The ice dome located in northern Greenland has previously melted completely under temperatures expected to return this century. This significant discovery offers valuable insights into the speed at which melting ice sheets can influence global sea levels.
In a groundbreaking study, researchers drilled 500 meters into Prudhoe Dome, an extensive ice formation the size of Luxembourg situated in northwestern Greenland, gathering seven meters of sediment and rock core. Infrared dating indicated that the core’s surface sand was sun-bleached approximately 7,000 years ago—corroborating that the dome fully melted as the planet emerged from its last glacial maximum due to cyclical changes in Earth’s orbital dynamics.
During that era, summer temperatures were 3°C to 5°C warmer than today’s averages. Alarmingly, human-induced climate change could bring back similar temperatures by 2100.
“This provides direct evidence that the ice sheet is highly sensitive to even the modest warming seen during the Holocene,” stated Yarrow Axford, a Northwestern University researcher not involved in the study.
With the ongoing melting of Greenland’s ice sheet, projections indicate a potential sea level rise of tens of centimeters to a meter within this century. To refine these predictions, scientists must enhance their understanding of how quickly various sections of the ice sheet are dissipating.
The Prudhoe Dome core is the first of multiple cores analyzed by the GreenDrill project, funded by the National Science Foundation and featuring researchers from various U.S. universities. Their goal is to extract crucial climate data from beneath the ice sheets, one of Earth’s least-explored areas.
Notably, deposits excavated in 1966 from beneath the ice at Camp Century—a U.S. nuclear military facility operational for eight years during the Cold War—revealed that Greenland lacked ice around 400,000 years ago. Further, a rock core taken in 1993 from underneath Summit Station illustrated that the entire ice sheet has melted as recently as 1.1 million years ago.
However, the GreenDrill project extends its research deeper beneath the ice, collecting samples from multiple locations near Greenland’s northern coast.
“The crucial question is when did the edge of Greenland experience melting in the past?” posed Caleb Walcott-George, part of a new research team at the University of Kentucky. “This is where the initial sea level rise will transpire.”
Current ice sheet models indicate uncertainty regarding whether northern or southern Greenland will melt at a faster rate in the future. This study bolsters the evidence that warming post-last glacial maximum manifested earlier and with greater intensity in northern Greenland, according to Axford.
Potential explanations may involve feedback mechanisms, such as the loss of Arctic sea ice, which could have allowed more ocean heat to penetrate the atmosphere in the far north.
By confirming that Prudhoe Dome melted under a warming of 3°C to 5°C, this study adds credibility to ice sheet models that predict similar outcomes, asserted Edward Gasson, who was not part of the research at the University of Exeter, UK.
“This research is vital for recalibrating surface melting models: When will we really begin to lose this ice?” Gasson emphasized.
Sweltering and humid conditions have impacted nearly the entire eastern U.S. this week, triggered by “heat domes” settling over various regions.
On Wednesday, a heat advisory impacted approximately 150 million individuals, with temperatures exceeding 95 degrees Fahrenheit spreading through the Ohio Valley and along the East Coast. The National Weather Service predicts that “extremely dangerous heat” will persist until Thursday.
But what exactly is a heat dome, and how does it contribute to extreme heat?
Heat domes form when a strong high-pressure system remains stationary over an area, trapping warm air underneath like a lid on a pot.
These thermal domes are typically influenced by the jet stream’s behavior. The jet stream is a fast-moving ribbon of air that flows from west to east in the Northern Hemisphere, impacting weather patterns.
The jet stream is powered by the temperature disparity between the chilly polar regions and warm southern air masses. As it travels around the globe, it can create ripples that form troughs and ridges, leading to unusual weather phenomena.
For instance, certain ripples can intensify cold snaps, while others can move and amplify heat, resulting in higher humidity levels.
Heat domes can persist for days or even weeks, contributing to prolonged heat waves that can be deadly. Heat-related illnesses and fatalities can impact individuals of all ages, but children, those with pre-existing health conditions, and older adults are especially vulnerable to sudden temperature spikes.
Research indicates that climate change is increasing the frequency, intensity, and duration of heat waves globally. The hottest years on record since 1850 have all occurred within the last decade, according to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.
Some respite is anticipated later this week across the Midwest and East Coast, although temperatures are expected to remain high in the days ahead.
US President Donald Trump (left) announces the Golden Dome Missile Defense Shield, joined by US Secretary of Defense Pete Hegseth (right).
Chris Kleponis/Pool/EPA-EFE/Shutterstock
US President Donald Trump has introduced the Golden Dome defense initiative, designed to intercept threats like polar sounds, ballistic missiles, and advanced cruise missiles.
“Once fully operational, the Golden Dome is engineered to intercept missiles launched from around the globe or even from outer space,” Trump stated during a White House announcement on May 20th. Watch here.
However, many experts express skepticism regarding the feasibility of such a comprehensive interception system. Concerns have been raised that, even if successful, the Golden Dome could require over a decade to implement and exceed $50 trillion in costs, potentially exacerbating global nuclear arms races and space militarization.
What is the Golden Dome?
The project is inspired by Israel’s Iron Dome system, which utilizes ground-based missiles to intercept incoming artillery and rockets launched from shorter ranges. In contrast, the Golden Dome aims to safeguard a significantly larger area, with the landmass of the contiguous US being over 350 times that of Israel.
According to Trump and his team, the system should be capable of targeting ballistic missiles fired from distant locations, advanced cruise missiles operating at lower altitudes, and hypersonic missiles traveling at speeds exceeding five times the speed of sound. These could possess nuclear or conventional warheads.
To detect and neutralize threats, the Golden Dome is expected to employ a mix of “space-based sensors alongside air and missile defenses,” as noted by U.S. Secretary of Defense Pete Hegseth in a statement. Essentially, the Golden Dome would represent an umbrella system integrating multiple technologies to combat various threats, as explained by David Berbach in an article with New Scientist.
Nevertheless, many of these defense capabilities are still in development or do not currently exist. For instance, the proposal mentions space-based interceptors in low Earth orbit, which remains a technological hurdle yet to be overcome. Thomas Gonzalez Roberts from Georgia Tech pointed this out.
A similar concept known as Star Wars was initially suggested by President Ronald Reagan as part of his strategic defense initiatives during the Cold War. Trump characterized the Golden Dome as an endeavor to complete “the mission President Reagan initiated 40 years ago.”
How does the Golden Dome function?
Experts in missile defense have likened the challenge of intercepting long-range nuclear missiles to “shooting bullets at bullets,” given that “the targets are minuscule, emit minimal signals, and move rapidly.” Even the most optimistic technical specialists acknowledge that achieving a 100% interception rate is unlikely.
The U.S. already possesses an array of ground-based interceptor missiles located predominantly in Alaska, capable of countering “dozens of oncoming warheads at best,” according to Burbach. He also highlighted that both Russia and China are working on countermeasures to complicate missile detection and interception.
“Interception of subsonic cruise or short-range ballistic missiles launched from just outside the U.S. borders employs established technology, yet effectively implementing those defenses across the nation can be cost-prohibitive,” said Burbach. He further emphasized the difficulty of the Golden Dome’s goal to thwart a significant volume of intercontinental missiles, particularly from China and Russia.
Trump’s vow to shield the Golden Dome against missile strikes from distant points, even from space, “requires a densely packed constellation of space-based missile interceptors in low-Earth orbit that could engage missiles within moments of their launch,” indicated Roberts.
“The number of satellites necessary far exceeds the current constellations launched,” he noted. Presently, the largest constellations consist of about 7,000 Starlink satellites managed by SpaceX.
What is the estimated cost of the Golden Dome?
Trump has suggested a budget of $175 billion for the Golden Dome, though this funding remains unapproved by Congress. The Congressional Budget Office, a nonpartisan agency, has estimated that space-based interceptor systems akin to the Golden Dome may cost upwards of $542 billion.
“It’s uncertain what expenses are incorporated in the $175 billion figure,” noted Patrycja Bazylczyk of the Center for Strategic and International Studies in Washington, DC.
Trump also asserted that the Golden Dome would be “fully operational” by the conclusion of his second term, a claim that experts find dubious. “The three-year timetable is overly ambitious. Realistically, this initiative will take at least a decade or more,” Bazylczyk added.
The timelines could significantly depend on existing military system capabilities. “Notable advancements could arise in the short term, including the deployment of new interceptors, radar systems, space-based sensors, and technology demonstrations,” Bazylczyk mentioned.
Ultimately, considerable challenges exist regarding the rapid deployment of thousands of satellites required for the Golden Dome. Additionally, developing the necessary space-based interceptor technology remains a daunting task.
“Finding a launch schedule capable of supporting a massive satellite constellation emerging in just three years is extremely challenging,” Roberts pointed out. “SpaceX has launched more than any other entity in the history of space operations, raising the question of how to surpass that threshold even more.”
Burbach added, “It seems unlikely that the system will achieve a complete defense against missile attacks. We might attain some limited operational capabilities, but accomplishing this quickly is fraught with difficulties.”
Will the Golden Dome enhance U.S. security?
Currently, an arms race is underway among the U.S., China, and Russia, with each nation enhancing its space-based capabilities to modernize and grow their nuclear arsenals and military strength.
Should the Golden Dome effectively bolster U.S. air and missile defenses, it might lessen adversaries’ confidence in their missile capabilities, possibly altering strategic calculations and discouraging them from launching attacks, according to Bazylczyk.
In contrast, the Golden Dome could potentially “contribute to instability” by signaling distrust towards nuclear adversaries, indicated Roberts. China’s Ministry of Foreign Affairs responded to Trump’s announcement, arguing that the Golden Dome carries a “strongly offensive implication” and could spur an arms race in space. Likewise, a Kremlin spokesperson suggested that the Golden Dome might restart discussions on nuclear arms control between Russia and the U.S.
In response to the system, both China and Russia “may attempt to destroy or disrupt U.S. satellites,” posited Burbach. Both nations have already developed missiles capable of targeting satellites, and they have demonstrated the capacity to jam or hack into satellite systems. In February 2024, U.S. intelligence agencies alerted that they intended to develop space weapons capable of using nuclear detonations to incapacitate or obliterate satellites.
Moreover, these countries could increase their missile arsenals and create more versatile weapons equipped with decoys, Burbach noted. He pointed out that Russia is already advancing technologies like underwater intercontinental nuclear torpedoes designed to evade space-based interception.
On May 20, 2025, Donald Trump unveiled the Golden Dome, marking one of the most ambitious and contentious defense projects in US history.
The $175 billion initiative that Trump aims to implement before his term ends in January 2029 seeks to establish a comprehensive missile defense system designed to guard the United States against nuclear threats, including intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) and advanced weaponry.
Inspired by Israel’s Iron Dome, the proposal envisions a global network of both terrestrial and space-based detectors and interceptors, enabling the destruction of enemy missiles in the atmosphere before they reach US soil.
While the administration has yet to clarify the operational details, critics argue that the concept is not only impractical but could also foster dangerous instability.
A New Era for Space
“The Golden Dome is reminiscent of a rebranded Strategic Defense Initiative,” says Dr. Michael Mulbihill, a researcher at Teesside University specializing in the geopolitical and technical ramifications of space weaponization. BBC Science Focus. “There are numerous political dynamics at play.”
The Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI), proposed by President Ronald Reagan in the 1980s, aimed to create a US missile defense system using lasers, satellites, and other space-based technologies to intercept incoming Soviet missiles. Eventually, the project was abandoned due to concerns over its technical feasibility and astronomical costs.
Critics warn that the Golden Dome could revive similar flawed thinking, leading to severe ramifications for space security.
Although space has historically supported military operations through satellites for tracking, communication, and navigation, it hasn’t typically been viewed as a battlefield. In fact, the Outer Space Treaty explicitly prohibits the use of outer space for hostile purposes.
However, the Golden Dome might change that paradigm.
“This initiative could serve as a catalyst for the weaponization of space, prompting the development of various systems that have emerged in recent years,” warns Mulvihill.
The concern isn’t solely about US weapons in orbit; it extends to potential responses from other nations, such as Russia, raising the specter of an extensive orbital arms race.
Fueling an Arms Race
Critics like Mulvihill underscore that space-based missile shields could ultimately backfire, making the world less safe. The logic is straightforward: if one side creates a defense system capable of intercepting missiles, the opposing side is likely to retaliate by increasing its missile arsenal to overwhelm those defenses.
“This has been a consistent issue with anti-ballistic missile systems,” Mulvihill points out. “They can be overloaded, as seen in the 1960s and ’70s when both the US and USSR significantly increased their warhead counts.”
All defense systems come with inherent limitations. The Cold War taught us that the goal is often to amass enough warheads to ensure that at least some can reach their targets.
According to Mulbihill, the Golden Dome poses a risk of repeating this cycle on an even larger scale.
read more:
Low Earth Orbit: A Crowded Space
Implementing the Golden Dome would require thousands of new satellites. This space component could involve Starlink-like megaconstellations equipped with interceptor missiles to target ICBMs during the initial launch phase.
That isn’t just ambitious—it’s hazardous.
A 2024 study published in Nature’s Sustainability estimated that there could be over 100,000 low-Earth orbit (LEO) satellites by 2034. According to NASA, there are already more than 25,000 objects greater than 10cm in size, along with approximately 500,000 smaller fragments.
Even in the absence of weapons, navigation in space is becoming increasingly challenging. The addition of thousands of military satellites could dramatically heighten the risk of collisions and debris.
“If one of these interceptors malfunctions or detonates, it doesn’t just result in the loss of a single satellite; it can render entire orbits unusable for years,” warns Mulvihill.
He provides a stark analogy: “In naval warfare, when a ship sinks, the battlefield is abandoned. In space, the debris remains, circling the Earth at incredibly high speeds.”
A rocket launched from Gaza is intercepted on October 9, 2023, by the Israeli Iron Dome near Ashkelon, Israel.
Is the Golden Dome Feasible?
In addition to the geopolitical and environmental concerns, the Golden Dome faces fundamental operational challenges that could hinder its effectiveness.
While it may be capable of intercepting slower threats such as drones and short-range missiles, the difficulties presented by ICBMs are significantly greater.
“Interdicting an ICBM during its boost phase is extraordinarily challenging,” says Mulvihill. “Those missiles are launched from locations that could include central China or central Russia.”
To achieve global coverage within such a limited window, a tremendous number of space-based interceptors would be necessary.
According to a February 2025 Report from the American Physical Society (APS), over 1,000 orbital weapons would be essential to intercept even North Korean ICBMs during their boost phase. For 10 missiles launched in quick succession, around 10,000 interceptors would be required.
The costs entailed would be astronomical, and vulnerability to anti-satellite attacks from countries like Russia adds another layer of complexity. Reports suggest that such developments pose severe risks.
The APS report concludes with cautionary insight: “Even relatively modest numbers of nuclear-armed ICBMs present substantial challenges for creating reliable and effective defenses.”
“An extensive review of published literature highlights that many key challenges identified in developing and deploying efficient ballistic missile defenses are likely to remain unresolved beyond the 15-year timeframe we studied.”
Not Just Another Iron Dome
While the Golden Dome draws its name and inspiration from Israel’s Iron Dome, the comparison is misleading.
“People tend to focus on the success of the Israeli Iron Dome, but we must remember that it’s designed to protect against much lower-altitude projectiles and even some handheld rockets,” asserts Mulvihill. “ICBMs operate in an entirely different arena.”
Despite the ambitious plans for the Golden Dome, Mulvihill remains doubtful about its viability as a serious defense mechanism.
“It seems more like a spectacle fueled by political motives and opportunism from the aerospace industry,” he concludes.
About Our Experts
Michael Mulbihill is a researcher at Teesside University focused on sociotechnical and astrophysical phenomena stemming from nuclear deterrence and space technology. He also serves as the deputy convener for the Military War and Security Research Group and is a member of the Space Cooperative Working Group of the British Association for International Studies.
Some areas in Texas will experience temperatures hotter than the Sahara desert this Thursday. Intense heat domes are driving temperatures sharply up to triple digits.
In the central and southern regions of Texas, the combined measurement of temperature and humidity is expected to reach “feel-like” temperatures between 105 and 108 degrees Fahrenheit on Thursday. These temperatures are hotter than parts of the Sahara Desert, where several cities in Morocco are forecasted to hit the high ’90s F.
Cities like Houston, San Antonio, and Austin in Texas have a chance of breaking daily temperature records on Thursday, with minimal relief anticipated from the Heat Dome in the coming days.
The oppressive heat and humidity are projected to persist through the weekend and into next week, as noted by the National Weather Service.
While Texans are accustomed to high heat and humidity, the current conditions are more typical of summer rather than May.
Heat advisories are in effect for Atascosa, Bexar, Frio, Medina, Uvalde, and Wilson counties until 8 PM local time. The National Weather Service warns that high temperatures combined with humidity “can lead to heat-related illnesses.”
As reported earlier this week on X, the weather authorities stated that people “will not adapt to this level of heat within a year, increasing the risk of heat-related health issues.”
This early heatwave has already set multiple records, with new daily highs reported in Austin and Del Rio, San Antonio, on Wednesday. Austin Bergstrom International Airport hit a record high of 100 F, surpassing the previous May 14 record of 96 F set in 2003. San Antonio recorded 102 F, breaking its previous record of 97 F from 2022.
Although it’s challenging to link specific extreme weather events to climate change, research indicates that global warming is increasing the frequency, duration, and intensity of heatwaves globally. Every decade since 1850 has seen its hottest years within the last ten years, according to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, with the last two years setting new global temperature records.
The extreme heat is expected to continue affecting parts of Texas and the southern and central regions through Friday and the weekend. The National Weather Service predicts that heat index values in Texas will range from 100 F to 110 F over Saturday and Sunday.
“Whatever way you look at it, this weekend is set to be extremely hot in southern Texas,” according to the long-term forecast.
This article forms part of the museum’s special feature on how artists and institutions are evolving in response to a changing world.
“Super/Natural”—an immersive, dome-shaped stained glass artwork by Judith Schaechter—truly comes to life from within.
Entering through the small portal, one is enveloped by vibrant glows of birds, stars, insects, and fantastical plants and roots in optimal lighting. Earlier this year, I had the chance to experience it firsthand in Schaechter’s home studio, and I felt a unique blend of serenity and admiration.
This evokes a thoughtful design. Such illumination profoundly affects human emotions, a truth acknowledged by medieval architects and glass artisans centuries ago.
“I’m not particularly religious, but it’s hard not to feel a sense of reverence and awe when stepping into the dome,” noted Chief Curator Laura Turner Igo. The James A. Michener Museum in Doylestown, Pennsylvania, currently features nine glass panels and two related drawings that delve into the eight-foot-tall artwork and our connection to the universe. The exhibition, Super/Natural, opened on April 12th and extends through September 14th.
“You’re enveloped by a riot of plants, insects, and birds,” Igo explained. “Skeletons and bones are present, representing both the splendor of life and the interconnectedness of death and decay. It’s beautiful yet slightly unnerving.”
Schaechter created this exquisite piece during her recent tenure as an artist-in-residence at the Penn Neurotherapy Center in Philadelphia, situated about 40 miles from Michener. The center was on her radar due to her interest in literature regarding the science of consciousness and beauty, often referred to as the “aesthetic brain.” I will oversee the center’s various activities.
When Schaechter reached out a few years back, she found that the center frequently hosts artists, and the timing coincided with the end of the current residents’ term. Excitedly, she volunteered for the next opportunity.
Upon arrival, she aimed to create an immersive experience that positions humans at the center of a “three-layer cosmos,” as she described in a video interview. The resulting structure serves as a serene and enigmatic sanctuary.
Dr. Chatterjee remarked that he wasn’t surprised by the emotional impact of Schaechter’s work. “Usually, feelings of reverence arise in the presence of vastness, making individuals feel small and connected to something greater,” he mentioned in an email interview. “The brain’s network that triggers contemplation and rewards likely gets activated. This can lead to the release of endogenous endorphins related to transcendence, as well as the pleasant emotions of oxytocin associated with connection.”
Schaechter began her BFA at the Rhode Island School of Design in 1983 and was recently honored with the 2024 Smithsonian Visionary Award. She is represented by the Claire Oliver Gallery, and her works are part of collections at both the Philadelphia Museum and the Victoria and Albert Museum in London.
“No one works in glass quite like Judith,” Igo said. She recounted her recent visit to the Met, where she viewed “Garden Landscape,” a three-part stained glass window crafted by Agnes Northrop at Louis Comfort Tiffany’s studio. “Such artworks likely share the immersive quality and technique of ‘Super/Natural,'” she noted, referencing Maxfield Parrish’s “Dream Garden.”
“Of course, Northrop’s work was produced by a larger studio, while Judith meticulously crafted every piece for ‘Super/Natural,'” she added.
Last month, Schaechter discussed her work in a video interview from a beautifully restored 19th-century row house in Philadelphia. The conversation was edited for clarity and brevity.
What artistic goals did you set during your residency at the Penn Neuroaesthetics Center?
They focus on three core themes: beauty and morality, the built environment and wellness, and the relationship with art.
I aimed to undertake a project that confronted issues of beauty and morality, yet I yearned for artistic inspiration. At the onset of my residency, I delved into natural history illustrations, particularly those created by women, which had been one of the few acceptable art forms for women in the 17th and 18th centuries. I found Maria Sibilla Merian’s work particularly inspiring. These artists aimed to render nature objectively, yet their work often appeared more artistic than scientific. I sought to explore this intersection.
What is your experience like at the center?
The atmosphere is fascinating, accommodating around 15 individuals at any time. There are undergraduate students, many of whom are pursuing dual majors in artistic disciplines like architecture and fine art. There is also a medical student focused on plastic surgery who is keen on aesthetics for evident reasons. Weekly lab meetings gather everyone to share project updates, including both Dr. Chatterjee and myself.
Reflecting on my experience in “Super/Natural,” why do you believe glass, particularly the way it interacts with light, evokes such a sense of awe?
I think it has a biological basis. We have an inherent physical response to light, particularly when it’s refracted through glass. Colored light holds a certain magic; it isn’t simply perceived as absence. Most artworks are intended to be appreciated in reflected light since, as humans, we aren’t designed to gaze directly at the sun. Thus, the role of stained glass artists is to modulate that light, rendering it visible.
It’s as though you can reach out and touch the light; glass lets you momentarily grasp something ethereal.
Indeed, people are captivated by radiant light. Just think of how someone might place an empty vodka bottle in a kitchen window to catch the light. It doesn’t always have to be extravagant to be appreciated. There lies an extraordinary resonance in that experience.
What do you hope visitors take away from their experience with your work?
I aim to spark inspiration in others. Everything crafted within the dome emanates from my imagination.
I am immensely grateful for advancing technology, which allows me to explore the craft field within the dome without negating the human touch. However, I feel that many become enamored by technology and overlook the extraordinary power of our own hands and intellect. So while working on the dome, I relied on few reference materials; at 64, my mental repository is rich with experiences and knowledge.
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