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How Farming Transformed Human Evolution: The Impact of Agriculture on Our Development

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Evolution and Agriculture Impact

The Advent of Agriculture and Evolutionary Pressures on Humans

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The comprehensive analysis of ancient genomes has revealed significant insights into human evolution over the last 10,000 years. This research indicates that various populations worldwide have experienced similar evolutionary changes, particularly following the introduction of agriculture.

“Similar traits and genes are being selected in diverse populations,” says Laura Colbran from the University of Pennsylvania.

Evolution happens when genetic variation becomes prevalent in a population—often because it confers an advantage. By comparing genomes, we can identify recent signs of human evolution.

Colbran notes that ancient DNA is exceptionally valuable for this research, stating, “Using ancient genomes allows us to witness genetic history directly, as opposed to relying solely on inferential methods.”

Much of the recent research has primarily focused on European genomes, but Colbran’s team leveraged an increasing collection of genomes from outside Europe, analyzing over 7,000 ancient and contemporary genomes. Ancient genomes mainly originate from the last 10,000 years, while modern genomes are derived from living populations.

The research team utilized ancient genomes to predict possible modern genetic profiles without evolutionary influence, highlighting differences known as selection signals. They identified 31 selection signals, many of which were shared among varied populations, likely due to the independent rise of agriculture around the same era globally.

For instance, less than 25% of ancient individuals possessed the FADS1 gene, which encodes an enzyme that aids in converting short-chain fatty acids (common in plants) into long-chain fatty acids (predominant in meats). Increased production of this enzyme is thought to benefit individuals who adopt a plant-heavy diet. Currently, over 75% of people in Europe, Japan, and northern China carry advantageous FADS1 variants. The strength of selection for this gene has remained stable over the last 300 generations in Europe while intensifying in East Asia over the last century.

The genes impacting the alcohol dehydrogenase 1B enzyme, encoded by ADH1B, have also been critically analyzed. Variants of ADH1B are prevalent in East Asia and are associated with quick alcohol metabolism, leading to symptoms like facial flushing. Colbran stated, “This showcases the strongest selection signal we’ve observed in East Asia,” suggesting that this variant was favored to curb excessive alcohol consumption.

Even though this variant was absent in ancient Europeans, strong selection signals related to the ADH1B enzyme were identified. Colbran emphasized the need for further investigation to discern the involved variants and their specific impacts, indicating a likely adaptation to evolving alcohol consumption patterns.

The research team also explored traits influenced by multiple genetic variations, such as waist-to-hip ratios, often correlated with fertility. Surprisingly, they found a robust selection process stabilizing women’s waist-to-hip ratios within certain limits. “This is intriguing as it suggests a stabilization of selection,” Colbran remarked, emphasizing that while waist-to-hip ratios can differ across various populations, the ideal measurement likely exists in a balanced range.

As noted by Alexander Gusev at Harvard University, this study is remarkable for its analysis of ancient DNA that has yet to be thoroughly examined. Gusev explained, “The authors found enriched variants being selected within one population compared to others, indicating parallel selection across populations, previously hypothesized but not empirically demonstrated.”

Yashin Souilumi, from the University of Adelaide, emphasized that their novel approach reveals regions of the genome newly identified as subject to selection, complementing previously known areas. “Their innovative method optimally utilizes the vast amounts of available ancient DNA,” Souilumi stated.

Colbran concluded that these findings are merely the initial discoveries. As more non-European genomes are sequenced, we will uncover even more evidence of recent human evolution.

Discovery Tour: Archaeology, Human Origins, and Paleontology

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Source: www.newscientist.com

Harnessing Green Hydrogen: Fueling Industries from Steel Production to Agriculture

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Green hydrogen offers numerous potential applications

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Hydrogen, the most prevalent element in the universe, generates energy when it reacts with oxygen, producing only water as a by-product. This is why it is being hailed by politicians as a versatile solution to combat climate change, potentially powering the multitude of vehicles and industries that currently depend on fossil fuels.

However, 99% of the hydrogen in circulation today is “gray” hydrogen, derived from processes that decompose methane or coal gas, subsequently releasing carbon dioxide. To attain net-zero emissions, many nations are now pivoting towards “blue” hydrogen, which captures this CO2 before releasing it into the atmosphere, or “green” hydrogen, generated by using renewable energy to split water molecules.

UN Secretary-General António Guterres has remarked that green hydrogen represents a significant opportunity for Western nations to contend with China in the clean technology sector This was articulated at a press briefing on December 3rd.

The challenge is that low-carbon hydrogen costs at least double that of gray hydrogen. To boost production and reduce prices, government incentives are essential. While the European Union and others are backing the sector, former President Donald Trump has begun to dismantle proposed low-carbon hydrogen initiatives. This effort is ongoing in the US via a $7 billion initiative.

As a result of these obstacles, the analytics company BloombergNEF has revised its prediction for low-carbon hydrogen production down to just 5.5 million tonnes by 2030, amounting to around 5% of current gray hydrogen usage. Experts suggest that, given the limited availability of supplies, governments and organizations ought to concentrate on utilizing clean hydrogen where it is most beneficial for both the environment and the economy.

“Hydrogen can do nearly everything, but that doesn’t mean it should,” states Russell McKenna from ETH Zurich, Switzerland.

Recent studies conducted by McKenna and his team evaluated the CO2 emissions associated with producing and transporting low-carbon hydrogen for projects globally in 2000, contrasting it with the CO2 emissions this hydrogen could displace. Their findings indicate that hydrogen could significantly impact the climate in the manufacturing of steel, biofuels, and ammonia.

Conversely, employing hydrogen for road transport, electricity generation, and home heating sees limited emissions reductions.

Steel

In a blast furnace, coke made from coal serves the dual purpose of generating heat to melt iron oxide ore and supplying the carbon needed for chemical reactions that remove oxygen from the ore. Therefore, merely heating the metal using renewable electricity is insufficient. The reaction requires a carbon alternative, and hydrogen can produce water instead of CO2.

“The current technology allows for the production of iron from iron ore at an industrial scale without CO2 emissions, and that technology is hydrogen,” asserts David Dye from Imperial College London. “Any alternative would require substantial advancements in technology.”

Green steel startup Stegra is in the process of establishing a facility in northern Sweden, which aims to be the first carbon-neutral steel factory by the end of 2026, utilizing electric furnaces and green hydrogen generated from local river water. Similar projects are also being developed in Europe, Asia, and North America.

Nevertheless, generating green hydrogen and powering arc furnaces demands affordable renewable electricity. This year, the multinational steel producer ArcelorMittal declined a €1.3 billion subsidy aimed at transitioning two German steel mills to hydrogen, citing elevated electricity costs.

Ammonia

Crops require nitrogen in the form of nitrates to thrive, yet the soil contains limited nitrates. In the early 20th century, chemists Fritz Haber and Carl Bosch created a process that combines nitrogen, abundantly available in the air, with hydrogen to synthesize ammonia, which can then be transformed into various fertilizers.

This innovation fueled the agricultural revolution and the expansion of the global population, and today, hydrogen is primarily utilized in oil refining and ammonia production. Approximately 70% of all ammonia is used as fertilizer, while the remainder is employed in producing plastics, explosives, and other chemicals.

“You can’t electrify this… because it’s a chemical reaction requiring that input,” explains McKenna. “Thus, we need hydrogen, but it has to be decarbonized.”

Countries like Saudi Arabia are beginning to construct facilities that will leverage solar and wind energy to produce hundreds of thousands of tons of green ammonia, primarily for export. Simultaneously, a startup is working on compact, modular plants to generate green hydrogen and ammonia directly at US agricultural sites. However, at present, all these methods depend on governmental funding and tax incentives.

Alternative Fuel

Ammonia can also be burned in engines. While passenger vehicles and many trucks can efficiently operate on electricity, long-range transport methods, such as large trucks, ships, and airplanes, face challenges with battery storage and charging. Hydrogen holds potential as a key element in generating low-carbon fuels for this segment.

Research led by McKenna and his team has identified that manufacturing hydrotreated vegetable oils is one of the most advantageous applications of hydrogen. This involves treating used cooking oil with hydrogen to break down fats into combustible hydrocarbons.

Both ammonia and hydrotreated vegetable oil are being explored as substitutes for marine heavy fuel oil, which contributes to 3% of global emissions. The aviation sector, with a comparable carbon footprint, may also transition to ammonia.

Since hydrogen is produced independently of oil and closely resembles kerosene, it could also be harnessed to create synthetic aviation fuel compatible with existing aircraft.

In the long term, research teams at institutions like Cranfield University in the UK are conceptualizing aircraft featuring powerful tanks designed to store compressed hydrogen. Hydrogen and ammonia, which generate nitrogen oxide pollution when combusted, could alternatively be combined with oxygen in fuel cells, resulting in electricity and water. Ultimately, a fuel cell-powered aircraft represents a significant objective. Phil Longhurst from Cranfield University remarks.

“Hydrogen is the cleanest, zero-carbon fuel accessible, so it’s essentially the holy grail,” he concludes.

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Source: www.newscientist.com

Ranches and Agriculture Deplete Nearly All Soil in the Alps

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Flock of Sheep in the Heart of the French Alps

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Intensive erosion driven by human activities like livestock grazing and farming has nearly completely removed the soil that formed in the Alps since the glaciers receded. This soil, shaped over millennia by plants, microorganisms, and the elements, established the carbon-rich foundation for the mountains’ ecosystems.

“We’ve depleted it at a rate four to ten times greater than its natural regrowth,” states William Lupook from the French National Center for Science and Research.

He and his team investigated lithium isotopes in sediment collected from Lake Burgette in the French Alps to trace soil erosion patterns in the area over the last 10,000 years. The presence of specific lithium isotopes indicates the formation of clays and other minerals from the original rock, facilitating the determination of whether soil is accumulating or being lost, according to Rapuc.

The sediment erosion patterns were analyzed alongside records of local climate variations and human influence. In the first thousand years post-glacier retreat, climate change could explain soil loss. However, around 3,800 years ago, a notable shift occurred. “What climate factors cannot explain must be attributed to human impacts,” Rapuc notes.

The researchers pinpointed three distinct periods of increased soil loss, each linked to various human activities. From 3,800 to 3,000 years ago, the surge was associated with high-intensity grazing. The next surge, seen between 2,800 and 1,600 years ago, was driven by agriculture at lower elevations, while the most recent increase—from 1,600 years ago to the present—corresponds to more advanced agricultural practices, including plowing. This ongoing soil loss in the Alps exacerbates erosion caused by wind and water, decreasing the area’s capacity to support vegetation and crops.

Researchers assert that this transition marks the advent of the “Soil Anthropocene” era, a time when human impact on soil became prevalent 3,800 years ago. However, according to Rapuc, the past consequences on soil pale in comparison to our current capabilities for disruption.

For instance, in the United States, where the effects of the Soil Anthropocene began centuries ago, soil is being lost at a startling rate—1,000 times faster than prior to the last ice age, explains Daniel Lass from the Natural Resources Defense Council, an environmental advocacy organization. “We are fundamentally altering the natural processes of soil formation and development due to agricultural practices.”

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Source: www.newscientist.com

Rise of the Drone Era: Enhancing Production and Uplifting Morale in Agri-Tech | Agriculture

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“The inspiration originated from Instagram videos,” remarks Tom Amery. It provides a stunning view of one of three large drones acquired to aid in cultivating watercress on a farm in Hampshire.

This drone is equipped with four rotary blades and can transport up to 50kg of fertilizer, seeds, or feed for spraying, thanks to extensive research conducted by Amelie, who frequently utilizes various social media platforms focused on agricultural technology.

Amery and The Watercress Company, led by managing directors, are among the food producers striving to integrate advanced technology into one of the oldest professions to accelerate processes and increase output amid extreme weather challenges. This critical issue has drawn government attention, resulting in the inclusion of Agri-Tech in its industrial strategy earlier this month.

The firm allocated £80,000 for an Agras T50 drone, produced by the Chinese manufacturer DJI and specifically designed for agricultural use.

Applying potash or phosphates using a drone is “two to three times quicker than manual application,” notes Amery. This facilitates more precise application, thereby minimizing the quantity of fertilizer needed. The produce is packaged in a 25m bag of salad sold annually through the UK’s largest supermarket.

Despite ongoing discussions about the potential for machines to replace human labor in agriculture, Amelie believes that such investments elevate morale. “It’s about retaining staff by alleviating job hardships,” he states. “We offer higher wages. With increased salaries, retention rates improve.”

Though drones are already in use on farms in North and South America, their presence remains relatively novel in the UK. Currently, The Watercress Company’s drones await necessary permissions from the Civil Aviation Authority, the aviation regulatory body.

Amelie hopes that soon, hoppers will be fitted with the essential equipment to cover the growers’ 20 hectares across 12 farms in Hampshire and Dorset. Flight paths for each field can be pre-set, and 20-year-old George Matthews has been trained and licensed to operate the drone.

The Watercress Company continues to follow traditional growing methods that date back to the Victorian era. Although innovative, it remains focused on providing for those in urban areas, where watercress first gained popularity due to its nutritional value.

Currently, crops are cultivated in watercress beds fed by natural streams in use since the 1880s, while bespoke harvesters are deployed to cut the leaves between May and October.

crops. Photo: Joanna Partridge/The Guardian

Growers are also experimenting with multispectral cameras, which capture images across various wavelengths. These images generate a “heatmap” of the fields, which AI can analyze to identify crop issues.

The Watercress Company is driving the type of innovation that the National Farmers’ Union (NFU) aims to promote across more UK farms, striving for efficiency and sustainability.

Nevertheless, many farmers are feeling financial constraints, as the NFU observes that few possess the funds or confidence to invest in new, potentially untested technologies.

This progress is essential for enhancing productivity in agriculture, with the NFU warning that, without it, the UK risks lagging behind international competitors.

“We are eager to see future developments,” stated Tom Bradshaw, president of NFU. “Evidence from some European neighbors highlights that we’re behind in certain areas and less productive overall.”

Within the industrial strategy, Agri-Tech, alongside precision breeding, is designated a focus area in the growth sector plan, which the NFU believes will help make agriculture “more productive, sustainable, and resilient.”

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The government has earmarked £200 million for its agricultural innovation program until 2030, with the Ministry of Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA) promising “targeted funding to foster agricultural innovation.”

“The push for innovation and growth in agri-tech is advantageous for the nation,” remarks Agriculture Minister Daniel Zechner. “Not only can we create jobs and enhance economic resilience, but we can also fortify food security and increase farmers’ and growers’ benefits through innovation.”

However, this announcement comes just days after the government cut the UK’s agricultural budget by £100 million annually. This reduction translates to a 2.7% decrease in DEFRA’s daily budget, a move that has been cautiously received by the NFU and agricultural organizations.

Back in Hampshire, the Watercress Company remains skeptical about benefiting from the funds allocated to its agricultural innovation program.

“Much of this funding is driven by high innovation levels but often fails to reach the farm gates or enhance production and productivity,” remarks Amery.

“It involves a significant investment in technology that hasn’t yet proven to yield results.”

The crop is harvested by the Watercress Company in Dorset. Photo: Finnbarr Webster/Getty

To date, growers have been bearing nearly all costs associated with innovation. They successfully obtained £20,000 in funding from the government’s shared prosperity fund through local councils, which accounts for about a quarter of their drone investment.

Nonetheless, Amery noted that the business rarely accesses funding avenues like R&D tax credits, available only to companies subject to corporate tax. Partnerships like the Watercress Company and many other agricultural entities don’t pay corporate tax and thus aren’t eligible.

This challenge hasn’t deterred growers from pursuing the latest advancements to enhance their crops. “Innovation typically stems from a desire to tackle challenges,” states Amery. “We generally experience a major innovation every five to ten years. This one is transformative.”

Source: www.theguardian.com

How the US Agriculture Organization Played a Crucial Role in Combating Bird Flu

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Prevalent strains of avian flu affecting US livestock

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Since the beginning of Donald Trump’s administration in January, key US public health organizations have reduced their pandemic preparedness efforts regarding potential avian flu outbreaks. However, in contrast, another government agency has ramped up its activities.

The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) previously conducted regular updates on measures to prevent a broader transmission of the deadly avian influenza virus known as H5N1 among humans, but these efforts were largely suspended after Trump took office. Funding for vaccines targeting the virus was also cancelled. Meanwhile, the USDA intensified its fight against the spread of H5N1 in poultry and dairy populations.

This particular strain of avian flu, named H5N1, poses a significant risk to human health, with about half of the nearly 1,000 individuals who tested positive globally since 2003. While the virus spreads quickly among birds, it remains poorly adapted to infect humans and is not known to transmit between individuals. However, mutations might enhance its ability to spread among mammals, presenting an escalating risk with increasing infections in mammals.

The likelihood of H5N1 evolving into a more human-threatening variant has significantly amplified since March 2024, when it transitioned from migratory birds in Texas to dairy cattle. More than 1,070 flocks across 17 states have since been affected.

H5N1 also impacts poultry, making it more human-compatible. Since 2022, nearly 175 million domestic birds in the US have been culled due to H5N1, with 71 people testing positive after direct contact with infected livestock.

“We must take [H5N1] seriously. Its spread continues, and it frequently spills over into humans,” says Sheema Calkdawara from Emory University in Georgia. The virus has already claimed lives in the US, including children in Mexico this year.

However, the number of incidents has minimized since Trump took office, with the last recorded human case in February and a significant reduction in affected poultry herds by 95% from then through June. Outbreaks within dairy cattle herds are also being managed effectively.

The cause of this decline remains unclear. Some speculate it may be due to a decrease in bird migration, limiting the opportunities for the virus to jump from wild birds to livestock. It may also reflect the USDA’s proactive containment strategies on farms. In February, USDA detailed a $1 billion investment plan to combat H5N1, which includes free biosecurity evaluations to help farmers enhance their defenses against the virus. Only one workplace among the 150 reviewed reported an outbreak.

Under Trump’s administration, the USDA also maintained its national milk testing initiative, requiring farms to submit raw milk samples for influenza testing. Should a farm test positive for H5N1, the USDA can monitor livestock and take preventative measures. The USDA initiated a comprehensive program in December, further enhancing their engagement in 45 states.

“The National Milk Test Strategy is a robust approach,” states Erin Sorrell from Johns Hopkins University in Maryland. Coupled with improvements in on-farm biosecurity, milk testing is crucial for containing outbreaks, Sorrell believes.

Despite the USDA’s heightened efforts concerning H5N1, HHS doesn’t seem to be keeping pace. According to Sorrell, the decrease in human cases may also be due to diminished surveillance resulting from staff cuts. In April, HHS announced 10,000 job cuts, impacting 90% of the workforce at the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, which monitors H5N1 incidence among farm workers.

“As the saying goes, you can’t detect something unless you test for it,” Sorrell comments. Nevertheless, a spokesperson from the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) stated that their guidance and surveillance initiatives remain unchanged. “State and local health departments are still tracking illnesses in individuals exposed to sick animals,” they expressed to New Scientist. “The CDC is dedicated to promptly sharing information regarding H5N1 as necessary.”

Vaccination strategies are another area of contention between USDA and HHS. USDA has allocated $100 million towards the development of vaccines and additional strategies to mitigate H5N1’s spread among livestock, while HHS has halted $776 million in contracts aimed at developing influenza vaccines. This contract, which ended on May 28, was with Moderna for a vaccine targeting various influenza subtypes, including H5N1, potentially leading to future pandemics. This announcement coincided with Moderna revealing that nearly 98% of around 300 participants who received two H5 vaccines in clinical trials exhibited antibody levels considered protective against the virus.

The US currently possesses approximately 5 million doses of the H5N1 vaccine, produced via egg-based and cultured cell methods, which is more time-consuming compared to mRNA vaccines such as Moderna’s. Sorrell observes that Moderna’s mRNA vaccine platform enables rapid government response and production capabilities during a pandemic, providing a solid foundation should a general public vaccine be required.

HHS’s cancellation of its contract stemmed from concerns regarding the mRNA vaccine technology, an issue previously flagged by Robert F. Kennedy Jr., a leading public health figure in the nation. “The reality is that mRNA technology remains inadequately tested, and we will not waste taxpayer dollars repeating past errors,” stated HHS Communications Director Andrew Nixon, as reported by New Scientist.

However, mRNA technology is far from novel and has been in development for over 50 years, with various clinical trials confirming its safety. Like all treatments, there can be mild side effects, but these are typical of most medical interventions. In a recent announcement, Moderna indicated its intention to seek alternative funding avenues for the project.

“I firmly believe we shouldn’t dismiss any option, including various vaccine strategies,” asserts Calkdawara.

“Vaccinations are the most effective defense against infectious diseases,” emphasizes Sorrell. “Having them available as a contingency provides a wider range of options.”

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Source: www.newscientist.com

Utilizing Urban Waste to Foster Urban Agriculture

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Cities produce a lot of waste. What we consider to be biodegradable or compostable materials is Organic waste. Remaining food scraps, fallen trees, and cow poop are all examples of organic waste. When organic waste breaks down in landfills, it releases called greenhouse gases methane. Methane traps heat in the atmosphere and contributes to global warming. To reduce methane emissions, urban areas like Chicago, Illinois are trying to divert organic waste from landfills.

One way scientists have proposed to deflect organic waste is to use it as fertilizer on urban farms. Organic waste is a good potential fertilizer as it contains nutrients like nitrogen and carbon that the plant needs to grow. Researchers suggest that using organic waste on urban farms will allow cities to reuse waste and reduce chemical or mineral fertilizers.

Soil microorganisms such as bacteria and fungi break down organic materials for energy, making nutrients available to plants and other organisms in the process. Scientists should see the community of various microorganisms in the soil Soil microbiota. Because all microorganisms require energy, the soil microbiota is shaped by different energy sources in the soil. For example, some microorganisms prefer to get energy from sugar in plant materials, while others prefer to use the nitrogen found in animal fertilizers.

Researchers at the University of California, Davis and University of Wisconsin Madison wanted to know whether adding organic waste mixtures to the soil could alter the soil microbiome and improve crop growth compared to traditional mineral fertilizers. They produced four mixtures of organic waste collected in San Francisco, California. One was a liquid mixture of expired supermarket produce, one was food scrap compost, one was a mixture of plant-eating animal poop at a nearby zoo, and one was a dead plant-like garden compost. Researchers also included a control mixture, called nitrogen compounds, which contain the main ingredients of mineral fertilizers.

The researchers hypothesized that adding organic waste to the soil would increase the number and diversity of soil microorganisms compared to mineral fertilizers. They tested their hypothesis by cultivating tomato plants in greenhouse experiments. They applied a mixture of organic waste to the soil of local urban farms and placed the soil in a pot with tomato seedlings.

Researchers grew tomato plants for 75 days, then harvested and sampled the soil microbiota. They used a process of identifying microorganisms based on DNA. 16S rRNA Sequence. They measured the amount of carbon in bacterial and fungal cells.

The team found that soil treated with liquid food waste and animal poop had 127% and 120% more microorganisms than soil treated with urea. They discovered that microbial identity has also changed. For example, three of the four soils with organic waste mixtures contain more carbon cycling microorganisms; planutomyceota Bacteria than soil with urea. They concluded that the organic waste mixture maintained or improved the soil microbiota.

However, the researchers were surprised that the organic waste mixture did not change the microbial diversity or amount of microorganisms involved in soil nitrogen cycling. The team suggested that microbial diversity could still increase if the soil is fertilized for a long period.

The team then looked into the tomato plants. They determined the quality of the plant by measuring the height and weight of the plant, as well as the number and size of tomato fruit. They also analyzed the taste of tomatoes by measuring the soluble sugars of the fruit. They found that plants treated with organic waste had 15% to 75% smaller and 15% to 65% lower fruit yields than plants treated with urea. However, the tomatoes were all the same size, and some plants grown with organic waste had tomatoes with better taste. Researchers agreed that organic waste mixtures can improve the quality of certain crops, such as fruit taste, but further research is needed.

The team concluded that organic waste mixtures can support the healthy microbiota of urban agricultural soils. They proposed that farmers could use organic fertilizers as an alternative to mineral fertilizers such as urea. They suggested that reusing local waste would help bring more fresh food to urban communities.


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Source: sciworthy.com