap each day, and all that sap has to go somewhere.
But the team also has other applications for this research in mind. The knowledge gained could be useful for manufacturing jets and nozzles for small robots, and could also be applied to additive manufacturing and possibly drug delivery.
“Our study highlights the importance of studying seemingly mundane aspects of animal biology, such as excretion,” concludes Charita. “Investigating these processes can reveal interesting adaptations and provide insight into how animals interact with their environments.
“It also reminds us that there is still much to discover about the natural world, even in the most unexpected places.”
About our experts
Elio Charita He is a postdoctoral fellow at Harvard University’s Microrobotics Institute. Previously, at Georgia Tech, he studied fluid mechanics to help ultra-fast invertebrates (insects, hexapods, and arachnids) perform essential biological functions (e.g., feeding, excretion, and predator avoidance). I was researching how to deal with this issue.
Jonathan Larson He is an extension entomologist and assistant professor at the University of Kentucky, providing insect expertise to those working on urban landscapes, turfgrass, nursery crops, greenhouses, and household problems. He is also the co-host of the Informative Insects Podcast. arthropod.
read more:
“Insect Apocalypse” will feature billions of cicadas. Here’s what you can expect
Top 10 largest insects in the world
Bugs on the brink: Why bugs are disappearing from your garden this year
The first members of our species to reach China may have entered this region from the north
Esteban de Armas / Alamy
Modern humans lived in what is now China by 45,000 years ago. This discovery means our species arrived in this region thousands of years earlier than commonly thought, probably via a northern route through present-day Siberia and Mongolia.
A team co-led by Francesco d'Errico Researchers from the University of Bordeaux in France reexamined an archaeological site in northern China called Shiyu. Originally, he was excavated in 1963 during the turbulent period of China's Cultural Revolution. “It couldn't have been a better time to find such an important site,” D'Errico says.
Shiyu is an outdoor site located in a river gorge. There, 30 meters deep, sand and other sediments were deposited, which the first excavators divided into four horizontal layers, from the bottom of which the second layer contained human It was found that there was evidence of residence in
Excavators discovered more than 15,000 stone artifacts and thousands of animal bones. There was also part of a hominin skull, which anthropologist Wu Lukang identified as a modern human.homo sapiens).
Some of the artifacts were later transferred to the Institute of Vertebrate Paleontology and Paleoanthropology in Beijing. However, those left behind at the local facility were lost, including the hominin bones. “We own maybe 10 percent of the stone tools,” D'Errico says.
D'Errico and his colleagues re-excavated Shiyu to determine its age. They dated 15 sediment samples using a technique called photostimulated luminescence and carbon-dated 10 animal bones and teeth. The hominid layer is approximately 44,600 years old.
D'Errico believes the excavator was “knowledgeable” and correctly identified the skull.
The Shuyu tribe is probably homo sapienssay Alina Katzenovic from the Institute of Archeology and Ethnology in Novosibirsk, Russia, was not involved in the study.
The new study therefore suggests that modern humans arrived in northern China about 45,000 years ago. This would postpone the arrival of our species to China by about 5,000 years.Derico claims to be the next oldest homo sapiens China's site Tengen Cave 40,000 years ago.
Some researchers argue that our species may have arrived earlier than that, up to 260,000 years ago. However, D'Errico points out that researchers: criticized much of the evidence As for the presence of such early humans in this region.
Humans probably entered Asia from Africa and spread through multiple routes, Katzenovich said. They not only explored the tropical southern regions of Asia, but also headed further north. Katzenovich says there are signs of modern human presence in the area. Obi Rakhmat Cave Uzbekistan 48,800 years ago. Perhaps our species reached Shiyu and then China via this route. north route.
When modern humans reached new areas, they encountered hominids that were already living there, such as Neanderthals and Denisovans further east. Genetic evidence shows that we interbred with them. There may also have been cultural exchanges, and the Shiyu artifacts also include what appear to be more ancient human tools.
There is also evidence of long-distance contact. The Shiyu team identified four fragments of obsidian, a volcanic glass. They were able to track them as far as 800 and 1000 kilometers northeast of Shiyu. D'Errico said it was unlikely that the residents traveled this distance themselves, so they were probably part of the group's network. In line with this, Kazenovich said some of Shiyu's artifacts resemble items found as far east as Korea.
New findings suggest that early humans arrived in North America earlier than 13,000 years ago, likely taking advantage of the “sea ice highway” along the Pacific coast. This theory is supported by paleoclimate data, challenges traditional migration theories, and emphasizes the adaptability of early humans. Credit: SciTechDaily.com
A new study suggests that some early Americans may have traveled down the coast from Beringia 24,000 years ago on winter sea ice.
One of the hottest debates in archeology is when and how humans first arrived in North America. Archaeologists have traditionally argued that people walked through temporary ice-free passages between ice sheets an estimated 13,000 years ago.
New evidence casts doubt on traditional theory
But a growing number of archaeological and genetic discoveries, such as human footprints in New Mexico dating back some 23,000 years, suggest that humans were on the continent much earlier. These early Americans likely migrated from Beringia along the Pacific coastline. Beringia is a land bridge between Asia and North America that appeared during the last ice age maximum when ice sheets trapped large amounts of water and caused sea levels to drop.
Now, in a study presented at the American Geophysical Union Annual Meeting (AGU23) in San Francisco on Friday, December 15th, paleoclimate reconstructions of the Pacific Northwest show that sea ice has grown even further south than humans. This suggests that it may have been a means of transportation.
Coastal migration theory
The idea that early Americans may have traveled along the Pacific coast is not new. People may have been south of the giant ice sheet that once covered much of the continent by at least 16,000 years ago. Given that ice-free corridors would not open for thousands of years before these early arrivals, scientists proposed that people instead migrated along a “kelp highway.” Along this path, early Americans slowly made their way down to North America by ship. Abundant supplies found in coastal waters.
Archaeologists have discovered evidence of coastal settlements in western Canada dating back 14,000 years. But in 2020, researchers noted that freshwater from melting glaciers at the time may have created strong currents, making it difficult for people to travel along the coast.
Sea ice in Nunavut, Canada. Credit: Grid-Arendel CC-BY-NC-SA
An icy highway crossing a dangerous sea
To get a more complete picture of ocean conditions during key periods of human migration, Summer Pretorius and colleagues at the U.S. Geological Survey examined climate proxies in marine sediments along the coast. Most of the data came from small fossilized plankton. Its abundance and chemistry help scientists reconstruct ocean temperatures, salinity, and sea ice cover.
Praetorius’ presentation is part of a session at AGU23 on the climate history and geology of Beringia and the North Pacific during the Pleistocene. This year, his week-long conference brought together 24,000 of his experts from all areas of earth and space sciences in San Francisco and 3,000 online participants.
Using climate models, Praetorius’ team found that at the height of the Last Glacial Maximum, about 20,000 years ago, ocean currents were more than twice as strong as they are today due to glacial winds and falling sea levels. Pretorius said it would have been very difficult to travel by boat in these conditions, although it was not impossible to row.
However, records show that much of the region had winter sea ice until about 15,000 years ago. As a cold-adapted people, “they may have been using the sea ice as a foothold instead of having to row against this terrible glacial current,” Pretorius said.
Sea ice as a migration path
People in the Arctic now travel along the sea ice on dog sleds and snowmobiles. Pretorius said early Americans may also have used the “sea ice highway” to travel and hunt marine mammals, slowly making their way into North America in the process. Climate data suggest that conditions along the coastal route may have been favorable for migration between 24,500 and 22,000 years ago and between 16,400 and 14,800 years ago, possibly due to the presence of winter sea ice.
Integration of old and new theories
It’s difficult to prove that people used sea ice for travel, given that most ruins are underwater, but the idea is that without land bridges or easy ocean travel, humans It provides a new framework for understanding how it arrived in North America.
And the Sea Ice Highway is not mutually exclusive with other human movements beyond it, Pretorius said. The researchers’ model shows that by 14,000 years ago, the Alaska Current had calmed down, making it easier for people to travel by boat along the coast.
“There’s nothing wrong with it,” she said. “We are always amazed by the ingenuity of ancient humans.”
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