The 2,000-Year-Old Jindai Cherry Tree Shown in Fumi Koda’s Book Tree
Credit: Horizon Image/Motion/Alamy
Fumi Koda, a notable Japanese writer who passed away in 1990, was the daughter of the famous author Rohan Koda. One of her final works, tree, documents her journey visiting renowned trees throughout Japan. This book was recently translated into English for the first time by Charlotte Gough.
“A tree goes through its life without uttering a word,” Koda reflects. “Even amidst life’s twists and turns, they remain silent. I find that both inspiring and melancholic.”
tree is filled with insightful digressions, making it a profound account of an encounter with trees that only someone nearing the end of life seems to articulate effectively. This work falls under the genre of Japanese literature known as essay, which promotes thought and spontaneity, often without a conventional plot structure. Koda’s writing possesses a lightness that feels casual yet reveals remarkable originality and fresh perspectives.
Koda’s reflections often contrast the frailty of her own experience with the enduring strength of the trees she encounters. During her visits, such as to the legendary Jomon Sugi—a cypress tree on Yakushima Island—she expresses being overwhelmed. This remarkable tree may be anywhere from 2,000 to 7,000 years old, and Koda shares, “To be honest, it was frightening.”
On another journey, she visits the [2000-year-old Jindai cherry tree](https://www.yamanashi-kankou.jp/english/staff-journal/jindaizakurar1eng.html), celebrated as the oldest in Japan. Koda poetically describes feeling suspended between beauty and apprehension as she gazes at its gnarled roots and delicate flowers. She encapsulates the timelessness of Miharu Takizakura, another historic cherry tree in Fukushima, noting, “These trees seem to have witnessed countless generations, coexisting through the ages.”
Many have been drawn to Koda’s tree after its appearance in Wim Wenders’ 2024 film, perfect days (also highly recommended). This work invites readers to reconsider their perceptions of trees.
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On June 21, global ocean temperatures outside the polar regions hit an unprecedented high, surpassing those recorded in 2023 and 2024, as reported by the Copernicus Climate Change Office and the Copernicus Oceanographic Office.
That day, temperatures soared to 20.86 degrees Celsius (69.54 degrees Fahrenheit), exceeding the 20.83 degrees Celsius (69.49 degrees Fahrenheit) documented in previous years, according to the Copernicus Climate Change Agency.
Additionally, the Copernicus Oceanographic Station noted a temperature spike to 21 degrees Celsius (69.8 degrees Fahrenheit), breaking the prior record from 2023 and 2024 by 0.1 degrees Celsius.
Richard Allan, a climate science professor at the University of Reading in the UK, stated during a phone interview, “This is consistent with our long-standing knowledge: the Earth’s warming is largely due to fossil fuel combustion, which releases significant greenhouse gases and impedes the planet’s ability to dissipate heat into space.”
Temperatures soared above 90 degrees in Chicago on Monday. Scott Olson/Getty Images
The oceans absorb over 90% of the Earth’s excess energy, primarily from fossil fuel combustion (oil, coal, gas), Allan notes. Rising ocean temperatures highlight urgent concerns regarding climate change and the intensified impact of El Niño.
This announcement coincides with a severe heat wave threatening parts of the United States as the Fourth of July weekend approaches. As of Wednesday, more than 46 million people were under heat warnings, according to the National Weather Service.
The National Weather Service cautioned that “dangerous heat” is intensifying across the eastern United States, with temperature highs expected to range from the mid-90s to over 100 degrees in certain areas.
Regions including the Ohio Valley, mid-Atlantic, and Northeast will experience record high temperatures through Thursday, with extreme heat expected to affect parts of Canada as well.
Visitors shield themselves from the sun at the Great American State Fair on the National Mall on Tuesday. Mark Schiefelbein/AP
Simultaneously, Europe has faced record-breaking heat, with more than 1,300 excess deaths reported since June 21 due to high temperatures, according to WHO Director-General Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesus. source
France’s health ministry reported approximately 1,000 additional deaths than expected over the past week amid its severe heat wave.
Tedros commented, “As a result of climate change and global warming, ‘once-in-a-generation’ heatwave events have become almost an annual occurrence.” He emphasized that Europe is “the warmest continent on earth, heating at double the global average,” and that the infrastructure in European homes, workplaces, and schools “is ill-equipped for these extreme temperatures.”
For the first time, federal firefighters are being encouraged to wear respirators to safeguard themselves from the harmful effects of smoke during wildland firefighting operations.
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The U.S. Forest Service announced on Wednesday that firefighters are now permitted to use N95 respirators on fire scenes. This marks a significant policy shift, as protective gear had not been authorized for decades despite evidence highlighting the health risks linked to wildfire smoke.
“This change has been a long time coming,” stated George Broyles, a veteran USFS firefighter who has researched wildfire exposure risks. “It’s undeniable that first responders worldwide face increased risks of cancer and heart disease.”
For Broyles, this policy amendment signifies a long-overdue acknowledgment from the Forest Service of the toxic nature of wildfire smoke, prompting the agency to seek measures that mitigate risks for its personnel.
The Forest Service has historically been slow to address the health impacts of wildfire smoke and to implement necessary protections for workers in challenging firefighting environments.
Inhalation of wildfire smoke exposes individuals to volatile gases and fine particulate matter, which can infiltrate the lungs and enter the bloodstream. Such exposure is linked to respiratory issues, lung cancer, and various chronic diseases, as well as adverse pregnancy outcomes across diverse U.S. demographics. Studies indicate that wildland firefighters experience heightened risks for lung cancer and cardiovascular conditions.
The Forest Service also revealed plans to initiate a cleanup program aimed at minimizing firefighters’ skin exposure to toxins in soot and ash. Personnel will be compensated for time spent washing uniforms, cleaning vehicles, and showering post-fire operations.
The agency clarified that this updated policy serves as a temporary step towards establishing a more robust protective program that aligns with Occupational Safety and Health Administration standards.
“We’re committed to developing a comprehensive respiratory protection program without delay. We believe N95 respirators can be effectively utilized to offer protection, while allowing for removal if individuals overheat,” commented Evan Birx, a U.S. Forest Service spokesperson. “While use is not mandatory, we strongly encourage it.”
The Forest Service stated that fire managers and firefighters intending to use respirators will be required to undergo a training program.
As wildfires escalate in frequency and severity, researchers are racing to comprehend the long-term consequences of smoke exposure. Wildland firefighters represent a demographic at high risk for chronic smoke-related ailments.
A 2019 survey indicated that, depending on their career duration and exposure days, wildland firefighters are estimated to face an 8% to 43% increased risk of lung cancer and a 16% to 30% elevated risk of cardiovascular issues. Further studies reveal that wildland firefighters are more likely to develop hypertension and arrhythmia.
“Access to N95s, decontamination protocols, and relevant training can significantly reduce exposure to harmful smoke and toxins,” stated Steve Gutierrez, union representative for the American Federation of Federal Employees. “It’s vital to build upon this momentum with a long-term respiratory protection strategy, cancer screenings, early disease detection, and improved facilities like washing machines for decontamination.”
While N95 masks offer some level of protection, they are not a panacea. Their design can cause discomfort and may increase the effort required for breathing during intense physical activity. Moreover, while they prevent particulates from entering the body, they do not guard against carbon monoxide, formaldehyde, and other harmful gases emitted from fires.
According to Forest Service guidelines, these masks should not be used in steep terrains or environments where fire conditions are rapidly changing or where direct flame contact is possible.
“Currently, there isn’t a one-size-fits-all solution,” remarked Reba Duncan, president of Grassroots Wildland Firefighters, a nonprofit advocacy organization comprising current and former federal wildland firefighters. She characterized N95s as merely “an additional temporary measure.”
Nonetheless, developing a comprehensive ventilatory system in line with OSHA regulations could require “many years” to finalize, Broyles cautioned.
Both he and Gutierrez noted that many firefighters might opt not to wear N95 respirators.
“I believe it’s going to be a culture-changing process,” Gutierrez added.
This summer may be particularly challenging for wildland firefighters. As per the National Interagency Fire Center (NIFC) statistics, over 34,000 wildfires have ignited, scorching at least 2.7 million acres in 2023; both figures exceed the 10-year averages.
Numerous western states, including Utah and Colorado, have witnessed record spring snowfall yet are currently grappling with significant drought and heightened fire risks. Concurrently, a strong El Niño phenomenon is unfolding, leading to anticipated increases in global temperatures.
The 27 degrees east meridian divides the Earth into two equally reflective halves.
Planetary Visions Limited/Science Photo Library
A significant line traversing Africa, Europe, Alaska, and the poles creates a division in the Earth that reflects equal amounts of light. This symmetry could have a vital influence on Earth’s climate system.
Research shows that the northern and southern hemispheres exhibit nearly equal albedo, with findings from Jiang Hao and colleagues from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration revealing an additional line of symmetry at 27 degrees east longitude and 153 degrees west longitude.
The hemispheres defined by this line demonstrate equality in three aspects: clear sky albedo, cloud reflectance, and ice-free ocean coverage. This symmetry has been consistent throughout 25 years of satellite data analyzed by Zhang et al.
Initially, Zhang suspected this symmetry might be coincidental. “Three factors led me to believe that East-West symmetry is significant: its uniqueness, its long-term persistence, and its triple symmetry nature,” he states. “Finding a stable, unique east-west split that balances land and ocean distribution alongside clear and cloudy sky reflectivity is no small feat, especially considering the dynamic nature of clouds.”
Analysis of 25 years of satellite data shows that while the east-west symmetry centers around 27 degrees east, its exact position shifts slightly year to year. Researchers have linked these minor fluctuations to the phases of the El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO), a global climate phenomenon tied to changes in Pacific Ocean temperatures.
“This symmetry could be more than just geometric happenstance,” says Zhang. “It may be involved in significant climate change mechanisms. ENSO could serve as a substantial adjustment factor that helps sustain long-term east-west symmetry centered at 27 degrees east.”
According to Ovind Hodnebrok from the International Center for Climate Research in Oslo, Norway, who was not part of the study, there were initial doubts regarding these findings.
“I was initially skeptical about the east-west symmetry at approximately 27 degrees east longitude. It seems intuitively less clear than the equatorial separation, leading me to suspect it could be coincidental,” Hodnebrok notes.
However, he now agrees that it may represent a “robust feature and potentially an intriguing characteristic of Earth.”
Hodnebrok also highlights the importance of ENSO connections. Unlike the north-south symmetry, which is reportedly weakening due to climate change impacts on sea ice and cloud formation, the east-west symmetry remains stable—though models suggest it could weaken over time, potentially indicating shifts in atmospheric circulation.
Martin Uecker and researchers at the University of New South Wales in Sydney assert that the east-west symmetry might simply be coincidental.
“Weather patterns and climate easily interact across longitudes due to the Earth’s rotation, which creates easterly and westerly wind bands that orbit the planet, facilitating east-west atmospheric perturbation propagation,” Uecker explains.
Zhang notes that mechanisms maintaining east-west symmetry could have significant implications for geoengineering initiatives. For instance, attempts to enhance albedo in one hemisphere might be undermined by broader feedback loops.
“To confidently assert claims about geoengineering effects, we must deepen our understanding of how clouds, circulation, precipitation, and planetary reflectivity interact within the Earth system,” Chan states.
In 2025, wildfires will severely impact the boreal forest of Manitoba, Canada.
Anadolu (via Getty Images)
The increasing frequency of wildfires across the Arctic is having a more substantial impact on global warming than previously understood. While initial assumptions suggested that primarily recent vegetation was burning, soil core studies reveal that these fires are igniting ancient carbon deposits accumulated for over 5,000 years.
“Soil combustion has the potential to release long-term stored carbon from soil, which was previously considered a carbon sink,” explains Meri Rappel from the Finnish Meteorological Institute in Helsinki. Current climate models neglect the release of this ancient carbon.
In the cold conditions of the Arctic, plant growth is slow, leading to the accumulation of organic matter in the soil as peat and other forms over centuries or even millennia. This factor positions Arctic and adjacent boreal soils as significant carbon sinks, which effectively remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.
However, increasing wildfire incidents are changing this dynamic. Rappel’s research team has collected soil cores from recently burned areas to study the impact of these fires.
Their findings indicate that while surface vegetation may burn quickly, the underlying organic material smolders for a longer duration, releasing considerable amounts of soot and carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.
Black carbon, a byproduct of these fires, absorbs sunlight, contributing directly to atmospheric warming. Moreover, in colder regions, black carbon can accumulate on ice and snow, accelerating melting processes that would otherwise not occur.
“We discovered that the age of the carbon released during fires varied significantly depending on soil depth and burn intensity,” Rappel stated during the European Geosciences Union Conference in Vienna.
The risk of releasing ancient carbon is particularly high as it tends to increase toward the North Pole, where organic matter accumulates close to the surface. For instance, in Canada’s Northwest Territories, fires are penetrating soil just a few centimeters deep, unleashing carbon stored for up to 400 years.
In Greenland, fires can consume up to 10 centimeters of soil, releasing carbon that is over 560 years old, with some areas experiencing burns of up to 15 centimeters, releasing carbon that has been stored for 1,000 years.
Remarkably, a boreal forest site in Quebec, Canada, has been identified where fires released carbon dating back 5,000 years. “However, this occurrence is not widespread,” said Ruppel at the conference.
The critical question remains: how much ancient carbon is currently being released by wildfires? Rappel emphasizes that this study is merely the starting point, indicating the need for further research to quantify the released carbon.
“Rappel’s work is vital and underscores the urgency,” noted Sandy Harrison from the University of Reading. “It’s evident that substantial old carbon exists in high-latitude soils and peat. As new fire regimes evolve, destroying topsoil layers and peatlands, this ancient carbon will be released into the atmosphere.”
We’ve all faced the struggles of bathroom visits. Instead of sitting uncomfortably and waiting for relief, why not explore some effective ways to enhance your experience?
Improving your time on the toilet can be achieved by incorporating fiber into your diet, staying well-hydrated, and maintaining regular exercise. These habits may take time to develop, but there’s a simple change you can make today.
According to Dr. Trisha Pasricha, a gastroenterologist and professor at Harvard Medical School, “The easiest way is to elevate your knees above hip level.” You can do this using a stool, a stack of books, or even high heels, depending on your stature.
“This adjustment makes bowel movements significantly easier, even for those who don’t realize they have issues,” Dr. Pasricha adds.
Research supports Dr. Pasricha’s claims. A 2019 study by Ohio State University examined the impact of defecation positions on 52 adults. Participants documented their bowel movements for two weeks: one group used a standard toilet posture while the other utilized a “defecation posture correction device,” or footstool.
The study revealed that after over 1,100 bathroom visits, those using the footstool experienced reduced time on the toilet, decreased strain, and enhanced feelings of emptiness afterward. You can read the findings here.
Why does this work? Dr. Pasricha explains that elevating your knees relaxes the rectum. “The rectum functions as a reservoir for stool,” she elaborates. “It contains the puborectalis muscle that wraps around it, acting like a sling.”
While this muscle’s function is beneficial to prevent premature release, sitting at a 90-degree angle can obstruct this process.
Conversely, squatting straightens your rectum, allowing for smoother bowel movements. A review of 42 studies concluded that squatting significantly reduces the likelihood of constipation and hemorrhoids.
Using your phone in the bathroom can be fun, but it may distract you from the task at hand – Credit: Getty
While squatting is a common practice globally, many in the US and Europe prefer sitting toilets.
Dr. Pasricha notes, “We’ve accepted sitting as the norm. I understand the preference for stability on a toilet, but we compromise our physiological function in doing so.”
For those comfortable with traditional toilets, using a footstool can provide the benefits of squatting without the hassle.
Raising your knees above your hips can open the rectum and facilitate easier bowel movements.
Even a small footstool can increase the anorectal angle by 10 to 15 degrees – Credit: Getty
It’s worth noting that while a footstool is helpful, recent research from Australia and Israel showed no significant changes for individuals suffering from constipation despite using it.
Nevertheless, Dr. Pasricha suggests this approach could alleviate an “artificial, self-created problem that is counter to our physiology.”
For optimal results, a Japanese study indicates that leaning forward can further enhance your bowel freedom.
So, if you find yourself struggling, remember: it’s not you, it’s your angle.
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Wildfires are currently raging across southern Georgia and northern Florida, exacerbated by intense heat, strong winds, severe drought, and dry vegetation left from previous hurricanes. These elements have created a perfect storm for wildfires in the region.
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This situation is exactly what climate scientists have been warning about for decades as our planet continues to warm.
“This is certainly abnormal, but aligns with our concerns regarding climate change,” explained Caitlin Trudeau, a climate scientist at Climate Central, a nonprofit scientific research organization. “These events highlight the dramatic changes occurring in our climate.”
The wildfires are consuming thousands of acres across both states. Notably, a wildfire in Atkinson, Georgia, has already destroyed approximately 90 homes since its ignition on Monday.
In response to these fires, multiple counties, including those in Georgia, have implemented burn bans, leading to Gov. Brian Kemp declaring a state of emergency on Wednesday across 91 counties.
The wildfires are primarily attributed to widespread drought conditions in the Southeast, exacerbated by remnants of previous hurricanes—circumstances tied to climate change.
Specifically, Hurricane Helen, which made landfall in Florida’s Big Bend area as a Category 4 storm in 2024, left behind scorched trees, branches, and other dry vegetation.
“It’s as if the hurricane stripped a significant number of trees and laid everything bare in that area,” Trudeau noted. “The remains were exposed to the sun, and wood with high oil content becomes extremely flammable when dry.”
This dry vegetation significantly amplifies wildfire risks, fostering their growth and increasing their destructiveness.
Researchers warn that catastrophic wildfires will become increasingly prevalent in a warming world. Studies indicate wildfires will not only occur more frequently but will also be more devastating due to climate change—a situation with serious environmental, economic, and health repercussions for communities nationwide and globally.
Trudeau emphasized that even in humid areas like the Southeast—traditionally not considered as wildfire-prone—the risks are evolving under climate change.
“This is the reality we’ve been anticipating with climate change,” she said. “Certain parts of the Southeast are extremely dry now. Although these regions have high humidity, climate change has intensified atmospheric thirst. As temperatures rise, the amount of water drawn from the landscape and extracted from plants and soils increases as well.”
For a wildfire to ignite, two key elements must be present: fire-prone weather, which includes dry conditions, lightning, and wind, and “fuel,” such as dead wood, dry leaves, and other flammable vegetation.
As temperatures rise due to climate change, the atmosphere can efficiently extract moisture from trees and soils. In the event of prolonged droughts, insufficient rainfall exacerbates the potential for destructive wildfires.
Currently, all of Florida is experiencing some level of drought, with much of the Panhandle region categorized as facing “extreme” or “exceptional” drought, according to the US Drought Monitor. Likewise, 71% of Georgia is experiencing “extreme” or “exceptional” drought, particularly in southern regions.
For Trudeau, the wildfires witnessed this week serve as a stark indication of climate change’s catastrophic effects on natural ecosystems, including increased fire activity in areas historically deemed humid.
“This is why we are facing such an extraordinary situation right now,” Trudeau concluded. “It’s truly a perfect storm.”
This version integrates keywords related to wildfires, climate change, and specific regions to improve its search engine optimization (SEO) effectiveness.
New research from Rice University reveals that sulfur plays a crucial role in maintaining the cool, molten interior of Mercury, offering fresh insights into the evolution of the planet’s unique crust and mantle.
Yishen Zhang and Rajdeep Dasgupta shed light on sulfur’s influence in shaping the thermochemical evolution of Mercury and similar reduced rocky planets. Image credit: NASA / Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory / Carnegie Institution of Washington.
“Mercury’s surface is distinctly different from Earth’s,” explains Rajdeep Dasgupta, director of the Center for Planetary Origins and Habitability at the Rice Institute for Space Studies.
“Relying on Earth-based assumptions to study Mercury’s igneous evolution is inadequate, and mission data presents interpretation challenges.”
“We needed a way to replicate Mercury’s conditions in the lab using a meteorite known as Indarch.”
The Indarch meteorite, which fell in Azerbaijan in 1891, mirrors Mercury’s chemical composition closely.
Researchers leveraged the similarities with Indarch to investigate Mercury’s formation, publishing their findings in a recent paper.
“Indarch is chemically as reduced as Mercury’s rocks,” stated Yishen Zhang, a postdoctoral fellow at Rice University.
“It may even provide clues regarding Earth’s building blocks.”
Using the model melt composition from Indarch, scientists created a synthetic version of Mercury rock in a high-pressure, high-temperature environment.
The procedure was quite straightforward: they combined Indarch’s chemical components in small glass vessels, adjusted the facility to mimic Mercury’s conditions, added chemicals, and initiated the cooking process.
“This rock-cooking technique reveals the chemical processes occurring within Mercury,” Zhang remarked.
“By employing temperature, pressure, and chemical parameters derived from spacecraft observations, we aim to recreate Mercury-like conditions to enhance our understanding of magma formation and evolution—even without direct samples from the planet.”
The researchers discovered that sulfur reduces the temperature at which these molten, reduced rocks crystallize.
This indicates that Mercury’s sulfur-rich magma remains molten at lower temperatures compared to Earth’s similar magma.
The significant drop in crystallization temperature is attributed to Mercury’s unique chemical profile: low iron, high sulfur, and its chemically reduced state.
Sulfur is a versatile element, typically bonding with other elements, predominantly iron.
In iron-rich planets like Mars and Earth, sulfur is mostly attached to iron. However, Mercury’s low iron content allows sulfur to seek out new partners.
Specifically, sulfur can bond with key rock-forming elements such as magnesium and calcium.
On Earth, these rock-forming elements typically combine with oxygen to form stable structures known as silicate networks, made up of silicon, oxygen, and these elements.
Nonetheless, when sulfur replaces oxygen in this network, the structure becomes weaker, leading to lower crystallization temperatures.
“Since Indarch may represent a protoplanetary state of Mercury, our experiments suggest that sulfur likely occupied a structural role typically held by oxygen on Earth. This fundamentally alters the crystallization behavior of Mercury’s mantle,” noted Zhang.
“This provides fascinating insights into Mercury’s evolution and the distinct chemistry of its surface,” remarked Professor Dasgupta.
“More critically, it enables us to consider planetary formation in terms of their unique chemistries and igneous dynamics under various conditions.”
“Sulfur influences Mercury similarly to how water and carbon influence magma evolution on Earth.”
The findings are published in the journal Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta.
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Yishen Zhang and Rajdeep Dasgupta. Effects of sulfur on the near-liquid phase relationships of highly reduced basaltic melts and implications for Mercury’s magmatism. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta published online on February 26, 2026. doi: 10.1016/j.gca.2026.02.034
Have you come across impressive graphs indicating a decline in carbon dioxide levels and temperatures by the end of this century? But how is this possible? The prevailing idea is to utilize biomass, combust it for energy, and subsequently capture and store the emitted CO2. It sounds like a solution, right?
Despite its potential, bioenergy with carbon capture and storage (BECCS) has proven to be a significant failure. The technology lacks large-scale implementation, primarily due to exorbitant costs, potential threats to biodiversity, and its ineffectiveness in genuinely reducing emissions. In fact, it has been shown to increase CO2 emissions in critical contexts.
As documented by Leo Hickman from CarbonBrief, BECCS was conceived in 2001 by Swedish researchers aiming to enable paper mills to acquire carbon credits. This theoretical framework was adopted by climate modelers in 2005 for climate scenarios predicting a temperature rise above 1.5°C followed by a decline. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)’s 2014 report amplified the idea, suggesting massive carbon removal through BECCS, effectively marketing an untested technology as the paramount solution to climate change.
In 2015, Drax Energy made headlines by pledging to transition its coal-fired plants to wood pellet combustion while capturing CO2. Fast forward a decade, and while the Drax facility continues to burn wood pellets, carbon capture remains unrealized. According to a recent report by Politico, Drax has halted its carbon capture ambitions, leaving flagship bioenergy initiatives deeply compromised. A spokesperson claimed, “We still view BECCS as a long-term option for this site,” but its future remains uncertain.
Although there are minor BECCS projects in various stages globally, the concept has not matured as anticipated over the past decade. This stagnation is attributed to substantial subsidy demands and the realization of its high costs; as Tim Searchinger from Princeton University aptly states, “It’s shockingly expensive.”
While abstaining from deploying this technology might seem detrimental, it’s actually beneficial since it simply doesn’t work effectively within crucial timeframes. “There may be some scenarios predicting negative emissions, but the volumes are minimal and the benefits won’t materialize for decades,” Searchinger explains.
To better inform policymakers, he and his team have developed computer models simulating carbon flows. These models indicate that BECCS could take up to 150 years to extract CO2 from the atmosphere, performing worse than natural gas combustion without carbon capture for several decades, and potentially leading to higher energy bills.
The fundamental issue lies within BECCS’s methodology. It reallocates CO2 stored in forests to potentially subterranean structures for storage, although a significant portion is lost in transit, re-entering the atmosphere.
Initially, much of the carbon from harvested forests is never transported to power plants; decaying roots and harvested vegetation emit CO2 back into the environment. Wood combustion releases twice the CO2 per energy unit compared to natural gas, while the cooler combustion temperatures limit energy conversion efficiencies. Moreover, carbon capture is energy-intensive, necessitating the burning of additional wood to sustain the capture process, capturing only about 85% of produced CO2 emissions.
A more nuanced challenge arises in those advocating for wood utilization in BECCS, arguing it’s acceptable as long as carbon removal doesn’t outpace forest absorption. However, climate models presume that increased CO2 will enhance forest carbon absorption, or in technical jargon, that land sinks will continue to grow. This perspective conflates sustainable harvesting with actions that undermine existing climate mitigation efforts.
These concerns resonate across various BECCS initiatives involving both slow-growing trees and fast-growing crops like grasses. While theoretically profitable in underutilized agricultural land scenarios, the reality depicts ongoing deforestation in rainforests to expand farmland for food production, which would be catastrophic for biodiversity.
The absence of BECCS raises questions about future CO2 stabilization, yet prioritizing the halt of rising CO2 levels is crucial. As Searchinger advocates, “We must expedite the transition to wind and solar energy as swiftly as possible.”
You’ve likely encountered alarming visuals depicting the decline of carbon dioxide levels and temperatures by the end of this century. How is this transformation possible? The proposed solution is to harvest biomass, burn it for energy, and subsequently capture and store the emitted CO2. Voilà, problem solved!
This concept, known as bioenergy with carbon capture and storage (BECCS), has faced significant challenges. Despite theoretical support, it has not been successfully deployed at the required scale. Key issues include prohibitive costs, detrimental effects on biodiversity, and, troublingly, potential increases in CO2 emissions over critical timeframes.
As Leo Hickman of CarbonBrief outlines, BECCS first emerged in 2001 through Swedish researchers aiming to allow paper mills to earn carbon credits. By 2005, theoretical models employed this idea to advocate for scenarios involving temperature regulation above 1.5°C. The 2014 IPCC report also highlighted models that assumed significant carbon removal via BECCS, establishing a solution that, despite its non-existence, gained official endorsement.
In 2015, Drax Energy announced intentions to convert coal-fired power plants to utilize wood pellets, claiming to capture and store CO2 effectively.
Fast forward ten years, and while Drax remains operational on wood pellets, it has failed to capture any carbon. Recently, as Politico reported, the company has stalled its carbon capture plans, leaving the world’s most prominent bioenergy initiatives effectively in limbo, as a Drax spokesperson noted: “We still consider BECCS as a potential option for this site, but it is much more long-term than originally planned.”
Although numerous smaller initiatives exist globally, it’s evident that BECCS is not gaining traction as envisioned a decade ago. The driving factor? Government reluctance to fund the substantial subsidies required. Tim Searchinger from Princeton University emphasizes that “it’s shockingly expensive.”
While the absence of deploying this technology seems detrimental, it is, in fact, beneficial, as it doesn’t produce the anticipated results within feasible timelines. Searchinger states, “There are likely unrealistic scenarios where negative emissions occur; however, the scale is limited and benefits would take decades to materialize.”
To assist policymakers, new computer models analyzing related carbon flows allow for a hands-on approach to evaluate different scenarios. The models indicate that BECCS could take up to 150 years to effectively remove CO2 from the atmosphere, initially performing worse than natural gas combustion without carbon capture. Additionally, this process could drastically increase electricity bills.
Why does this occur? Essentially, BECCS transforms carbon stored in forests to CO2, which is then transferred to alternate storage solutions, often leading to significant losses released back into the atmosphere.
Notably, much forest carbon remains unutilized. The root systems and surrounding vegetation degrade during harvesting, releasing additional CO2. Moreover, burning wood generates twice the carbon per energy unit compared to natural gas, while the cooler combustion temperatures reduce electricity conversion efficiency. Carbon capture itself is energy-intensive, compelling power plants to burn extra wood to sustain the capture process, which at most captures about 85% of emitted CO2.
There’s a nuanced argument surrounding the use of wood in BECCS. Some assert it’s acceptable, provided the carbon extraction does not outpace forest growth. However, climate models presume that CO2 fertilization will enhance forest carbon uptake, which could hinder the climate change resolutions we currently rely on.
Similar issues affect many BECCS scenarios, particularly those advocating for the use of slow-growing trees or rapid energy crops. While idle farmland could potentially yield some profits, in the broader context, global deforestation continues to clear land for food cultivation, exacerbating biodiversity losses.
Without BECCS, plans to stabilize CO2 levels appear uncertain. For now, our priority should be curbing CO2 emissions. As Searchinger emphasizes, “We need to accelerate the transition to wind and solar energy as much as possible.”
Artist’s Impression of Comet 41P Approaching the Sun.
Credit: NASA, ESA, CSA, Ralph Crawford (STScI)
A recently observed small comet has made history by changing its rotation direction, a first for astronomers. This intriguing phenomenon provides insights into the comet’s interior, potentially illuminating the composition of the early solar system.
Known as Comet 41P/Tuttle-Jacobini-Krezak or simply 41P, this comet spans about 1 kilometer in diameter and completes an orbit around the Sun approximately every 5.4 years. It becomes visible as it approaches the inner solar system, with its last appearance recorded in 2017.
In March 2017, Comet 41P was observed spinning roughly every 20 hours. However, astronomers noted a significant deceleration by May, with a rotation period extending to between 46 to 60 hours. A team led by David Jewitt from the University of California, Los Angeles, analyzed Hubble Space Telescope data from December 2017 and discovered that the comet’s rotation has accelerated again, now completing a rotation roughly every 14 hours.
The prevailing theory suggests that the comet’s rotation slowed to a halt, at which point it began rotating in the opposite direction. This dramatic shift is attributed to sunlight sublimating ice on its surface, transforming it into gas that behaves like a jet. If this jet propels in the opposite direction, it can decelerate the comet and eventually reverse its rotation.
“This is the first documented instance of a rapid change in the rotation direction of a celestial object,” asserts Dmitri Vavilov, a researcher at the University of Washington in Seattle. Typically, substantial changes in celestial body rotations, even for a small comet like 41P, span decades or centuries.
“Tracking 41P’s next appearance from late 2027 to early 2028 will be fascinating,” says John Noonan from Auburn University in Alabama. “Our goal is to determine whether these comets risk destruction due to rotational stress.” If Comet 41P spins too rapidly, it risks disintegrating.
“This comet’s core is anticipated to self-destruct shortly,” explains Jewitt in a recent statement. In fact, such disintegration might already be occurring. This event could present a remarkable opportunity to examine the inner composition of comets that have remained unchanged since the solar system’s formation, yielding critical insights into the early solar system’s chemical landscape.
The United States stands to endure the most severe economic consequences of climate change compared to any other nation worldwide. This trend is projected to continue, exacerbating existing challenges.
According to recent research from Stanford University, scientists have quantified the economic losses linked to emissions from major fossil fuel contributors.
Lead author Marshall Burke, a professor of environmental and social sciences, highlighted the aim of the study: to establish a clear link between specific emissions and their economic repercussions. In an interview with BBC Science Focus, he stated, “This ‘loss and damage’ is a critical aspect of climate change that remains largely unaddressed.”
Burke noted, “The international community has struggled with formally defining this issue or systematically estimating which emissions are impacting which countries. Our study strives to bridge that gap.”
Remarkably, from 1990 to 2020, the U.S. emerged as the largest producer of greenhouse gas emissions, contributing to approximately $10.2 trillion (£7.6 trillion) in global damages.
Furthermore, the study found that the U.S. also incurred the largest climate change losses, amounting to $16.2 trillion (£12.2 trillion).
“America has suffered more,” Burke noted, explaining that even though these emissions are a substantial source of damage, they have also caused significant harm to the U.S. economy itself.
In addition, U.S. emissions have inflicted considerable damage globally. For instance, scientists estimate that the European Union faced damages of $1.4 trillion (£1.1 trillion), while India suffered around $500 billion (£375 billion) in damages, and Brazil incurred losses of about $330 billion (£250 billion).
Burke emphasized the gravity of the situation, saying, “The estimated damages already inflicted by climate change are staggering, amounting to tens of trillions of dollars.”
The European Union is estimated to be the second most affected entity after the U.S., sustaining damages worth $6.4 trillion (£4.8 trillion), despite being the third largest emitter.
In stark contrast, the UK faced losses of about $1.1 trillion (£830 billion) and damages of approximately $880 billion (£660 billion).
Graph illustrating global economic damage attributed to countries and political entities (left) and projected economic losses for individual nations due to climate change (right) from 1990 to 2020 – Credit: Burke et al 2026, Nature
The study presents the relationship between emitters and affected nations as akin to a household managing waste. In this analogy, the waste symbolizes carbon dioxide emissions, and the study meticulously mapped out the origins, pathways, and ultimate impacts of this ‘waste.’
A critical component of the research was examining Gross Domestic Product (GDP), which allowed researchers to assess the repercussions of climate change on various sectors, including agriculture, health, and workplace productivity.
“Temperature fluctuations significantly affect the global economy,” Burke said. “Our research aims to connect these impacts with upstream emissions from global emitters.”
However, carbon dioxide in the atmosphere behaves differently from traditional waste. The repercussions are long-lasting, worsening over time.
“The future damage stemming from past emissions will far surpass the damages already experienced,” Burke warned. “As long as carbon remains in the atmosphere, damage will continue, and the impact over the coming century will likely be exponentially greater than what we’ve faced thus far.”
Rebecca Solnit: “We have so much power and so many victories.”
Albert Llop/NurPhoto/Shutterstock
Rebecca Solnit, a renowned activist and author of over 25 books, is celebrated for her insightful essays, including her latest work, The Beginning Comes After the End.
This book emphasizes how societal transformations in rights and consciousness have unfolded over the past 50 years, driven by a newfound appreciation for the interdependence of humanity and nature. Rebecca recently shared her insights on New Scientist’s podcast The World, the Universe, and Us, discussing her writing journey and future directions.
Rowan Hooper: Let’s start with a quote from your work by scholar Thomas Berry. In 1978, he mentioned that the Earth faces challenges due to a lack of compelling narratives. This resonates with ecologist David Abram’s assertion that we cannot restore our planet without reimagining its story. Why is a new narrative essential?
Rebecca Solnit: Many new narratives might be unfamiliar to those shaped by industrial capitalism. For numerous Indigenous cultures, these stories have long been told. Berry’s statement came at a time when colonial culture seemed all-encompassing, yet we now recognize the crucial role many old narratives are playing as they resurface.
Watching Native American communities reclaim their land, language, and pride has been incredibly inspiring. They are redefining human-nature interactions and assume key roles in the climate movement, changing our global perspective.
This period of colonialism and industrialism might be viewed as an unfortunate detour—now confronted with consequences, such as climate chaos. We must integrate old stories with new scientific understandings of interconnectedness.
One major theme in your book is our intrinsic connection to nature and the growing scientific recognition of this fact.
I wrote this book to highlight how many live in an eternal present, forgetting the dramatic changes our world has undergone. In my youth, the separation of nature and culture was the norm. Today, captivating research showcases our inseparability from nature.
Lynn Margulis’s groundbreaking work in microbiology illustrates how cooperation and symbiosis shape life, challenging traditional competition-based narratives.
Every element in an ecosystem contributes to the whole, and removing one can be detrimental—this contrasts sharply with the mechanical view of managing nature that often leads to disastrous practices.
Indeed, addressing the relentless capitalism that strains our planet will require concerted effort.
Yet, it’s crucial to acknowledge that research consistently shows a strong global desire for climate action and environmental protection, with only a minority benefiting directly from fossil fuels resisting necessary transitions.
We are making strides with innovative agricultural practices and renewable energy initiatives, but these changes aren’t happening fast enough. Climate action requires urgency as historical human rights movements illustrate.
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Many people seem to live in an eternal present where they don’t remember how the world has changed “
Your previous work, Hope in the Darkness, during the George W. Bush era, highlighted activist efforts for change. Given recent shifts under President Trump’s administration, is your new book a sequel?
Hope in the Darkness aimed to reshape expectations of change, illustrating that activism often involves slow, indirect progress. We must appreciate culture and grassroots movements as essential forces in transforming our world.
This book underscores how much has changed; we inhabit a distinctly different world than before. I strive to provide a deeper, long-term outlook to inspire ongoing efforts. Recognizing our collective power is crucial, as power and responsibility are inexorably linked.
Every generation reflects on past conditions, yet recent transformations have been rapid. Residing in San Francisco, a city once synonymous with counterculture, now embodies technological dominance. What has this shift cost us?
Living in the birthplace of the Sierra Club, I’m pained to see the environmental ethos overshadowed by capitalist ambitions. Technologies could have been developed with public welfare in mind rather than profit, especially in AI and social media.
California’s commitment to solar energy is robust, according to Solnit.
MediaNews Group/Orange County Register via Getty Images
Your insights mirror climatologist Tim Lenton’s recent work, Positive Turning Point, which discusses how small actions culminate in significant change. You highlight often-ignored victories.
Throughout my life, some suggested that feminism had failed, demanding to undo millennia of patriarchy in mere decades. Yet we’re making impressive progress, and the fight continues. The observable backlash reflects fear of change, not its absence.
I grew up in times when environmental negligence was rampant. Today, California leads in renewable energy, often producing over 100 percent of its daily electricity from solar sources. The scale of this revolution is breathtaking, contrasting the mayfly’s short-term perspective.
By reclaiming our history, we can appreciate the significant strides in rights and equality. The narrative is ongoing—we are at a pivotal chapter where uncertainty can foster hope. Even amidst challenges, we must acknowledge our achievements and the power that lies within.
This interview has been edited for clarity and length.
A 74-million-year-old leg bone unearthed from a fossil bed in New Mexico Tyrannosaurus rex suggests groundbreaking insights in a recent study published in Scientific Reports.
This discovery supports the theory that Tyrannosaurus did not migrate from Asia, but instead originated in what is now the American Southwest. This shift in understanding implies that the group evolved into giants much earlier than previously believed.
The shin bone, found in the Kirtland Formation of New Mexico and dating to the late Campanian period, measures 96 centimeters (3.1 feet) long—approximately 84 percent the size of the largest known Tyrannosaurus specimen’s tibia.
Based on its measurements, researchers estimate that the animal weighed around 4,700 kg (10,400 lb), making it the largest known Tyrannosaurus of its time—roughly 50 percent heavier than its contemporary rivals.
The researchers propose three possible origins for the bone: it may belong to a particularly large theropod dinosaur, identified as Vista hebersol; it could represent a newly recognized lineage of giant tyrannosaurs; or it might be an early member of the Tyrannosaurini, related to Tyrannosaurus and its closest relatives.
Of these theories, the authors believe the last is the most plausible. Lead researcher Dr. Nicholas Longrich from the University of Bath noted that the bones closely resemble those of Tyrannosaurus.
“This sounds like Tyrannosaurus,” he remarked in an interview with BBC Science Focus. “If these bones were found in the same beds we know Tyrannosaurus were found, no one would doubt it.”
This bone belonged to an animal that predates Tyrannosaurus by 8 to 9 million years – Photo credit: Nick Longrich
This suggests that the Tyrannosaurus lineage may have originated in southern North America, with connections to the giant tyrannosaurus, Tyrannosaurus macraiensis, identified from the slightly younger Hall Lake Formation in New Mexico. Longrich discovered this latest bone while photographing specimens on a museum shelf.
Large-scale clustering of Tyrannosaurus remains in the American Southwest indicates that this lineage likely evolved in that area before dispersing across the continent, millions of years prior to their emergence further north.
Further excavations of the Kirtland Formation may help clarify the ownership of this bone. Longrich expressed that “the potential for new materials to be discovered is very high,” noting that teeth might be a promising avenue for discovery due to their superior preservation compared to bones.
A more complete skeleton would allow researchers to formally name the species and determine if it represents a direct ancestor of Tyrannosaurus or an early relative.
Many people consider themselves rational thinkers, but would we truly change our views if presented with evidence that contradicts them? The answer isn’t straightforward.
Being wrong can elicit discomfort and even feelings of threat, which makes altering someone’s mindset more challenging than anticipated.
Consider those who believe in a flat Earth. Despite presented satellite images proving otherwise, they may still insist on their view. Engaging in debates often reinforces their original beliefs instead.
This phenomenon is known as the “backfire effect,” where conflicting evidence fortifies existing beliefs.
Such resistance to change is prevalent across various topics, from vaccine safety to the effectiveness of trendy diets.
What causes this difficulty in shifting perspectives? Recent studies in Trends in Neuroscience and Education reveal that conventional persuasion methods, like citing facts or emphasizing risks, often clash with our brain’s natural processing. Two crucial neuroscientific concepts enhance our ability to persuade others.
The first is reward prediction error. When outcomes exceed expectations, dopamine—the brain’s pleasure chemical—is released, encouraging repetition of that experience. Therefore, influencing someone’s beliefs often requires them to adopt new ways of thinking. However, if new information feels disappointing or threatening, changing their mindset becomes problematic.
The second concept is the subjective value of information. Our brains assign value based on relevance and reward perception. Information is deemed valuable when it aligns with our identity and aspirations.
If information seems irrelevant or threatening, individuals often disregard it. For instance, simply stating that smoking is dangerous may not be sufficient to persuade someone to quit.
It’s much harder to change a person’s mind if they feel under attack – Credit: Getty
People are more open to adjusting their beliefs when they view new information as emotionally rewarding, relevant, of high quality, and personally meaningful.
So, what can we glean about persuading others to reconsider their views? Dr. Bobby Hoffman, a psychologist specializing in motivation and learning at the University of Central Florida, suggests four effective strategies based on how our brains interact with new information.
1. Spark Curiosity
Gently challenge assumptions and pose questions that pique interest. For example: “Did you know that people who sleep early are often more focused during the day?”
2. Ensure Relevance
Connect your message to the individual’s goals and values. For instance, “I want to improve my focus at work. Did you know that consuming more fruit can enhance brain function?”
3. Emphasize Benefits
Highlight potential gains. “Cutting down on alcohol can safeguard your liver, enhance sleep, and aid in weight loss.”
4. Provide Choices
People react positively when they feel empowered, so offer options. “If you aim to be more active, consider taking a fitness class or adding regular walks to your routine.”
During your next debate with a family member or an effort to persuade a colleague, remember that changing beliefs involves more than just presenting facts. It’s essential to make your message personal and to illustrate the benefits of altering perspectives. Prioritize the story that resonates with what matters to the individual.
This article answers the question from Emma Lucas: “How can I be more persuasive?”
Climate change is potentially enhancing frogs’ mating rituals with a new study revealing fascinating insights.
Researchers from the University of California, Davis discovered that temperature significantly influences the quality of male frogs’ mating calls, with warmer weather leading to more alluring calls.
Typically, male frogs’ calls become less vibrant in early spring. However, as temperatures rise, their calls speed up, catching the attention of female frogs in search of a mate.
“Frog calls are greatly influenced by the environment’s temperature,” notes lead author Julian Pecny, a former graduate student in the Department of Wildlife, Fish, and Conservation Biology at UC Davis. Currently, she serves as the director of conservation science at the North Carolina Amphibian and Reptile Conservancy.
“As the pond warms, the male frog’s call shifts from a slow, dull sound to a quicker, almost urgent tone. Even humans can hear this change, and female frogs are attuned to it as well.”
The results of this study are published in Frontiers of Ecology and Environment, based on research conducted at Quail Ridge Ecological Reserve and Lassen Field Station, part of the UC Conservancy.
Pecny employed a microphone positioned at the edge of a pond to record the love songs of Sierran tree frogs, analyzing them against variations in water temperature.
Photo credit: Brian Todd/UC Davis. As temperatures rise, male Sierran tree frogs enhance their mating calls to signal to females that conditions for breeding are ideal.
Importantly, the researchers found that female frogs are not merely choosing the most attractive male singers; they are using call quality to assess whether environmental conditions are suitable for breeding.
“This could be a method for females to track changes in seasonality over time,” says Pekny. “As the pond gets warmer, the males’ enticing calls become faster.”
This phenomenon could have significant ramifications as our climate continues to warm. With 41 percent of amphibians at risk of extinction, understanding frogs’ breeding timing and its fluctuations is vital for conservation efforts.
Typically, male frogs arrive at the pond before females, starting their calls to compete for attention. However, females delay until conditions are right for their eggs to thrive, gathering essential information from the quality of the males’ calls.
“It’s crucial for males to reach the pond before their competitors,” stated co-author Brian Todd, a professor in the Department of Wildlife, Fish, and Conservation Biology at UC Davis. “Conversely, females should arrive only when it’s the right time for egg laying.”
This groundbreaking discovery could reshape our understanding of animal reactions to climate change and may also impact insect species that make courtship calls during this season.
Interestingly, it’s not only frogs that can hear these mating calls; humans can, too.
“If you listen carefully over several weeks, you might notice the difference,” Pekny suggests. “Imagine how female frogs identify male calls over the course of the season.”
On Thursday, President Donald Trump declared that the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is revoking a critical certification that has been in effect for almost 20 years, aimed at reducing heat-trapping pollution from vehicles, refineries, and factories.
This significant reversal of the so-called endangered finding could drastically alter U.S. policies designed to combat climate change.
The 2009 EPA study indicated that global warming, driven by greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide and methane, threatens the health and welfare of both present and future generations.
“We are officially ending the so-called endangered study, a catastrophic Obama-era policy,” President Trump stated during a press conference. “There was no factual or legal basis for this decision. Fossil fuels, in fact, have saved millions of lives and lifted billions out of poverty globally.”
Prominent environmental organizations are challenging the government’s revocation of the endangered status designation and are gearing up for legal action.
Traffic moves along a road near Royal Dutch Shell and Valero Energy’s Norco refinery during a power outage caused by Hurricane Ida in LaPlace, Louisiana, in August 2021. Luke Charette/Bloomberg from Getty Images File
The findings substantiated the EPA’s capabilities in regulating greenhouse gas emissions from vehicles and power plants while mandating companies to report their emissions, advocating for climate change action consistent with the Clean Air Act.
The Supreme Court’s 2007 ruling affirmed the EPA’s authority to regulate greenhouse gases, highlighting the severe and well-recognized harms linked to climate change, and led to the 2009 endangered finding.
According to the White House and EPA, this reversal marks “the largest deregulatory action in U.S. history.”
This initiative is one of the Trump administration’s most significant efforts to unwind climate action, coinciding with the U.S. retreat from the 2015 Paris Agreement and its expected withdrawal from the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change.
President Trump has previously labeled climate change a “swindle” and cut nearly $8 billion in funding for renewable energy projects in October, though a court later found some cancelations illegal. Recently, the Department of Energy announced a $175 million investment to extend the lifespan of six coal-fired power plants, highlighting continued support for coal.
According to the European Union’s Copernicus Climate Change Agency, last year was the third warmest on record, and the past 11 years have been the hottest ever documented.
EPA Administrator Lee Zeldin engages with residents and business owners impacted by the Palisades fire in Los Angeles on February 4. Mario Tama/Getty Images
President Trump and EPA Administrator Lee Zeldin also announced the elimination of all greenhouse gas emissions standards for vehicles.
“We are reversing the unreasonable hazard findings and abolishing unnecessary emissions standards imposed on vehicle models and engines from 2012 to 2027 and beyond,” President Trump affirmed.
The EPA intends to continue regulating pollutants from tailpipe emissions that affect air quality, including carbon monoxide, lead, and ozone.
Former President Obama emphasized that failing to maintain these standards could make Americans “less safe, less healthy, and hinder efforts against climate change,” benefitting only the fossil fuel industry.
The U.S. Climate Alliance, headed by California Governor Gavin Newsom and Wisconsin Governor Tony Evers, criticized the repeal for being “illegal, dismissive of fundamental science, and disconnecting from reality.”
Multiple organizations, including the American Lung Association and the American Public Health Association, have pledged to sue in response to this unlawful repeal.
“As an organization dedicated to public health, we reject this unwarranted repeal,” they declared in a statement.
Manish Bapna, president of the Natural Resources Defense Council, remarked that the repeal is “a windfall for the fossil fuel sector” and that they are prepared for a legal fight.
“We will oppose this action because it lacks scientific support, is economically detrimental, and is illegal. We’ll see the government in court,” he stated.
This legal struggle could extend for years, as the government attempts to justify the repeals in the face of robust scientific evidence regarding climate change’s dangers.
Michael Gerrard, founder of Columbia University’s Sabin Center on Climate Change Law, noted that the future of this repeal could hinge on the Supreme Court, which may need to overturn 16 years of established precedent.
“The 2007 ruling was a 5-4 decision; all five justices in the majority are no longer in office. Of the dissenting justices, three are still serving,” Gerrard explained. “Typically, courts require a comprehensive explanation and supporting documentation when an agency makes such significant changes.”
Megan Greenfield, a partner at Jenner & Block who oversaw EPA rulemaking during the Biden administration, stated that the current administration may face challenges in court due to existing legal precedents and compelling scientific evidence highlighting climate change’s effects. She emphasized that the administration must demonstrate adherence to proper procedures when issuing regulations.
“Regulatory processes usually require around three years, but this rule was finalized in about a year,” she mentioned. “Only after rigorous compliance can more complex legal issues be addressed.”
As of 4 p.m. ET Thursday, the EPA had yet to publish the final text of the rule and did not respond to inquiries regarding its expected release.
The agency contended that a draft proposal released in August overstated the risks of heat waves, predicted accelerated global warming, and underestimated the advantages of increased carbon emissions, like enhanced plant growth. Most independent scientific organizations have dismissed these claims.
“EPA’s 2009 Endangered Findings stem from extensive research,” stated the American Geophysical Union on Thursday. “To override such a landmark scientific and legal determination is a denial of conclusive science, an ignorance of current struggles, and a direct threat to our collective future.”
The administration has also signaled plans to revisit other regulations reliant on endangered findings, including methane regulations, a potent greenhouse gas.
Interior Secretary Doug Burgum proclaimed on FOX Business that the findings’ reversal would breathe new life into the coal industry.
“CO₂” [carbon dioxide] “was never a pollutant; this whole situation is an opportunity to rejuvenate clean, beautiful American coal,” he stated.
The realm of personalized medicine has witnessed considerable hype but minimal tangible benefits. Numerous companies aim to analyze your biomarkers and suggest tailored nutrition plans, all at a premium price. However, genuine advancements in personalized medicine are still on the horizon.
Despite this, the concept holds significant potential. Each individual possesses unique genetics and microbiomes, influencing health outcomes widely. Additionally, personal habits play a critical role in overall wellness.
This week’s articles highlight two pertinent examples. Nearly everyone encounters the Epstein-Barr virus during their lifetime. However, as our reports indicate, certain genetic mutations inhibit some individuals from effectively clearing the virus, potentially linking it to autoimmune conditions like multiple sclerosis. Concurrently, some people show resistance to protein misfolding associated with Alzheimer’s disease.
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Identifying individuals most likely to respond to treatment is crucial. “
Grasping these disease mechanisms necessitates a comprehensive understanding of human biological diversity. This involves gathering extensive data, ranging from DNA analysis to immune responses, to unveil the underlying mechanisms affecting various individuals.
Furthermore, precision in clinical trial planning is essential. A one-size-fits-all approach to treatment is no longer feasible, as patient reactions can vary significantly. Therefore, pinpointing those who are most likely to benefit from specific treatments is paramount.
Progress is already being made in cancer treatment. Although we generally label tumors as “cancer,” they are distinctly different and require tailored treatment strategies. There isn’t a singular “cure for cancer”; multiple solutions exist.
Although these challenges are considerable, now is the opportune moment to tackle them for the advancement of treatments for diseases like Alzheimer’s and multiple sclerosis.
Approximately 2% of the world’s fish species, or about 500 species, are known to change sex at some point during their adult life.
Some species, like the black-spotted fish (as shown above), switch from female to male periodically. Others, such as clownfish, can change from male to female, while species like coral-dwelling gobies switch genders based on environmental conditions.
This phenomenon is distinct in fish because, unlike mammals and birds, many fish species do not have their sex determined by sex chromosomes.
Environmental cues trigger changes in gene activity, influencing the production of essential hormones and enzymes. A key enzyme, aromatase, plays a critical role by converting male hormones into female ones and changing gonads into ovaries.
Social dynamics can also act as environmental signals. Clark clownfish, for instance, live among sea anemones in small groups during the breeding season. If a breeding female passes away, the largest subordinate male is known to change sex and assume her role.
Changes in water quality can signal a shift in gender as well.
Research indicates that pollutants entering rivers can induce male fish to exhibit female traits, such as spawning behaviors.
Furthermore, a 2008 study found that a mere 1 to 2 degrees Celsius increase in water temperature could skew the sex ratio of certain fish towards a higher male count.
Some sex changes are advantageous; for example, clownfish evolve to switch genders as a survival strategy to enhance reproduction. However, human activities are disrupting natural sex change processes.
Polluting rivers or warming oceans presents severe risks to future aquatic species.
This article addresses the question posed by Alex Jackson via email: “How can animals switch gender?”
For inquiries, feel free to email us at:questions@sciencefocus.com or connect with usFacebook,Twitter, orInstagramand include your name and location.
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Solar geoengineering: A solution to save ice sheets with potential risks
Credit: Martin Zwick/REDA/Universal Images Group (via Getty Images)
Research indicates that an abrupt halt to solar geoengineering may lead to a “termination shock,” causing a rapid temperature rise that could make the initiative more expensive than continuing without intervention.
With greenhouse gas emissions on the rise, there’s increasing attention on solar radiation management (SRM), which cools the planet by dispersing sulfur dioxide aerosols into the stratosphere to reflect sunlight.
However, sustained solar geoengineering is crucial for centuries; otherwise, the hidden warming could quickly reemerge. This rebound, referred to as termination shock, leaves little time for adaptation and could catalyze critical climate events such as ice sheet collapses.
According to Francisco Estrada, researchers from the National Autonomous University of Mexico assessed the risk of inaction on climate change compared to solar geoengineering approaches.
Projections suggest that if emissions aren’t curtailed, temperatures may soar by an average of 4.5 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels by 2100, leading to approximately $868 billion in economic damages. In contrast, a hypothetical stratospheric aerosol injection program initiated in 2020 could limit warming to around 2.8°C, potentially reducing these costs by half.
Nevertheless, if the aerosol program ends abruptly in 2030, resulting in a temperature rebound of 0.6 degrees Celsius over eight years, economic damages could surpass $1 trillion by century’s end. While estimations vary, Estrada states, “The principle remains consistent: the termination shock will be significantly worse than inaction.”
Estrada’s research innovatively gauges damage not only by global warming levels but also by the speed at which temperatures rise, according to Gernot Wagner from Columbia University.
Wagner warns that solar geoengineering may be riskier than it appears. “This highlights a critical concern,” he notes.
Make Sunsets, a Silicon Valley startup, has already launched over 200 sulfur dioxide-filled balloons into the stratosphere and offers emission offsets for sale. A recent launch in Mexico prompted governmental threats to ban geoengineering activities.
Israel’s Stardust Co., Ltd. has secured $75 million in funding and is lobbying the U.S. government to explore solar geoengineering options. A recent survey revealed that two-thirds of scientists anticipate large-scale SRM could occur this century, as reported by New Scientist.
According to studies, it would take at least 100 aircraft to cool the Earth by 1°C through aerosol injection, releasing millions of tons of sulfur dioxide annually, unimpeded by geopolitical conflicts or unforeseen events.
Presently, major nations like the United States are undermining global climate cooperation, but researchers highlight that such collaboration is essential to prevent termination shock and potentially realize the benefits of SRM.
Analysis of varying parameters suggests that aerosol injections could mitigate climate damage only if the annual probability of cessation is extremely low. In scenarios allowing for a gradual stop over 15 years, SRM might be viable.
If countries successfully reduce emissions, only minimal geoengineering cooling may be necessary, rendering aerosol injection beneficial with a maximum outage probability of 10%. This indicates a potential 99.9% chance of failure over a century, but manageable temperature recovery remains plausible in low emissions scenarios.
This need for international cooperation reveals what Estrada describes as the “governance paradox” of solar geoengineering: “We must ensure extremely low failure rates and possess effective governance to mitigate adverse outcomes.” However, he adds, “If we effectively reduce greenhouse gases, the need for SRM diminishes.”
These findings challenge the notion that solar geoengineering might lead to irresponsible development, as some have suggested, according to Chad Baum from Aarhus University. Funding for this new research was provided by the Degrees Initiative, aimed at supporting geoengineering studies in vulnerable low-income nations.
Baum stated, “We intend to complete all stages of this study, incorporating feedback from impacted communities.”
Despite this, Wagner emphasizes the imperative for further exploration into geoengineering’s trade-offs given the rise in emissions and their consequences: “We are approaching a critical juncture.”
Later that year, climatologist Peter Stott from the British Met Office found himself in Italy during one of Europe’s most severe heatwaves. Instead of enjoying a vacation, he faced temperatures exceeding 40 degrees Celsius, a shocking experience for him.
Both Allen and Stott were intent on understanding climate change’s role in extreme weather events. Stott utilized existing climate models to simulate two scenarios of the 2003 heatwave: one reflecting the climate of that year and another devoid of human-induced warming.
They ran extensive model simulations and concluded that in their landmark 2004 paper in Nature, human activities have more than doubled the likelihood of experiencing a heatwave similar to that of 2003.
This groundbreaking work marked the inception of a new climate science field, which began to identify human influences on extreme weather events. Soon analyses emerged for diverse phenomena, from heatwaves to severe droughts and storms.
However, a significant challenge remained—post-event analyses often took months or years to determine the influence of climate change.
To address this, researchers, including Friederike Otto from Imperial College London, founded World Weather Attribution in 2014. This initiative facilitates swift analysis of extreme weather events, quantifying the probable impacts of climate change, with results frequently released within days.
This has dramatically altered reporting on such events globally, enabling news outlets to directly attribute deadly weather phenomena to climate change and emphasizing the real-world consequences of rising emissions.
As Otto stated, “When we began this work a decade ago, scientists and journalists maintained that individual weather events could not be blamed on climate change. That perspective has shifted immensely.”
This advancement also supports climate change litigation, with causal investigations providing evidence in numerous lawsuits against polluters worldwide. In 2022, the United Nations announced a new International Loss and Damage Fund, paving the way for climate change compensation.
In 2003, Allen queried: “Could litigation for climate change be feasible?” Thanks to developments in attribution science, the answer is now a definitive “yes.”
Environmental and social challenges are urgent, yet many nations grapple with underfunding and political stalemates. Imagine if we could innovate ways to tackle these issues effectively and economically without the burden of partisan politics!
Nearly two decades ago, we and our colleagues in behavioral sciences considered this a real possibility. We proposed a sophisticated idea: social issues often stem from individuals making “poor” choices, whether it’s unhealthy eating, smoking, or polluting the environment. Traditional approaches rely on taxes or bans, but our fresh perspective aimed to encapsulate a gentler, psychologically aware method. By rethinking how choices are presented, we could encourage healthier and more sustainable options, while still allowing access to alternatives.
“Nudges” were viewed as potential solutions, suggesting that societal issues could be mitigated through slight shifts in individual behavior. For instance, to combat obesity, we might reduce portion sizes and reposition salad bars at the forefront of cafeterias. To address climate concerns, why not default homeowners to renewable energy options?
Initially, it appeared we were on the verge of a nudge revolution. A team of researchers, including ourselves, sought to identify subtle modifications in “choice architecture” that could spur behavioral changes and ultimately result in major societal impacts. This presents a golden opportunity to leverage psychological insights for transformative progress.
Fast forward almost 20 years and progress remains stagnated, leaving many disappointed. When nudges do yield results, the effects are minimal, short-lived, and often fail to scale. Furthermore, emphasizing individual behavior as the primary lens for societal problems may inadvertently empower various corporate entities to resist the more traditional yet effective policy measures like taxation and regulation that reshuffle the foundational rules and incentives driving societal actions, jeopardizing their interests.
In hindsight, we realize this outcome shouldn’t come as a surprise, though it certainly was at the time. Given that human psychology has remained fundamentally unchanged, the social dilemmas we face arise from systemic shifts—not individual choices. Events like 200 years of fossil fuel reliance or the surge of ultra-processed foods over recent decades are to blame, and individuals alone cannot resolve issues like carbon emissions or unhealthy eating patterns. Moreover, a focus on individual behaviors risks distracting policymakers and the public from recognizing the need for systemic reforms and policy-driven solutions.
Correctly identifying the problem might lead to companies resistant to regulations fortifying individual-level responses that seem effective but fall short. This phenomenon is already observable, as evidenced by attention-grabbing concepts like our personal “carbon footprint.” This branding didn’t emerge from environmental movements or NGOs but originated from a massive PR campaign by BP, one of the globe’s leading fossil fuel corporations, in the early 2000s.
No matter the social or environmental challenge at hand, those opposing comprehensive change often redirect the responsibility back to individuals. As behavioral scientists, we must avoid this trap moving forward.
Behavioral scientist Nick Chater and George Loewenstein explore these themes in their new book, On You (WH Allen), released on January 27th.
Shorebirds serve as important indicators of coastal and wetland ecosystems, and their widespread distribution highlights their ecological significance. Although wading shorebirds are infrequently found in the fossil record, a remarkable collection of shorebird fossils has emerged from Pleistocene deposits at the Naracoorte Caves World Heritage Site in South Australia. Recent studies on these fossils provide insights into the evolution of wetland environments, revealing that flourishing habitats vanished with climate shifts as far back as 60,000 years ago. The research links a drying phase around 17,000 years ago to the decline of many of the nine or more shorebird species discovered in one of the Naracoorte Caves.
Red knot (Calidris canutus), near Grinet, Brittany, France. Image credit: Stephan Sprinz / CC BY 4.0.
“Shorebirds are rare in the fossil record, making the discovery of numerous shorebird fossils in Blanche Cave surprising,” stated PhD candidate Karl Lenser from Flinders University.
“This finding suggests that wetlands and tidal flats—vital feeding grounds for plovers, sandpipers, and other shorebirds—were more prevalent during the last Ice Age.”
Currently, climate change and habitat loss are contributing to the decline of Australia’s shorebird populations.
Gaining insights into how these species adapted to historical climate changes may be essential for forecasting their future.
Lenser and his team were particularly intrigued by the remains of the Plains Wanderer, an endangered bird found mostly in Victoria and New South Wales, which was among the most common fossils identified in this study.
Out of approximately 300 examined bones, more than half were identified as those of Plains Wanderers.
“Today’s Plains Wanderers are selective about their habitats; however, other fossils from Naracoorte indicate that the area once featured wooded environments—starkly different from the treeless grassland they inhabit today,” Lenser explained.
Naracoorte represents the only fossil site in Australia with such a substantial population of Plains Wanderers, indicating a significant decline in their numbers over the last 14,000 years due to habitat restriction.
Dr. Trevor Worthy from Flinders University highlighted the uniqueness of this sandpiper fossil sample, noting its representation of migratory species that travel from the Northern Hemisphere to spend winters in Australia.
“This includes three species from the Calidris genus and the Latham Sandpiper (Galinago hardwickii),” he added.
“Fossil assemblages also include blue-bellied plovers that migrate from Australia to New Zealand for breeding.”
“Fossil evidence shows that two young birds flew approximately 2,000 km from New Zealand and were captured by owls near Blanche Cave in Naracoorte,” Dr. Worthy explained.
“There remains much to uncover about Australia’s bird species from the last Ice Age, and fossils from sites like Naracoorte are crucial for filling in these knowledge gaps,” Lenser noted.
“Naracoorte Caves holds a 500,000-year record of biodiversity in Southeast South Australia,” stated Dr. Liz Reid from the University of Adelaide.
“As this study clearly demonstrates, caves offer a glimpse into pre-European landscapes, providing valuable information for the conservation of endangered species today.”
Visitors to Naracoorte Caves can explore the excavation site and delve into the science behind South Australia’s only World Heritage Site.
Findings have been published in the online journal Old Trogia Electronica about the study.
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Karl M. Lenser et al. 2026. Fossil shorebirds (order: Charadriidae) revealing a Pleistocene wetland trend at Naracoorte Caves, South Australia. Old Trogia Electronica 29 (1): a2; doi: 10.26879/1608
President Donald Trump’s controversial choice to withdraw the United States from key United Nations-affiliated organizations means the country risks losing its significant role in crucial global climate change discussions.
In a sweeping executive order issued on Wednesday, President Trump halted U.S. funding for 66 international bodies, including the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)—an agreement the U.S. joined in 1992—and the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), which releases the most authoritative climate reports globally.
According to a post by the White House, these organizations are deemed “no longer in the interest of the United States.”
This action underscores the Trump administration’s retreat from climate action, coinciding with escalating global warming effects, which are leading to more frequent and severe weather disasters across the U.S. Events like wildfires, floods, and hurricanes now inflict tens of billions in damages annually. By 2025, it’s projected that 23 extreme weather events will individually cause damages exceeding $1 billion, totaling approximately $115 billion, according to an analysis from Climate Central.
This withdrawal signifies the Trump administration’s rejection of climate diplomacy, further isolating the United States from the global community’s efforts to reduce warming and mitigate the most severe climate change impacts.
In January 2025, the U.S. is set to finalize its exit from the Paris Agreement, a pivotal accord signed in 2016, where 195 participating countries committed to limiting greenhouse gas emissions to prevent global temperatures from rising by more than 1.5 degrees Celsius (2.7 degrees Fahrenheit), with a maximum increase of 2 degrees Celsius.
The UNFCCC provided the foundational framework for the Paris Agreement, established in 1992 to identify and tackle the main contributors to greenhouse gas emissions. The treaty was signed by President George Bush after receiving Senate approval with a two-thirds majority vote.
Should the U.S. fully withdraw from the UNFCCC (a process estimated to take a year), it would mark the first instance in history of a country exiting such an agreement. This action could complicate future presidents’ ability to rejoin the Paris Agreement, as reentry requires new Senate approval with a two-thirds majority.
Extracting itself from the UNFCCC would render the United States the only nation without a presence at international climate discussions, as demonstrated by the White House’s decision to forgo an official delegation at the recent COP30 summit in Brazil.
Attendees arrive at COP30 in Belém, Brazil, November 7, 2025. COP 30 Press Office/Anadolu/Getty Images
“Historically, even countries that remained passive at negotiations seldom walked away entirely, as it ensured their input was not disregarded,” stated Christy Ebi, a climate scientist from the University of Washington who has contributed to IPCC reports.
Ebi noted that while past U.S. administrations may have shown limited enthusiasm during discussions, they still tracked proceedings.
“Delegates would listen quietly from the sidelines, but now there’s a complete withdrawal,” she remarked.
The Trump administration has openly criticized the UNFCCC and similar organizations. In a statement, Secretary of State Marco Rubio referred to them as “anti-American and ineffective.”
The United States is set to officially exit the Paris Agreement on January 27, marking nearly a year since the administration initiated the withdrawal process.
However, questions persist about whether President Trump can withdraw from the UNFCCC without Congressional approval.
Gene Hsu, an attorney with the Center for Biological Diversity, argues the action is unlawful. “The Constitution clearly outlines the process for joining a treaty with a two-thirds Senate majority but is ambiguous regarding withdrawal,” Suh explained. “We are considering legal action due to the absence of legal precedence for a president unilaterally exiting a Senate-approved treaty.”
The UNFCCC is the global mediator for climate negotiations, organizing the Conference of the Parties (COP) annually to address emissions targets and funding for climate action. The previous year’s conference focused on deforestation challenges and impacts on the Amazon rainforest.
“Hosting such global discussions is akin to managing the Olympics; organizational support is essential,” Ebi said.
Following the U.S. withdrawal from the Paris Agreement, the UNFCCC encountered a budget crisis, prompting Bloomberg Philanthropies, led by former New York City Mayor Michael Bloomberg, to intervene financially to sustain operations.
In response, UNFCCC Executive Director Simon Steele asserted that Trump’s withdrawal would “diminish America’s security and prosperity.”
“Similar to the previous Paris Agreement, there remains an opportunity for the United States to re-engage in the future,” Steele remarked.
Throughout his inaugural year, President Trump has targeted climate change through substantial budget cuts, labeling it a “swindle.” His administration has worked to undercut key climate reports, such as the National Climate Assessment, while attempting to diminish the Environmental Protection Agency’s authority to regulate greenhouse gas emissions contributing to global warming.
Former Vice President Al Gore, a dedicated climate activist, commented on X that the Trump administration has “neglected the climate crisis from the outset,” putting Americans and global communities at risk while catering to oil industry interests.
“By withdrawing from the IPCC, UNFCCC, and other vital international collaborations, the Trump administration is undermining decades of carefully cultivated diplomacy, eroding climate science, and instilling global distrust,” Gore concluded.
Homo floresiensis A recent study indicates that Liang Bua, the cave where this diminutive hominin species resided for approximately 140,000 years, was deserted during a significant drought between 61,000 and 55,000 years ago.
Reconstruction of Homo floresiensis. Image credit: Elizabeth Danes.
Homo floresiensis was first identified in 2003 in Liang Bua, Flores Island, Indonesia.
This species, often referred to as hobbits due to their small size, challenged prevailing theories regarding human evolution.
It vanished from the fossil record around 50,000 years ago, but the reasons for its disappearance are still unclear.
“In 2003, excavations in the Liangbua rock trench unveiled the skeletons of a previously unknown small hominid species, Homo floresiensis,” stated Emeritus Professor Mike Gagan and colleagues from the University of Wollongong.
“Originally, the period of occupation was estimated to be between 95,000 and 12,000 years ago, suggesting the possibility of interaction with early modern humans (Homo sapiens), who inhabited islands in Southeast Asia and were contributing to species extinctions.”
“However, following a revision of the stratigraphy and chronology at this site, all Homo floresiensis human bones are now believed to be approximately 100,000 to 60,000 years old.”
“Associated stone artifacts and megafaunal assemblages typically suggest that Homo floresiensis went extinct around 50,000 years ago.”
“The revised timeline indicates they disappeared from the record around 46,000 years ago, coinciding with the arrival of modern humans at Liang Bua, and there was a significant shift in the types of materials used for making stone tools.”
In the study, the authors integrated chemical records from cave stalagmites with isotope data from the fossilized teeth of a pygmy elephant species, Stegodon florensis insularis, which Homo floresiensis hunted.
The findings reveal a large-scale drying trend that commenced around 76,000 years ago and peaked in severe droughts between 61,000 and 55,000 years ago, near the time when the species went extinct.
Prolonged drought and heightened competition for resources may have led to their abandonment of Liang Bua and, ultimately, their extinction.
“At that time, the ecosystem surrounding Liang Bua experienced significant drying. Homo floresiensis vanished,” remarked the lead author of the study, Emeritus Professor Mike Gagan from the University of Wollongong.
“The summer rains caused the riverbed to become dry seasonally, placing stress on both the hobbits and their prey.”
The population of pygmy elephants saw a drastic decline around 61,000 years ago, signaling the loss of a crucial food source for the hobbits.
“Surface freshwater, along with Stegodon and Homo floresiensis, all diminished simultaneously, showcasing the compounded effects of ecological stress,” stated Dr. Gerd van den Bergh from the University of Wollongong.
“Competition for the scarce water and food likely forced the hobbits to vacate Liang Bua.”
“Meanwhile, the fossils of Homo floresiensis predate the earliest evidence of modern humans on Flores, Homo sapiens, who were traversing the Indonesian archipelago when the hobbits went extinct.”
“It’s possible that the hobbits encountered modern humans while migrating in search of water and food,” Professor Gagan noted.
“In that context, climate change may have set the stage for their eventual extinction.”
The study was published in the journal Communication Earth and Environment.
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MK Gagan et al. 2025. The onset of summer dryness and forest decline of Homo floresiensis at Liang Bua 61,000 years ago. Communication Earth and Environment 6,992; doi: 10.1038/s43247-025-02961-3
Wildfires in California this January exacerbated by climate change
Josh Edelson/AFP via Getty Images
Famine, economic downfall, civil unrest, and conflict are serious threats we encounter unless we take urgent steps to curb further global warming and safeguard nature, leading climate, food, health, and security specialists cautioned in London today.
A national emergency briefing organized by climate activists and researchers aims to persuade politicians of the necessity for immediate and significant action regarding the intertwined crises of climate and biodiversity.
“I’m fearful for my life and future, and even more for my son’s,” stated Hugh Montgomery, a doctor at University College London focused on climate change’s impact on health.
“We require leadership on par with that of World War II, as if the survival of society depended on it—because it truly does,” remarked Mike Berners-Lee, who led the event at Lancaster University in the UK.
He indicated new evidence suggests the planet is heating up more rapidly than before, as noted by Kevin Anderson from the University of Manchester. “There exists a small but very real possibility that temperatures could reach 4°C by the end of this century.”
“The potential for 3°C or 4°C of warming is incredibly severe. We simply cannot afford to take that risk. It presents an extreme and unstable climate far beyond the conditions that have supported our civilization,” Anderson warned. “We will witness an unparalleled social and ecological breakdown at such levels. Geopolitical tensions will heighten, and there will likely be no viable economy left. A systemic collapse awaits us.”
Anderson cautioned against what he termed “delay technologies,” which aim to maintain the prosperity of the oil and gas sector. These encompass hydrogen and bioenergy with carbon capture and storage, according to him.
Hayley Fowler, a researcher at the University of Newcastle in the UK, stated that the impacts of warming are exceeding expectations. “Heat waves in Europe are escalating quicker than anywhere else globally and significantly faster than climate models predict,” she remarked.
The UK could face storms capable of releasing up to 35 centimeters of rain, leading to severe flooding as experienced in Germany in 2021. “However, like the people of Germany, we often fail to comprehend this until it occurs,” Fowler noted.
She emphasized that nations are unprepared for such extreme weather conditions. “We continue to construct infrastructure that cannot endure today’s climate, let alone what lies ahead.”
Tim Renton, a researcher from the University of Exeter in the UK, alerted about the danger of triggering critical tipping points, such as the potential collapse of the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC).
If the AMOC collapses, Arctic sea ice may extend southward as far as the North Sea during winter, Renton explained. London, for three months each year, could see temperatures plunge below freezing, with lows reaching -20°C (-4°F), but summers could be hotter than currently experienced.
Renton warned that Britain could face water shortages and an inability to produce food. “Globally, more than half of the area will become incapable of cultivating wheat and corn, leading to a major food security crisis,” he said.
He cited that food production has already been adversely impacted, as noted by Paul Behrens from Oxford University. “In the past decade, the UK has recorded three of its five worst grain harvests,” he pointed out.
Behrens cautioned that the situation is poised to worsen, leading to civil unrest. “We are at a crossroads: we can either allow our food system to collapse and continue our current trajectory, preparing for political and social turmoil, or we can take action now.”
Richard Nagy, a former British Army lieutenant general and national climate and security adviser, expressed concern over national security risks. “What troubles me most is not one crisis but a series of crises. Multiple crises converging—food, health, infrastructure, immigration, energy, extreme weather—where slow or ineffective responses erode public trust in government, resulting in a reactionary political climate that promises to tackle all these crises simultaneously.”
“We must realistically anticipate a future that others may fail to envision or wish to ignore, a future with monumental consequences if realized. Just because we may not like risk doesn’t mean it will disappear or that we can turn a blind eye to it,” Nuzi commented.
Climate change activists march on the sidelines of the COP30 summit in Belém, Brazil
Pablo Porciuncula/AFP via Getty Images
A decade following the Paris Agreement, there should be a significant leap in climate initiatives. Yet, in the past four years, there has been scant advancement, highlighted by the latest COP summit, which did not make substantial progress in phasing out fossil fuels or curbing deforestation. What went wrong?
I cannot provide a clear answer. However, as the planet continues to warm and the consequences become increasingly dire, I fear our responses are leaning toward irrationality instead of rationality. If true, the resulting climate impacts may be far worse, and the decline of our global civilization could become a more plausible scenario than previously imagined.
Let’s revisit the 2015 Paris Agreement. The concept of an international climate accord, wherein each nation would establish its own greenhouse gas emission targets, seemed to me incredibly naive. The ambitious 1.5 degrees Celsius target was a stark shift from prior plans. Advocates claimed progress would be made incrementally through a “ratchet mechanism,” allowing nations to enhance their commitments over time.
I remained skeptical. I left Paris believing this was largely a façade for environmentalism. My expectation was minimal immediate influence but increased action as the consequences of warming became undeniable. In essence, reason would eventuate.
Yet, the opposite has occurred. Based on current policies, the Climate Action Tracker estimated back in 2015 that the world was on course for approximately 3.6°C of warming by 2100. By 2021, that figure was revised to around 2.6°C—a significant improvement, suggesting Paris was making strides.
However, the most recent Climate Action Tracker report prior to the COP30 summit presents grim findings. For four consecutive years, there has been “little or no measurable progress.” The report states, “Global progress remains stagnant.” Although a handful of countries are genuinely advancing, others are stalling or reversing their climate efforts.
While the increase in renewable energy generation is surpassing expectations, it’s counterbalanced by substantial funds still being allocated to fossil fuels. Simply harnessing cheap solar energy won’t suffice. The proliferation of solar installations can lead to diminishing returns on profits. Moreover, although producing green electricity is manageable, progress in more challenging sectors like agriculture, aviation, and steel manufacturing remains inadequate.
In addition, the issue is not solely the failure to reduce emissions; we are also ill-equipped to handle what’s coming. We continue constructing cities on sinking land adjacent to rising seas. As noted in an April report, “Adaptation progress is either too slow, stagnant, or misdirected,” a sentiment echoed by the UK’s Climate Change Committee.
The pressing question is why climate action has plateaued without intensification. In some regions, this is strikingly due to political leaders who either disregard climate change as a priority or blatantly deny it, such as seen with the US’s withdrawal from the Paris Agreement.
Even those governments that vocalize climate change as a priority are taking minimal action, often citing more immediate concerns like the cost of living crisis. However, this crisis is intertwined with climate issues, as escalated severe weather patterns fuel rising food prices. As the climate continues to warm, the repercussions on food production and the broader economy will likely intensify.
Will we reach a moment where governments find themselves paralyzed on climate action due to the costs associated with combating rising sea levels inundating metropolises? Will citizens persist in supporting climate change deniers out of fear regarding global conditions, regardless of public opinion? Most individuals worldwide support increased climate action.
The notion that mounting evidence will lead leaders to rectify their course appears ever more naive. We navigate an unusual reality, reminiscent of the CDC’s handling of misinformation, such as the baseless anti-vaccination movements undermining public health even amid measles outbreaks, alongside some politicians suggesting that hurricanes stem from climate manipulation.
As we continue to break temperature records annually, the reality of climate change has never been clearer. But perhaps that’s part of the issue. Philosopher Martha Nussbaum posited that fear can drive detrimental behavior, prompting people to discard rational thought for fleeting pleasure over long-term benefits. Research indicates that environmental stress may lead individuals to act irrationally.
People often leap from perceiving difficulties to declaring imminent doom. No, we are not condemned. However, the longer rational thought is sidelined, the graver the consequences will become. Perhaps what we’re witnessing is merely a transient response linked to the pandemic’s aftermath and the Ukraine war. Alternatively, something more troubling might be unfolding.
Warm waters from the Atlantic near Greenland are now heating the deep layers of the Arctic Ocean, an area once considered relatively insulated from climate change.
The Arctic Ocean has seen a reduction of about 40% in its sea ice cover over the past 40 years, primarily due to the impact of atmospheric warming on sea levels. Researchers at the Ocean University of China evaluated the latest data collected by icebreakers to assess the temperature increase of the ocean floor.
In the Eurasian Basin, which is one of the ocean’s two principal sections, temperatures at depths ranging from 1500 meters to 2600 meters have increased by 0.074 degrees Celsius since 1990.
While this temperature rise may seem minor, it equates to nearly 500 trillion megajoules of energy. Such energy could potentially melt up to one-third of the least extensive sea ice area.
“The deep ocean is more dynamic than previously assumed,” states Chen Xianyao, one of the research team members. “We suspected that the deep ocean was warming, but not at this pace.”
An underwater ridge separating Greenland and Siberia divides the Arctic Ocean into two basins. The Amerasian Basin is primarily cut off from the Pacific Ocean by the shallow Bering Strait. However, warm Atlantic waters can still flow north along the Scandinavian coast into the upper Eurasian Basin through an extension of the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC). During winter, when seawater freezes, the salts are released, resulting in denser water that sinks and drags some warmer Atlantic water down with it.
Geothermal heat from the Earth warms the deep waters of the Eurasian Basin.
Previously, these warming trends were balanced by cold water flowing down from a neighboring basin east of Greenland. Yet, as the Greenland ice sheet continues to melt, more freshwater is entering the Greenland Basin. This influx has slowed the downward movement of cold, salty water, raising the temperature of deep waters in the Greenland Basin from -1.1°C to -0.7°C—a significantly rapid increase. Consequently, the influx of cold Greenland waters is no longer counteracting the heat from geothermal sources or the warm Atlantic waters sinking into the Arctic.
“The rising temperatures in the Greenland Basin are now reaching the Arctic,” says Son Louise, another research team member.
This research uncovers new warming mechanisms deep within the Arctic Ocean, “indicating a broader trend of global warming,” according to James McWilliams from UCLA.
The ongoing warming might eventually contribute to the melting of both sea ice and permafrost found on the ocean floor, which contains ice-like structures known as clathrates. If disturbed, these can release methane into the atmosphere, a phenomenon believed to have contributed to the Permian mass extinction.
According to a researcher, thousands of synthetic chemicals could be disrupting the genetic makeup of birds before they hatch, as highlighted in recent research on ducklings.
Scientists from the Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU) injected small doses of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) into mallard duck eggs to investigate their effects.
The findings revealed that these chemicals could alter the ducklings’ DNA, switching genes on and off in various organs, ultimately reducing their chances of survival.
PFAS, often referred to as “forever chemicals,” are a category of synthetic substances that are notably resistant to environmental degradation.
In this experiment, researchers injected three different persistent chemicals into the duck eggs to evaluate their impacts. The eggs were then sealed in wax and incubated until they hatched.
Although the study was conducted in a controlled lab setting, the aim was to replicate the type of exposure these eggs might naturally receive from their mothers.
Immediately after hatching, scientists collected samples from the ducklings’ livers, hearts, and a unique organ known as the bursa of Fabricius, which plays a crucial role in the immune system.
Mother ducks exposed to PFAS in their environment can transfer the contamination to their offspring through their eggs – Credit: Getty Images
Results indicated that in the liver, two of the three persistent chemicals triggered genetic modifications in the ducklings, affecting genes related to fat metabolism.
The study’s lead author, En Fleur Brand, emphasized, “Mallards need to regulate fat storage and consumption precisely during both breeding and migration seasons.”
“Alterations in fat metabolism may hinder survival or reproductive success.”
Meanwhile, scientists were surprised to find no significant changes in the hearts of the ducklings, although bursa of Fabricius showed effects in all PFAS-exposed individuals.
Brand remarked, “We observed increased activity in genes typically involved in viral infection detection. However, the implications for the birds remain unclear.”
The researchers concluded that PFAS could be detrimental to young wildlife, such as ducklings, and advocated for stricter regulations on these chemicals.
While some PFAS have been permanently banned, thousands remain in use, and their impacts on animals, humans, and the environment are still not completely understood.
In their study, scientists assessed one widely regulated or banned permanent chemical, applicable in the European Union, the United Kingdom, and the United States, along with two others still in circulation.
Brand stated, “These substances are prevalent in a multitude of products, ranging from frying pans and waterproof clothing to fire extinguishers, food packaging, and antifouling coatings.”
Preparatory ministerial meeting in Brasilia, Brazil ahead of COP30
Ton Molina/Bloomberg via Getty Images
As world leaders converge for the latest United Nations climate change conference a decade after the landmark COP21 summit in Paris, pessimism looms large. With the pivotal 1.5°C target already deemed unattainable and even the more lenient 2°C objective appearing increasingly elusive, the atmosphere is charged with concern.
The United Nations Environment Programme suggests, based on current national commitments, that the world is on track for a temperature rise of 2.3 to 2.5 degrees Celsius this century. Climatologists emphasize that the upcoming 30th United Nations Conference of the Parties in Belem, Brazil, could be crucial in altering the course of global warming, with oceans, forests, and polar ice sheets nearing tipping points. Significant action is essential to assist poorer nations in securing the estimated $1.3 trillion necessary each year by 2030 to transition away from fossil fuels, mitigate climate change, and adapt to its consequences.
Manuel Pulgar Vidal, WWF’s global leader in climate and energy, states, “The climate debate is under serious threat from not just political decisions but also economic, financial, and trade factors.” He adds that this makes the upcoming COP perhaps one of the most consequential since 2009, as vital as Paris but in an entirely different context.
In reality, however, the expectations held by negotiators are muted. The prospect of a groundbreaking multilateral agreement akin to that of Paris seems far-fetched in the current fragmented political landscape.
The previous COP29 held in Baku, Azerbaijan, concluded with disappointing outcomes, as wealthier nations pledged considerably fewer fiscal contributions than poorer counterparts anticipated. Consequently, trust in the COP process has diminished, leading to discussions on whether the existing framework is still viable.
“Private investment is lacking, nations appear to be retreating on their commitments to move away from fossil fuels, and there are no new Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) offered,” remarks Claudio Angelo from Brazilian NGO Klima Observatory. “The atmosphere surrounding climate action feels incredibly strained.”
Tensions ignited by trade disputes and geopolitical conflicts have infiltrated climate negotiations, with former President Trump actively opposing climate initiatives. He notably withdrew the U.S. from the Paris Agreement and curtailed efforts to limit fossil fuel use, urging other nations to do the same. On October 17, the International Maritime Organization postponed the formal endorsement of a plan aimed at reducing maritime emissions, incited by Trump’s threats of sanctions against supportive countries.
Economic sluggishness, rising living costs, and a rise in populist sentiments are complicating the implementation of climate-friendly policies. “2025 is shaping up to be the worst year for global climate action,” concludes Angelo.
Europe was initially anticipated to take a leadership role in climate diplomacy following the withdrawal of U.S. support; however, the continent remains divided as defense priorities, trade issues, and escalating energy expenses dominate discussions.
In Brazil, the host nation, President Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva—who campaigned on environmental protection—has approved new highway constructions in the Amazon and oil prospecting in the region, with an eye towards the upcoming elections.
Brazilian President Luiz Inacio Lula da Silva visits the main venue of COP30 in Belem
Alessandro Falco/Bloomberg via Getty Images
Bringing the COP to Belem is also a contentious choice. This first-ever Amazon COP aims to highlight the stories of those and the forests affected by climate change, underscoring the bold vision necessary for global salvation. The Ministry of the Environment has declared that a greater number of indigenous delegates than ever before will attend COP30.
Nonetheless, many participants regard this decision as imprudent. A shortage of available accommodation has driven up prices, forcing NGOs, diplomats, and businesses to seek alternative sleeping arrangements like tents, shipping containers, or hammocks.
The United Nations also restricts accreditation, leading to concerns that rather than being an “implementing COP,” this one may turn out to be an “empty COP.”
“An organization that had eight certifications last year only secured two this time,” notes Carla Cardenas from the Rights and Resources Initiative, a coalition advocating for land rights for indigenous peoples. Cardenas raised worries that civil society groups aiming to hold leaders accountable may face restrictions in attendance while oil and gas lobbying organizations, which possess larger budgets, remain unaffected.
Ahead of the summit, there are some indications of a positive shift. Fears that not enough leaders would attend to achieve a quorum have lessened, as high-profile figures like Britain’s Keir Starmer decide to make last-minute trips.
Amid declining multilateralism, Brazil, known for its mediating role on the global stage, could serve as an ideal host to unite divergent perspectives within climate diplomacy.
The president’s office is adopting a practical stance in negotiations, indicating that no major headline-making declarations are anticipated this time. Brazil’s focus will likely be on implementing existing agreements rather than chasing media-friendly headlines.
While substantial international breakthroughs in Belém are unlikely, there remains potential for cities, regions, and businesses committed to climate action to step forward, according to Thomas Hale from Oxford University. Groups of states collaborating to announce environmental initiatives could still have a significant influence.
“Countries resistant to change, like the U.S., may stay on the sidelines, but that won’t define where the real action occurs,” he explains. “Although we may not see international decisions made at COP that will move us forward fundamentally, it can still provide a framework for many positive initiatives to arise.”
President George H.W. Bush (left) and environmental protection advisor Bill Riley
Netflix
white house effect Directed by Boni Cohen, Pedro Cos, and John Schenck, available on Netflix starting October 31st
The opening scene of white house effect transports viewers to the devastating Great Drought of 1988. The backdrop is a scorching summer in North America, presenting the USA with its worst drought since the Dust Bowl. Relief is nowhere in sight; the heat is relentless.
This climate crisis defined the presidential election that year, pitting Democrat Michael Dukakis against Republican George H.W. Bush, who triumphed with a landslide victory on a pledge for enhanced environmental protection.
“Some may argue these challenges are insurmountable,” President Bush remarked during a campaign stop in Michigan, addressing climate change. “My belief is clear: it is achievable, and we must act. These matters transcend ideology and politics.” Such a sentiment from a prominent Republican seems unimaginable today.
In 1988, the U.S. was a nation where addressing environmental issues garnered votes, and where the connection between fossil fuels and climate change was discussed with a mix of urgency and skepticism.
Predominantly narrated through archival footage, white house effect serves as a window into a hopeful future that never came to fruition. It tells the tale of a populace ready to acknowledge climate change as a bipartisan issue, only to be steered away from that consensus.
The film centers on a struggle between two advisors to President Bush. In the blue corner, Bill Riley, former president of the World Wildlife Fund and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency administrator starting in 1989. In the red corner stands John H. Sununu, the chief of staff known for his climate skepticism. These two figures will shape the environmental policies of the Bush administration and face off for years, with dire consequences for our planet.
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George H.W. Bush stated that climate change knows no political boundaries. “
With hindsight, one could easily predict the outcome. Yet, what’s intriguing about white house effect is that it refrains from presenting this as inevitable. It explores a gradual march towards a destiny. The archival footage is always engaging, often shifting timelines to reinforce the film’s message, keeping the audience aware and engaged despite the grim reality on display.
Consider the 1979 energy crisis, during which Exxon experienced a staggering 119% profit increase while countless drivers waited hours to refuel due to plummeting oil production. One driver at a gas station remarked that everyone should just return home and await the gas shortage. When asked why he wasn’t turning back, he responded: “I’m not going back because no one else is.”
This documentary features numerous climate scientists, but none resonate more than Steven Schneider, a pioneer advocating for climate action. His journey forms the film’s emotional core, from his Senate testimony in 1988 to his final interview before his passing in 2010.
“Looking back at our early efforts, many of our immediate goals fell short. But here we are, making gradual progress,” he reflects. “The problem of global warming has been recognized, and we’re pushing for a cultural shift—something that will take a generation.”
It’s heart-wrenching to ponder how Mr. Schneider would view the last 15 years of fruitless attempts and the current direction of America.
Viewing white house effect can feel suffocating. It stirs frustration, particularly for those, like me, born too late to witness these events firsthand. While the film is polemical, it serves a vital purpose—shaking us out of apathy and urging action, no matter the cost.
Coral reefs are critically threatened by climate change
WaterFrame/Alamy
The recent surge in ocean temperatures has led to extensive bleaching and mortality of warm-water corals globally, marking the onset of the first climate tipping point in an ecosystem on Earth, as stated by scientists.
The deterioration of one of the planet’s most biodiverse and vulnerable ecosystems presents ‘risks to human health and safety’ for which governments are inadequately prepared, cautions Melanie McField, who oversees Florida’s “Healthy Reefs for Healthy People” conservation initiative under the Smithsonian Institution.
Warm-water coral reefs account for one-third of all known marine biodiversity and offer food, coastal protection, and livelihoods for approximately one billion individuals worldwide. Additionally, coral reefs contribute $9.9 trillion annually in goods and services globally.
However, corals are particularly vulnerable to fluctuations in water temperature. Record-breaking global temperatures in 2023 have elevated ocean heat levels to unprecedented highs, resulting in significant bleaching events impacting over 80 percent of the world’s corals. Bleaching occurs when corals react to elevated water temperatures by expelling the algae residing within their tissues, leading them to bleach white. This process can make corals more prone to disease, and prolonged bleaching can deplete their primary food supply, ultimately leading to their death.
The most recent bleaching event represented “an order of magnitude” beyond what scientists had previously witnessed, according to McField. “We are at a tipping point,” she acknowledged. This is generally understood as a crucial threshold that, if crossed, can trigger dramatic and potentially irreversible changes in the climate system.
McField contributed to the chapter on corals in the Global Tipping Point Report 2025, which is now available for purchase. This report, the first update since 2023, was compiled by 160 scientists globally and coordinated by the University of Exeter and campaign organization WWF. It warns that warm-water corals are the initial component of the Earth system to reach a tipping point and are currently facing an “unprecedented crisis.”
Leading experts estimate that the thermal threshold for warm-water corals will be reached at a 1.2 degrees Celsius increase in global atmospheric temperatures above pre-industrial levels, with an upper limit of 1.5 degrees Celsius. By 2024, the world’s average temperature is expected to surpass this 1.5 degrees Celsius threshold for the first time in human history, exceeding the limits within which coral reefs can survive, noted Tim Renton, who spearheaded the report at the University of Exeter.
“We assessed the world at a temperature of 1.5 degrees Celsius and confirmed the results,” he stated during a press conference ahead of the report’s release. “Most coral reefs are at risk of large-scale mortality or bleaching and are transitioning into a different state dominated by seaweed and algae.”
The most promising chance to save the world’s warm-water corals from near-total extinction lies in rapidly reducing global average temperatures to 1.2 degrees Celsius below pre-industrial levels, Renton asserts. However, whether this ambitious goal, which exceeds even the targets set for 1.5°C, is attainable remains uncertain.
Terry Hughes, a researcher from Australia’s James Cook University, emphasizes that “few unbleached coral reefs remain worldwide”. Nonetheless, there is still potential for improvement. “If global greenhouse gas emissions are swiftly curtailed, we can influence the future of coral reefs over the next few decades,” he states.
Although the timing of climate tipping points is often uncertain, researchers caution that significant declines in the Amazon rainforest, melting of polar ice sheets, and collapse of the crucial AMOC current may all occur at warming levels below 2°C.
Moreover, humans can also instigate “positive tipping points” to mitigate these risks, Renton highlighted, pointing to the rapid advancements in renewable energy and the increased adoption of electric vehicles in the past decade. Fast-tracking cleaner technologies could significantly reduce emissions and help keep global warming well below 2°C, the report suggests.
Renton stated that immediate action is crucial from world leaders during the upcoming COP30 summit in Brazil to expedite emissions reductions across the global economy and minimize the duration for which global temperatures exceed 1.5 degrees Celsius. “We are swiftly nearing tipping points in various Earth systems that could have catastrophic impacts on humanity and nature, fundamentally altering the planet. This necessitates immediate and unprecedented action from COP30 leaders and policymakers worldwide,” he urged.
“Everyone knows that airplanes negatively impact the climate…”
Oversnap/Getty Images
Years ago, I attended a climate science conference at University College London. While the specifics of the meeting are lost to me, the day remains vivid. Upon arrival, I encountered demonstrators outside, a familiar sight at such events that typically draw both supporters and skeptics of climate change.
Initially, the protesters conducted themselves peacefully, and I chose to enter the conference. Around mid-morning, however, they disrupted the lecture hall, heckling the speaker before storming the stage with their slogans and signs.
The protesters were unlike any I had encountered. Instead of being traditional climate activists or skeptics, one was a proponent of a conspiracy theory called chemtrails. In essence, this theory posits that the condensation trails (contrails) left by aircraft contain harmful substances deliberately released to manipulate the weather, poison people, or serve other sinister purposes.
This is untrue. Contrails are simply long streaks of ice crystals created when water vapor in engine exhaust freezes in the cold air at cruising altitudes. While they typically dissipate quickly, under certain conditions they can linger for hours, forming what conspiracy theorists label as chemtrails.
Like many conspiracy theories, this one carries elements of truth. Although contrails may look stunning against a summer sky, they nevertheless contribute to environmental damage.
It’s well-established that airplanes have an adverse effect on the climate. Burning aviation fuel represents about 2.5% of global greenhouse gas emissions. Yet, contrails and contrail-induced clouds are categorized as “aeronautical non-carbon dioxide.” The climatic effects might be equally or even more severe.
This is attributable to basic physics. Similar to greenhouse gases, ice crystals in cirrus clouds trap infrared radiation escaping from Earth, generating a warming effect. They also reflect incoming sunlight, counteracting this effect. Ultimately, though, they contribute to global warming.
In reality, the impact of contrails on climate is not completely understood. Last year, NASA acknowledged this knowledge gap and asked the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine to investigate the climatic repercussions of contrails and suggest research methodologies.
“
Contrails may look eerily beautiful on a summer evening, but they are quietly harming the environment. “
Recently published, the report states that contrails might contribute to warming potentially exceeding that of aviation fuel, though significant uncertainty remains. Fortunately, options exist to mitigate this impact, including altering fuel formulations, refining engine designs, and rerouting flights to avoid areas conducive to contrail formation.
The report does not mention chemtrails, which is sensible. While the panel might have considered debunking this unfounded conspiracy theory, they opted not to give it publicity. Regardless, the report is unlikely to effect change, especially under the current US administration. Donald Trump’s administration has shown a tendency towards anti-science and conspiracy-driven climate skepticism, making addressing contrails a low priority. Significant regulatory changes regarding the airline and fossil fuel industries are necessary, so don’t expect immediate action.
I suspect that the airline and fossil fuel sectors silently welcome chemtrail theorists; their distractions divert attention from the true implications of contrails on climate.
Instead, the report will likely collect dust, while another report on chemtrails gets commissioned. Reports associate President Trump’s Secretary of Health and Human Services, Robert F. Kennedy Jr., with the conspiracy as part of an unscientific initiative to make America healthy again. Despite the absence of credible evidence, the notion persists.
Earlier this year, while enjoying a sunny afternoon, I had a conversation with my neighbors. “Have a nice day,” I said. “If they weren’t here, they will be,” he replied, gesturing skyward at intersecting contrails. He, too, is a climate change skeptic.
The chemtrail conspiracy is inherently frustrating—wholly futile. Despite their lack of scientific understanding, conspiracy theorists seem to think their beliefs will yield results. They are intrinsically distrustful of corporate and governmental authority and care about both environmental and human welfare. Yet, their actions only draw attention away from genuine protests and misallocate it toward unfounded notions.
The UCL meeting ultimately succumbed to continuous protests. If the dissenters believed they had triumphed, they were mistaken. Climate change remains a grave threat—chemtrails do not exist.
Shedding pounds might be as straightforward as swapping out some sausages, beef, and bacon in your meals for legumes. Recent research highlights this find.
Researchers from the University of Helsinki directed 51 Finnish men, aged 20-65, to cut back on their red and processed meat intake by just 200g (7oz) a week.
Simultaneously, these men incorporated more legumes, particularly peas and fava beans, into their diets, constituting 20% of their protein sources, while still consuming chicken, fish, eggs, and other proteins.
Apart from this substitution, participants were not advised to eat less or restrict calories. Remarkably, just six weeks later, they experienced an average weight loss of 1 kilo (2.2 pounds).
“This was astonishing because we didn’t set out to encourage weight loss,” said Professor Anne Maria Pajari, a molecular dietitian and senior author of the study, as reported by BBC Science Focus. “We encouraged volunteers to maintain their daily eating habits while monitoring their red and processed meat and legume consumption.”
Pajari noted that while legumes are associated with healthy weight, the degree of change observed in just six weeks was unexpected. This was just the beginning.
By the study’s conclusion, participants consuming legumes had lower total and LDL (“bad”) cholesterol levels, indicating that this dietary switch could lower heart disease risk.
Moreover, the men’s iron levels improved, an outcome surprising since lean meat is typically regarded as a primary source of dietary iron.
According to Pajari, the food exchange was well-received by participants; only one volunteer chose to leave the study.
“I’m very satisfied with the results,” Pajari remarked. “This is something everyone can do. By cutting back on red and processed meat and incorporating more plant-based foods, individuals can make a meaningful impact on their health.”
“Even small adjustments can lead to significant benefits for both personal health and the environment,” she added.
The focus on men specifically was intentional, as they generally consume more meat compared to women.
Pajari observed that in Finland, the average man consumes double the amount of meat than the average woman, making men a “more vulnerable group” in terms of red and processed meat intake.
Lean meats include beef, pork, and lamb, while processed meats consist of cold cuts, sausages, and bacon – Credit: via Guido Mieth
The study also involved control groups, with another 51 men consuming 760g (27oz) of red and processed meats weekly—making up a quarter of their total protein intake, without any legumes.
This group showed no notable improvement in their blood cholesterol or iron levels and lost only 300g (0.6 pounds) on average. Pajari suggested this was merely a byproduct of participating in dietary trials.
“Participation in a diet trial often raises awareness about one’s eating habits,” she explained. “It’s quite sensitive, leading individuals to make healthier choices even when not instructed to.”
Overall, Pajari hopes that men will consider substituting some red and processed meats in their diets with peas, beans, and lentils for the sake of their health and the planet.
The average size of trees in the Amazon Rainforest is gradually increasing as carbon dioxide levels rise. This means that these larger trees play a crucial role in determining whether the forest acts as a carbon sink.
How forests adapt to changing climates remains a significant question. One theory suggests that larger trees are more vulnerable to reductions as they face challenges from climate-related phenomena, such as droughts and high winds. Understanding how forests respond to these changes is crucial for future climate models.2 It’s essential to address atmospheric issues to mitigate global warming.
Adriane Esquivel-Muelbert from Cambridge University and her team at the Rainfor Amazon Forest Inventory Network have measured tree diameters in 188 plots averaging 12,000 square meters across the Amazon Basin. The monitoring period varied, with some plots observed for around 30 years. Meanwhile, 2 atmospheric concentrations are reaching near record levels.
“We monitor certain areas in the forest where the average tree size has increased over time. This indicates that these trees are capable of storing more carbon than they did in the past,” researchers noted, highlighting an average diameter increase of about 3.3% every decade.
“The structural composition of the Amazon forest is continually changing throughout the basin,” says team member Rebecca Bunberry Morgan from the University of Bristol, UK. “There are more sizable trees and fewer smaller ones, indicating a shift in average size towards larger trees.”
She adds that the average diameter of trees in mature, undisturbed forest areas remains relatively constant as they replace and grow larger trees where seedlings have fallen. Researchers believe that Amazon trees are responding positively to the increasing atmospheric 2 levels, resulting in enhanced growth and biomass accumulation. “Larger trees tend to thrive as they compete more effectively for light and water,” remarks Esquivel-Muelbert.
This implies that large trees are disproportionately vital for the carbon storage capacity of the forest, meaning their loss would have significantly adverse effects, she concludes.
“A key finding is that 2 wood serves as a globally significant carbon sink, functioning as a fertilizer that promotes tree growth while being influenced by many factors.” Peter Etchells at Durham University, UK, states, “However, this could change as climate continues to evolve, potentially impacting the balance of growth, nutrient availability, temperature, and CO.2?”
tIt may conjure images of battery production lines and the extensive “gigafactory” projects of Elon Musk and Tesla across the globe, or thoughts of batteries powering everything from electric toothbrushes to smartphones and vehicles. However, at Invinity Energy Systems’ modest factory in Basgate, near Edinburgh, employees are nurturing the hope that Britain will also contribute to the battery revolution.
These batteries, which are based on vanadium
tIt may conjure thoughts of battery production lines and the expansive “gigafactory” projects of Elon Musk and Tesla worldwide, or images of batteries powering devices from electric toothbrushes to smartphones and cars. However, at Invinity Energy Systems’ modest factory in Basgate, near Edinburgh, employees are fostering hope that Britain will also play a pivotal role in the battery revolution.
These batteries, utilizing vanadium ions, can be housed within a 6-meter (20-foot), 25-ton shipping container. While they may not be used in vehicles, manufacturers aspire for this technology to find its place in the global storage rush, propelling a transition to net-zero carbon grids.
Renewable electricity represents the future of a cleaner and more economical energy system compared to fossil fuels. Its primary challenge lies in the fact that renewable energy generation is contingent on weather conditions—sunshine and wind may not be available when energy demand peaks. Battery storage allows for the shift of energy production, enabling it to be saved for later use, which is essential for a well-functioning electric grid.
“What has suddenly become apparent is that people have recognized the necessity of energy storage to integrate more renewable energy into the grid,” stated Jonathan Mullen, CEO of Invinity, at the factory where a series of batteries are stacked and shipped.
For a long time, experts have explored various methods for storing renewable electricity, but the issue of grid reliability gained political attention in April when Spain and Portugal experienced the largest blackouts in Europe in two decades. While some rushed to criticize renewable energy, a Spanish government report clarified that it was not the cause. Nonetheless, battery storage assists grids worldwide in avoiding similar complications as those seen in the Iberian Peninsula.
Power blackouts in Spain and Portugal in April highlighted the issues of energy security. Photo: Fermín Rodríguez/Nurphoto/Rex/Shutterstock
Much of the attention in battery research has focused on maximizing energy storage in the smallest and lightest containers suitable for electric vehicles. This development was crucial for the transition away from carbon-intensive gasoline and diesel, which are significant contributors to global warming. It also led to substantial reductions in the costs associated with lithium-ion batteries.
As with many aspects of the shift from fossil fuels to electric technologies, China is driving demand at an incredible scale. According to data from Benchmark Mineral Intelligence, China has installed batteries with a capacity of 215 gigawatt hours (GWh).
China’s battery installations are expected to nearly quadruple by the end of 2027 as new projects are completed. For instance, the state-owned China Energy Engineering Corporation recently bid on a 25GWh battery project utilizing lithium iron phosphate technology, typically used in more affordable vehicles.
Iola Hughes, research director at a Benchmark subsidiary, Rho Motion, stated that declining prices and increased adoption of renewable energy are propelling the rise in demand. By 2027, total global battery storage installations could increase fivefold, Hughes noted, adding, “This figure could rise even further as technological advancements and reduced costs enable developers to construct battery energy storage systems at an unprecedented pace.”
The majority of this growth (95% of current figures) will involve projects utilizing lithium-ion batteries, including a site in Aberdeenshire managed by UK-based Zenobē Energy, which claims to have “the largest battery in Europe.”
Energy storage companies harnessing various technologies must navigate a challenging landscape to secure early-stage funding while proving that their technologies are economically viable. Invinity’s flow batteries use vanadium, while U.S.-based rival EOS Energy employs zinc. However, flow batteries often excel in applications requiring storage durations of over 6-8 hours, where lithium batteries typically fall short.
Cara King, an R&D scientist at Invinity Energy Systems, holds a vial of vanadium electrolyte in various states of charge. Photo: Murdo Macleod/The Guardian
Flow batteries leverage the unique properties of certain metals that can stably exist with varying electron counts. One transport unit contains two tanks of vanadium ions, each with different electron counts—one is “Royal Purple” and the other “IRN-Bru Red.” The system pumps the vanadium solution through a membrane stack that allows protons to pass, while electrons travel around the circuit to provide power. If electrons are driven in the opposite direction by solar panels or wind turbines, the process reverses, charging the battery, which can support a charge of up to 300 kilowatts.
A significant benefit of flow batteries is their relative ease of manufacturing compared to lithium-ion counterparts. Invinity managed to assemble a battery stack with just 90 employees, primarily sourced from Scottish parts.
Throughout the project’s lifespan, Mullen has maintained that “on a cost-per-cycle basis, it offers more value than lithium.” While the upfront costs are higher than those for lithium batteries—Invinity estimates around £100,000 per container—the longer lifespan without capacity loss and the absence of flammability means no costly fire safety equipment is necessary. The shipping container is already deployed next to Vibrant Motivation in Bristol, Oxford Auto Chargers, casinos in California, and solar parks in South Australia.
“We can commission the entire site within a few days,” Mullen remarked.
Invinity is valued at just over £90 million in the London AIM junior stock market and aspires for the UK to spearhead the flow battery niche.
UK manufacturing could be favorably considered in government contests for support under a “cap and floor” scheme that ensures electricity prices remain within a specified range. Should they succeed, the company anticipates a substantial increase in production from its current rate of five containers per week. Mullen envisions the possibility of employing up to 1,000 workers if the company flourishes.
“The potential for growth is immense,” Mullen stated. “Have we moved past the question of whether technology can scale effectively?”
As carbon emissions continue to climb, is geoengineering our best hope to hinder the melting of the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets, preventing significant sea level rise? A recent analysis of five major geoengineering proposals suggests otherwise.
Martin Seegert from the University of Exeter in the UK warns that promoting unworkable geoengineering solutions distracts from pressing issues. “This undermines our urgent need for decarbonization,” he asserts.
Seegert and his team assessed each polar geoengineering proposal using six criteria: effectiveness, scalability within a reasonable timeframe, affordability, international consensus, potential to create false hope for decades, and environmental risks.
In Antarctica, various ice sheets rest on the seabed, and they are melting from below due to warm seawater. One proposed solution involves erecting large “curtains” to block warm currents from reaching these ice sheets and the floating ice shelves that protect them.
The team warns that the effectiveness of these curtains is uncertain, as noted by Stephen Chaun from Monash University, Australia. “If hot water is diverted away from one ice shelf, where does it go next? Redirecting it to a nearby shelf just shifts the problem,” he states.
These curtains would need to be anchored to the seabed at depths of up to 1 kilometer, rising hundreds of meters and extending for tens of kilometers.
A significant portion of the research voyage to Antarctica is being refocused due to the hazards posed by icebergs and sea ice. “That presents considerable danger,” he notes.
Chown mentions that currently, only a single ship is capable of reaching the area where ocean curtains are required to safeguard Thwaites’ “Doomsday” glacier.
Concerns arise for glaciers that sit on land rather than floating on the seabed, as increased liquid water underneath the ice can act as a lubricant, speeding up the flow and leading to heightened sea level rise.
One proposed intervention is to drill holes in the ice and pump out any water beneath it.
“This approach necessitates a multitude of holes drilled into potentially thick ice. However, we lack precise knowledge of where the water lies,” says Sammy Buzzard from Northumbria University, UK. “Even with an understanding of the science, scalability, cost, and power supply issues make this an impractical solution.”
Another concept involves covering the Arctic Ocean’s surface with tiny hollow glass beads to reflect solar heat back into space. However, Chaun warns, “[This] could backfire completely.”
Sustaining this coverage would require the production of 360 megatons of glass beads annually—comparable to global plastic output. Following lab tests revealing the beads were toxic, the project aimed at testing this idea was discontinued.
Stratospheric aerosol injection is another proposed method, which involves releasing substances like sulfur dioxide into the stratosphere to form aerosols that reflect sunlight. This method poses significant challenges beyond just polar regions. Aerosols would not only fail to stay within the polar stratosphere but also provide minimal effectiveness during the dark polar winters against reflective ice and snow.
The scale of aerosol deployment would necessitate vast quantities, potentially damaging the ozone layer and disrupting climates in other regions, as noted by Valérie Masson-Delmotte from Paris-Saclay University, France. Affected countries may even seek compensation.
Another suggestion includes thickening Arctic sea ice by pumping seawater over it. “This would necessitate deploying millions of devices across drifting, fragile ice,” remarks Heidi Sevestre from Norway’s Arctic Surveillance and Assessment Program. “Such a scenario is technically, logistically, and economically unfeasible.”
The final concept evaluated by the researchers revolves around fertilizing the Southern Ocean to boost phytoplankton growth, thereby absorbing carbon as organic matter settles to the seabed. However, out of 12 small tests, none effectively reached the seabed. Furthermore, this approach could accelerate ocean oxygen depletion and release potent greenhouse gases like methane and nitrous oxide, warns Masson-Delmotte.
“I’m deeply worried about the overly optimistic views presented by some proponents of these strategies, which often gloss over the challenges,” states Masson-Delmotte. “I believe this article highlights that gap.”
Seegert argues that pursuing further research into these ideas squanders valuable resources. “The scale challenges are insurmountable,” he asserts.
Yet, not all researchers agree. “I believe it’s premature to dismiss any of these approaches entirely,” comments Shawn Fitzgerald from the Climate Restoration Centre in Cambridge, UK.
Recent research indicates that the ability to safely store carbon is significantly lower than earlier estimates, being only a tenth of what was initially predicted. This finding constraints its viability as a solution to the climate crisis.
New estimates, published in Nature, reveal that carbon capture could lower global warming by just 0.7°C, a stark contrast to the previously estimated 6°C.
Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) involves capturing carbon dioxide (CO)2 from the environment or industrial processes, transporting it, and storing it deep underground to prevent greenhouse gas emissions.
The study cautions that many areas once considered suitable for CCS may pose significant risks. Concerns such as leaks, seismic activity, and water contamination could render numerous potential sites unsafe.
The researchers conducted an extensive analysis of local mapping areas for viable carbon storage locations. Their findings suggest that, in reality, CCS can store only about 146 billion tonnes of CO.2, approximately 10 times less than previously thought.
“Carbon storage is often framed as a solution to the climate crisis,” stated the lead author, Matthew Guido, a senior researcher at IIASA and the University of Maryland, USA. “Our findings indicate that its effectiveness is limited.”
“With current trends hinting at a potential rise of up to 3°C this century, even maximizing the available geological storage won’t suffice to limit warming to 2°C.”
Co-author Jori Rogelgi, a senior researcher and director at the Grantham Institute, emphasized that carbon storage should not be perceived as an endless solution for climate preservation.
“Instead, geological storage sites should be viewed as a precious resource that must be managed responsibly to ensure a safe climate future for humanity,” he remarked. “It should be employed to halt and counteract global warming rather than wastefully offset ongoing, preventable CO.2 emissions.”
Trees naturally absorb carbon, while carbon storage technology responsibly hides carbon deep underground – Credit: A. Martin UW Photos
The study also suggests that nations like the US, Russia, China, Brazil, and Australia, as major fossil fuel producers, might benefit from utilizing depleted oil and gas fields for carbon storage.
“This issue transcends mere technology,” remarked co-author Siddharth Joshi, a research scholar at IIASA. “It encompasses concepts of transgenerational and national justice.”
“Countries with the highest historical emissions should lead in utilizing this resource wisely as they hold the most practical carbon storage options.”
Experts not involved in this research are currently debating the accuracy of the paper’s figures and their implications for the future of carbon storage as astrategy to mitigate the climate crisis.
However, Professor Carrie Leah, a climate scientist at Cardiff University who was not part of the study, stated that the finite nature of carbon storage should redirect focus towards reducing fossil fuel usage.
“There is no solitary solution to climate mitigation,” Leah noted. “It’s akin to a pie comprised of multiple slices.
“This study illustrates that the CCS portion of the pie is significantly smaller than previously believed, highlighting the urgent need to address the larger slices of fossil fuel reduction.”
Terence Tao, widely recognized as one of the world’s leading mathematicians—often dubbed the “Mozart of Mathematics”—tends to avoid discussions on politics.
As Tao stated, “I’m focused on scientific research. I participate in voting and sign petitions, but I don’t view myself as an activist.”
Following the halting of a $584 million federal grant at UCLA in July, Tao expressed concern regarding the potential impact on scientists, suggesting that if the current trend persists, it could lead to indiscriminate cuts affecting many, himself included.
“This administration has exhibited extreme radicalism, particularly in its alteration of scientific landscapes in ways even the first Trump administration did not,” Tao commented. “This is not normal, and I believe many people are unaware of the damage occurring.”
Tao is among a select group of prominent mathematicians who openly challenge the regime’s actions, labeling them as “existential threats” to his field and the broader academic science community. He has prioritized public advocacy over his research for the time being.
“The U.S. is the leading global funder of scientific research, and the administration is focused on consolidating America’s innovative edge. However, federal research funding isn’t a constitutional guarantee,” remarked White House spokesperson Kush Desai. “The administration’s duty is to ensure taxpayer-funded research aligns with the priorities of American citizens.”
During the Trump administration, UCLA faced scrutiny through the suspension of its federal grants, based on claims of racism and failure to maintain a “non-biased research environment.” Investigations noted these issues.
Having emigrated to the United States from Australia at the age of 16, Tao was recognized as a mathematical prodigy early on. He has developed a significant career at UCLA and was awarded the 2016 Fields Medal, often regarded as the equivalent of a Nobel Prize in Mathematics. Additionally, he has earned a MacArthur Fellowship and other prestigious honors.
As part of a comprehensive federal lawsuit against UCLA, the National Science Foundation suspended two of its TAO grants, one of which directly backed Tao’s contributions at UCLA and his work with the University’s Institute of Pure and Applied Mathematics (IPAM). This was designated as a special project.
An NSF spokesperson confirmed, “The National Science Foundation has reinstated the awards that were suspended at the University of California, Los Angeles,” while withholding any further comment on Tao’s remarks.
Looking ahead, IPAM funding—established in 2000 to enhance collaboration among mathematicians, industry professionals, and engineers—remains at risk. The current grant is set to expire next year and awaits renewal, with the Trump administration proposing a 57% budget reduction for the NSF. Requests for 2026 are under consideration.
Tao’s NSF-funded research delves into advanced mathematical concepts, particularly focusing on understanding patterns in long numbers. Although this research may seem basic and lacks immediate practical applications, Tao suggests that its findings could influence encryption methods for security purposes.
On the other hand, IPAM’s research has yielded substantial public benefits. Two decades ago, Tao collaborated with other scientists to address signal processing challenges in medical imaging.
“An algorithm we developed with IPAM is routinely used in modern MRI machines, sometimes enhancing scanning speed by tenfold,” Tao noted.
The Trump administration has employed funding cuts or suspensions as leverage to push for reforms on university campuses, employing a multifaceted strategy. Initially, they sought to slash funding for scientific endeavors by reducing federal reimbursements for indirect costs like equipment and maintenance.
Subsequently, they focused on specific types of grants, including those addressing diversity, equity, inclusion, and gender identity.
The administration also singled out institutions like Harvard University, Columbia University, and, more recently, UCLA, over allegations of racism and anti-Semitism.
The lawsuit corresponds with numerous funding initiatives, leading to ongoing legal disputes which resulted in the cancellation and subsequent restoration of several grants.
Tao expressed that the recent disruption in financing for his project has compelled him to defer part of his own salary to maintain support for graduate students. His recent activities have shifted from mathematics to attending urgent meetings with university authorities, seeking donor contributions, and writing an opinion opposing the funding cuts.
“This is typically when I focus on my research, but this has become a top priority,” Tao emphasized.
He grows increasingly anxious about the bigger picture, believing that the administration’s actions could dissuade young scientists from remaining in the U.S., asserting that if this pattern continues, he himself may have to reconsider his position.
Tao has observed from his vantage point at UCLA that graduate and postdoctoral students are increasingly inclined to seek opportunities outside the U.S. as funding uncertainty looms.
“In past eras, other countries with distinguished scientific heritages faced turmoil and conflict, prompting many to flee to the U.S. as a safe haven,” Tao remarked. “It’s paradoxical that we are now witnessing an inverse trend where other countries might begin to attract skilled talent currently based in the U.S.”
Just a year ago, Tao hadn’t considered leaving UCLA or the U.S., but he has received a handful of recruitment inquiries and is beginning to contemplate his future in America if the current situation continues.
“I’ve established my roots here. I raised my family here, so it would take significant incentives to uproot me. Nonetheless, these days, predicting the future is increasingly challenging,” Tao concluded. “I never envisioned moving at all; it was never on my radar. Yet now, whether for better or worse, all possibilities must be taken into account.”
Before entering the MRI scanner, Emily Weldon practiced moving a lost finger from her amputated arm, accompanied by a researcher.
Tamar Makin/Hunter Schone
Research suggests our brains may not reconfigure as much as previously believed following an amputation.
The somatosensory cortex, which processes sensory data like touch and temperature from the entire body, has been shown in various studies to have distinct regions mapped to different body parts. For instance, the sensation of burning your hands might activate regions corresponding to your toes.
There is evidence indicating that when a nerve is severed, the somatosensory cortex may reorganize. A study observing macaques with severed arm nerves revealed that neurons typically responding to hand stimuli were instead active when the face was touched. The researchers inferred that some cortical areas initially linked to the hands were repurposed to respond to facial sensations.
However, a team led by Tamar Makin from Cambridge University conducted a groundbreaking comparison of brain activity in individuals before and after amputation, revealing minimal changes.
Using MRI, researchers scanned the brains of three participants prior to their medically necessary arm amputations. During the scans, they were instructed to pucker their lips and attempt to move their fingers.
Interestingly, even after numerous attempts to willfully move fingers they no longer possessed, the brain signals remained unchanged. “To the best of our measurement, they remain the same,” Makin noted.
Long-term follow-ups on two participants, 18 months and 5 years post-surgery, indicated no significant alterations in brain signals since the initial scans.
The researchers utilized an AI model that was trained to correlate brain activity with specific finger movements. When participants imagined moving their fingers in a random sequence, the model accurately identified which finger they were trying to move, demonstrating consistent neural activity.
In another experiment segment, somatosensory cortical activity was assessed in 26 individuals, average 23 years post-amputation, during attempts to move their lips and fingers. The findings showed comparable activity levels.
“This study decisively challenges the notion that the brain can easily remap, rewire, or reorganize as initially thought,” remarked John Krakauer from Johns Hopkins University in Maryland.
The implications of these findings could significantly affect treatments for phantom limb pain, a common condition where amputees experience discomfort in limbs that are no longer present.
Some therapeutic approaches utilize virtual reality and visual stimuli to prompt brain reorganization, yet results have varied, sometimes influenced by placebo effects, according to Makin.
Researchers suggest that innovative methods, such as implanting nerves into new tissues during amputation, might help mitigate this condition. If remaining nerves are left unconnected, they can thicken, potentially contributing to phantom limb pain.
“The previous maladaptive plasticity theory regarding phantom pain relied on the belief that reorganization was possible, which now seems incorrect,” stated Krakauer. “This fundamentally alters our approach to treating phantom limb pain since its underlying theory has been disproven.”
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