The concept of Marine Cloud Brightening revolves around the idea that by making clouds brighter or whiter, more sunlight is reflected back into space. This ultimately helps reduce the amount of heat absorbed by Earth’s atmosphere and offers a respite from the effects of increased carbon emissions.
Clouds in marine environments are believed to benefit the most from such brightening efforts. But how exactly does one go about brightening clouds, and does it work as effectively as theorized?
Scientists primarily suggest spraying aerosols, such as fine sea salt particles, to brighten clouds. These aerosols act as “condensation nuclei” within the clouds, promoting water vapor to form more liquid droplets and creating denser, brighter clouds. A similar effect can be seen with pollution particles.
Fun fact: Some clouds can contain 500,000 kg (or £ 1.1 million) of water. That’s about 100 elephants -Photo Credit: Getty
However, the challenge lies in ensuring the particles sprayed are of the right size to effectively brighten the clouds at the appropriate time. Additionally, achieving significant sunlight reflection requires scaling up the operation sufficiently. There is also the concern of unforeseen impacts on clouds and climate.
Current research efforts mainly involve small-scale experiments and computer simulations, though some real-world studies have raised questions. For instance, a bright cloud experiment in Arameda, California was halted in May following warnings from local authorities reported in the media.
Experts have suggested that useful insights can be gleaned from “natural” experiments as well. Observations near the Kilauea volcano in Hawaii showed that aerosols generated naturally during the eruption led to a 50% increase in cloud cover. 。
Ultimately, the decision on whether to pursue large-scale marine cloud brightening rests with policymakers, who require convincing evidence. As scientific understanding and the climate crisis evolve, attitudes may shift.
This article addresses the question (I asked from Besariany Shepherd, Derbyshire) “Is Marine Cloud Brightening useful for fighting climate change?”
To submit a question, please email questions@sciencefocus.com or send a message via our Facebook, Twitter, or Instagram Page (remember to include your name and location).
For fascinating science facts, visit our fun fact page.
With brighter screens, new hands-free gestures, and faster speeds for the first time in years, Apple’s smartwatch has firmly established itself as the market leader.
The Apple Watch Series 9 will be available in a variety of sizes and materials, with prices starting at £399 (€449 / $399 / AU$649), a £20 reduction in the UK. It will launch alongside the Ultra 2, which costs £799 (€899 / $799 / AU$1,399), £50 cheaper than last year’s model.
Both watches look similar to their predecessors on the outside, with the Series 9 sporting a slimmer, pillow-shaped shape and available in 41mm or 45mm size options, while the 49mm Ultra 2 sports a chunkier look with a sturdy titanium shell and oversized buttons.
New this year are significantly brighter screens. The Series 9 is twice as bright as last year’s Series 8, with a maximum brightness of 2,000. LiceThat puts it on par with rival Samsung’s Galaxy Watch 6, and it has the same maximum brightness as the iPhone 15 Pro Max. A brighter screen makes it easier to read in direct sunlight, which is especially important for a watch.
The Ultra 2 goes even further, with a screen that can hit an impressive 3,000 nits at peak, which is 50% brighter than last year’s model. The super-bright screen is almost overkill unless you’re hiking through the desert, but you can unleash maximum brightness with the built-in torch mode to better light your way.
New, faster chips
Siri requests for apps, timers, and other simple actions are now much faster and more reliable, even when you’re out of range of your iPhone. Photo: Samuel Gibbs/The Guardian
The new S9 chip in both watches is the first to offer a significant speed boost since the S6 in 2020. The 30% performance increase isn’t dramatic for everyday activities, except for interactions with Siri, many of which are now handled on the watch. Setting timers, taking calls and other simple interactions are quicker without an iPhone or data connection. Voice input for messages and notes is also up to 25% more accurate, making it faster to send replies without a phone call.
Battery life for both models is around 36 hours for the Series 9 and 70 hours for the Ultra 2, enough for a full day and night, or nearly three days, on a single charge.
Double Tap is coming soon
The double pinch gesture is simple and easy to perform, making it especially useful for quick actions like silencing a timer when your other hand is occupied. Photo: Samuel Gibbs/The Guardian
Apple also added a new gesture for hands-free use of the Watch: “Double Tap,” which recognizes pinching your finger and thumb together twice, which is a simplified version of one of Apple’s existing gestures. AssistiveTouch accessibility features It’s for watches, but it’s faster and has become a standard part of every interface.
A double pinch will silence alarms and timers, start or end calls, and perform other basic actions. This feature only works when the screen is active, so the watch is facing you and can’t be accidentally activated. This feature requires the watchOS 10.1 update. It’s currently being tested in the public beta, but is working very well and should be fully rolled out by the end of October.
Sustainability
Apple doesn’t disclose the expected lifespan of the battery, but it is expected to last for more than 500 full charge cycles, retain at least 80% of its original capacity, and is replaceable. £95Repair costs Between £309 and £509 Varies by model.
They contain recycled aluminum, titanium, cobalt, copper, gold, plastic, rare earth elements, tin, and tungsten. Apple offers trade-ins and free recycling for its devices, and the report details the environmental impact of each watch.
price
The Series 9 comes in two sizes (41 and 45mm), a choice of materials, and a 4G option that requires an e-SIM-compatible phone plan add-on. Prices start from £399 ($399/AU$649), with the 4G model costing an extra £100 ($100/AU$160). The Ultra 2 costs £799 ($799/AU$1,399).
By comparison, the Apple Watch SE costs £259, the Samsung Galaxy Watch 6 costs £289, and the Google Pixel Watch 2 costs £269. £349The Garmin Venu 3 costs £449, while the Garmin Epix Pro costs £829.
verdict
Apple’s smartwatch didn’t need much to keep it in the top spot, but both the Series 9 and Ultra 2 look the same but with small but meaningful updates that are hard to beat.
The significantly brighter screen makes a big difference when you’re outside and want to see the time, alerts, and activity stats at a glance, and the faster chip means this watch will stay fast for years to come, making interactions with Siri super-fast, even when your phone isn’t nearby.
The upcoming double-tap gesture is also a handy addition, making tasks like checking train times a little easier when you’re rushing with your luggage.
If you want the best smartwatch for your iPhone, it’s hard to beat the Apple Watch, either model.
When the double-tap gesture is recognized, the watch vibrates and a notification pops up, here we are scrolling through widgets on the watch face. Photo: Samuel Gibbs/The Guardian
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