Tag Archives: eruptions

NASA’s Io: Synchronized Volcanic Eruptions Indicate Cavernous Interior Structure

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Volcanic eruption on Io

Volcanic Eruption on Io Captured by the Galileo Spacecraft

NASA/JPL/DLR

In an unprecedented display, five volcanoes on Jupiter’s moon Io erupted simultaneously, indicating a potential connection to a shared underground magma network. This remarkable phenomenon may offer insights into the enigmatic interior of Io.

During late 2024, NASA’s Juno spacecraft provided crucial observations of a significant lava flow originating from Io’s south pole. “We noticed an enormous eruption with extensive lava flow, but upon closer inspection, all other hotspots were also glowing,” remarked Jani Radebaugh from Brigham Young University in Utah. “The abundance of magma is challenging to fully comprehend.”

This massive eruption impacted an area of about 65,000 square kilometers, releasing more energy than any previously recorded eruption on Io. “Imagine standing at the edge of a newly formed lava lake; behind you, a crevice opens, also flooding with lava. It would be both awe-inspiring and terrifying,” Radbaugh described. “Such beauty mixed with danger is captivating.”

The origin of this vast amount of magma remains a mystery, especially given current understanding of Io’s internal structure. Previous studies revealed that Io does not possess a global magma ocean beneath its crust, raising questions about how such a substantial volume of magma could erupt simultaneously.

Radbaugh and his team propose the existence of a ‘magmatic sponge’ beneath Io’s surface, consisting of networks of interconnected pores that can accumulate lava and erupt at hotspots. However, further observations are necessary to validate this theory, and with Juno moving away from Io, timely additional data may be scarce.

Despite its relatively small size, slightly larger than Earth’s moon, Io’s vigorous volcanic activity parallels eruptive phenomena observed on Earth. “Io provides a window into our planet’s past, reminiscent of an Earth that was hotter and more active,” Radebaugh noted. While the precise causes of these powerful eruptions remain elusive for now, resolving them may illuminate vital chapters in Earth’s geological history.

Exploring the Mysteries of the Universe: Cheshire, England

Join some of the brightest minds in science for a weekend dedicated to uncovering the mysteries of the universe, complete with a tour of the famed Lovell Telescope.

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Source: www.newscientist.com

Volcanic Eruptions Could Have Triggered the Black Death’s Arrival in Europe

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Bubonic plague entered Europe in the late 1340s.

CPA Media / Alamy

The Black Death, a devastating outbreak of bubonic plague that decimated up to 60 percent of medieval Europe’s population, may have been triggered by volcanic eruptions around 1345.

The bacterium responsible for the plague is Yersinia pestis, transmitted by fleas that infest rodents and infect humans through bites. The origin of the 14th-century epidemic in Europe remains unclear, though historical accounts indicate that grain shipments from the Black Sea to Italy could have played a role.

“The Black Death was pivotal in the Middle Ages, and we sought to understand why such immense quantities of grain were transported to Italy, particularly in 1347,” states Martin Bauch of the Leibniz Institute for the History and Culture of Eastern Europe, Germany.

To explore this, Bork and his colleagues, including Wolf Bungen from the University of Cambridge, examined climate data stemming from tree rings, ice cores, and historical accounts.

Reports from Japan, China, Germany, France, and Italy revealed a decline in sunlight and an increase in cloud cover from 1345 to 1349, likely due to a sulfur-rich volcanic eruption or multiple eruptions in an unidentified tropical region, according to Bauch and Büngen.

Data from Greenland and Antarctica’s ice cores and thousands of tree-ring samples across eight native European areas indicate significant climate shifts may have occurred during this period.

Moreover, researchers uncovered records showing that Italian officials, faced with famine due to harsh weather and poor harvests, took preemptive measures in 1347 to import grain from the Mongols of the Golden Horde near the Sea of Azov.

“They operated with exceptional professionalism and efficiency to mitigate soaring prices and impending starvation through grain imports before hunger led to mortality,” Bauch explained. “As these societies had effective famine-response strategies, the plague bacterium likely traveled alongside the grain.”

During that era, the causes of the plague were shrouded in mystery, with many attributing the outbreak to “astral alignments and toxic vapors emitted by earthquakes.”

Though the plague might have eventually invaded Europe, Bauch suggests the population decline would have been less severe without this proactive approach. “My point isn’t against preparedness but rather to highlight that successful measures in one area can inadvertently create challenges in others.”

Aparna Lal, a researcher at the Australian National University in Canberra, asserts that a “perfect storm of conditions” likely facilitated the Black Death’s arrival in Europe. “Rising food prices, well-documented hunger issues, and colder, wetter climates could have impaired immune defenses due to nutritional deficiencies and behavioral changes, including increased indoor congregation,” she says.

However, she notes that further research is necessary to clarify cause-and-effect dynamics. “The immediate disturbances caused by the eruptions seem to have significantly influenced local weather patterns, but, as mentioned previously, additional evidence is essential to confirm their role in the Black Death’s entry into Europe,” Lal emphasizes.

Science of the Renaissance: Italy

From the works of Brunelleschi and Botticelli to the genius of polymaths like Leonardo da Vinci and Galileo Galilei, delve into the remarkable scientific minds and breakthroughs of the Renaissance that established Italy’s prime position in scientific advancement.

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Source: www.newscientist.com

When Rift Lakes Dry Up, Earthquakes and Eruptions Can Follow

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Aerial overview of Nabuyatom Crater, located south of Lake Turkana, Kenya

Martin Harvey/Alamy

The arid conditions of East Africa have led to a decline in the water levels of Kenya’s Lake Turkana for millennia, triggering rising earthquakes and volcanoes beneath its surface. This risk associated with climate change could potentially impact other water bodies globally as precipitation and drought patterns shift.

Lake Turkana is often referred to as the cradle of humanity. Fossils from at least six different human species, dating back 4.2 million years, have been unearthed here, with some believed to have lived alongside each other. As the size of these lakes decreased over thousands of years, our ancestors faced not just a more arid environment but also increased geological activity.

“We believe that during these eras, there would have been a rise in the frequency of earthquakes and volcanic eruptions,” states Christopher Scholz, a researcher at Syracuse University in New York. “The challenging conditions observable today in the region would have been further intensified.”

Situated in the Great Rift Valley between Kenya and Ethiopia, Lake Turkana is the world’s largest desert lake, a greenish body of saline water surrounded by sandy shrublands and breezy outcrops. However, 9,000 years ago, it was considerably larger and enveloped by rich grasslands and forests.

Between 4,000 and 6,000 years ago, the climate shifted towards drier conditions, causing the lake’s level to fall by 100 to 150 meters. Such a drop in water levels lessens the pressure on the lakebed below, potentially influencing seismic behavior. To investigate the impact of this climatic alteration, Scholz and his team pinpointed specific sediment layers that correspond to various historical periods from cores previously extracted from the lakebed.

They conducted sonar scans from a boat over 27 faults on the lake floor to analyze how the sediment layers were displaced vertically on either side of each fault. Their findings suggested that as the climate grows drier, the sides of faults slip past one another at an accelerated average rate of 0.17 millimeters per year.

“The key mechanism here involves tightening and loosening this deformation area, which causes earthquakes,” Scholz explains. “A drier climate coupled with lower lake loads will facilitate a slicker fault line.”

Computer simulations indicate that as water mass diminishes, an increase in magma movement occurs beneath the lake. One of the volcanic islands in Lake Turkana erupted in 1888.

Research previously demonstrated that declining sea levels heighten volcanic activity at ocean ridges. However, this provides the first solid evidence of a similar trend occurring around this lake, according to Ken McDonald from the University of California, Santa Barbara. “It’s akin to loosening the cork on a champagne bottle,” he remarks. “Reducing the pressure increases the likelihood of magma ascending within the Earth’s crust and erupting.”

While climate change is currently leading to higher water levels in Lake Turkana, it may take millennia for seismic and volcanic activities to stabilize significantly.

Nevertheless, the authors of the study advocate that seismic risk assessments should take into account how climate change affects water levels. Moreover, policymakers should factor in seismic vulnerabilities when planning the construction or deconstruction of dams.

“They should install [seismometers] before making any substantial alterations,” McDonald advises.

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Source: www.newscientist.com

Volcanic Eruptions Could Have Played a Role in Triggering the French Revolution

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Depiction of the uprising preceding the French Revolution

Stefano Bianchetti/Corbis via Getty Images

Intense volcanic eruptions along with alterations in solar activity may have triggered some of the most notable rebellions throughout history, including the French Revolution.

It has long been recognized that extreme environmental events like drought, deforestation, and temperature fluctuations can lead to societal upheavals, agricultural failures, and outbreaks of disease.

One of the most significant climate events in recent history, known as the Little Ice Age, affected the northern hemisphere—particularly Europe and North America—between 1250 and 1860.

David Kaniewski, from the University of Toulouse in France, along with his colleagues, examined historical records to identify 140 significant rebellions that occurred during this timeframe.

For their research, they cross-referenced records of social unrest with data on solar activity, volcanic eruptions, and climatic shifts. They aimed to uncover any connections between these factors and the extreme weather phenomena associated with the Little Ice Age, particularly in relation to grain and bread prices.

“We observed spikes of unrest that align with environmental changes and the challenges they impose on society,” Kaniewski stated.

The research team found that the coldest periods during the Little Ice Age coincided with a noticeable rise in the frequency of rebellions.

“Major volcanic eruptions that temporarily lowered temperatures led to statistically significant levels of social unrest,” Kaniewski remarked. “Furthermore, sunspot records, which track solar activity, showed that lower sunspot counts associated with cooler temperatures correlated with increased uprisings.”

During temperature declines of between 0.6°C and 0.7°C, whether from volcanic activity or reduced solar spots, there was an average of 0.72 rebellions per year, mirroring a reduction in rainfall.

However, the most significant correlation was found between rebellion frequency and the prices of wheat and barley, with sudden price increases resulting in 1.16 additional rebellions per year.

Kaniewski asserts that when harvests fail, hunger escalates, prices soar, and social unrest is likely to follow. Nevertheless, the research also indicated that some nations, such as England, which also faced weather patterns during this period, managed to adapt more effectively than others.

Researchers propose that while climate does not directly incite rebellion, it sets off a chain of events that can lead to food shortages and rising grain prices, which in turn motivate people to resist authorities.

“Food scarcity is akin to a dry forest after a prolonged drought,” Kaniewski explained. “A political or social grievance can spark rebellion.”

Following the eruption of the Laki Volcano in Iceland in June 1783, which raised sulfur dioxide levels in the atmosphere, a significant climate cooling occurred. The research revealed that from 1788 to 1798, the frequency of rebellions reached an average of 1.4 per year, including events leading up to the French Revolution.

Kaniewski emphasizes that understanding the Little Ice Age can offer insights into the challenges humanity faces in predicting future climatic changes. “Today’s climate change may prove to be much more devastating.”

Tim Flannery from the Australian Museum in Sydney remarked that, as illustrated by the study, the link between climate change, rebellion, and revolution reflects correlation rather than causation.

“People can descend into chaos during times of stress, leading to migration, suicide, and other behaviors, including rebellion,” Flannery noted. “While I’m not dismissing the findings, I believe we require a deeper analysis for more progress beyond our previous understandings.”

Jeremy Moss from the University of New South Wales in Sydney highlighted that the direct impacts are only one aspect of the issue, given the vulnerabilities experienced by people and natural systems due to climate change. “Often, it is equally critical to consider how both individuals and natural systems are made vulnerable and how we respond to those vulnerabilities,” Moss stated.

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Source: www.newscientist.com

Scientists First Observed Volcanic Eruptions at Deep-Sea Ridges

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Andrew Wozniak, a chemical oceanographer at the University of Delaware, found it difficult to comprehend the scene before him. Dr. Wozniak was stationed at the bottom of the Pacific Ocean, nearly 1.6 miles below the surface, aboard Alvin, the research submersible. As far as his eyes could scan, there lay a nearly desolate expanse of jet-black rock.

Just a day prior, this area was alive with the bustling activity around the Tika hydrothermal vent, situated about 1,300 miles west of Costa Rica. The rocky seabed was home to a vibrant ecosystem, teeming with life. Bright crimson-tipped giant tubeworms intertwined with clusters of mussels, encapsulated in a tapestry of thriving organisms. Crustaceans scuttled about, while ethereal white fish glided gracefully in search of their next meal.

Now, however, only a solitary cluster of dead tubeworms remained amid the darkened landscape. The vivid orange glow of molten lava flickered through the rocks, and a fine mist clouded the water.

“My mind was racing to grasp what had transpired,” Dr. Wozniak said. “Where did everything go?”

Then it dawned on him: he and his fellow explorers had observed the aftermath of a volcanic eruption that had obliterated a once-thriving ecosystem beneath a fresh layer of lava.

This marked the first time scientists had directly witnessed a clear eruption along a ridge in the Central Ocean, a volcanic mountain chain stretching approximately 40,000 miles globally. Baseball seams signify the boundaries of tectonic plates that, when separated, can trigger volcanic eruptions, creating new crust and layers of Earth’s structure beneath the ocean. Approximately 80% of Earth’s volcanic activity occurs at the seafloor, predominantly along the mid-ocean ridge. Before this recent observation, only two underwater eruptions had been documented, neither occurring along the mid-ocean ridge, noted Bill Chadwick, a volcanologist from Oregon State University who was not part of the research team.

“This is an incredibly exciting first,” he remarked.

Such observations provide an invaluable opportunity for scientists to explore fundamental processes of our planet: the formation of new seabeds and their dynamic influence on marine chemistry, ecosystems, microbial life, and beyond.

“Experiencing it in real time is an extraordinary gift. I’m truly envious,” said Deborah Kelly, a marine geologist at the University of Washington who did not participate in the research.

Dr. Wozniak and his team set sail on the R/V Atlantis before diving into the Alvin submersible. Their initial mission was to examine the carbon emissions from Tika’s vents, funded by the National Science Foundation. Hydrothermal vents act as planetary piping systems, discharging heated seawater from the seabed and facilitating the transport of heat and chemicals from within the Earth, thus regulating marine chemistry and sustaining a unique community of deep-sea organisms.

Tuesday morning’s dive commenced like any other. Alyssa Wentzel, an undergraduate from the University of Delaware, accompanied Dr. Wozniak in Alvin, sharing her excitement about descending into the ocean’s depths for a 70-minute journey to the seabed. As the lights dimmed, bioluminescent jellyfish and tiny zooplankton danced in the water.

“It felt magical,” she remarked. “It truly leaves you speechless.”

However, as they neared the site, the temperature gradually increased, shrouding the area in a dark haze. The seabed’s usual dull gray and brown tones were replaced with tendrils of glassy rock, an outcome of rapid cooling when lava makes contact with cold water.

As the particles clouded Alvin’s view, Caitlyn Biadshire, a pilot from Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, guided the submersible while monitoring the temperature closely, concerned about the safety of the submersible and its crew. Ultimately, the pilot decided a retreat was necessary.

“It was a breathtaking sight,” they reflected. “Everything I observed just days earlier has been wiped away. I feel incredibly fortunate to have been there within hours of the eruption.”

After returning to the ship, the team learned that a sensitive microphone, known as a Hydrophone, was onboard the Atlantis and had recorded a series of low-frequency rumbles and crackling sounds reminiscent of a campfire.

This represented the third known eruption at the Tika Vent since its discovery in the 1980s. For decades, marine geologist Dan Fornari and his colleagues have closely monitored the site, tracking changes in temperature, water chemistry, and other factors. By combining these analyses with models of seafloor diffusion, they predicted an eruption was imminent, forecasting it could happen either earlier this year or in the previous year.

In 1991, they reached Tika shortly after an eruption began. Although it may have still been active, they lacked visual confirmation of the lava. This time, he asserted, there was no doubt about what the Alvin crew witnessed. “This was the closest we’ve ever come to witnessing the onset of an eruption,” he stated.

The team continues its research into volcanic activity. Due to safety considerations, they are now collecting data and capturing images from the Atlantis remotely.

This data aids researchers in unraveling the mysteries of deep-sea volcanism and its significance within marine ecosystems. “It’s all connected to understanding the overall system of Earth and the ocean,” Dr. Fornari stated. “The relationship is both intricate and beautiful.”

Source: www.nytimes.com

The top 10 largest volcanic eruptions in the world, ranked by devastation

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Volcanoes have been responsible for some of the most awe-inspiring and deadliest natural disasters in history, from the destruction of Pompeii by Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD to the devastating eruption of Eyjafjallajokull in 2010.

There are more than 1,500 active volcanoes around the world, with one eruption occurring on average every week. But which of these eruptions are the most powerful?

Today, we have the ability to observe and measure volcanic eruptions with much more accuracy than in the past. Using the Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI) and the Dense Rock Equivalent Scale (DRE), we can compare the strength and destructive power of different volcanoes.

10. Mount St. Helens (1980) – VEI 5, DRE 0.5km3

Eruption of Mount St. Helens and Mount Hood, Washington, USA, photographed during the May 1980 eruption. Photo courtesy of Getty Images

Deaths: 57

In the morning of May 18, 1980, Mount St. Helens erupted explosively. Signs of magma movement had been observed for months prior, but the magnitude of the explosion still took many by surprise. The eruption produced blast winds of up to 1,080 km/h and devastated everything in a 600 km² radius within minutes, making it the most destructive volcanic eruption in U.S. history.

9. El Chichon (1982) – VEI 5, DRE 1.1km3

El Chichon volcano spews a column of ash and steam high into the sky above the evacuated town of El Volcan, Mexico, in March 1982. Photo by Getty Images

Estimated deaths: 1,900

El Chichon volcano in Chiapas, Mexico, erupted in 1982 after over 600 years of dormancy, catching many off guard. A deadly pyroclastic flow and sulfur dioxide emissions caused significant damage and casualties near the volcano.

8. Mount Hudson (1991) – VEI 5, DRE 1.6-2.7km3

Aerial photo of Mount Hudson Volcano taken on August 23, 1991. Photo by Norm Banks/US Geological Survey/Wikipedia

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This massive eruption not only reduced Mount Tambora's elevation by a third, but also spewed huge amounts of ash and gas into the atmosphere, blocking out the sun.

In the long term, this led to massive food shortages worldwide, with 1816 becoming known as “the year without a summer.” It is estimated that at least 71,000 people ultimately died of starvation as a result of the eruption.

Volcano year V.I. Deaths (number
1 Tambora, Indonesia 1815 7 71,000 (estimated)
2 Novarupta, Alaska, USA 1912 6 0
3 Krakatoa, Indonesia 1883 6 36,600 (estimated)
4 Santa Maria, Guatemala 1902 6 7,000 – 13,000 (estimated)
5 Pinatubo, Philippines 1991 6 1,202
6 Hunga Tonga – Tonga, Hunga Ha'apai 2022 5.7 6
7 Kisap, Chile 1932 5 0
8 Mount Hudson, Chile 1991 5 0
9 El Chichon, Mexico 1982 5 1,900 (estimated)
10 Mount St. Helens (USA) 1980 5 57

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Source: www.sciencefocus.com

Volcanic eruptions may have sparked life on Earth through lightning

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Volcanic lightning, which occurs within the clouds of volcanic ash released during some volcanic eruptions, may be a source of nitrogen.

Mike Rivers/Getty Images

Analysis of volcanic rocks revealed large amounts of nitrogen compounds, almost certainly formed by volcanic lightning. This process may have provided the nitrogen that the first life forms needed to evolve and thrive.

Nitrogen is a key component of the amino acids that are linked to make the proteins on which all life depends. Nitrogen gas is abundant, but plants cannot convert it into usable forms like carbon dioxide.

Instead, plants get most of their nitrogen from bacteria that can “fix” the gas by converting it into nitrogen compounds such as nitrate.But nitrogen-fixing bacteria didn't exist when life first evolved. Suliman Becchi There must have been non-biological sources early on, as it was at the Sorbonne University in Paris.

Lightning from thunderstorms is one possible cause. Currently, this produces relatively small amounts of nitrate, but it may have been important early in Earth's history. The famous Miller-Urey experiment of the 1950s demonstrated that nitrogen compounds containing amino acids could have been produced by lightning in Earth's early atmosphere.

Now Becchi and his colleagues show that another source may be lightning that occurs in ash clouds during volcanic eruptions.

When researchers collected volcanic deposits from Peru, Turkey, and Italy, they were initially surprised to find large amounts of nitrate in some layers. Isotopic analysis of these nitrates showed that they were originally present in the atmosphere and were not emitted by volcanoes. But Becchi says that amount is too much to be produced by lightning during thunderstorms. “It was an amazing amount of money,” he says. “It's really huge.” That means the nitrate was probably produced by volcanic lightning.

“When we looked at the various possibilities, volcanic lightning was the most likely,” Becchi said. “We know that when large-scale volcanic eruptions occur, a lot of lightning occurs.”

Tamsin Mather Researchers at the University of Oxford say their team's conclusions make sense. “Volcanic eruptions like the one studied in the paper would be expected to produce significant lightning, so it's quite possible that volcanic lightning generated this signal,” she says.

Life is thought to have first evolved around volcanoes, and the team's findings indicate that this environment may have been rich in nitrogen compounds, Becchi said.

The idea that volcanic lightning played an important role in the origin of life is not new. Jeffrey Bada Researchers at the Scripps Institution of Oceanography in California have previously shown that volcanic lightning passing through volcanic gases can produce molecules such as amino acids. “This paper just reinforces what I've published,” he says.

Source: www.newscientist.com