Astronomers employing NASA/ESA/CSA’s James Webb Space Telescope have successfully analyzed the atmosphere of a giant exoplanet, WD1856+534, which orbits a white dwarf star. These groundbreaking findings provide insight into the ultimate fate of giant planets surrounding stars with masses akin to our Sun.
WD 1856b is a gas giant planet orbiting its star 50 times closer than Earth does the Sun. Image credit: NASA/ESA/CSA/Ralf Crawford, STScI.
“Most stars, including our Sun, eventually exhaust their fuel, leaving behind a white dwarf,” noted Dr. Ryan McDonald, an astronomer at the University of St. Andrews, along with colleagues.
“The implications of this stellar evolution on orbiting planets remain largely unclear.”
“Multiple planet candidates have been discovered around white dwarfs, suggesting that planets can endure the transition period when stars evolve into red giants before becoming white dwarfs.”
“However, there is still limited knowledge regarding the atmospheric composition of such planets.”
The new study focused on WD1856b, identified in 2020 by astronomers using NASA’s TESS and Spitzer Space Telescopes.
This exoplanet boasts a radius of 0.9 times that of Jupiter and a mass between 4.3 and 10.9 times Jupiter’s mass.
It orbits the 10-billion-year-old white dwarf star WD 1856+534, which is situated 80 light-years away in the Draco constellation.
“This planet is approximately the same size as Jupiter, while the white dwarf star it orbits is the size of Earth, making this planet seven times larger than its star,” Dr. McDonald stated.
Utilizing Webb’s Near Infrared Spectrometer (NIRSpec), astronomers detected hydrocarbons and aerosols, including methane, in WD 1856b’s atmosphere.
They also measured thermal radiation emanating from the planet’s night side.
“We observed tiny cloud particles and clear indications of hydrocarbons (possibly methane),” shared Cornell University astronomer Victoria Boehm. “This marks the first instance of observing the atmosphere of a planet transiting a dead star.”
“We have recently executed four additional observations of WD 1856b with Webb to delve deeper into the chemistry of its atmosphere, and we’re eager to analyze the results.”
Webb evaluated the composition of WD 1856b as it transited in front of the star, revealing signs of methane. Image credit: NASA/ESA/CSA/Joseph Olmsted, STScI.
Researchers estimate that the planet’s atmosphere has a temperature ranging from 390-412K, significantly higher than the expected temperature of a giant planet (160K).
This heating likely transpired between 3 billion and 5.5 billion years after the star converted into a white dwarf.
In this context, the planet would have initially occupied a wider orbit, safeguarding it from the star during its cataclysmic red giant phase, only to eventually move to its current position.
“As the planet migrated inward, interactions with the white dwarf’s formidable gravity would have induced a significant temperature spike, which has been decreasing ever since,” stated Dr. Christopher O’Connor of Northwestern University.
“The primary question is how WD 1856b evolved into its current state, and there are two prevailing theories.”
“One hypothesis suggests the planet was engulfed by its dying host star and somehow persisted within.”
“The alternative theory posits that the movement was influenced by gravitational dynamics of other bodies within the system.”
The white dwarf is part of a triple star system, where its companion star may play a role in shaping WD 1856b’s orbital path.
In approximately 5 billion years, our Sun will exhaust its hydrogen fuel, expanding to over 100 times its current dimensions, entering the red giant phase.
Following this, it will shed its outer layers, ultimately becoming a white dwarf.
Mercury, Venus, and potentially Earth may be obliterated during this transition.
However, the fates of outer planets, particularly gas giants, remain uncertain.
“We typically rely on telescopes to examine the past, but for the first time, we can observe what may happen to exoplanets around remnants of Sun-like stars,” Dr. McDonald remarked.
“It’s akin to employing a time machine to glimpse into the distant future of our own solar system.”
For further details, see the findings outlined in this week’s edition of Nature.
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RJ McDonald et al. 2026. Aerosols and hydrocarbons in the atmosphere of a white dwarf star. Nature 655, 76-80; doi: 10.1038/s41586-026-10514-7
Neanderthal skull (left) and Homo sapiens larger than early humans
Pascal Goetheruk/Science Photo Library
One of the defining features of our species is our notably large brain. However, a recent analysis of fossil skulls indicates that evolution hasn’t significantly favored larger brains during the past two million years of human evolution.
“Brain size has indeed increased over time, while face size has actually reduced,” states Katerina Harvati from the University of Tübingen, Germany. Yet, this development does not appear to be the result of natural selection.
Rather, the evolution of the human brain seems to have been influenced by various evolutionary pressures, which maintained brain size. Periodically, these constraints were relaxed, enabling the brain to grow larger.
Dr. Mark Hubbe from the University of Tennessee, Knoxville, along with Harvati, examined 87 hominin skulls, 24 of which belonged to modern Homo sapiens. The remainder were from extinct human species, such as Neanderthals (Homo neanderthalensis), Homo erectus, and Homo habilis. They gathered data on skull shape and size, concentrating on the braincase and facial features.
Over the past two million years, the human braincase has enlarged significantly, providing room for larger brains. Concurrently, human faces became flatter, characterized by reduced jaw prominence and smaller eyebrow ridges.
“There’s a pervasive hypothesis suggesting that increased cognitive ability drives selection,” says Harvati. This concept posits that intelligent individuals were favored, leading our ancestors to gradually develop larger brains over time.
To test this theory, Haverty and Hubbe employed a mathematical model that evaluated six different evolutionary scenarios influencing changes in skull shape and size. One scenario suggested gradual natural selection pressure favoring larger brains, while another scenario presented a more neutral approach. The remaining scenarios included fluctuating constraints around an optimal design and “punctuated equilibrium,” where long periods of stasis were punctuated by brief bursts of rapid evolution.
Findings indicated that changes in braincase size and shape are most effectively explained by neutral evolution, suggesting that random mutations impact brain size and shape without providing a significant advantage over previous designs. Evidence of stagnation further indicates that evolution exerts pressure on braincases to maintain similar dimensions.
While human faces underwent changes, the evolutionary constraint to preserve their shape appeared to be stronger.
This study provides insight into the mechanisms that have steered our evolutionary journey. Amelie Baudet at the French National Center for Scientific Research in Poitiers states, “This is precisely the kind of analysis we need right now.”
Although the study focused on skulls, it primarily addresses overall brain size and shape, which may not encapsulate the entire picture. Bode noted, “It’s not just about brain size; it likely involves brain reorganization.” She studies the imprints left by the brain within the skull, indicating that crucial areas like Broca’s area, associated with language, have evolved considerably over the last two million years.
Some researchers, like Gerhard Weber at the University of Vienna, argue that the sample size is insufficient for definitive conclusions. He remains skeptical about Harvati and Hubbe’s assertions that evolution kept our ancestors’ brains consistently sized. “As social animals, prehistoric societies likely featured varied divisions of labor,” he adds. In such contexts, exceptional intelligence may not have been a significant advantage.
Weber is intrigued by the notion that our brains grew not due to natural selection, but rather when constraints were lifted. “That’s a compelling idea,” he remarks.
Harvati suggests cooking may have played a critical role in this evolution. Since the brain demands substantial energy to function, and cooked food offers higher caloric value than raw, the advent of cooking could have provided the necessary energy boost for larger brains.
Biologists at the University of Minnesota have achieved a groundbreaking feat in bioengineering by creating synthetic cells from non-living chemical components. These innovative synthetic cells, known as spud cells, can complete a full life cycle—absorbing nutrients, growing, replicating genetic material, dividing into daughter cells, and passing beneficial mutations to future generations.
Cell cycle of a synthetic cell with a 90 kbp genome undergoing selective replication. Image credit: Gaut et al., doi: 10.64898/2026.07.01.735724.
“DNA is the programming of all living things,” stated Dr. Katarzyna Adamara, the corresponding author.
The human genome contains about 3 billion base pairs. Interestingly, biologists estimate that the genome of a living cell can be as small as 113,000 base pairs. In contrast, the genome of SpudCell is even smaller, measuring 90,000 base pairs.
Unlike natural cells that have inherited mechanisms developed over billions of years, these synthetic cells are constructed from scratch using well-defined chemical components. They utilize a fatty membrane in the form of liposomes, a minimal protein synthesis system, and a genome distributed across seven to eight plasmids.
The designed genome encodes everything a cell needs to feed itself, replicate its DNA, grow, and divide.
To nourish these synthetic cells, they merge with small “feeder” liposomes that provide lipids, enzymes, and essential small molecules. This fusion is facilitated by a modified bacterial pore protein produced by the synthetic cell, which bears a chemical tag that binds to a corresponding tag on the feeder liposome, resulting in fusion and the transfer of fresh raw materials. Researchers compare this process to a predator intentionally attracting prey.
Through repeated nourishment, these cells utilize enzymes obtained from viral bacteria to replicate their DNA and divide mechanically into “daughter” cells. By tracking chemical markers integrated into each round of feeder liposomes, the researchers monitored a lineage of cells over five generations. Despite lacking a cytoskeleton or systems for sorting DNA—which natural cells depend on—approximately 30% of the surviving daughter cells retained complete copies of their seven-part genome.
The scientists then tested the concept of Darwinian selection within this simplified system. They engineered a version of the feeding protein with a stronger genetic promoter, enhancing the efficiency of fusion with feeder liposomes.
When mixing stronger and weaker cell variants to observe competition over five generations, the faster-growing cells gradually increased their population share, rising from equal distribution to as high as 61% in one experiment. When feeder liposomes became scarce, mimicking limited resource availability, the advantage of fast-growing cells grew even more pronounced, as they eventually outnumbered slower ones by more than two to one.
“This is probably the most thrilling project I’ve ever worked on,” expressed Dr. Adamara. “We have chemically recreated what was previously achievable only through biological processes: the full behavior of living cells.”
“This evidence shows that fundamental life functions, such as growth and reproduction, do not require any mystical or complex systems.”
Moreover, the authors developed division machinery independent of the cell’s skeleton, leveraging proteins that cluster on the surface to pull membranes apart. They demonstrated that this genetically encoded division could also confer a feeding advantage, allowing faster-growing cells to produce more offspring.
“This study is merely the beginning,” Dr. Adamara remarked. “We have demonstrated that it is feasible to manipulate essential cellular functions.”
“An international collaboration is vital to fully harness the potential of this technology and ensure its robustness and practicality.”
These findings were detailed in a study, published as a preprint on July 2nd on BioRxiv.org.
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Nathaniel J. Gaut et al. 2026. A chemically defined synthetic cell capable of growth and reproduction. BioRxiv, doi: 10.64898/2026.07.01.735724
Human laughter, characterized by rapid and rhythmically timed bursts, is not exclusive to humans. Recent research from the University of Warwick and the University of Portsmouth reveals that all great apes, including orangutans, gorillas, and chimpanzees, share the same fundamental timing structure for laughter. This finding indicates that our common ancestor with these great apes was capable of recognizable smiling at least 15 million years ago.
Analysis of laughter tempo in five great ape species: orangutans, gorillas, bonobos, chimpanzees, and humans. Points represent individual observations, with color coding for evolutionary distance. Image credit: De Gregorio et al., 10.1038/s42003-026-10499-z.
Chiara de Gregorio, a researcher at the University of Warwick, stated, “Sounds do not fossilize, complicating the traceability of song sounds, spoken words, and languages.”
She added, “Comparative studies of the behaviors of our closest living relatives, the (non-human) great apes, serve as the only extant model for the vocal abilities and adaptive features that our ancestors may have lost.”
“Although every major hominid lineage has developed unique vocalization repertoires shaped by their specific social ecologies, laughter remains a conserved vocalization across species and age-sex categories.”
This study recorded laughter in various tickle play and social play scenarios involving 17 individuals from all five great ape species.
The research comprised four orangutans, two gorillas, three bonobos, four chimpanzees, and four humans, including children aged 6 months to 7 years.
Analysis showed that laughter across all species is isochronous, meaning it occurs at regular, evenly spaced intervals. This rhythm mirrors those found in music and speech.
Scientists have confirmed that this fundamental rhythmic structure was already present in our common ancestor 15 million years ago and continues to be remarkably conserved across modern great apes.
However, they identified noteworthy differences along the evolutionary line. The closer a species is to humans on the evolutionary tree, the faster and more variable their laughter becomes, with increased sensitivity to social contexts.
Humans were unique in adjusting the tempo of their laughter depending on whether they were engaged in tickling or free play.
The researchers noted that variations in human laughter tempo are perceived as more emotionally warm and socially positive, indicating that rhythmic flexibility holds significant social implications.
Dr. Adriano Lamelia from the University of Warwick remarked, “Assessing the vocal forms of extinct ancestors directly is impossible.”
“Laughter is an evolutionarily ancient trait shared by all extant great apes, providing a valuable evolutionary perspective on vocal changes that occurred throughout human evolution leading to the emergence of the first humans.”
“This research counters the classical view that the first humans suddenly acquired distinct vocal control abilities; instead, the evolution of laughter illustrates the continuum of vocal control capabilities that developed cumulatively over 15 million years.”
For further details, refer to the findings published in the Journal on June 25, 2026, in Communication Biology.
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C. De Gregorio et al. 2026. The rhythm and timing of laughter reveal that human vocal plasticity is part of the hominid continuum. Comm Biol 9,824; doi: 10.1038/s42003-026-10499-z
Two previously elusive millipede groups, Siphoniurida and Siphonocryptida, have been identified as the last missing links in the evolutionary history of Earth’s oldest land animals, as revealed by a research team from Virginia Tech.
As of now, 14,232 millipede species have been identified, with countless others yet to be documented. Image credit: Vazquez Valverde et al., doi: 10.1016/j.cub.2026.05.035.
“Millipedes helped pave the way for vertebrates to inhabit land for over 80 million years,” stated Dr. Paul Marek, the lead author from Virginia Tech.
“They truly laid the groundwork for subsequent terrestrial life, including humans and other vertebrates.”
In this groundbreaking study, Dr. Marek and his team merged genomic data from existing millipede species with fossil morphological evidence.
They analyzed hundreds of genes across 82 millipede species, including data from 29 fossils.
A significant milestone was the successful sequencing of DNA from the two elusive groups, Siphoniurida and Siphonocryptida, whose genetic information had never been accessed before.
Researchers traveled to Mexico’s Los Tuxtlas Island and Spain’s Canary Islands to gather specimens such as Sifoniurus neotropicus and Hildicryptus canariensis.
“It took 10 researchers over a week to locate a single tiny 10mm adult,” commented lead author Luisa ‘Fernanda’ Vázquez Valverde, also affiliated with Virginia Tech.
“Finding them in the wild was difficult because they resembled small white nematodes.”
“I wasn’t even sure it was a millipede until I examined it under the microscope.”
Interestingly, the study revealed that one of the “missing” groups, Siphonocryptida, is not a standalone order but part of an already recognized lineage. In contrast, Siphoniurida was successfully positioned on the evolutionary timeline.
The research traces the origins of millipedes back roughly 460 million years, during the Ordovician period, about 35 million years before the earliest known millipede fossils, suggesting these creatures arose much earlier than previously believed.
Millipedes dominated the terrestrial landscape over 80 million years ago, thriving on decaying organic matter even before the emergence of trees and flowering plants, marking them as some of the earliest terrestrial pioneers.
“The most surprising aspect was the ancient nature of some of these lineages,” noted Dr. Marek.
This study also indicates that millipedes have been producing chemical defenses for approximately 260 million years, establishing them as one of the earliest creators of biological and chemical substances on Earth.
“They were among the first to develop chemical defenses; essentially, they are tiny chemical factories,” stated Dr. Marek.
For more insights, refer to the study results published in Current Biology.
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Luisa F. Vázquez Valverde et al.. Reshaping the millipede tree of life by including the last two unsampled orders. Current Biology, published online June 12, 2026. doi: 10.1016/j.cub.2026.05.035
Steve Brusatte excels in paleontology with his compelling book, Bird Story, which follows his acclaimed works, The Rise and Fall of Dinosaurs and The Rise and Reign of Mammals. This new release combines rigorous scientific insight with an engaging narrative style, making it a must-read for enthusiasts of avian evolution.
Brusatte is a prominent paleontologist at the University of Edinburgh, specializing in a wide array of dinosaur, bird, and mammal fossils. He conducts excavations on the Isle of Skye in Scotland, known for its well-preserved Jurassic remains. Brusatte is also a notable science communicator, reaching audiences through his films as well as his engaging books.
Artist’s Impression of Compsognathus
Florilegius/Alamy
Bird Story, subtitled The Evolutionary History of Dinosaurs Living Among Us, meticulously details the journey of birds from their dinosaur ancestors, showcasing their evolutionary adaptations and current status as a thriving animal group.
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The dramatic discovery of Archaeopteryx bolstered Huxley’s case that birds evolved from dinosaurs “
Brusatte’s narrative traces back to 1868, when Thomas Henry Huxley first proposed the connection between birds and dinosaurs. This idea was vital in supporting Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural selection, as outlined in On the Origin of Species. Huxley’s groundbreaking work redefined how these two groups of organisms were understood in the broader context of evolutionary biology.
Artist’s Impression of Falcatakely
Mark P. Witton/Science Photo Library
Birds have always puzzled scientists due to their unique characteristics like feathers, wings, and bipedal posture. Brusatte emphasizes Huxley’s contributions, correlating bird features with their dinosaur relatives, especially notable species like Compsognathus, which exhibited striking similarities.
The significant discovery of Archaeopteryx revealed not only its feathered wings but also its teeth and claws, reinforcing the evolutionary connection between birds and dinosaurs. Brusatte underscores that modern birds belong to the dinosaur lineage, providing insights into how they survived mass extinction events that decimated their dinosaur cousins.
Through analysis of the fossil record, Brusatte elaborates on the evolution of feathers and flight capabilities in ancient birds during the Mesozoic era. He vividly illustrates the diversity of avian species, with groups like the enantiornithids thriving before the catastrophic events of the past, detailing the survival mechanisms of certain bird lineages.
In the latter half of Bird Story, Brusatte transitions to present-day birds, exploring their significant diversification in response to ecological niches vacated by extinct species. He examines contemporary avian groups such as penguins and songbirds alongside extinct marvels, enhancing the narrative’s depth.
As a writer immersed in paleontology, many concepts within Bird Story felt familiar, but Brusatte’s exploration of Zealandia, the submerged eighth continent, brought fresh perspectives. He suggests that Zealandia historically hosted dinosaurs long into the present due to its isolation from large mammals.
Concluding the book, Brusatte’s collaboration with neuroscientists Pavel Němek and Kristina Kverková sheds light on avian intelligence. Despite their small brain sizes, many birds exhibit extraordinary cognitive abilities, underscoring the complexity of avian minds.
Bird Story stands as a remarkable addition to the literature on avian evolution, further fueling anticipation for Brusatte’s future works, including his upcoming book on the history of reptiles.
Michael Marshall, a science writer based in Devon, UK.
In this captivating book, biologist Louis Lefebvre explores innovation and culture within avian societies, revealing fascinating discoveries in bird intelligence.
Earth is a distinctive planet with remarkable features such as a magnetic field, a large moon, and dynamic plate tectonics. It is the only planet currently known to support life. These characteristics lead to the rare Earth hypothesis, which suggests that extraterrestrial life has not been discovered because other planets may lack the essential conditions necessary for supporting life.
Approximately 30% of Earth’s surface is land, while around 70% is covered by oceans. Recent research by David Kipping, an assistant professor at Columbia University, explored the ratio of land to ocean on Earth’s surface and how this percentage of land contributes to Earth’s habitability for complex life forms, including intelligent beings like humans.
Kipping developed four statistical models to analyze how varying land distributions could influence the evolution of intelligent alien life. He first established an equation to determine the likelihood of a planet existing within its habitable zone, focusing on specific parcels of land known as probability distributions. His models weighted the distribution, suggesting a higher likelihood of planets being either covered by a large landmass or a vast ocean, rather than a mix like Earth.
Kipping used this land proportion distribution to calculate the chances that a random planet with similar proportions could support intelligent life. He examined four scenarios: 1) intelligent life is more likely to emerge on land-dominant planets, 2) it is more common on ocean-dominant planets, 3) balanced land and ocean planets are more conducive, and 4) the emergence of intelligent life is independent of land proportion.
To establish the likelihood of intelligent aliens existing on planets with land distributions like Earth’s, Kipping compared probabilities by calculating the ratios of outcomes. Since Earth is the only planet confirmed to have intelligent life, models indicating a higher probability of human presence provide crucial insights.
Kipping considered a ratio exceeding 10 between model predictions as strong evidence favoring one model over another. He found no such threshold was met in his comparisons. However, models favoring ocean-dominated or balanced land-ocean planets showed a 2.5 to 3-fold greater likelihood of predicting human existence compared to land-dominant models, with balanced models claiming the highest probability of human emergence, albeit slightly.
Kipping also contemplated whether the discovery of more planets with intelligent life would affect which model is deemed most realistic, especially if evidence of ancient life on Mars surfaces. He identified two complications: the uncertainty about the extent of Mars’ ancient water coverage, estimated between 25% to 81% land, and the notion that evidence of life does not equate to confirmation of intelligent life.
Despite these uncertainties, Kipping recalibrated his model under the assumption that ancient Mars had an Earth-like land area. This approach yielded ratios similar to previous Earth-exclusive calculations, indicating no single model could firmly predict intelligent presence on both Earth and Mars by a margin of 10.
To determine conditions exceeding the 10x threshold, Kipping calculated the necessary findings: astronomers would need to discover 14 additional planets with intelligent life and known land proportions to conclusively establish whether intelligent life emerges more frequently on desert, ocean, or balanced planets.
Kipping concluded that we cannot yet definitively state whether the land distribution on Earth plays a unique role in the emergence of intelligent species. However, Earth’s existence suggests that intelligent life is less likely to develop on extreme desert planets, casting doubt on the prospect of finding Tatooine or Jackass within our galaxy. While this research does not disprove the rare Earth hypothesis, it does challenge the notion that the vastness of Earth’s oceans is the primary factor behind Earth’s uniqueness.
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In the iconic opening of 2001: A Space Odyssey, the first tool is presented as a club, used not only for hunting prey but also in the dramatic leap through time. This perspective suggests that the earliest tools served primarily as weapons.
This interpretation also extends to early stone tools. Round stones were employed for striking, while sharper stones were utilized for cutting and penetrating. We envision these primitive implements used for breaking, hunting, and lethal purposes.
Yet, early humans likely employed various tools crafted from other materials, particularly plant-based materials like wood, which, unfortunately, are less likely to be preserved. The Stone Age may well have also been the Vegetative Age (refer to Sophie Verdugo’s insightful 2024 article).
This opens up intriguing possibilities, particularly regarding the concept of containers. Imagine if the first tool was an object capable of carrying or storing valuable items.
As paleoanthropologist Mark Kissel from Appalachian State University notes, “Containers resolve a multitude of challenges,” emphasizing their critical role in early human existence. His team has developed an extensive database of prehistoric containers, encompassing hundreds of examples spanning over 100,000 years, though this likely represents only a small fraction of what once existed. “Containers were essential for humanity’s success,” Kissel asserts.
Exploring Prehistoric Containers
Compiling a comprehensive database of ancient containers is a daunting task. Kissel and his colleagues dedicated over a year to scouring scientific literature for examples, using a broad range of terminology to identify various types of containers, faced with the realization that they had to cease their efforts and recently published their findings in a study in the Journal of Human Archaeology on April 8th.
Determining what qualifies as a container posed another challenge. They opted for a wide definition: “Any object that functions as a container (holding contents and acting as a barrier) and can be transported by humans.”
This broader definition includes items not conventionally viewed as containers, such as spoons, which can also transport materials. Notably, examples of early lamps comprise small rock slabs with hollows to hold and burn animal fat. A renowned specimen from the Lascaux Caves in France is carved from red sandstone and features a handle.
Other containers might include hollow bones; for instance, tubes crafted from swan wing bones may have been utilized for needle transport. Similarly, robust ostrich eggs were likely employed in Africa for carrying water on lengthy journeys. Rock art raises further possibilities, depicting vessels and net-like objects found in Gennersdorf, Germany.
Fragment of Engraved Ostrich Eggshell Container from South Africa
Texier et al. 2013
The research team ultimately cataloged 793 mobile containers, exploring examples from the Pleistocene epoch, which spans 2.58 million years to 11,700 years ago; however, all findings seem to date back no further than 500,000 years.
Conventionally, archaeologists believed containers emerged in the last 10,000 years, closely tied to the agricultural revolution and the advent of pottery, attributed to the rise of agrarian societies that needed to store surplus food. Hunter-gatherer societies were thought to lack such surplus and mobility would render pots easily breakable.
However, Kissel argues this notion has largely been overturned, suggesting a more gradual and fragmented transition from prehistory to the Neolithic era. Evidence indicates that some indigenous Australian groups crafted pottery over 2,000 years ago; simultaneously, early gatherers in the Amazon, dating back 10,000 years, left pottery shards behind, with signs of ceramic production in China as early as 18,000 years ago.
This evolution implies a gradual development of containers over time. Kissel maintains, “It’s beneficial to observe containers along a spectrum.”
While container origins reach deep into our past, it’s worth noting that non-human primates like great apes do not utilize them; instead, they might use leaves as sponges to draw water. Kissel suggests this fundamental difference speaks volumes about human evolution.
The oldest container identified in their database is a bark tray or dish, unearthed at Kalambo Falls in Zambia, estimated to be between 400,000 to 500,000 years old. Kalambo Falls has showcased remarkably preserved wooden artifacts, including a structure potentially dating back 476,000 years. However, dating for the bark tray remains inconclusive.
This reveals a significant challenge Kissel’s team faced: numerous artifacts were excavated long ago, resulting in vital information obscured in outdated texts, often inaccessible online. The Kalambo Falls tray was excavated in the 1950s by archaeologist John Desmond Clarke, with minimal records available today.
Despite observable trends within the dataset, Kissel emphasizes they primarily reflect the archaeological record’s limitations rather than definitive prehistoric facts. Astonishingly, 87.8 percent of the identified containers were discovered in Europe, a statistic Kissel attributes to the extensive archaeological endeavors in that region rather than implying that Europe was the cradle for container innovation. Interestingly, the dataset’s oldest containers hail from Africa.
Furthermore, only two vessels in their records exceed 100,000 years old; nevertheless, Kissel posits that hominins likely employed containers far earlier than documented. Such artifacts may be undiscovered or have undergone degradation.
As Kissel puts it, a clearer understanding of how integral containers have been to human existence is emerging. In Europe, where archaeological research is robust, many examples persist despite conservation issues, indicating their necessity for human survival.
The Role of Containers in Human Evolution
One of Humanity’s Oldest Tools Remains in Use
Ron Giling/Alamy
Kissel theorizes that one of the initial applications of containers might have been for carrying infants in slings. Many anthropologists—especially women—have championed this concept for decades.
Great apes like chimpanzees typically carry their infants clinging to their bodies. However, as humans evolved with less body hair and an increased reliance on bipedal locomotion, baby carriers would have become essential for carrying helpless newborns. Millions of years ago, Australopithecus likely utilized slings, implying that even Lucy, a representative of Australopithecus afarensis, may have carried an infant snugly.
While these concepts are not groundbreaking, their prominence is gradually increasing, largely due to their early association with feminist interpretations of prehistory, which faced skepticism.
In 1976, anthropologists Nancy Tanner and Adrian Zillman posited that the earliest tools may have been baskets, utilized primarily by women for carrying food. Their work challenged the misconception of prehistoric male dominance, introducing a more nuanced portrait that included women’s contributions.
Mystery writer Ursula Le Guin influenced the narrative surrounding containers with her Carrier-Bag Theory of Fiction, emphasizing that without a vessel, food remains unattainable, and even the simplest container allows for preservation during adverse conditions.
Le Guin advocated for a reassessment of historical narratives, advocating narratives of community, nurturing, and environmental stewardship alongside tales of conflict. She asserted the necessity of fostering alternate narratives to enrich our understanding of humanity’s journey.
As this exploration unfolds, it’s important to track the data. There’s increasing evidence that humanity’s distinctiveness lies not only in intelligence, creativity, or aggression but in our capabilities for empathy and social connection. When isolated from one another, human beings face a notably higher risk of extinction due to the lack of cooperative networks.
Our survival as a species hinges on collaboration and sharing, as exemplified by the way one might offer a piece of their food stores to a friend in need using a homemade container.
Over the past century, the cranial structure of Japanese individuals has evolved significantly, resulting in rounder heads, narrower cheekbones, broader upper jaws, and thinner, more prominent noses.
Although variations outside Japan may exist, global trends suggest similar morphological changes are likely happening worldwide. Shiori Usui from the Chiba Prefectural Science Police Research Institute emphasizes that this is a natural progression as lifestyles modernize globally.
Scientists traditionally use measurements from human remains from the 19th and early 20th centuries to establish baseline comparisons for “modern” humans. Usui explains that today’s populations are generally taller and larger due to advancements in health, diet, and environmental factors, which may also provide insights into head shape changes.
To investigate these changes, researchers utilized CT scans to analyze skulls from 34 men and 22 women who died of natural causes between 1900 and 1920, with their remains donated to Kyoto University School of Medicine for research purposes. They also examined 29 men and 27 women who passed away between 2022 and 2024. Autopsy imaging is increasingly common in Japan, contributing to extensive “virtual skeleton collections,” notes Usui.
Using 3D skull images, researchers identified subtle yet consistent shifts over time. Notably, contemporary individuals are becoming more brachycephalic, as the oval-shaped skulls of the early 20th century are being replaced by rounder forms. While earlier hypotheses suggested these trends, CT scans revealed unexpected differences, including changes in cheekbone structure, nose shape, and forehead contour, which has become shorter and slightly concave over time.
Additionally, the mastoid process, located behind the ear, has increased in size and prominence. Usui emphasizes that these changes are too recent to be attributed to genetic evolution; rather, they likely result from lifestyle factors, such as improved childhood nutrition and the consumption of softer foods requiring less chewing.
Interestingly, the disparities between male and female skulls have intensified compared to a century ago, with male skulls exhibiting stronger brow ridges, larger mastoid areas, and more pronounced facial features than female skulls. “This finding was unexpected,” Usui admits. The team assumed that similar lifestyles between genders would diminish physical differences, leading them to anticipate more “androgynous” facial features, yet their analysis revealed increasing sexual dimorphism.
A recent 2024 US survey indicates that both men’s and women’s facial structures evolve similarly over time. However, a 2000 US study noted a contrasting trend, with head shapes becoming more oval than round, potentially due to earlier studies’ technical limitations, as well as significant changes in the ethnic makeup of the U.S. population due to immigration.
“We aspire to conduct more global research to comprehend how different populations uniquely adapt to rapid environmental modernization,” Usui adds.
Francesco Capello from the University of Palermo highlights that even relatively recent human populations are not fixed; they continue to evolve. “This invites crucial questions regarding the interplay between genetics and environment, especially for traits like bone structure that were once considered stable,” he notes.
The findings underscore the need for scientists to reassess the criteria used for identifying human remains, says Kimberly Plomp from the University of the Philippines Diliman. “The significant changes in modern human skull morphology suggest that existing identification methods may no longer be as reliable as previously thought,” she warns. “This has vital implications for biology and forensic anthropology.”
New research reveals that a remarkable collection of over 700 Ediacaran fossils from the late Ediacaran period indicates that significant animal groups, including the early ancestors of vertebrates, began diversifying millions of years earlier than previously believed.
Restoration of the Egawa biota. Image credit: Xiaodong Wang.
The Ediacaran-Cambrian transition marked one of the most crucial turning points in Earth’s biological history.
However, the fossil evidence presents a fragmented view of this significant change, as Ediacaran biological communities are quite different from those of the Cambrian, leaving key moments of evolution elusive.
Dr. Gaorong Li from the University of Oxford states, “Our findings bridge a critical gap in the narrative of early animal diversification.”
“For the first time, we show that complex organisms typically associated with the Cambrian existed during the Ediacaran, indicating they evolved much earlier than fossil records previously suggested.”
In their study, Li and colleagues analyzed over 700 specimens from recently identified fossils in Yunnan province, China.
This fossil group, dating back 554 to 539 million years, is part of the intriguing Egawa biota.
Unlike many Ediacaran fossil sites that predominantly showcase traces of life on sandstone, these fossils are preserved as carbonaceous membranes, mirroring preservation styles found in renowned Cambrian sites like Canada’s Burgess Shale.
Dr. Luke Parry from the University of Oxford commented, “This groundbreaking discovery offers insight into a transitional phase in biological communities. The unique characteristics of Ediacaran life paved the way for the recognizable groups we categorize today.”
“Upon first examining these specimens, we recognized their uniqueness and the unexpected nature of our findings.”
The fossil group includes some of the earliest known relatives of deuterostomes, a category which now encompasses humans and vertebrates such as fish.
Among the specimens are ancestors of modern starfish alongside their close relative, the acorn worm (Ambulacraria), characterized by a U-shaped body attached to the seafloor with a stalk and tentacles for food capture.
Dr. Frankie Dunn from the University of Oxford noted, “It’s captivating that such exotic organisms thrived during the Ediacaran period.”
“We’ve discovered fossils that are distant relatives of starfish and sea cucumbers, and the search for more continues.”
The bicephalic fossils from the Egawa biota suggest that chordates (animals with backbones) also existed during this period.
Other noteworthy discoveries among the fossils include worm-like bilateral animals featuring complex feeding adaptations, as well as rare specimens believed to be early comb jellies.
Many specimens display unique anatomical features that do not correspond to any known Ediacaran or Cambrian species.
Dr. Ross Anderson from the University of Oxford stated, “Our findings suggest that the apparent scarcity of these complex faunas in other Ediacaran sites may highlight preservation discrepancies rather than an actual lack of diversity.”
“Carbonaceous compactions like those found in Egawa are uncommon in rocks of this age, indicating that similar communities may remain unpreserved elsewhere.”
For more on this pivotal discovery, refer to the research paper published in Science.
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Gaorong Li et al. 2026. Dawn of the Phanerozoic: The late Ediacaran transitional fauna of southwestern China. Science 392 (6793): 63-68; doi: 10.1126/science.adu2291
Exciting new findings reveal that the star SDSS J0715-7334, formed in the halo of the Large Magellanic Cloud, migrated to the Milky Way billions of years ago, as uncovered by a dedicated team of undergraduate students at the University of Chicago.
Milky Way Galaxy illustrating the position of SDSS J0715-7334. The red line represents the star’s path, while the blue line indicates the expected trajectory for stars formed in the Large Magellanic Cloud. Image credits: Vedant Chandra / SDSS Collaboration / ESA / Gaia / A. Moitinho, AF Silva, M. Barros, C. Barata, University of Lisbon / H. Savietto, Fork Research.
The Big Bang initiated the universe, creating a hot, dense soup of energetic particles.
As the universe expanded, this primordial material cooled, leading to the formation of neutral hydrogen gas.
Denser regions of this gas collapsed under gravity after hundreds of millions of years, resulting in the birth of the universe’s first stars made of hydrogen and helium.
These ancient stars burned brightly but lived fast, generating heavier elements through nuclear fusion, which were dispersed into the cosmos upon their explosive deaths.
This enriched material then contributed to the formation of subsequent stars that were diverse in their elemental composition.
“Heavy elements, referred to as metals by astronomers, were produced through stellar activities, including nuclear fusion and supernova blasts,” noted Alex Gee, a professor at the University of Chicago.
“The discovery of a star with extremely low metal content indicated to the students that they had found something extraordinary.”
SDSS J0715-7334 is remarkable, containing only 0.005% of the metal content found in our Sun, making it the least metallic star ever recorded, surpassing the previous record holder by over double.
This star, identified using data from the Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS), is located approximately 80,000 light-years from Earth.
Its orbital analysis confirms its origin in the Large Magellanic Cloud, from where it journeyed into the Milky Way billions of years ago.
“This ancient celestial traveler provides invaluable insights into the conditions of the early universe,” said Professor Gee.
“Big data initiatives like SDSS empower students to take part in groundbreaking discoveries.”
“We studied a variety of elements within this star, and we found all of them to have very low abundances,” explained Ha Do, one of the University of Chicago students involved in the discovery.
The team’s research paper is published in the journal Nature Astronomy.
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AP via others. A near-primitive star from the Large Magellanic Cloud. Nat Astron published online on April 3, 2026. doi: 10.1038/s41550-026-02816-7
An artist’s reconstruction of an ancient marine ecosystem preserved in the Jiangchuan biota.
Wang Xiaodong
Recent discoveries of a vast array of exquisitely preserved fossils in China have led to new insights regarding the Cambrian Explosion, which is traditionally viewed as a rapid evolutionary event marking the emergence of complex life.
Spanning roughly 541 to 513 million years ago, the Cambrian Explosion is regarded as the period when most modern animal groups first appeared, alongside various now-extinct evolutionary experiments.
Previously, during the Ediacaran period, life was believed to be simpler. However, findings from a new fossil site in Yunnan, known as the Jiangchuan biota, challenge this view, presenting over 700 fossils dating back to 554 to 537 million years ago.
“Our findings indicate that Cambrian-like faunal assemblages did not appear out of nowhere but had a clear foundation and transitional morphology by the end of the Ediacaran,” states Gaorong Li, the lead researcher from Yunnan University, Kunming, China.
Ross Anderson, another team member and professor at the University of Oxford, noted that the surprisingly intricate nature of the fossils raises intriguing questions about whether the Cambrian explosion was a gradual process.
“We are beginning to construct a more complex understanding of the origins and timing of the explosion in animal diversity,” Anderson explains.
When Lee initiated investigations at the site in mid-2022, he anticipated finding algae.
Instead, researchers uncovered a variety of organisms called bilaterians, characterized by bilateral symmetry. Only a limited number of such specimens had previously been found during the Ediacaran; among these are two new species of deuterostomes, a key group that includes vertebrates, suggesting that this group was already diverse long before the Cambrian.
Cambroelnid fossil from the Jiangchuan biota and artist’s reconstruction.
Li Gaolong & Wang Xiaodong
Some fossils were identified as Cambroelniids, featuring coiled bodies and long, tentacle-like appendages not previously documented before the Cambrian period. Others closely resemble Cambrian creatures such as Margaretia, which resembles a tubular structure with an opening, creating the appearance of an organism living within a ventilation pipe, according to Lee.
Lee noted that the most common fossils discovered were animals with tubular appendages anchored to the seafloor, extending outward in search of sustenance—some reminiscent of sandworms depicted in the sci-fi series Dune.
“This indicates that these animals lived attached to the ocean floor while extending structures for foraging,” Lee explained. “Additionally, a species resembling a sausage-shaped worm with a short, thick, curved body displayed clear locomotion.”
Ultimately, these peculiar yet familiar organisms may represent “evolutionary experiments” from a period when life was exploring various body designs and ecological strategies.
“Although these creatures exhibit key features found in modern animals, like a mouth, intestine, proboscis, and pharynx, their structural arrangements differ considerably from those of contemporary animals,” Lee remarked. “In essence, their overall morphology is unusual, yet they possess fundamental biological modules common to modern fauna.”
Joe Moishuk from the Manitoba Museum states that the sudden appearance of numerous animal body plans in the early Cambrian fossil record has posed a longstanding dilemma for paleontologists.
“Strong evidence suggests that their ancestral forms should have been identified earlier, in the Ediacaran, while indications of this lineage have been accumulating over recent decades,” Moisiuk notes.
“Although the specimens are somewhat poorly preserved and missing certain details, several distinctly animal-like forms emerge.”
These fossils imply the existence of certain animal groups prior to the Cambrian; however, they do not contradict the occurrence of a Cambrian explosion, he asserts.
“Instead, the divergence of animal body plans likely unfolded over approximately 30 million years across the Ediacaran-Cambrian boundary, providing a clearer temporal constraint on the genesis of this evolutionary radiation.”
Han Zeng, a professor at the Chinese Academy of Sciences not involved in the study, underscored that finding complex animal fossils in pre-Cambrian sediments would signify a major advancement in paleontology.
“Over recent decades, a diverse array of carbonaceous fossils has emerged from similarly dated Late Precambrian shales in southern China. While most have been classified as algae or cyanobacteria, other specimens possess ambiguous animal characteristics,” Zeng elaborates. “Future research is crucial to clarify the biological relationships of these fossils. Should they prove to be animals, they could drastically alter our understanding of early animal evolution.”
Dinosaur Hunting in Mongolia’s Gobi Desert
Join an exciting expedition to uncover dinosaur remnants in the expansive wilderness of the Gobi Desert, renowned as one of the world’s premier paleontology hotspots.
Paleontologists have recently uncovered a groundbreaking genus and species of fossil monkey known as Maslipithecus mograensis, which inhabited northern Egypt approximately 17 to 18 million years ago. This discovery challenges previous notions, indicating that the evolutionary ancestors of modern apes and humans may have emerged at the intersection of Africa and Eurasia, rather than in East Africa.
Reconstruction of the life of Maslipithecus mograensis. Image credit: Mauricio Anton.
The current consensus among scientists is that the earliest great apes, known as pedunculated hominids, originated in the Africa-Arabia region during the Oligocene epoch over 25 million years ago. These species diversified and migrated into Eurasia by the Miocene epoch, approximately 14 to 16 million years ago.
However, the origin of modern apes, encompassing all existing species and their last common ancestor, remains elusive due to the scarcity and wide dispersion of relevant fossils from this period.
This uncertainty is compounded by the fragmented fossil record in Africa, where significant discoveries are predominantly localized to a few areas, leaving numerous potential ancient habitats of Miocene apes unexplored.
“Historically, the early Miocene fossil record documenting the evolution of hominids was mainly derived from sites in East Africa, with only long-tailed macaque fossils identified in contemporary North African locations,” stated Showrouk al-Ashkar, a paleontologist from Mansoura University, along with collaborating researchers from Egypt and the United States.
The newly discovered fossil, which dates back to 17 to 18 million years ago, was found in the Wadi Mogra region of northern Egypt.
Named Maslipithecus mograensis, this species significantly enhances our comprehension of the diversity and evolution of early apes during a crucial period when Afro-Arabia began to connect with Eurasia, facilitating the species’ dispersal from Africa.
“Although the fossil remains consist mainly of the lower jaw, they exhibit a unique combination of features not found in other known apes from this era,” the research team reported.
“These features include notably large canines and premolars, molars characterized by rounded and finely textured chewing surfaces, and exceptionally robust jaws,” they continued.
“Collectively, these traits indicate that Maslipithecus mograensis was adapted for dietary versatility,” they added.
Researchers interpreted the masticatory anatomy of this species as indicative of a flexible diet, largely comprising fruits, but capable of processing harder food items like nuts and seeds when necessary.
To ascertain the position of Maslipithecus mograensis within the human evolutionary lineage, scientists employed a modern Bayesian “advanced dating” method, combining both anatomical features and fossil ages to estimate evolutionary relationships and divergence times.
The findings imply that this new species represents a stem hominin closely linked to the lineage that ultimately led to all modern apes.
This discovery reinforces the hypothesis that the origins of modern apes may lie within northern Afro-Arabia, the Levant, or the eastern Mediterranean.
“We dedicated five years to searching for fossils of this nature, as an in-depth examination of the early ape family tree revealed significant gaps, with North Africa serving as that missing piece,” remarked Hesham Salam, a paleontologist at Mansoura University.
Shoruk F. Al Ashkar et al. 2026. An early Miocene ape living at the biogeographic crossroads of African and Eurasian hominids. Science 391 (6792): 1383-1386; doi: 10.1126/science.adz4102
“Richard Dawkins brilliantly made us think in terms of genes”: Rereading “The Selfish Gene”
In 1976, Richard Dawkins published a groundbreaking book titled after the compelling concept of the selfish gene, which he conceived while teaching animal behavior to his doctoral supervisor. This metaphor became a worldwide bestseller and remains one of the most significant works on evolution.
Fifty years later, the selfish gene continues to resonate, revealing the power of genetic selfishness as a compelling meme—an idea Dawkins introduced in the book. This perspective allows readers to understand evolutionary processes more intuitively, helping to explain behaviors ranging from blood-sharing among vampire bats to the mimicry of bees by orchids.
When Charles Darwin formulated his theory of natural selection, he emphasized that individuals compete for resources, acting primarily in their own interests. However, this theory doesn’t always apply, particularly in the case of social insects like worker bees that sacrifice their reproduction for the queen’s benefit. Darwin addressed this by proposing that in these species, families function as single entities, reflecting a self-interested behavior in a broader sense.
By the mid-20th century, a renewed focus on the synthesis of evolutionary biology and genetics provided mathematical explanations for evolution through genetic variation. Influential biologists George Williams and W.D. Hamilton explained altruistic behaviors through genetic adaptations, demonstrating that worker ants contribute to their mother’s reproductive success as a means of ensuring the continuation of their genes.
Dawkins’s work brilliantly illustrated complex mathematical concepts in an accessible manner, moving beyond earlier notions that evolution was simply about species survival. His insights laid the groundwork for a more comprehensive understanding of biological processes and genetics.
Critics argue that Dawkins merely popularized existing theories; however, selfish gene played a crucial role as a touchstone for biological concepts that have influenced both scientists and the public. Some claim that his insights on gene function simplify the complexities of biology; genes work within an intricate system involving various cellular components.
One major concern is that the book promotes genetic determinism—the idea that our behaviors are entirely governed by our genes. We may encounter similar misconceptions with the oversimplifications presented by the Human Genome Project, suggesting there are genes responsible for everything from intelligence to disease susceptibility.
It is worth noting that while Dawkins emphasized genetic selfishness, he also acknowledged the critical roles of cooperation and symbiosis. Although the metaphor of selfishness remains powerful, it may overshadow these important concepts.
Despite criticisms, Dawkins’s ability to depict animal behavior from a genetic lens has significantly influenced the scientific community and the public’s understanding. His background as an ethologist, studying the evolutionary basis of animal behavior, inspired many, including myself, to pursue careers in this field. This enduring relevance underscores the continued impact of his metaphor, even in the face of some outdated ideas.
Discover PicII-503: A Protostar in the Ancient Pictor II Dwarf Galaxy
This striking image of PicII-503 highlights a second-generation star with the lowest iron content ever recorded outside our Milky Way galaxy. Image credits: CTIO / NOIRLab / DOE / NSF / AURA / University of Alaska Anchorage TA Chancellor and NSF NOIRLab / M. Zamani and D. de Martin, NSF NOIRLab / Anirudh Chiti / Alex Drlica-Wagner.
“This marks the first definitive detection of element formation in protogalaxies,” stated Dr. Aniru Chitty, a postdoctoral researcher at the University of Chicago, now at Stanford University.
“This discovery fills a crucial gap in understanding the origin of elements during the universe’s formative years.”
In the primordial epochs following the Big Bang, the cosmos was relatively simple, comprised almost entirely of hydrogen, helium, and lithium, giving rise to giant stars primarily formed by these elements.
More complex elements, like calcium and gold, were scarce since they had to be synthesized within stars themselves.
At the cores of these massive stars, nuclear fusion processes created increasingly heavier elements.
When these stars eventually exploded, they contributed to the formation of new stars, perpetuating this cycle until a diverse array of elements emerged, forming the universe we know today.
“To track elemental formation, we must search for stars with minimal heavy elements, as these accumulate over time,” explained University of Chicago astronomer Alexander Gee.
Using the Magellan Telescope at Las Campanas Observatory and ESO’s Very Large Telescope, astronomers identified a significant candidate star within the ultrafaint dwarf galaxy Pictor II.
This star, identified as PicIII-503, exhibits a remarkable structure, with an iron content approximately 1/100,000 times lower than that of our Sun.
This extraordinary finding not only generates excitement but also offers insights into the enigmatic origins of these early stars.
Consequently, since PicIII-503 remains within its original protogalaxy, astronomers have uncovered vital information regarding its formation theory, particularly related to the star’s explosive death.
“Upon the demise of a massive star, it possesses an ‘onion-skin’ structure: lighter elements like carbon reside in outer layers while heavier elements are found inside,” Gee noted.
“A weak explosion may only eject the outer layers, allowing the heavier inner materials to coalesce with neighboring gas and dust, which can form future generations of stars.”
“However, a vigorous explosion could propel these materials far beyond the small galaxies that existed during that era,” he added.
This exciting discovery provides context for the abundance of carbon-rich stars observed in our Milky Way, illuminating their origin, Dr. Chitty emphasized.
For more on the discovery of PicIII-503, refer to the research paper published in Nature Astronomy.
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A. Chitty et al. Enrichment by the first stars of relic dwarf galaxies. Nat Astron published online on March 16, 2026. doi: 10.1038/s41550-026-02802-z
Illustration of Australopithecus sediba carrying a toddler
John Bavaro Fine Art/Science Photo Library
Childbirth posed significant challenges for our ape-like ancestors, similar to the risks women face today. Recent findings on the pelvis of Australopithecus indicate that childbirth exerted substantial forces on the pelvic floor, increasing the risk of perineal lacerations.
“Our research shows that Australopithecines closely resemble modern humans,” shares Pierre Fremondier, a midwife at the University of Aix-Marseille, France. “With multiple births, women likely faced a heightened risk of pelvic floor disorders.”
In modern human biology, vaginal delivery necessitates considerable force to navigate a baby’s large head through a relatively narrow pelvis. The pelvic floor, which connects the left and right sides of the pelvis, is often vulnerable, resulting in injuries during childbirth. Estimates suggest that 1 in 4 women experience pelvic floor disorders, including incontinence and organ prolapse.
Frémondier and his team aimed to understand if our extinct ancestors encountered similar childbirth challenges. Their focus was on Australopithecus, which inhabited Africa between 2 to 4 million years ago. These early humans, although bipedal, maintained adaptations for arboreal life and were likely tool users, potentially leading down the lineage of the Homo genus, to which modern humans belong.
From the limited fossil record, particularly the pelvis, researchers deduced that the birth canal of Australopithecus was oval—broad side-to-side yet narrow front-to-back. In contrast, modern humans exhibit a more circular shape, while nonhuman primates like chimpanzees possess an opposite configuration.
To explore the birthing dynamics of Australopithecus, the team generated simulations using pelvis models from three different species: Australopithecus afarensis, Australopithecus africanus, and Australopithecus sediba. To accurately model pelvic floor muscles, they scanned pregnant women’s MRI images, creating a three-dimensional representation adapted to the Australopithecus pelvis. This model simulated the birthing process and estimated the forces exerted on the pelvic floor.
The analysis revealed that the pelvic floor of Australopithecus experienced forces ranging from 4.9 to 10.7 MPa, comparable to the 5.3 to 10.5 MPa observed in modern human childbirth.
The research team successfully leveraged various features of the Australopithecus pelvis to refine their models, correlating findings with live human birth data, according to Leah Betti from University College London. “This methodology ensures the model is robust.”
However, caution remains regarding the outcomes. Betti notes that the pelvic floor structure of Australopithecus may differ from modern humans, impacting their resistance to tearing. Additionally, simulations with two modern births revealed one scenario where the baby did not engage in typical canal rotation, indicating a vital missing factor in the simulations.
“The evidence we have is limited,” states Betti. With only three pelvis samples from different Australopithecus species, the dataset is considered small. The specifics of early human pelvic structures remain largely unknown.
“We’re just beginning to explore this area of research,” concludes Fremondier.
Discovery Tour: Archeology, Human Origins, and Paleontology
New Scientist frequently explores extraordinary sites globally that reshape our understanding of species and early civilizations. Join us in this exploration!
The Advent of Agriculture and Evolutionary Pressures on Humans
Christian Jegou/Science Photo Library
The comprehensive analysis of ancient genomes has revealed significant insights into human evolution over the last 10,000 years. This research indicates that various populations worldwide have experienced similar evolutionary changes, particularly following the introduction of agriculture.
“Similar traits and genes are being selected in diverse populations,” says Laura Colbran from the University of Pennsylvania.
Evolution happens when genetic variation becomes prevalent in a population—often because it confers an advantage. By comparing genomes, we can identify recent signs of human evolution.
Colbran notes that ancient DNA is exceptionally valuable for this research, stating, “Using ancient genomes allows us to witness genetic history directly, as opposed to relying solely on inferential methods.”
Much of the recent research has primarily focused on European genomes, but Colbran’s team leveraged an increasing collection of genomes from outside Europe, analyzing over 7,000 ancient and contemporary genomes. Ancient genomes mainly originate from the last 10,000 years, while modern genomes are derived from living populations.
The research team utilized ancient genomes to predict possible modern genetic profiles without evolutionary influence, highlighting differences known as selection signals. They identified 31 selection signals, many of which were shared among varied populations, likely due to the independent rise of agriculture around the same era globally.
For instance, less than 25% of ancient individuals possessed the FADS1 gene, which encodes an enzyme that aids in converting short-chain fatty acids (common in plants) into long-chain fatty acids (predominant in meats). Increased production of this enzyme is thought to benefit individuals who adopt a plant-heavy diet. Currently, over 75% of people in Europe, Japan, and northern China carry advantageous FADS1 variants. The strength of selection for this gene has remained stable over the last 300 generations in Europe while intensifying in East Asia over the last century.
The genes impacting the alcohol dehydrogenase 1B enzyme, encoded by ADH1B, have also been critically analyzed. Variants of ADH1B are prevalent in East Asia and are associated with quick alcohol metabolism, leading to symptoms like facial flushing. Colbran stated, “This showcases the strongest selection signal we’ve observed in East Asia,” suggesting that this variant was favored to curb excessive alcohol consumption.
Even though this variant was absent in ancient Europeans, strong selection signals related to the ADH1B enzyme were identified. Colbran emphasized the need for further investigation to discern the involved variants and their specific impacts, indicating a likely adaptation to evolving alcohol consumption patterns.
The research team also explored traits influenced by multiple genetic variations, such as waist-to-hip ratios, often correlated with fertility. Surprisingly, they found a robust selection process stabilizing women’s waist-to-hip ratios within certain limits. “This is intriguing as it suggests a stabilization of selection,” Colbran remarked, emphasizing that while waist-to-hip ratios can differ across various populations, the ideal measurement likely exists in a balanced range.
As noted by Alexander Gusev at Harvard University, this study is remarkable for its analysis of ancient DNA that has yet to be thoroughly examined. Gusev explained, “The authors found enriched variants being selected within one population compared to others, indicating parallel selection across populations, previously hypothesized but not empirically demonstrated.”
Yashin Souilumi, from the University of Adelaide, emphasized that their novel approach reveals regions of the genome newly identified as subject to selection, complementing previously known areas. “Their innovative method optimally utilizes the vast amounts of available ancient DNA,” Souilumi stated.
Colbran concluded that these findings are merely the initial discoveries. As more non-European genomes are sequenced, we will uncover even more evidence of recent human evolution.
Discovery Tour: Archaeology, Human Origins, and Paleontology
New Scientist frequently covers extraordinary archaeological sites that reshape our understanding of human evolution and early civilizations. Join us on this fascinating journey!
Discover the fascinating skeleton of the Alvarezauroid dinosaur species Arunachetri seropolisiensis. This groundbreaking find includes two specimens from Patagonia, Argentina, along with two from the Northern Hemisphere, providing insights into how this enigmatic lineage of theropod dinosaurs evolved and dispersed before the separation of continents, challenging established beliefs regarding its origins.
Arunachetri seropolisiensis. Image credit: Gabriel Díaz Yanten, Universidad Nacional de Rio Negro.
Learn more about Arunachetri seropolisiensis, which thrived in Argentina during the Cenomanian period of the Late Cretaceous, approximately 90 million years ago.
This species was initially described from partial remains in 2012 and is categorized under Alvarez Sauroidea.
These unique small dinosaurs are noted for their tiny teeth and short arms, each ending in a prominent thumb claw.
“The Alvarezauroidea represents a mysterious clade of mainly small theropod dinosaurs, primarily found in the Jurassic to Cretaceous periods of Asia and South America,” states paleontologist Peter Makowiecki from the University of Minnesota, Twin Cities, along with his research team.
“Late Cretaceous Alvarezauroids are believed to have been carnivorous, primarily consuming ants, and possessing specialized forelimbs suitable for digging, microscopic supernumerary teeth, and heightened sensory abilities.”
“They are thought to have undergone evolutionary miniaturization alongside dietary specialization.”
The almost complete skeleton of Arunachetri seropolisiensis was discovered in the La Buitrera fossil site in Rio Negro, northern Patagonia.
Microscopic examination confirmed that this specimen was an adult, estimated to be at least four years old.
Weighing less than 0.9 kg (2 lb), it ranks as one of the smallest-known dinosaurs from South America.
In contrast to its later relatives, Arunachetri seropolisiensis featured longer arms and larger teeth.
Paleontologists conclude this indicates that some alvaresaurids transitioned into smaller forms well before they developed adaptations for an ant-based diet.
Researchers, by analyzing previously discovered alvaresaurid fossils housed in museums across North America and Europe, further demonstrate that these dinosaurs originated earlier than previously presumed, existing during the period when the continents were still part of the supercontinent Pangaea.
Their distribution appears to have resulted from the fragmentation of Earth’s landmass, making ocean crossings unlikely.
“Our biogeographical study suggests a Pangean ancestral distribution for Alvarezsauroroidea, indicating that the clade’s early history was primarily influenced by surrogates,” the scientists remarked.
Read their groundbreaking research in the paper published in Nature.
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PJ Makowiecki et al.. Discovery in Argentina reshapes the evolutionary narrative of a fascinating dinosaur clade. Nature published online on February 25, 2026. doi: 10.1038/s41586-026-10194-3
Most everyone has tales of lost love or romantic rejection, and psychologist Paul Eastwick is no exception. As an undergraduate at the turn of the millennium, he fell for a student named Anna—a stunning, tall aspiring poet fluent in Russian. While he may have seen himself as more of a “6” to her “9,” they did spend some time together before he was “friend-zoned,” and ultimately she pursued relationships elsewhere.
Eastwick, who has coined a term “EvoScript” to describe a prevalent view in the dating world, explains that rejection often seems inevitable. In this “marketplace” of dating, individuals possess unique “mate values” based on various factors like looks, intelligence, and social status, selectively pairing with the highest-value partners for the best possible offspring. He notes, however, that navigating this marketplace often leads to a hierarchy of potential partners. Reflecting on his findings, he emphasizes, “Either find your place and stay put, or run wild like Icarus,” his observations now part of his role as a psychology professor at the University of California, Davis.
While Eastwick’s theory rests on psychological literature, it has become widely accepted in popular culture. In his informative new book, Bonds through Evolution: What We Get Wrong About Love and Connection, he refutes this narrative, asserting that it is fundamentally flawed.
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Passion tends to fade merely weeks after potential romantic partners connect “
Many experiments supporting EvoScript evaluated mate value based on participants rating images of unfamiliar individuals. In these instant assessments, people often agree on attraction, suggesting an innate ranking based on genetic traits. However, this approach disregards the reality that first impressions can easily diminish after personal interaction. Although such studies require time and effort, Eastwick and his team demonstrated that as people genuinely connect, the perceptions of their mate value rapidly shift.
In essence, supposed mate value can be fleeting. As Eastwick summarizes, “Even if I find you attractive, there’s only a 53% chance that others will concur.” This could be disheartening news for those who consider themselves physically appealing. He continues by stating that “Potential romantic partners seem to lose their allure just weeks following their meeting.”
Eastwick proposes that compatibility ultimately plays a crucial role in determining who we love, albeit challenging to foresee. Although individuals can readily articulate preferences—such as being drawn to extroverted or adventurous people—his research indicates these traits have minimal impact on actual relationship choices. Intriguingly, we are more likely to be content with partners exhibiting three unrelated traits: being friendly, intelligent, and successful. “What truly counts,” he notes, “is not matching a worn-out checklist, but rather the feelings stirred within you,” which are fostered through chaotic conversations.
Similarly, Justin Garcia, executive director at the Kinsey Institute, reaches a comparable conclusion in his recent publication, Intimate Animals. Although Garcia employs the market-based vocabulary Eastwick challenges, he acknowledges that first impressions surrounding dating abilities can mislead. “We quickly judge partnerships appearing mismatched at first sight, yet the overall value of each partner is considerably more intricate than we assume,” he argues.
Both authors highlight the significance of “self-aggrandizement” in intimate relationships. Garcia emphasizes that personal growth, new experiences, and fresh viewpoints often prove attractive in partnerships.
These insights resonate with both seasoned and novice daters. While online dating has broadened the pool of potential partners, choices often stem from superficial evaluations that evolve once mutual acquaintance deepens. Consequently, many face disappointments prior to finding “the one” (or at least “the right one”).
Considering compatibility’s importance, Eastwick suggests giving most individuals at least three chances before forming a judgment about whether to continue dating. He states, “Third impressions generally offer a more reliable predictor than much of the currently tested information.” He also encourages creative encounters beyond traditional settings like dinners or drinks, urging couples to explore diverse activities such as roller skating, karaoke, or chocolate tastings as a means of assessing compatibility.
Continuing to nurture real-life friendships is equally important. Evidence shows that we are significantly more inclined to find love with someone we are familiar with rather than a total stranger. Social connections, at the very least, can yield numerous advantages, enhancing both physical and mental wellness.
For these reasons, Eastwick recommends maintaining a positive relationship with dating partners. Reflecting on his experiences with Anna, he realized that platonic relationships are indeed attainable. After a difficult period, his emotions for her faded, paving the way for friendship and an expanded social circle. “The joy of broadening your connections is incredibly fulfilling, and Anna appreciated that,” he concluded. It appears that the friend zone may not be such a negative space after all.
After numerous books advocating cynical strategies for “playing” the dating game, it’s refreshing to encounter two works that present evidence-based optimism regarding our chances of discovering love that resonates with our true selves. Embrace opportunities to connect with others, remain honest and respectful, and observe how feelings evolve. It’s straightforward, yet these simple strategies might just elevate your love life.
David Robson is the author of The Laws of Connection: 13 Social Strategies that Will Change Your Life.
3 Essential Reads on Relationships
Find Love: Navigating modern relationships and discovering your ideal partner by Paul C. Brunson
Is it increasingly challenging to find romance in the 21st century? Tinder’s scientific advisor elaborates on evolving ideals and highlights common pitfalls in our search for love.
This book provides evidence-based techniques for fostering mutual growth in long-term relationships, including strategies for enhancing communication and tackling inevitable challenges.
Single at Heart: Embracing the power, freedom, and joy of single living by Bella DePaolo
Society often emphasizes the need to pair up; however, as social psychologist DePaolo illustrates, an increasing number of individuals find joy in singlehood. This myth-busting exploration stands as a counter to the frenzy surrounding Valentine’s Day.
New research reveals that burn injuries have significantly influenced the rapid evolution of humans.
Scientists from Imperial College London assert that our close relationship with fire has made our ancestors more resilient to burn injuries compared to other animals. This ongoing exposure to fire may have fundamentally shaped our wound healing processes and immune responses, leaving an indelible impact on our genetic makeup.
Study author Professor Armand Leroy, an evolutionary biologist at Imperial’s School of Life Sciences, states, “The concept of burn selection introduces a novel form of natural selection that is influenced by cultural factors.” He emphasizes, “This adds a new dimension to the narrative of what defines humanity, something we were previously unaware of.”
While minor burns typically heal swiftly, severe burns that take longer to mend can permit bacterial invasion, escalating the risk of infection.
Researchers hypothesize that these challenges prompted crucial genetic adaptations, leading evolution to favor traits that enhance survival after burn injuries. For instance, this includes accelerated inflammation responses and enhanced wound closure mechanisms.
Published in the journal BioEssays, the study contrasts human genomic data with that of other primates. Findings indicate that genes related to burn and wound healing exhibit accelerated evolution in humans, with increased mutations observed in these genes. These evolutionary changes are believed to have resulted in a thicker dermal layer of human skin and deeper placement of hair follicles and sweat glands.
However, the study suggests a trade-off; while amplified inflammation is beneficial for healing minor to moderate burns, it can exacerbate damage in cases of severe burns. More specifically, extreme inflammation from serious burns can lead to scarring and, in some instances, organ failure.
This research may shed light on why some individuals heal effectively while others struggle after burn-related injuries, potentially enhancing treatment methodologies for burns and scars.
According to Prince Kyei Baffour, a burn specialist and lecturer at Leeds Beckett University who was not part of the study, “This field remains underexplored and represents a burgeoning area of research regarding burn injury responses.” BBC Science Focus.
Baffour recommends further investigations into various forms of fire exposure, including smoke inhalation.
Ornithologists at the Cornell Lab of Ornithology have unveiled the most comprehensive evolutionary tree of birds to date. This groundbreaking research reveals unexpected relationships and serves as a fascinating illustration for bird enthusiasts. Explore the World Bird Lineage Explorer, where you can track lineage and evolutionary milestones.
European bee-eater (Merops apiaster). Image credit: Rashuli / CC BY 2.0.
Understanding the phylogeny of birds is crucial for advancing bird research.
With over 11,000 bird species worldwide, consolidating phylogenetic trees into a singular, updated resource has posed significant challenges for ornithologists.
The Birds of the World Phylogeny Explorer directly addresses these challenges, remaining current with the latest scientific discoveries.
“This tool combines centuries of avian research with advanced computational tools, creating a captivating interactive resource that narrates the story of bird evolution,” stated Dr. Elliott Miller, a researcher with the American Bird Conservancy.
“New evolutionary relationships are constantly being discovered. We release annual updates to our phylogenetic tools, ensuring our datasets align with the latest taxonomy,” he added.
“This tool holds immense value for the scientific community,” remarked Dr. Pam Rasmussen from the Cornell Lab of Ornithology.
“The complete tree of bird life, built on cutting-edge phylogenetic research, is now a downloadable, interactive dataset from Birds of the World, encouraging further inquiry and exploration.”
“This evolutionary tree provides crucial insights into how evolutionary history has shaped traits such as beak shape, wing length, foraging behaviors, and habitat preferences in birds.”
“Bird lovers will appreciate the personalized features of the Birds of the World Phylogeny Explorer,” Dr. Marshall Iliff noted, also from the Cornell Lab of Ornithology.
“By logging into the platform, birders can visualize the diversity of their eBird species list, diving deep into bird history across orders, families, and genera, thus revealing noteworthy evolutionary patterns.”
“For birdwatchers, their lifetime list transforms into a personal journey through evolutionary history, highlighting how each species fits into the broader narrative of avian evolution.”
“Users are sure to encounter surprising revelations. For instance, why does the North American woodpecker closely resemble other woodpeckers yet belong to a different lineage?”
“Or why are peregrine falcons fierce hunters like hawks and eagles, even though they originate from a separate branch of the family tree?”
“Solving these taxonomic enigmas can become a lifelong pursuit for anyone deeply passionate about birds.”
Octopuses in shallow waters, such as the common octopus, typically possess larger brains.
Image Credit: Shutterstock
Research suggests that the large brains of octopuses are influenced more by environmental conditions than by social interactions.
It is widely accepted that larger mammalian brains correlate with social behavior, a theory known as the social brain hypothesis. The premise is that the more social connections a species has, the larger their brains must be to handle those interactions. This trend is evident among primates, dolphins, and camelids.
In contrast, cephalopods—like octopuses, cuttlefish, and nautiluses—exhibit significant intelligence despite mostly living solitary lives, with limited parental care and minimal social learning.
To delve deeper into the reasons behind the substantial brain size of these creatures, Michael Muthukrishna and researchers from the London School of Economics analyzed data from 79 cephalopod species with available brain information. They quantified brain size based on the total volume of an animal’s central nervous system, considering that octopuses actually possess nine brains: one central brain and semi-independent brains in each of their eight arms.
“This species is a stark contrast to humans, showcasing unique appendages and behaviors,” Muthukrishna notes.
The findings revealed no direct correlation between brain size and sociability. However, they did uncover that cephalopods generally have larger brains when inhabiting shallow waters, where they encounter a wide array of objects to manipulate and use as tools, along with rich calorie availability. Conversely, species dwelling in featureless deep-sea environments tend to have smaller brains.
“The correlation is quite strong,” Muthukrishna states, “but it’s imperative to approach these findings cautiously,” as only about 10 percent of the existing 800 cephalopod species have brain data accessible.
“The absence of a social brain effect in octopuses is intriguing yet expected,” explains Robin Dunbar from Oxford University, who proposed the social brain hypothesis around three decades ago. He argues that because octopuses do not inhabit cohesive social groups, their brains lack the necessity to manage complex social dynamics.
Professor Paul Katz from the University of Massachusetts articulates the possibility that evolution may have led to smaller brain sizes each time cephalopods adapted to deep-sea environments. “It’s reminiscent of species dimensions reducing on isolated islands; the same could apply to species in the deep ocean,” he mentions.
Muthukrishna’s previous research proposed that brain size not only predicts the extent of social and cultural behaviors but also reflects ecological factors such as prey diversity. Thus, the parallel patterns between cephalopods, having diverged from vertebrates over 500 million years ago, and humans bolster the cultural brain hypothesis. According to Muthukrishna and colleagues, this hypothesis illustrates how ecological pressures and information acquisition lead to the development of larger, more complex brains.
“It’s not solely about social instincts when it comes to large brains,” Muthukrishna asserts.
“I wholeheartedly agree that exploring why humans possess large brains must be informed by our understanding of current species. However, unraveling the evolutionary history of large brains, particularly with cephalopods, is challenging, especially given the radically different predator-prey dynamics when their brains began evolving,” Katz explains.
Dunbar emphasizes that octopuses may require substantial brainpower for their independent-use of eight arms. “Understanding an octopus’s brain is complex due to its unique structure, but a significant part of its brain’s function is to manage its intricate body mechanics necessary for survival,” he states.
Furthermore, Dunbar notes that it is logical for larger brains to evolve in environments abundant in calories. “You can’t increase brain size without addressing energy consumption. Once you have a more substantial brain, its applications become vast, which is why humans can engage in writing, reading, and complex mathematics—skills not inherently present within our evolutionary contexts.”
A significant enigma in vertebrate evolution—why numerous major fish lineages appeared suddenly in the fossil record tens of millions of years post their presumed origins—has been linked to the Late Ordovician mass extinction (LOME). This insight comes from a recent analysis conducted by paleontologists at the Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology Graduate University. The study reveals that the LOME, occurring approximately 445 to 443 million years ago, instigated a parallel endemic radiation of jawed and jawless vertebrates (gnathostomes) within isolated refugia, ultimately reshaping the early narrative of fishes and their relatives.
Reconstruction of Sacabambaspis jamvieri, an armored jawless fish from the Ordovician period. Image credit: OIST Kaori Seragaki
Most vertebrate lineages initially documented in the mid-Paleozoic emerged significantly after the Cambrian origin and Ordovician invertebrate biodiversity. This temporal gap is often attributed to inadequate sampling and lengthy ghost lineages.
However, paleontologists Kazuhei Hagiwara and Lauren Saran from the Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology Graduate University propose that the LOME may have fundamentally transformed the vertebrate ecosystem.
Utilizing a newly compiled global database of Paleozoic vertebrate occurrences, biogeography, and ecosystems, they identified that this mass extinction coincided with the extinction of stylostome conodonts (extinct marine jawless vertebrates) and the decline of early gnathostomes and pelagic invertebrates.
In the aftermath, the post-extinction ecosystems witnessed the initial definitive emergence of most major vertebrate lineages characteristic of the Paleozoic ‘Age of Fish’.
“While the ultimate cause of LOME remains unclear, clear changes before and after the event are evident through the fossil record,” stated Professor Saran.
“We have assimilated 200 years of Late Ordovician and Early Silurian paleontology and created a novel database of fossil records that will assist in reconstructing the refugia ecosystem,” Dr. Hagiwara elaborated.
“This enables us to quantify genus-level diversity from this era and illustrate how LOME directly contributed to a significant increase in gnathostome biodiversity.”
LOME transpired in two pulses during a period marked by global temperature fluctuations, alterations in ocean chemistry—including essential trace elements—sudden polar glaciation, and fluctuations in sea levels.
These transformations severely impacted marine ecosystems, creating post-extinction ‘gaps’ with reduced biodiversity that extended until the early Silurian period.
The researchers confirmed a previously suggested gap in vertebrate diversity known as the Thalimar gap.
Throughout this time, terrestrial richness remained low, and the surviving fauna consisted largely of isolated microfossils.
The recovery was gradual, with the Silurian period encompassing a 23-million-year recovery phase during which vertebrate lineages diversified intermittently.
Silurian gnathostome lineages displayed gradual diversification during an early phase when global biodiversity was notably low.
Early jawed vertebrates appear to have evolved in isolation rather than rapidly dispersing into ancient oceans.
The researchers noted that gnathostomes exhibited high levels of endemism from the outset of the Silurian period, with diversification occurring primarily in certain long-term extinction reserves.
One such refuge is southern China, where the earliest conclusive evidence of jaws is present in the fossil record.
These primitive jawed vertebrates remained geographically restricted for millions of years.
Turnover and recovery following LOME paralleled climatic fluctuations similar to those at the end of the Devonian mass extinction, including prolonged epochs of low diversity and delayed dominance of jawed fishes.
“For the first time, we discovered the entire body fossil of a jawed fish directly related to modern sharks in what is now southern China,” Dr. Hagiwara noted.
“They remained concentrated in these stable refugia for millions of years until they evolved the capability to migrate across open oceans to new ecosystems.”
“By integrating location, morphology, ecology, and biodiversity, we can finally understand how early vertebrate ecosystems restructured themselves after significant environmental disruptions,” Professor Saran added.
“This study elucidates why jaws evolved, why jawed vertebrates ultimately became widespread, and how modern marine life originated from these survivors rather than earlier forms like conodonts and trilobites.”
For more information, refer to the study published on January 9th in Scientific Progress.
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Kazuhei Hagiwara & Lauren Saran. 2026. The mass extinction that initiated the irradiation of jawed vertebrates and their jawless relatives (gnathostomes). Scientific Progress 12(2); doi: 10.1126/sciadv.aeb2297
Humans have larger brains relative to body size compared to other primates, which leads to a higher glucose demand that may be supported by gut microbiota changes influencing host metabolism. In this study, we investigated this hypothesis by inoculating germ-free mice with gut bacteria from three primate species with varying brain sizes. Notably, the brain gene expression in mice receiving human and macaque gut microbes mirrored patterns found in the respective primate brains. Human gut microbes enhanced glucose production and utilization in the mouse brains, suggesting that differences in gut microbiota across species can impact brain metabolism, indicating that gut microbiota may help meet the energy needs of large primate brains.
Decasian et al. provided groundbreaking data showing that gut microbiome shapes brain function differences among primates. Image credit: DeCasien et al., doi: 10.1073/pnas.2426232122.
“Our research demonstrates that microbes influence traits critical for understanding evolution, especially regarding the evolution of the human brain,” stated Katie Amato, lead author and researcher at Northwestern University.
This study builds upon prior research revealing that introducing gut microbes from larger-brained primates into mice leads to enhanced metabolic energy within the host microbiome—a fundamental requirement for supporting the development and function of energetically costly large brains.
The researchers aimed to examine how gut microbes from primates of varying brain sizes affect host brain function. In a controlled laboratory setting, they transplanted gut bacteria from two large-brained primates (humans and squirrel monkeys) and a smaller-brained primate (macaque) into germ-free mice.
Within eight weeks, mice with gut microbes from smaller-brained primates exhibited distinct brain function compared to those with microbes from larger-brained primates.
Results indicated that mice hosting larger-brained microbes demonstrated increased expression of genes linked to energy production and synaptic plasticity, vital for the brain’s learning processes. Conversely, gene expression associated with these processes was diminished in mice hosting smaller-brained primate microbes.
“Interestingly, we compared our findings from mouse brains with actual macaque and human brain data, and, to our surprise, many of the gene expression patterns were remarkably similar,” Dr. Amato remarked.
“This means we could alter the mouse brain to resemble that of the primate from which the microbial sample was derived.”
Another notable discovery was the identification of gene expression patterns associated with ADHD, schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, and autism in mice with gut microbes from smaller-brained primates.
Although previous research has suggested correlations between conditions like autism and gut microbiome composition, definitive evidence linking microbiota to these conditions has been lacking.
“Our study further supports the idea that microbes may play a role in these disorders, emphasizing that the gut microbiome influences brain function during developmental stages,” Dr. Amato explained.
“We can speculate that exposure to ‘harmful’ microorganisms could alter human brain development, possibly leading to the onset of these disorders. Essentially, if critical human microorganisms are absent in early stages, functional brain changes may occur, increasing the risk of disorder manifestations.”
These groundbreaking findings will be published in today’s Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.
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Alex R. Decassian et al. 2026. Primate gut microbiota induces evolutionarily significant changes in neurodevelopment in mice. PNAS 123(2): e2426232122; doi: 10.1073/pnas.2426232122
Sahelanthropus: Fossil comparison with chimpanzees and humans
Williams et al., Sci. Adv. 12, eadv0130
The long-standing debate regarding whether our earliest ancestors walked on knuckles like chimpanzees or stood upright like modern humans may be closer to resolution, yet skepticism remains.
Scott Williams and researchers at New York University recently reanalyzed fossil remains of Sahelanthropus tchadensis, indicating that this species possessed at least three anatomical features suggesting it was our earliest known bipedal ancestor.
The journey to this conclusion has been extensive.
Fossilized remains of a skull, teeth, and jawbone from approximately 7 million years ago were first identified in 2002 in Chad, north-central Africa. The distinctive features of this ancient species, including its prominent brow ridge and smaller canine teeth, were quickly acknowledged as diverging from ape characteristics.
Analyzing the skull’s anatomy suggests it was positioned directly over the vertebrae, analogous to other upright, bipedal hominins.
In 2004, French scientists uncovered the femur and ulna associated with the Sahelanthropus skull from Chad. However, it wasn’t until 2020 that researchers claimed the femur exhibited curvature similar to that of non-bipedal great apes.
Since then, scholarly debate has fluctuated. For instance, in 2022, researchers Frank Guy and Guillaume Daver of the University of Poitiers argued for anatomical features of the femur that indicate bipedalism. In 2024, Clement Zanoli and colleagues from the University of Bordeaux countered, suggesting Guy and Daver’s assertions were flawed, as the anatomical characteristics of bipedalism may also appear in non-bipedal great apes.
Lead study author Williams started with a “fairly ambivalent” stance on Sahelanthropus.
His team investigated the femur’s attachment point for the gluteus maximus muscle, finding similarities to human femur anatomy.
They also compared the femur and ulna size and shape; while similar in size to chimpanzee bones, they aligned more closely with human proportions.
Additionally, they identified the “femoral tuberosity,” a previously overlooked feature of Sahelanthropus.
“We initially identified it by touch, later confirming it with 3D scans of the fossil,” Williams shared. “This bump, present only in species with a femoral tubercle, contrasts smooth areas found in great apes and plays a critical role in mobility.”
This area serves as an attachment point for the iliofemoral ligament, the strongest ligament in the human body. While relaxed when seated, it tightens during standing or walking, securing the femoral head in the hip joint and preventing the torso from tilting backward or sideways.
However, Williams expressed doubts about whether this study would fully end the conversation about how Sahelanthropus moved.
“We are confident Sahelanthropus was an early bipedal hominin, but we must recognize that the debate is ongoing,” Williams noted.
In response to a recent paper, Guy and Daver issued a joint statement asserting that humans likely began walking on two legs by 2022: “This reaffirms our earlier interpretations about Sahelanthropus adaptations and locomotion, suggesting habitual bipedalism despite its ape-like morphology.”
They acknowledged that only new fossil discoveries could unequivocally conclude the matter.
John Hawkes, a professor at the University of Wisconsin-Madison, also endorsed the new findings, noting their implications for understanding the complex origins of the hominin lineage.
“It may be deceptive to perceive Sahelanthropus as part of a gradual evolution towards an upright posture. It reveals crucial insights into these transformative changes,” Hawkes commented.
However, Zanoli contended, stating, “Most of the evidence aligns Sahelanthropus with traits seen in African great apes, suggesting its behavior was likely a mix between chimpanzees and gorillas, distinct from the habitual bipedalism of Australopithecus and Homo.
Explore the Origins of Humanity in South-West England
Join a gentle walking tour through the Neolithic, Bronze Age, and Iron Age, immersing yourself in early human history.
Paleontologists studied fossils that are 160 million years old. Anchiornis Huxley, a non-avian theropod dinosaur, was unearthed from the Late Jurassic Tianjishan Formation in northeastern China. The preserved feathers indicated that these dinosaurs had lost their flying capability. This rare find offers insights into the functions of organisms that existed 160 million years ago and their role in the evolution of flight among dinosaurs and birds.
This fossil of Anchiornis Huxley has nearly complete feathers and coloration preserved, allowing for detailed identification of feather morphology. Image credit: Kiat et al., doi: 10.1038/s42003-025-09019-2.
“This discovery has significant implications, suggesting that the evolution of flight in dinosaurs and birds was more intricate than previously understood,” said paleontologist Yosef Kiat from Tel Aviv University and his team.
“It is possible that some species had rudimentary flight abilities but lost them as they evolved.”
“The lineage of dinosaurs diverged from other reptiles approximately 240 million years ago.”
“Shortly after (on an evolutionary timeline), many dinosaurs began developing feathers, unique structures that are lightweight and strong, made of protein, and primarily used for flight and thermoregulation.”
About 175 million years ago, feathered dinosaurs, known as Penaraputra, emerged as distant ancestors of modern birds; they are the only dinosaur lineage that survived the mass extinction marking the end of the Mesozoic Era 66 million years ago.
As far as we know, the Pennaraputra group developed feathers for flight, but some may have lost that capability due to changing environmental conditions, similar to modern ostriches and penguins.
In this study, the researchers examined nine specimens of a feathered pennaraptorian dinosaur species called Anchiornis Huxley.
This rare paleontological find, along with hundreds of similar fossils, had its feathers remarkably preserved due to the unique conditions present during their fossilization.
Specifically, the nine fossils analyzed were selected because they retained the color of their wing feathers: white with black spots on the tips.
“Feathers take about two to three weeks to grow,” explains Dr. Kiat.
“Once they reach their final size, they detach from the blood vessels that nourished them during growth and become dead material.”
“Over time, birds shed and replace their feathers in a process known as molting, which is crucial for flight.” He notes that birds that depend on flight molt in an organized and gradual manner, maintaining symmetry and allowing them to continue flying during the process.
Conversely, the molting of flightless birds tends to be more random and irregular.
“Molting patterns can indicate whether a winged creature was capable of flight.”
By examining the color of the feathers preserved in dinosaur fossils from China, researchers could reconstruct the wing structure, which featured series of black spots along the edges.
Additionally, newly grown feathers, which had not fully matured, were identifiable by their deviation in black spot patterns.
A detailed analysis of the new feathers in nine fossils revealed an irregular molting process.
“Based on our understanding of contemporary birds, we identified a molting pattern suggesting these dinosaurs were likely flightless,” said Dr. Kiat.
“This is a rare and particularly intriguing discovery. The preservation of feather color offers a unique opportunity to explore the functional characteristics of ancient organisms alongside body structures found in fossilized skeletons and bones.”
“While feather molting might seem like a minor detail, it could significantly alter our understanding of the origins of flight when examined in fossils,” he added.
“Anchiornis Huxley‘s inclusion in the group of feathered dinosaurs that couldn’t fly underscores the complexity and diversity of wing evolution.”
The findings were published in the journal Communication Biology.
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Y. Kiat et al. 2025. Wing morphology of Anchiornis Huxley and the evolution of molting strategies in paraavian dinosaurs. Communication Biology August 1633. doi: 10.1038/s42003-025-09019-2
In a room adorned with gray walls in the Dutch city of Nijmegen, peculiar activities unfold beneath your feet. You find yourself seated in a chair, donning a hat covered with sensors, and your bare feet are placed in holes in the platform. Below, a robot equipped with a metal probe begins tickling the soles of your feet. Soon, the air fills with shrieks, laughter, and a certain painful mirth. Here at Radboud University’s Touch and Tickle Laboratory, volunteers are subjected to relentless tickling for the sake of science.
“We can monitor the intensity, speed, and specific areas of stimulation on the legs,” explains Constantina Kirteni, the lab’s director, regarding the robotic tickling experiment. Simultaneously, researchers document participants’ brain activity and physiological metrics such as heart rate, respiration, and sweating. Armed with these neurological and physiological insights, the researchers aim to tackle age-old questions that have intrigued philosophers from Socrates to René Descartes. Why do we experience ticklishness, what does it reveal about the boundary between pleasure and pain, and does this peculiar behavior serve any real purpose? The findings could illuminate areas such as infant brain development, clinical conditions like schizophrenia, and the structure of conscious experience in our brains.
Though the researchers have yet to publish their findings, Kirteni is willing to share some early insights. Regarding what triggers the tickling sensation, she states, “For us to recognize it as tickling, the contact must be both strong and rapid.” Preliminary analyses also indicate that electroencephalography (EEG) reveals distinct patterns of brain activity when experiencing ticklish feelings. To delve deeper into which brain regions process these sensations, the researchers intend to employ functional MRI, although the robot will require modifications to avoid interfering with the scanner. Moreover, scientists at the institute have initiated inquiries into the intriguing question of whether people actually enjoy being tickled.
“We observe a mix of responses, allowing us to see both those who find it pleasurable and those who find it distressing,” Kirteni notes. While people’s reactions may include smiles or laughter, these do not necessarily correlate with their enjoyment levels. Additionally, perceptions can shift over time. “Some individuals have reported that though it may be enjoyable initially, prolonged exposure can become uncomfortable and even painful,” she adds.
Tickling Laboratory at Radboud University, Nijmegen, Netherlands
Cohen Verheiden
One of the enduring enigmas about tickling that Kirteni is eager to unravel is why self-tickling is impossible. This peculiar fact suggests that unpredictability in stimulation is crucial, a notion supported by contemporary studies. Numerous investigations indicate that our brains predict sensations triggered by our own actions, leading us to perceive our touch as less significant than that of others. This can become particularly perplexing in certain mental health conditions. Research suggests that individuals experiencing auditory hallucinations or sensations of being controlled by external forces find their own touch more ticklish. “This indicates a possible breakdown in how our brains forecast our feelings based on our movements,” Kirteni mentions. “We are keen to explore this further in clinical populations, especially those with schizophrenia.”
What Makes Us Ticklish?
Perhaps the most significant unanswered inquiry revolves around why we are ticklish. Known primarily among humans and their close relatives, tickling may have evolved from behaviors in great ape ancestors. For instance, chimpanzees and bonobos frequently tickle each other during play. In a study published this year, Elisa Demur and colleagues from the University of Lyon in France observed a bonobo colony for three months. They discovered a notable correlation between tickling and age, with older bonobos being tickled more often, while younger ones were tickled frequently.
Demur remarked, “This is intriguing because it aligns closely with human behavior, chiefly as an interaction for young children.” The researchers observed that social bonds significantly influenced the tickling interactions; pairs that primarily engaged in tickling sessions shared strong attachments.
For Demur, this suggests that tickling evolved as a prosocial behavior enhancing connections between youngsters and their group members. This is closely related to pretend play, she adds, since acts appearing aggressive and unpleasant from strangers can be enjoyable in the presence of friends or close acquaintances. In her studies of bonobos at the Lola ya Bonobo Sanctuary in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, she observes how orphaned infants respond to tickling by their human surrogate parents, highlighting the importance of familiarity. “It’s a fascinating behavior. It’s always joyful to see them laugh; they’re incredibly adorable!” she shares.
Regardless of one’s mental state or the relationship with the person (or machine) doing the tickling, even non-consensual tickling can elicit laughter. Some researchers argue that this indicates that tickling is a physiological reflex; however, this does not preclude the idea that its evolution served a social purpose. Another hypothesis suggests that this behavior could help young individuals learn to protect vulnerable areas of their body during play or combat. “The truth remains that we don’t have definitive answers because there are valid counterarguments for all these theories,” Kirteni states.
Rats “laugh” when tickled
Shinpei Ishiyama and Michael Brecht
Nevertheless, focusing exclusively on tickling behaviors in great apes may overlook a significant aspect of this behavior. While rodents are not known to engage in tickling among themselves, they appear to enjoy human tickling. Though previously thought to be non-ticklish, mice have shown a fondness for tickling when they feel comfortable. Researcher Marlies Austrand from the University of Amsterdam found that if mice are relaxed and flipped over, they can delight in tickling, producing high-pitched sounds that resemble laughter.
Interestingly, these sounds are beyond human hearing range, and it’s uncertain whether mice can hear them as well, adding to the mystery of their laughter. While Austrand’s findings are not yet published, it’s evident that rodents respond positively to tickling. “If given the choice between a safe, scented hutch in their home cage and being tickled, mice will choose the latter,” she asserts.
Austrand speculates on why humans and animals react as they do under tickling. Our brains are constantly engaged in predicting external stimuli, evaluating potential threats and survival tactics. She proposes that tickling introduces surprises that contradict these expectations. Yet, if we feel secure, these unexpected sensations can be exhilarating. “This is more of a hypothesis; it remains unproven,” she admits. “But I believe tickling aids animals, especially young ones, in adapting to a fluid environment,” she concludes. Such peculiar behavior may well be an evolutionary quirk that we should embrace.
This year brought many revelations about our ancient human relatives
WHPics / Alamy
This is an excerpt from Our Human Story, a newsletter about the revolution in archaeology. Sign up to receive it in your inbox every month.
If we try to summarize all the new fossils, methods, and ideas emerging from the study of human evolution in 2025, we might still be here in 2027. This year has been packed with developments, and I doubt it’s feasible for one individual to digest everything without isolating themselves from other distractions. This is particularly true in human evolution, which is a decentralized field. Unlike particle physicists, who often unite in teams for large-scale experiments, paleoanthropologists scatter in diverse directions.
There are two ways this year-long endeavor can falter. One risk is getting overwhelmed by an insurmountable amount of research, rendering it indecipherable. The other is simplifying the information to the point where it becomes incorrect.
With that in mind, here are three key points I want to clarify as we head into 2025. First, there have been remarkable discoveries about the Denisovans, reshaping our understanding of this mysterious group and challenging some of our previous assumptions. Second, we’ve seen a variety of new discoveries and ideas regarding how our distant ancestors created and utilized tools. Finally, we must consider the broader picture: how and why our species diverged so significantly from other primates.
The Denisovan Flood
Hebei Geography University
This year marks 15 years since we first learned about the Denisovans, an ancient group of humans that inhabited East Asia tens of thousands of years ago. My fascination with them has persisted, and this year, I was excited to witness a surge of discoveries that broadened our knowledge of their habitats and identities.
Denisovans were initially identified primarily through molecular evidence. The first fossil discovered was a small finger bone from Denisova Cave in Siberia, which defied identification based solely on its morphology, but DNA was collected in 2010. Genetic analyses revealed that Denisovans were closely related to Neanderthals, who lived in Europe and Asia, and that they interbred with modern humans. Currently, populations in Southeast Asia, particularly Papua New Guinea and the Philippines, possess the highest concentration of Denisovan DNA.
Since then, researchers have been on the hunt for additional Denisovan remains, though this endeavor has progressed slowly. Until 2019, the second identified example was a jawbone excavated from Baisiya Karst Cave in Xianghe, located on the Tibetan Plateau. Over the next five years, several more fossils were tentatively attributed to Denisovans, notable for their large size and pronounced teeth compared to modern humans.
Then came 2025, which brought numerous exciting findings. In April, Denisovans were confirmed in Taiwan, when a jawbone dredged from the Penghu Strait in 2008 was finally identified using preserved proteins. This discovery significantly extends the known range of Denisovans to the southeast, aligning with where their genetic markers remain today.
In June, the first Denisovan facial features emerged. A skull discovered in Harbin, northern China, was described in 2021 and designated as a new species, named Homolonghi. Initially presumed to belong to Denisovans due to its large size, proteins extracted by Qiaomei Fu and her team from the bone and mitochondrial DNA from dental plaque confirmed its Denisovan origins.
So far, these findings align well with genetic evidence indicating that Denisovans roamed extensively across Asia. They also contribute to a coherent image of Denisovans as a larger species.
However, two additional discoveries in 2025 were surprising. In September, a crushed skull thought to belong to an early Denisovan was reconstructed in Unzen, China, dating back approximately 1 million years. This finding suggests that Denisovans existed as a distinct group much earlier than previously believed, indicating that their common ancestor with Neanderthals, known as Ancestor X, must have lived over a million years ago. If confirmed, it implies a longer evolutionary history for all three groups than previously thought.
Just a month ago, geneticists released a second high-quality Denisovan genome extracted from a 200,000-year-old tooth found in Denisova Cave. Notably, this genome is distinctly different from the first genome described recently, as well as from modern Denisovan DNA.
This indicates the existence of at least three groups of Denisovans: early ones, later ones, and those that hybridized with modern humans—this latter group remains a total archaeological enigma.
As our understanding of Denisovans deepens, their history appears much longer and more diverse than initially assumed. In particular, Denisovan populations that interbred with modern humans remain elusive.
For the past 15 years, Denisovans have captivated my interest. Despite their widespread presence across continents for hundreds of thousands of years, only a handful of remains have been documented.
Fortunately, I have a penchant for mysteries. Because this puzzle won’t be solved anytime soon.
Tool Manufacturing
TW Plummer, JS Oliver, EM Finestone, Houma Peninsula Paleoanthropology Project
Creating and using tools is one of humanity’s most critical functions. This ability isn’t unique to our species, as many other animals also use and even make tools. Primatologist Jane Goodall, who passed away this year, famously demonstrated that chimpanzees can manufacture tools. However, humans have significantly elevated this skill, producing a more diverse array of tools that are often more complex and essential to our survival than those of any other animal.
As we delve deeper into the fossil record, we’re discovering that the practice of tool-making dates back further than previously thought. In March, I reported on excavations in Tanzania revealing that an unidentified ancient human was consistently creating bone tools 1.5 million years ago, well over a million years before bone tools were believed to become commonplace. Similarly, while it was previously thought that humans began crafting artifacts from ivory 50,000 years ago, this year, a 400,000-year-old flake from a mammoth tusk was discovered in Ukraine.
Even older stone tools have surfaced, likely due in part to their greater preservation potential. Crude tools have been identified from 3.3 million years ago at Lomekwi, Kenya. Last month in Our Human Story, I mentioned excavations in another part of Kenya demonstrating that ancient humans consistently produced a specific type of Oldowan tools between 2.75 million and 2.44 million years ago, indicating that tool-making was already a habitual practice.
Often, tools are found without associated bones, making it challenging to determine their makers’ identities. It’s tempting to assume that most tools belong to our genus, Homo, or perhaps to Australopithecus, our more distant ancestors. However, increasing evidence suggests that Paranthropus—a hominin with a small brain and large teeth, which thrived in Africa for hundreds of thousands of years—could also have made tools, at least simple ones like the Oldowans.
Two years ago, Oldowan tools were discovered alongside Paranthropus teeth in Kenya—admittedly not definitive evidence, but strongly suggestive. This year, a fossil of Paranthropus revealed that its hand exhibited a combination of gorilla-like strength and impressive dexterity, indicating capable precision gripping essential for tool-making.
How did these ancients conceive of their tools? One possibility, suggested by Metin Eren and others this year, is that they didn’t consciously create them. Instead, tool-like stones form naturally under various conditions, such as frost cracking rocks or elephants trampling them. Early humans may have utilized these “natural stones,” knowledge of which eventually led to their replication.
As humans continued to develop increasingly complex tools, the cognitive demands of creating them likely escalated, potentially facilitating the emergence of language as we needed to communicate how to make and use these advanced tools. This year’s research explored aspects like the difficulty of learning various skills, whether close observation is necessary, or if mere exposure suffices. The findings suggest two significant changes in cultural transmission that may correlate with technological advancements.
Like most aspects of evolution, tool-making appears to have gradually evolved from our primate predecessors, reshaping our cognitive capabilities in the process.
Big Picture
Alexandra Morton Hayward
Now let’s address the age-old question of how and why humans evolved so distinctly, and which traits truly set us apart. This topic is always challenging to navigate for three main reasons.
First, human uniqueness is multifaceted and often contradictory. Social scientist Jonathan R. Goodman suggested in July that evolution has forged humans to embody both “Machiavellian” traits—planning and betraying one another—and “natural socialist” instincts driven by strong social norms against murder and theft. Claims that humans are inherently generous or instinctively cruel tend to oversimplify the matter excessively.
Second, our perceptions of what makes us unique are shaped by the societies in which we exist. For instance, many cultures remain predominantly male-focused, leading our historical narratives to center around men. While the feminist movement is working to amend this imbalance, progress remains slow. Laura Spinney’s article on prehistoric women suggested that “throughout prehistory, women were rulers, warriors, hunters, and shamans,” a viewpoint made viable only through dedicated research.
Third, reconstructing the thought processes of ancient people as they adopted certain behaviors is inherently difficult, if not impossible. Why did early humans bury their dead and enact funerary rituals? How were dogs and other animals domesticated? What choices shaped ancient humans’ paths toward change?
Still, I want to spotlight two intriguing ideas surrounding the evolution of the human brain and intelligence. One concerns the role of placental hormones that developing babies are exposed to in the womb. Preliminary evidence suggests these hormones may contribute to brain growth, equipping us with the neural capacity to navigate our unusually complex social environments.
Another compelling possibility proposes that the genetic changes associated with our increased intelligence may have also led to vulnerabilities to mental illness. In October, Christa Leste-Laser reported that genetic mutations linked to intelligence emerged in our distant ancestors, followed by mutations associated with mental disorders.
This notion has intrigued me for years, rooted in the observation that wild animals, including our close relatives like chimpanzees, do not appear to suffer from serious mental illnesses such as schizophrenia or bipolar disorder. Perhaps our brains operate at the edge of our neural capabilities. Like a finely-tuned sports car, we can excel but are also prone to breakdowns. While still a hypothesis, this concept is difficult to shake off.
Oh, one more point. Although we often shy away from discussing methodological advancements, as readers generally prefer results, we made an exception in May. Alexandra Morton Hayward and her colleagues at the University of Oxford developed a method to extract proteins from ancient brains and potentially other soft tissues. Though such tissues are rarer in the fossil record compared to bones and teeth, some remain preserved and may offer a wealth of information. The first results could be available next year.
I It’s challenging to find a more contemporary form of entertainment than open-world video games. Merging storytelling, social interaction, and the freedom to roam, these expansive technological projects offer a uniquely immersive experience with infinite possibilities. But do they truly embody novel concepts in storytelling?
This week, I had a conversation with Dan Hauser, co-founder of Rockstar and the lead writer for Grand Theft Auto and Red Dead Redemption. He was in London discussing his new venture, Absurd Ventures. He’s working on a range of exciting projects, including a novel and a podcast series titled better paradise (which delves into a vast online game that ends in tragedy), as well as a comedic quest set in an online universe known as absurd verse. He mentioned that he had an epiphany regarding the series 15 years ago while giving press interviews for the Grand Theft Auto IV expansion pack.
“I was conversing with a journalist from Paris Match, a very learned French individual, who stated, ‘The game Grand Theft Auto is akin to Dickens.’ I thought, bless you for saying that! However, in retrospect, they may not reach Dickensian heights, but they’re comparable in that they create worlds. When you examine Dickens, Zola, Tolstoy—any of those authors—you sense that the entire world they describe is magnificent. This is an open world. That’s the experience you seek from the game. It’s a bizarre prism through which to view a society that somehow becomes fascinating.”
A whole new world…an absurd world. Photo: Absurd Ventures/X
I found it incredibly engaging to discuss this concept with Hauser, as I concur that there are notable parallels between Victorian literature and contemporary narrative-driven video games. The extensive descriptive passages in these works served as a form of virtual reality, evoking vivid imagery in readers’ minds well before the advent of cinema. It’s wholly immersive. When I first read Jane Eyre a decade ago, I was struck by the richness of the inner thoughts presented, inviting readers to explore the main character’s psyche.
Hauser also noted structural resemblances to Grand Theft Auto. “There’s a sense of an expanded storytelling akin to the remarkable 19th-century novels from Thackeray onward,” he explained. “These stories can be viewed as shaggy dog tales that culminate at a single moment. They are deeply realistic; they contain a grounded progression rather than jumping around in time. The games are similarly grounded in that sense.”
For Hauser, this synthesis of Victorian literature and game design came to fruition with the creation of Red Dead Redemption 2, Rockstar’s magnum opus and a poignant narrative of vengeance set in late 19th century America. “I consumed Victorian novels,” he shared. “I listened to the Middlemarch audiobook daily during my commute, and I loved every moment.” He faced challenges in striking the right tone for the dialogue, ultimately finding inspiration in blending Middlemarch, Sherlock Holmes, and Cowboy Pulp Fiction.
“I listened to the Middlemarch audiobook every day on my way to and from the office,” Dan Hauser said. Photo: Chelsea Guglielmino/Getty Images
“From a writing perspective, I wanted it to feel more like a novel,” he remarked. “We believed this approach could yield something innovative story-wise. Given how visually stunning the game is and its strong art design, we aimed to anchor the narrative in a solid context. Our goal was to encapsulate the three-dimensionality of the characters’ lives while also portraying a sense of life and death in the 19th century, which is fundamentally different from our own experience.”
It’s fascinating to see how Victorian literature significantly influenced Rockstar’s acclaimed adventures. The gaming industry often feels inward-looking, with new titles being slightly modified iterations of successful older games, recycling the same fantasy and science fiction narratives. Drawing on Tolkien, Akira, or Blade Runner isn’t inherently problematic, but broadening one’s literary horizons is always beneficial. I eagerly anticipate how Hauser’s new endeavor will transform the notion of open-world gaming in the 21st century, yet part of me wishes he would fully embrace the adventure of a grand Victorian novel.
Forget Pride and Prejudice and Zombies; perhaps it’s time for Middlemarch and Machine Guns.
what to play
Gorgeous atmosphere… “Metroid Prime 4 Beyond”. Photo: Nintendo
Eighteen years have elapsed since the last installment of “Metroid Prime.” In that time, people have been born, attended school, completed exams, and faced their first hangovers since I last explored a mysterious planet through Samus Aran’s visor. I’ve played quite a bit of Metroid Prime 4: Beyond for fans of Nintendo’s fierce (but often overlooked) heroes. I reviewed it this week and I’m pleased to report it wasn’t a disaster. While it’s somewhat uneven and carries an old-fashioned feel, it boasts a stunning atmosphere that is visually and audibly captivating and is genuinely fun. The gameplay resonates with me because it adheres to unconventional modern game design principles. keza mcdonald
Available: Nintendo Switch/Switch 2 Estimated play time: 15-20 hours
Could Shadow be highlighted in Paramount’s upcoming Sonic the Hedgehog spin-off? Photo: Paramount Pictures and Sega of America, Inc.
Sega enthusiasts rejoice: Paramount Pictures has announced a Sonic the Hedgehog movie spin-off (or should it be a spin-off Dash?) As reported by Variety, this project, currently dubbed “Sonic Universe Event Film,” is set to release on December 22, 2028, shortly after Sonic the Hedgehog 4, slated for March 2027. Perhaps there will be a new journey for Sonic’s rival, Shadow the Hedgehog? I might be alone in this, but I’m excited about Big the Cat’s fishing adventure.
The Information Commissioner’s Office, the UK’s independent data protection and information rights regulator, is currently investigating10 Most Popular Mobile Games to focus on children’s privacy. According to the organization’s blog, “84% of parents are worried about their children being exposed to strangers and harmful content via mobile games.” This scrutiny follows recent controversies surrounding Roblox.
As someone inundated with around 200 press releases weekly about this genre, I found this piece relatable. Rock, Paper, Shotgun elaborates on the seemingly unstoppable emergence of roguelike games. Edwin Evans-Thirlwell interviews developers to uncover the reasons behind the popularity of games featuring the three Ps: procedural generation, (character) progression, and permadeath.
What to click
question block
Using power…Dishonored 2. Photo: Steam Powered
Keza answers this week’s reader inquiries from Tom:
“I was reflecting on a recent question block about non-violent games and thought, are there games that maintain violent elements but still provide alternative paths to completion? I adored Red Dead Redemption 2, yet was frustrated that firearms were often the only means to resolve conflicts. I’ve seen countless amusing videos of players attempting to finish inherently violent games without bloodshed, highlighting a desire for pacifism.”
I distinctly remember playing the original Splinter Cell on Xbox, where the protagonist opts for a non-lethal approach by incapacitating foes rather than killing them. While it took me a long time to navigate, it was indeed a viable path offered by the game. The steampunk classic Dishonored and its sequel are known for allowing players to wrap up their quests without resorting to lethal force, utilizing supernatural abilities to manipulate their surroundings. However, if memory serves, choosing the pacifist route does make the game considerably harder.
In fact, most stealth games permit a non-violent approach, though few specifically reward players for sparing lives. One notable exception is the beloved comic-inspired adventure Undertale, where players can ultimately engage monsters in dialogue instead of combat. I also believe it’s feasible to play through both original Fallout titles (possibly even Fallout: New Vegas) without killing anyone, should players possess enough charisma to navigate tough scenarios through dialogue.
We’re still accepting nominations for Game of the Year for our year-end special – let us know by. Email us at pushbuttons@theguardian.com.
The origins of the sperm swimming mechanism date back to ancient times.
Christoph Burgstedt/Alamy
The evolutionary roots of sperm can be traced to the unicellular forerunners of all existing animals.
Nearly all animals go through a unicellular phase in their life cycle, which involves two forms of sex cells, or gametes. Eggs are sizeable cells that hold genetic information and the nutrients necessary for early development, while sperm transport genetic material from one organism to another to fertilize eggs and create new life.
“Sperms play a crucial role in the process that allows life to be transmitted from generation to generation,” states Arthur Matt from Cambridge University. “It carries the legacy of over 700 million years of evolutionary history and is likely linked to the origins of animals themselves. Our aim was to explore this extensive evolutionary narrative to understand the origins of sperm.”
Matt and his team utilized an open science dataset containing information about sperm proteins from 32 animal species, including humans. They combined this data with the genomes of 62 organisms, including various related single-cell groups, to track the evolution of sperm across different animal lineages.
The research revealed a “sperm toolkit” comprising about 300 gene families that make up the last universal common sperm core genome.
“We have now identified numerous significant advancements in sperm mechanisms occurring long before multicellular animals emerged, even before the sperm themselves,” explains Matt.
This indicates that the sperm mechanics, represented by a “flagellum that propels a single cell,” were already evolving prior to the development of multicellular organisms.
Thus, our ancient progenitors were once all single-celled oceanic swimmers, and the sperm toolkit was present in our earliest swimming unicellular predecessors long before the advent of animals.
“Animals evolved multicellularity and cellular differentiation, but they did not create sperm from nothing. They repurposed the body structure of their swimming forebears as the foundation for sperm,” states Matt. “In essence, sperm are not a novel creation of multicellular organisms but are constructed upon the designs of a single-celled organism repurposed for reproduction.”
The study also indicated that the significant technological developments leading to the vast variety of current sperm primarily affected the cell heads, while the tails have remained largely constant since their common ancestor.
According to the research team members, fertilization can occur in various manners, with some sperm reaching the egg within the body, while others swim in open waters, notes Adria Leboeuf, also from the University of Cambridge. “Finding eggs in these different settings presents unique challenges and requires specialized machinery,” she explains. “However, the tail remains well-preserved since it must be capable of swimming in all environments.”
“This illustrates how evolution can modify existing structures instead of creating mechanisms from scratch,” says Jenny Graves, from La Trobe University in Melbourne, Australia.
Research led by scientist Hannah Long at the University of Edinburgh has found that specific regions of Neanderthal DNA are more effective at activating genes responsible for jaw development than those in humans, potentially explaining why Neanderthals had larger lower jaws.
Neanderthal. Image credit: Natural History Museum Trustees.
“With the Neanderthal genome being 99.7% identical to that of modern humans, the variations between species are likely to account for differences in appearance,” Dr. Hanna stated.
“Both human and Neanderthal genomes consist of roughly 3 billion characters that code for proteins and regulate gene expression in cells. Identifying the regions that influence appearance is akin to searching for a needle in a haystack.”
Dr. Long and her team had a targeted approach, focusing on a genomic area linked to the Pierre Robin sequence, a condition marked by an unusually small mandible.
“Individuals with the Pierre Robin sequence often have significant deletions or rearrangements in this portion of the genome that affect facial development and restrict jaw formation,” Dr. Hanna explained.
“We hypothesized that minor differences in DNA could produce more nuanced effects on facial structure.”
Upon comparing human and Neanderthal genomes, researchers discovered that in this segment, approximately 3,000 letters long, there are only three one-letter variations between the species.
This DNA region doesn’t code for genes but regulates when and how certain genes, particularly SOX9, which plays a crucial role in facial development, are activated.
To confirm that these Neanderthal-specific differences were significant for facial development, scientists needed to demonstrate that the Neanderthal version could activate genes in the appropriate cells at the right developmental stage.
They introduced both Neanderthal and human versions of this region into zebrafish DNA and programmed the cells to emit different colors of fluorescent protein based on the activation of either region.
By monitoring zebrafish embryo development, researchers observed that cells responsible for forming the lower jaw were active in both human and Neanderthal regions, with the Neanderthal regions showing greater activity.
“It was thrilling when we first noticed the activity of specific cell populations in the developing zebrafish face, particularly near the forming jaw, and even more exhilarating to see how Neanderthal-specific variations could influence activity during development,” said Dr. Long.
“This led us to contemplate the implications of these differences and explore them through experimental means.”
Recognizing that Neanderthal sequences were more effective at activating genes, the authors questioned whether this would lead to enhanced target activity affecting the shape and function of the adult jaw, mediated by SOX9.
To validate this idea, they augmented zebrafish embryos with additional samples of SOX9 and discovered that cells involved in jaw formation occupied a larger area.
“Our lab aims to further investigate the effects of genetic differences using methods that simulate various aspects of facial development,” Dr. Long remarked.
“We aspire to deepen our understanding of genetic variations in individuals with facial disorders and improve diagnostic processes.”
“This study demonstrates how examining extinct species can enhance our knowledge of how our own DNA contributes to facial diversity, development, and evolution.”
The findings are published in the journal Development.
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Kirsty Utley et al. 2025: Neanderthal-derived variants enhance SOX9 enhancer activity in craniofacial progenitor cells, influencing jaw development. Development 152 (21): dev204779; doi: 10.1242/dev.204779
Scientist Hannah Long and her team at the University of Edinburgh have discovered that specific regions of Neanderthal DNA are more effective at activating genes related to jaw formation compared to human DNA, which might explain why Neanderthals had larger lower jaws.
Neanderthal. Image credit: Natural History Museum Trustees.
“The Neanderthal genome shows a 99.7% similarity to the human genome, suggesting that the differences between the species contribute to variations in appearance,” explained Dr. Hanna.
“Both the human and Neanderthal genomes comprise around 3 billion characters that code for proteins and regulate gene usage in cells. Therefore, pinpointing regions that affect appearance is akin to finding a needle in a haystack.”
Dr. Long and her collaborators had a targeted hypothesis regarding where to initiate their search. They focused on a genomic area linked to the Pierre Robin sequence, a condition characterized by a notably small jaw.
“Some individuals with Pierre Robin sequence exhibit significant deletions or rearrangements in this genomic region that disrupt facial development and impede jaw formation,” stated Dr. Hanna.
“We speculated that minor variations in DNA could subtly influence facial shape.”
Through the comparison of human and Neanderthal genomes, researchers identified that in a segment approximately 3,000 letters long, there are just three one-letter differences between the two species.
This DNA segment lacks any specific genes but regulates the timing and manner in which genes, particularly SOX9, a crucial factor in facial development processes, are activated.
To demonstrate the significance of these Neanderthal-specific differences for facial development, researchers needed to confirm that the Neanderthal region could activate genes in the correct cells at the appropriate developmental stage.
They introduced both Neanderthal and human variants of this region into zebrafish DNA concurrently and programmed the cells to emit different colors of fluorescent protein based on whether the human or Neanderthal region was active.
By monitoring zebrafish embryo development, researchers observed that the cells crucial for lower jaw formation were active in both regions, with the Neanderthal regions showing greater activity than those of humans.
“We were thrilled when we first detected the activity in a specific group of cells within the developing zebrafish face, near the jaw, and even more so when we realized that Neanderthal-specific differences could modify this activity during development,” Dr. Long noted.
“This led us to ponder the potential implications of these differences and how we may explore them experimentally.”
Recognizing that Neanderthal sequences were more adept at activating genes, the authors inquired whether this would correlate with heightened activity in target cells, influencing the shape and function of the adult jaw as governed by SOX9.
To test this hypothesis, they administered additional samples to zebrafish embryos. They found that the cells involved in jaw formation occupied a larger area.
“In our lab, we aim to investigate the effects of additional DNA sequence differences using methods that replicate aspects of facial development,” Dr. Long said.
“We aspire to enhance our understanding of sequence alterations in individuals with facial disorders and assist with diagnostic efforts.”
“This research illustrates that by examining extinct species, we can gain insights into how our own DNA contributes to facial variation, development, and evolution.”
Findings are detailed in the journal Developmenthere.
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Kirsty Utley et al. 2025: Variants derived from Neanderthals enhance SOX9 enhancer activity in craniofacial progenitor cells that shape jaw development. Development 152 (21): dev204779; doi: 10.1242/dev.204779
Several hominid species — Australopithecus africanus, Paranthropus robustus, early homo varieties, Gigantopithecus brachy, Pongo, papio, homo neanderthalensis, and homo sapiens — have undergone significant lead exposure over two million years, as revealed by a new analysis of fossilized teeth collected from Africa, Asia, Oceania, and Europe. This finding challenges the notion that lead exposure is merely a contemporary issue.
Lead exposure affecting modern humans and their ancestors. Image credit: J. Gregory/Mount Sinai Health System.
Professor Renaud Joannes Boyau from Southern Cross University remarked: “Our findings indicate that lead exposure has been integral to human evolution, not just a byproduct of the industrial revolution.”
“This suggests that our ancestors’ brain development was influenced by toxic metals, potentially shaping their social dynamics and cognitive functions over millennia.”
The team analyzed 51 fossil samples globally utilizing a carefully validated laser ablation microspatial sampling technique, encompassing species like Australopithecus africanus, Paranthropus robustus, early homo variants, Gigantopithecus brachy, Pongo, papio, homo neanderthalensis, and homo sapiens.
Signs of transient lead exposure were evident in 73% of the specimens analyzed (compared to 71% in humans). This included findings on Australopithecus, Paranthropus, and homo species.
Some of the earliest geological samples from Gigantopithecus brachy, believed to be around 1.8 million years old from the early Pleistocene and 1 million years old from the mid-Pleistocene, displayed recurrent lead exposure events interspersed with periods of little to no lead uptake.
To further explore the impact of ancient lead exposure on brain development, researchers also conducted laboratory studies.
Australopithecus africanus. Image credit: JM Salas / CC BY-SA 3.0.” width=”580″ height=”627″ srcset=”https://cdn.sci.news/images/2015/01/image_2428-Australopithecus-africanus.jpg 580w, https://cdn.sci.news/images/2015/01/image_2428-Australopithecus-africanus-277×300.jpg 277w” sizes=”(max-width: 580px) 100vw, 580px”/>
Australopithecus africanus. Image credit: JM Salas / CC BY-SA 3.0.
Using human brain organoids (miniature brain models grown in the lab), researchers examined the effects of lead on a crucial developmental gene named NOVA1, recognized for modulating gene expression during neurodevelopment in response to lead exposure.
The modern iteration of NOVA1 has undergone changes distinct from those seen in Neanderthals and other extinct hominins, with the reasons for this evolution remaining unclear until now.
In organoids with ancestral versions of NOVA1, exposure to lead significantly altered neural activity in relation to Fox P2 — a gene involved in the functionality of brain regions critical for language and speech development.
This effect was less pronounced in modern organoids with NOVA1 mutations.
“These findings indicate that our variant of NOVA1 might have conferred a protective advantage against the detrimental neurological effects of lead,” stated Alison Muotri, a professor at the University of California, San Diego.
“This exemplifies how environmental pressures, such as lead toxicity, can drive genetic evolution, enhancing our capacity for survival and verbal communication while also affecting our susceptibility to contemporary lead exposure.”
An artistic rendition of a Gigantopithecus brachy herd in the forests of southern China. Image credit: Garcia / Joannes-Boyau, Southern Cross University.
Genetic and proteomic analyses in this study revealed that lead exposure in archaic variant organoids disrupts pathways vital for neurodevelopment, social behavior, and communication.
Alterations in Fox P2 activity indicate a possible correlation between ancient lead exposure and the advanced language abilities found in modern humans.
“This research highlights the role environmental exposures have played in human evolution,” stated Professor Manish Arora from the Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai.
“The insight that exposure to toxic substances may conjure survival advantages in the context of interspecific competition introduces a fresh perspective in environmental medicine, prompting investigations into the evolutionary origins of disorders linked to such exposures.”
For more information, refer to the study published in the journal Science Advances.
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Renaud Joannes Boyau et al. 2025. Effects of intermittent lead exposure on hominid brain evolution. Science Advances 11(42); doi: 10.1126/sciadv.adr1524
Homo sapiens may have developed greater tolerance to lead exposure compared to other hominids
frantic00/Shutterstock
Research on fossilized teeth indicates that ancient humans were exposed to harmful lead for over two million years, suggesting that modern humans might have adapted to handle this toxic metal more effectively than their predecessors.
Traditionally, lead poisoning was associated with modern issues such as industrialization, poor mining techniques, and lead additives in fuels. Fortunately, efforts to phase out lead exposure have been underway since the 1980s.
This toxin is particularly harmful to children, hindering physical and cognitive growth, while adults may experience a range of serious physical and mental health issues.
Dr. Renaud Joanne Bois and colleagues from Southern Cross University in Lismore, Australia, aimed to investigate whether our ancient ancestors faced similar lead exposure.
They examined 51 fossilized hominin teeth, representing species such as Australopithecus africanus, Paranthropus robustus, Gigantopithecus black, Homo neanderthalensis, and Homo sapiens. The fossils were sourced from regions including Australia, Southeast Asia, China, South Africa, and France.
The research team utilized laser ablation techniques to identify lead concentrations in the teeth, revealing layers of lead that accumulated during the growth of these hominids. This exposure could be attributed to environmental contaminants, such as polluted water, soil, or volcanic eruptions.
Dr. Joanne Boyau noted the surprising levels of lead discovered within the teeth. For instance, Gigantopithecus, a massive ancestral relative of today’s orangutans, primarily lived in what is now China. “If current humans exhibit similar lead levels, it indicates considerable exposure from industrial activities,” she remarked.
The research then shifted focus to understanding how both modern humans and Neanderthals managed lead exposure. The team created lab-grown brain models called organoids to analyze differences in the NOVA1 gene in both species, subsequently assessing the effects of lead neurotoxicity on these organoids.
“Our findings indicate that modern NOVA1 is significantly less impacted by lead neurotoxicity,” states Joannes Boyau.
Crucially, when archaic organoids expressed NOVA1 under lead exposure, another gene, Fox P2 exhibited notable differences.
“These genes are linked to cognitive functions, language, and social bonding,” explains Joannes-Boyau. “The diminished neurotoxicity in modern humans compared to Neanderthals could provide a crucial evolutionary advantage.” This suggests that lead exposure has influenced our evolutionary history.
However, Dr. Tanya Smith from Griffith University in Brisbane, Australia, remains cautious about the conclusions drawn by the researchers regarding lead exposure levels or potential evolutionary benefits inferred from their organoid studies.
“This paper is complex and makes speculative claims,” Smith emphasizes. “While it seems logical that ancient humans and wild primates faced some level of lead exposure, the limited scope and variety of fossils studied do not necessarily demonstrate that our ancestors were consistently exposed to lead over two million years.”
Exploring Neanderthals and Ancient Humans in France
Join New Scientist’s Kate Douglas on an engaging exploration of significant Neanderthal and Upper Paleolithic sites across southern France, spanning from Bordeaux to Montpellier.
Deep in Argentina’s Andes Mountains, paleontologists have uncovered the remains of a small dinosaur, giving insight into the early adaptations that characterized sauropod dinosaurs, specifically the extended neck seen in diplodocus.
The fossil, named Huayracursor jaguensis, represents a partial skeleton of a creature that roamed the Earth during the Triassic period, roughly 230 million years ago. It is estimated to have measured around 2 meters in length and weighed about 18 kilograms.
Subsequent sauropods like brontosaurus and Patagotitan would grow to impressive sizes—over 35 meters long and weighing more than 70 tons, marking them as the largest and longest-necked animals in history.
Previously, scientists believed that the ancestors of these long-necked, herbivorous dinosaurs were small, short-necked, and possibly even omnivorous.
At the same time, other smaller sauropods, such as homo jaguensis, measured approximately 1 meter and displayed no signs of elongated neck bones, unlike the newly identified species. This led paleontologists to think that substantial growth in size and neck elongation in sauropods didn’t occur until millions of years later.
The discovery of homo jaguensis at Santo Domingo Creek in northwestern Argentina has prompted a reevaluation of how these dinosaurs developed their iconic long necks, according to Martin Hechenleitner from Argentina’s National Council for Scientific and Technical Research.
“Waila cursor presents a different narrative than the gradual transition model,” Hechenleitner points out. “This is evident since it coexisted with closely related species that were smaller and had relatively shorter necks.”
This dinosaur had a small skull, muscular hind limbs, slender hips, and notably short arms, with relatively large and robust hands compared to other dinosaurs of its era.
This suggests that the traits of increased size and neck elongation emerged early in this evolutionary line, Hechenleitner explains.
“Waila cursor allows us to trace the origins of elongated necks and larger body sizes back to the dawn of dinosaurs in the fossil record,” he says, referencing species like argentinosaurus and Patagotitan, which emerged from a lineage that originated over 100 million years ago, with early bipedal forms measuring just over a meter long and weighing between 10 and 15 kilograms.
Dinosaur hunting in Mongolia’s Gobi desert
Join an exciting expedition to unearth dinosaur remains in the expansive wilderness of the Gobi Desert, known as one of the premier paleontological sites in the world.
Did asteroid impacts shape the trajectory of human evolution?
Anna Ivanova/Alamy
This excerpt is from our “Human Stories” newsletter focusing on the archaeological revolution. Subscribe and receive it monthly in your inbox.
I remember when the concept of an asteroid impact causing the extinction of the dinosaurs was a new and thrilling idea. Luis Alvarez and his team first put forth this theory in 1980—the year before I was born. It was a bold assertion, despite the absence of concrete impact crater evidence at the time, relying instead on an unusual rock formation. It wasn’t until the 1990s, with the identification of the Chicxulub impact crater, that the theory gained substantial traction in paleontological circles. To this day, scientists debate whether the impact was the primary driver of extinction or if dinosaurs were already in decline prior to the asteroid’s strike.
Clearly, nothing comparable occurred during the period of human evolution. The Chicxulub impact was notably catastrophic.
Yet, Earth faces numerous other cosmic hazards. A theory suggests that around 42,000 years ago, anomalies in the Earth’s magnetic field may have triggered a global ecological crisis, potentially contributing to the extinction of Neanderthals. This theory was initially proposed in 2021 in Science, and my colleague Karina Shah covered it in a news article.
Moreover, various cosmic events can affect our planet. Smaller meteorite impacts can severely disrupt ecosystems in their vicinity. Additionally, radiation from exploding stars and “supernovae” subject life on Earth to ongoing existential threats, including that of humans and their extinct relatives.
So, did cosmic events play a role in shaping human evolution?
Magnetic Field Fluctuations
Earth’s magnetic field shields us from intense solar radiation and cosmic rays
Milos Kojadinovic/Alamy
Let us first examine the Earth’s magnetic field. Generated by the movement of molten metals within the Earth’s core, this magnetic field extends far into space, offering protection from harsh solar radiation and cosmic rays.
However, this magnetic field is not entirely stable. Every 100,000 years, it undergoes a flip where the north magnetic pole becomes the south pole. During these reversals, the field’s strength diminishes, allowing more radiation to penetrate the surface.
While these events aren’t catastrophic, there are also “excursions,” where the field strength wanes over extended periods, sometimes altering direction before returning to its original state without a full reversal.
The Laschamps event, occurring about 42,000 years ago, is a notable example where the magnetic field almost completely reversed. A 2021 study indicated this event lasted several hundred years, manifesting severe changes in atmospheric ozone levels. The researchers posited that these shifts likely incited “global climate change, resulting in environmental upheaval, extinction events, and alterations in archaeological records.”
Recent follow-up research has refined these ideas, suggesting that during the field’s excursion, phenomena such as auroras would have been visible farther south, affecting areas like Europe and North Africa and potentially exposing populations to harmful UV rays.
The authors further proposed that early modern humans in western Eurasia might have used a red pigment called ochre as a form of sunscreen, while also developing better clothing techniques. Such adaptations may have aided their survival against increased radiation exposure, unlike Neanderthals who lacked such adaptations.
Interestingly, the timing of the Laschamps event aligns closely with the last known presence of Neanderthals, raising questions about its possible role in their extinction.
Nevertheless, if we take a broader view of the past seven million years of human evolution, multiple magnetic field fluctuations have occurred. How did these excursions and reversals affect life during those times?
Historically, the last complete magnetic reversal occurred during the Brunhes-Matuyama transition around 795,000-773,000 years ago, long before Neanderthals but perhaps around the time of a common ancestor with us. Further explorations reveal numerous magnetic inversions throughout the past seven million years.
While smaller excursions are more frequent, securing evidence of them is challenging. A 2008 analysis identified 14 confirmed excursions over the past two million years, plus six others with weaker support.
Considering that Neanderthals experienced at least three excursions prior to the Laschamps event, why would this particular event lead to their extinction?
In fact, the Laschamps event posed significant hazards; if Neanderthals were vulnerable, it’s likely that other species suffered as well. Many megafauna species became extinct in Australia around 50,000 years ago, yet large animals in the Americas survived much longer, well into the 13,000-year mark. Notably, there was no significant spike in extinctions around 42,000 years ago.
This raises skepticism regarding the hypothesis linking the Laschamps event to Neanderthal extinction. While it may have contributed, it likely wasn’t the primary factor.
Similar issues plague claims about cosmic events impacting human evolution.
Impact Events
I’m fascinated by meteorite impacts. For an interesting afternoon rabbit hole, check out Impact Earth, an interactive map showcasing impact craters on our planet. For example, consider the Zhamanshin Hypervelocity Impact Crater in Kazakhstan, which is 13 km wide and is about 910,000 years old, or the Puntas Macrater in Nicaragua, which is 14 km wide and dates back 804,000 years. Both are notable compared to the Barringer Crater in Arizona, which measures just 1.2 km and is 61,000 years old.
Impact Earth catalogues 48 craters and sediments from the last 2.6 million years of geological history. If we expand our view back to the dawn of humanity, the number increases. Some noteworthy examples include:
Schnack in Kazakhstan, 7-17 million years ago, 2.8 km wide
Bigaha in Kazakhstan, possibly 6 million years ago, 8 km wide
Karla in Russia, 4 to 6 million years ago, 12 km wide
Aouelloul in Mauritania, 3.1 million years ago, 0.39 km wide
Keep in mind, none of these impacts come close to the scale of the Chicxulub crater. The largest craters are merely one-tenth the size. Nevertheless, such impacts can have significant localized effects.
Moreover, the timing and location of impacts matter. For instance, a significant event in Kazakhstan 6 million years ago likely did not affect humans, as they were confined to Africa at that time. However, what remained undisclosed was any research investigating the ecological repercussions of the Aouelloul and Roller Kamm impacts in Africa.
Another notable impact occurred around 790,000 years ago, resulting in unique tektites scattered across Southeast Asia and Australia. A 2019 study linked this to possibly the impact crater in Laos, measuring approximately 15 km in diameter. While it might have influenced Neanderthals, it was simply too distant and too early for it to be critical. However, it was undoubtedly significant for Homo erectus living in that region, but not impactful enough to change their survival as a species around 117,000 to 108,000 years ago.
The Exploding Stars
Supernovae emit massive pulses of matter and radiation
NASA/DOE/Fermi LAT collaboration, CXC/SAO/JPL-Caltech/Steward/O. Krause et al., NRAO/AUI
What about the more distant events, like exploding stars? When massive stars become supernovae, they release a massive outpouring of matter and radiation that traverses the galaxy. For years, we have known that nearby supernovae leave signatures in the rock record in the form of iron isotopes.
This leads to speculation about potential impacts. One proposal suggests extra cosmic rays from a supernova might increase cloud cover, thus lowering temperatures, which could have influenced australopithecines living in Africa at that time. Perhaps.
Physicist Adrian Mellott of the University of Kansas has spent two decades delving into what he terms “astrobiophysics.” He investigates how cosmic events such as supernovae might influence life on Earth. Much of this research pertains to periods before the advent of Homo, but not all.
Mellott highlights a significant moment around 2.6 million years ago when the Pliocene epoch transitioned into the Pleistocene. During this time, large marine extinctions may have coincided with supernova activity. He posits that supernovae could have bombarded Earth with cosmic particles, potentially leading to climate change characterized by more frequent wildfires and increased cancer rates. However, many paleontologists who identified the extinction instead link it to diminishing productive coastal habitats.
The universe presents an extensive array of threats. It’s vital to understand that numerous potentially perilous cosmic events have transpired during human evolution. Yet, limited evidence supports the notion that any of these incidents led to the extinction of human ancestors or any other species.
Thus, I tend to believe that asteroid impacts, supernovae, and shifts in the Earth’s magnetic field played a minimal role in the grand story of human evolution. While some cosmic events may have had localized impacts, they aren’t equivalent to eradicating human species or catalyzing new adaptations.
Keep this perspective in mind the next time you read sensational headlines claiming cosmic events led to the demise of Neanderthals or other species.
Neanderthals, Ancient Humans, Cave Art: France
Join New Scientist’s Kate Douglas on an enthralling journey through time as she delves into the significant Neanderthal and Upper Paleolithic sites across southern France, from Bordeaux to Montpellier.
Stromatolites are rock-like structures formed by bacteria in shallow water
Lkonya/Shutterstock
Microorganisms in the remote bays of Western Australia are interconnected through tiny tubes, suggesting early stages of complex life evolution.
In Shark Bay, known by the Indigenous name Gathaagudu, microbes create slimy, multi-layered assemblages called microbial mats. This challenging environment, buffeted by tidal shifts and temperature fluctuations, has fostered bacterial communities alongside another single-celled organism known as Archaea, which have thrived here for tens of thousands of years. These microorganisms often coexist symbiotically, forming layered sedimentary structures known as stromatolites.
“The mats develop under hypersaline conditions with elevated UV levels. It withstands cyclones. Despite facing numerous threats, they persist,” comments Brendan Burns from the University of New South Wales in Sydney.
He posits that these contemporary microbial communities may resemble those that existed billions of years ago when complex life first emerged. This evolution might have been driven by a mutual dependence between bacteria and Archaea, leading to the formation of more complex cells known as eukaryotes.
Burns and his team returned some of these microbial mat communities to the lab to cultivate the organisms in high-salinity, low-oxygen conditions.
They successfully cultured only one type of bacterium, stromatodesulfovibrio nilemahensis, and a newly identified archaeon named Nearachaeum marumarumayae, a member of the Asgard Archaea group. These archaeal bacteria, named after the gods’ abode in Norse mythology, are regarded as the closest relatives to the eukaryotic cells that comprise the bodies of animals, plants, and humans.
According to team members, “These organisms seem to directly interact and share nutrients,” states Iain Duggin of the Sydney Institute of Technology. Although there is no direct evidence yet, the complete genomic sequence obtained allows for speculation regarding the metabolic processes of both organisms.
The genomic analysis indicated that bacteria synthesize amino acids and vitamins, while the Archaea produce hydrogen and various compounds, such as acetic and sulfuric acids. Both sets of products are unique, indicating a dependency on each other.
The researchers also observed indications of direct interaction between the two species. “We have observed what we refer to as nanotubes,” notes Duggin. “These microscopic tubes, seemingly produced by bacteria, establish direct connections to the surface of the Asgard cells.”
3D reconstruction based on electron microscope images showing cell membranes of Archaeon (blue) and bacteria (green), with nanotubes (pink) between them
Dr. Matthew D. Johnson, Bindusmita Paul, Durin C. Shepherd et al.
In addition to their interactions, the Archaeon cells generate vesicle chains that resemble SAC-like structures utilized for transporting molecules along extracellular fibers. Duggin notes that these nano-sized vesicles appear to engage with the nanotubes formed by the bacteria.
“While nanotubes may be too slender for conduits, they facilitate a type of multicellular binding that enhances resource sharing,” asserts Duggin.
The researchers identified a protein similar to human muscle proteins, a genomic sequence coding for a previously unknown protein, and a protein consisting of about 5,500 amino acids, which is substantial for ancient species. “While I can’t claim it’s directly connected to human muscle proteins, it suggests that their evolutionary origins may trace back much further,” says team member Kate Mischey from the University of New South Wales.
“What fascinates me most are the direct connections formed by nanotubes between bacteria and archaea,” comments purilópez-garcía from Parisa Clay University, France. “Such interactions have not been documented in prior cultures.”
However, discerning the exact behaviors of bacteria and Archaea is challenging, remarks Buzz Baum from the MRC Institute of Molecular Biology, Cambridge, UK. “It’s a complex relationship of conflict and cooperation,” he notes. “They interact, share, and sometimes clash, demonstrating a nuanced understanding of each other’s presence.”
Duggin believes the prevalent dynamic is more cooperative than combative. “These organisms coexisted in our culture for over four years, suggesting a level of harmony rather than contention,” he adds.
Burns and his colleagues propose that their findings may reflect an early stage in the evolution of eukaryotic cells within microbial mats. Roland Hatzenpichler at Montana State University aligns with this perspective.
“The study’s outcomes indicate that the newly identified Asgard Archaea engage directly with sulfate-reducing bacteria,” he remarks.
However, Lopez Garcia cautions that these interactions may not date back beyond 2 billion years. “While these archaeal and bacterial forms are modern, the microbial environments they inhabit may provide insights into ancient ecosystems,” he explains.
According to Hatzenpichler, we may be on the verge of better understanding the similarities between recent microorganisms and the cells they collaborate with to form primitive nucleated cells. “We’re now in an advantageous position to uncover deeper truths,” he concludes.
Lava planets are rocky exoplanets that orbit extremely close to their host star, allowing for conditions that melt silicate rocks daily.
Boucale et al. We introduce a straightforward theoretical framework to explain the evolution of lava planets’ internal atmospheric systems. Image credit: Sci.News.
A lava planet is typically a super-Earth to Earth-sized world, orbiting its star in less than one Earth day.
Similar to the Earth’s moon, these planets are expected to be tidally locked, displaying the same hemisphere to their stars at all times.
With extreme surface temperatures, their rocks can reach melting or even evaporating points, creating a distinctive state within our solar system.
These unusual worlds are easily observable due to their pronounced orbital dynamics, offering valuable insights into the fundamental processes that drive planetary evolution.
“Due to the extreme orbital characteristics of lava planets, our understanding of rocky planets in the solar system does not apply directly, which leaves scientists uncertain about expected observations,” states Dr. Charles Eiduard Bukare from York University.
“Our simulations provide a conceptual framework for understanding their evolution and a way to investigate internal dynamics and chemical transformations over time.”
“While these processes are greatly intensified on lava planets, they fundamentally mirror those shaping rocky planets in our solar system.”
As rocks melt or evaporate, elements like magnesium, iron, silicon, oxygen, sodium, and potassium partition differently across vapor, liquid, and solid states.
The unique orbital dynamics of lava planets maintain vapor-liquid and solid-liquid equilibria for billions of years, facilitating long-term chemical evolution.
Using cutting-edge numerical simulations, the researchers predict the evolutionary status of two distinct categories.
(i) Fully melted interior (likely a younger planet): The atmosphere reflects the planet’s overall composition, with heat distribution within the melt ensuring a hot and dynamic nightside surface.
(ii) Nearly solid interior (likely an older planet): Only shallow lava oceans persist, while the atmosphere becomes depleted of elements such as sodium, potassium, and iron.
“We sincerely hope that with the NASA/ESA/CSA James Webb Space Telescope, we will be able to observe and differentiate between young and old lava planets,” Dr. Boukaré expressed.
“Demonstrating this capability would signify a significant advancement beyond conventional observational methods.”
study was published today in the journal Natural Astronomy.
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cé. Boucale et al. The significance of internal dynamics and differentiation in the surface and atmosphere of lava planets. Nut Athlon Published online on July 29th, 2025. doi:10.1038/s41550-025-02617-4
Paleontologists have identified a novel genus and species of Triassic derepanosauromorph diapsid showcasing remarkable appendages (not feathers or skin). This discovery is based on two exceptionally well-preserved skeletal structures and related specimens. Their research reveals that wings and hair-like extensions are not exclusive to birds and mammals.
Mirasaura Grabogeli In natural forest environments, insects are hunted. Image credit Gabriel Uguet.
Feathers and hair are intricate outer body appendages of vertebrates, serving essential functions such as insulation, sensory support, display, and facilitating flight.
The development of feathers and hair traces back to the ancestral lines of birds and mammals, respectively.
However, the genetic frameworks responsible for these appendages may have origins deeper within the amniotic lineage, encompassing various animal branches, including those of birds and mammals.
The Triassic reptile species outlined by Dr. Stephan Spiekman from the Staatliches Museum für Naturkunde Stuttgart and his collaborators featured unique appendages that could reach up to 15.3 cm (6 inches) in length along their backs.
Named Mirasaura Grabogeli, this peculiar creature inhabited Europe approximately 247 million years ago.
The species exhibited a superficially bird-like skull but was classified within the Diapsid group known as Drepanosauromorpha.
Anatomy of Mirasaura Grabogeli. Image credit: Spiekman et al., doi: 10.1038/s41586-025-09167-9.
Discovered in northeastern France in the 1930s, Mirasaura Grabogeli comprises 80 specimens featuring two well-preserved skeletal structures with isolated appendages and preserved soft tissues. Recent preparations have led to its identification.
“This enabled the connection between the summit and skeleton,” the paleontologist noted.
“The tissue preserved within the appendages contains melanosomes (pigment-producing cells located in skin, fur, and feathers), resembling those found in feathers more closely than in reptilian skin or mammalian hair, yet lacking the typical branching pattern of feathers.”
“These observations suggest that such complex appendages might have evolved among reptiles prior to the emergence of birds and their closest relatives, potentially offering new insights into the development of feathers and hair.”
Given the characteristics of the appendages observed in Mirasaura Grabogeli, we dismissed their roles in flight or camouflage, proposing instead a possible role in visual communication (signaling or predator deterrence).
The team’s research paper was published today in the journal Nature.
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SNF Spiekman et al. Triassic diapsids reveal early diversification of skin appendages in reptiles. Nature Published online on July 23, 2025. doi:10.1038/s41586-025-09167-9
Morrison, a marine creature from the Cambrian period, could represent an early arachnid
Junnn11 @ni075 CC BY-SA 4.0
Research indicates that the brains of ancient sea creatures, dating back over 500 million years, were structured similarly to those of spiders. This challenges past theories that arachnids originated on land.
Morrison reflects a time of significant biological diversity increase, known as the Cambrian Explosion, when various animal groups began appearing in fossil records. These creatures possessed chelicerae, pincer-like mouthparts likely used for tearing into small prey.
Previous beliefs suggested that modern relatives of Morrison, which include horseshoe crabs, were connected to spiders. However, Nicholas Strausfeld and his team at the University of Arizona propose otherwise.
The researchers reexamined specimens of Mollisonia symmetrica, collected in 1925 from British Columbia, Canada, and now housed at Harvard University’s Comparative Zoology Museum. Strausfeld and his colleagues identified a brain structure that had previously been overlooked.
In horseshoe crabs, the chelicerae exhibit a neural connection at the back of the brain; however, in Morrison, this structure was inverted, with chelicerae linked to two neural regions that offered a perspective on the forefront of the nervous system.
Strausfeld notes that this orientation is “characteristic of arachnid brains.” Unlike the brains of crustaceans and insects, which are folded inward, arachnids have crucial areas for planning agile movements situated at the back. This architecture likely contributes to the remarkable agility and speed seen in spiders.
While it was previously thought that arachnids evolved on land, the earliest existing land fossils of obvious arachnids will not appear for millions of years later, according to Strausfeld. “Perhaps the first arachnids inhabited tidal environments, like Morrison, in search of prey,” he mentions.
Mike Lee, a researcher at Flinders University in Adelaide, Australia, who was not involved in the study, suggests that Morrison may now be viewed as a primitive arachnid. “We now recognize it possessed a brain akin to that of a spider, indicating it was an aquatic relative of the early spiders and scorpions,” Lee states.
Nonetheless, he cautions that while researchers strive to extract as much insight as possible from a single fossil, there remains a degree of ambiguity in interpretation. “It’s akin to attempting to piece together a unique Pavlova after it has been dropped,” he explains.
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