Geologists have found significant evidence indicating the preservation of Hadean Rocks, with an age of 4.16 billion years. The Nuvvuagittuq Greenstone Belt offers a rare glimpse into the early Earth.
Canadian Nuvvuagittuq Green Stone Belt. Image credit: Jonathan O’Neill.
The earliest geological history of Earth remains largely unclear due to the scarcity of rocks and minerals from the Hadean period (over 4.3 billion years ago).
These ancient materials are often altered or destroyed as the planet’s crust undergoes continual recycling through various geological processes.
“One potential survivor of the Hadean era crustal rock is the Nuvvuagittuq Greenstone Belt,” stated Dr. Christian Saul, a senior author from the University of Ottawa and his colleagues.
“However, this perspective is contentious. Some researchers argue that the isotopic data backing these estimates might instead reflect later geological mixing rather than the true age of the layers.”
“If proven to be of Hadean origin, the Nuvvuagittuq Greenstone Belt would represent the oldest known preserved rock sequence on Earth.”
“This could yield critical insights into early geology and possible environments for the emergence of life.”
To refine the age of the Nuvvuagittuq Greenstone Belt, researchers concentrated on specific types of ancient rock intrusions known as metagabbro within the belt.
These intrusions intersect with ancient basaltic rocks, enabling the authors to utilize combined uranium-lead (U-Pb) dating to determine the minimum age limits of older layers, along with both short and long-lived samarium-neodymium (Sm-Nd) isotopic analysis.
Sm-Nd data yielded a consistent age of approximately 4.16 billion years, irrespective of the sample location or mineral composition.
The convergence of both isotope systems producing the same age in rocks with clear evidence of magma differentiation strongly supports their Hadean era crystallization.
This is in accordance with the Hadean Eon surviving within the Nuvvuagittuq Greenstone Belt.
“Studying these rocks allows us to trace back to the origins of our planet,” noted Dr. Jonathan O’Neill, a researcher at the University of Ottawa.
“This will enable us to gain a better understanding of how the first continent formed and help reconstruct the environment in which life emerged.”
C. Sole et al. 2025. Evidence of Hadean Mafic invasion in the Canadian Nuvvuagittuq Greenstone Belt. Science 388 (6754): 1431-1435; doi: 10.1126/science.ads8461
A wildfire in British Columbia, Canada, blazes in June 2023
Imago/Alamy stock photos
2023 set new records as one of the hottest years, but it could have been even warmer. Climate models indicate that without the cooling effect of smoke from large wildfires in Canada, the average summer temperature in the Northern Hemisphere would have been approximately 1°C higher. Smoke may also be present in August, India’s driest month.
“It’s difficult to grasp the scale of such a massive fire. It was extraordinary,” remarks Iurian Allyn Roz from the Crete Institute of Technology in Greece.
According to Rosu, emissions from wildfires this year were estimated to be five to six times higher than those recorded during previous wildfire seasons in Canada. Although carbon dioxide from these fires contributes to warming, in 2023, this warming was offset by the cooling effects of the smoke blocking sunlight.
To quantify the smoke’s cooling impact, Ross and colleagues conducted a series of climate model simulations, comparing scenarios with and without emissions from Canadian wildfires. The findings suggest that between May and September, smoke caused local cooling up to 5.4°C (9.7°F) in certain areas of Canada, leading to an overall cooling of 0.9°C (1.6°F) for the Northern Hemisphere.
This might be unexpected given that record temperatures were reported in parts of Canada that summer. However, while the heat was mostly concentrated in the west, Ross explains that the smoke drifted eastward, where it had the most significant cooling effect.
The effects extended beyond Canada as well. In this model, emissions from wildfires altered wind patterns in Asia, diminishing the monsoon and reducing rainfall in India. This aligns with actual observed phenomena.
“The precipitation discrepancies observed in the data closely resemble those predicted in the model,” notes Rosu, affirming the model’s accuracy.
Nonetheless, the cooling effect proved to be short-lived. “Data analysis for November and December showed minimal impact,” says Rosu.
The record for the hottest year of 2023 may not last long, as 2024 is shaping up to be even hotter.
Six years ago, a Canadian neurologist noticed unusual symptoms among a group of patients in New Brunswick, a province next to Maine.
Dr. Arie Marrello reported that patients experienced hallucinations, convulsions, rapid memory loss, and a sensation of insects crawling under their skin, but these symptoms and brain scans didn’t align with existing diagnoses, making the cases puzzling.
Subsequent reviews by neurologists led to clear diagnoses, including Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease, and cancer.
A recent study published in JAMA Neurology supports these findings, indicating that the likelihood of such mysterious illnesses is about one in one million.
The physicians involved in this study assessed 25 patients from the New Brunswick cluster. With 11 patients deceased, neuropathologists relied on autopsy findings to reach diagnoses. Among the 14 living patients, neurologists used cognitive assessments, concluding that all had well-documented conditions such as Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s, cancer, traumatic brain injury, and post-concussion syndrome.
Dr. Anthony Lang, a neurologist at the Krembil Brain Institute within the University Health Network, remarked, “I was confident that there was a clear explanation for 100% of the cases.”
Nevertheless, some medical professionals are concerned that this evidence may not quell speculation about an underlying unknown cause, which many patients and their families continue to believe in.
According to the authors of the study, 52 individuals connected to the New Brunswick cluster declined a second opinion, and another 42 individuals were unreachable. This lack of response has been attributed to the spread of misinformation through both traditional and social media, undermining trust in healthcare systems.
“These instances reflect misdiagnosis, leading to misinformation. Unfortunately, the doctors involved persist in convincing patients and their families that they have a mysterious illness,” Lang emphasized.
Marello expressed skepticism regarding the study’s methods and conclusions in a statement, saying, “I hold serious reservations about the validity of the research and have numerous questions regarding its methodology and content. We believe that our patients, families, and communities share these significant concerns.”
Dr. Valerie Sim, an associate professor of neurology at the University of Alberta and not part of the study, stated there is no evidence linking the patients’ illnesses. She noted that the description of the cases is too broad and could apply to multiple conditions.
“Sadly, the unifying factor is that all these patients saw the same neurologist,” Sim pointed out. “Patients evaluated by different specialists have been diagnosed with known conditions that aren’t mysterious.”
James Mastorianni, a professor of neurology at the University of Chicago, highlighted that while not included in the study, it underscores the importance of seeking second opinions from experts in the field.
Ongoing Investigation
The Mystery Disease Theory gained traction in 2021 when Canadian health officials launched an investigation based on Marello’s observations. However, even after the inquiry determined that most patients had identifiable conditions, skepticism remained among families. In November, Susan Holt, the Prime Minister of New Brunswick, called for a scientific review of the “mysterious brain diseases.”
“The residents of New Brunswick deserve answers,” Holt stated in a public statement last year. “We must understand the source of our illnesses.”
Some advocates for patients suspect that environmental factors may be contributing to the illnesses, noting that blood tests have detected heavy metals, pesticides, and rare antibodies, warranting further investigation.
“None of our patients received an alternative diagnosis,” said Kat Lantine, an advocate in New Brunswick. “What led to their neurodegenerative disease?”
Dr. Yves Legger, New Brunswick’s chief medical officer of health, stated in a recent statement that the new study “does not alter our commitment to thoroughly investigating cases of undiagnosed neurological diseases in New Brunswick.”
His office has received 222 case reports in connection with this cluster.
Marello mentioned, “We have evaluated over 500 patients in this cluster and provided substantial evidence regarding environmental exposures, as well as rare autoimmune markers present in several cases.”
However, Lang cautioned that detecting substances in the blood or urine does not necessarily imply they are the cause of neurological symptoms.
“You cannot take a scattershot approach, where you find something and assert that it’s relevant to the health issue,” he explained.
Challenges in Diagnosing Neurological Problems
Neurologists not involved with the New Brunswick situation highlight several challenges that continue to spur discussions among advocates, doctors, and government officials about the illness’s origins.
For starters, they note that accurate diagnoses can take time. Some conditions highlighted in the study exhibit complex symptom profiles, like Alzheimer’s.
“We need a comprehensive history from the family along with a timeline to identify if someone is developing dementia. There may be early signs of confusion evident in neurological tests,” indicated Dr. Kimberly O’Neal, a neurologist at the Health Multiple Sclerosis Comprehensive Care Center at NYU Langone.
Rapidly progressing dementia was one of the key symptoms observed in New Brunswick patients. However, families sometimes overlooked early indicators of neurodegeneration, which made it appear as though dementia appeared suddenly, according to Mastorianni.
When severe symptoms manifest, patients and their families often seek answers and can be hesitant to abandon their initial diagnoses, Sim noted.
“This phenomenon is common in medicine. Patients often become attached to a diagnosis or a group of conditions,” Sim remarked. “That is evidently the case here.”
Misdiagnosis can be “truly tragic,” as it may prevent patients from receiving effective treatment and proper care.
TCanadian Prime Minister Justin Trudeau's decision this week to resign as leader of the Liberal Party brings the impending general election, which will be held amid political turmoil caused by President Donald Trump's “America” policies. The race for leadership has begun against the backdrop of the Deaf general election. First, there is “economic nationalism.” It also gave Tesla CEO Elon Musk an opportunity to insert himself into yet another country's political turmoil.
Since Prime Minister Trudeau's resignation on Monday, Mr. Musk has repeatedly posted about Canadian politics on X, the platform formerly known as Twitter, which he acquired for $44 billion in 2022. He celebrates Prime Minister Justin Trudeau's ouster, interacts with Canada's right-wing influencers, and has praised a video by Conservative Party of Canada leader Pierre Poièvre.
Mr. Trump and Mr. Musk have promoted the idea of Canada becoming part of the United States, but all major Canadian party leaders, including Mr. Poilievre, reject this idea. Prime Minister Justin Trudeau posted on Tuesday that there is “no snowball effect” for President Trump's proposal to become a reality.
“Miss, you're no longer the Governor of Canada, so it doesn't matter what you say,” Musk tweeted late Tuesday night.
Musk's post symbolizes a widening of his attempts to influence global politics over the past year, during which he has allied himself with a number of right-wing populist leaders and sought to influence far-right influence. It has expanded its power and persistently voiced conservative dissatisfaction. After spending more than $200 million to support President Trump's reelection campaign, he positioned himself as a key figure in determining U.S. policy and forcing foreign leaders to take Trump's provocations seriously. Ta.
Outside the United States, most of Mr. Musk's attention has been focused on the United Kingdom, where he has recently reignited the uproar over a child sex abuse scandal while promoting anti-immigration views, calling Prime Minister Keir Starmer a “rapist.” “I'm doing it,” he accused. British”. Mr. Musk is also exerting influence on Germany's upcoming elections. Supports far-right, anti-immigration AfD party In an editorial, he hosted leader Alice Weidel for a livestream interview on his platform.
Musk's meddling in European politics has prompted leaders in Britain, France and Germany to speak out against his election interference and misinformation. Now it looks like it's Canada's turn to deal with the world's richest man.
While Musk remains in the background, Prime Minister Trudeau's Liberal Party is likely to hold a leadership election to replace Musk as prime minister, followed by a general election soon after.
Enliven Poièvre
In a series of posts after Prime Minister Justin Trudeau resigned, Musk expressed support for Poièvre, whose Conservative Party is widely expected to dominate Canada's general election after three years in Liberal government. There is. Musk's posts to his more than 200 million followers have already drawn comments from major political party leaders, highlighting how important he is as the country faces this year's political turmoil. Indicates whether it has the potential to become an element.
Canada's left-wing NDP leader Jagmeet Singh responded to Musk's tweet, saying, “Elon Musk and other billionaires support Pierre Poièvre because if he wins, they will… Because it will make you richer,” he posted.
In the days of Poilievre Asked about support for Mr. Musk “It would be great if we could convince Mr. Musk to open some factories here in Canada,” he said at a press conference Thursday. He also mentioned Musk's ambitions for space travel.
“My 3-year-old son wants to go to Mars, so I think Mr. Musk is the right person to reach out to him,” Poièvre said. “If I had a chance to meet with Mr. Musk, I would say, 'How can we create an economy that brings hundreds of billions of dollars of investment back to Canada?'”
Mr. Poièvre fits the mold of other conservative politicians who have appealed to Mr. Musk. He was once known as a combative, baby-faced lawmaker nicknamed “Skippy” by other members of Congress, but in recent years he has ditched his glasses and tie and taken on a more populist personality. Poilievre, an Alberta native, has positioned himself as an opponent of “Prime Minister Trudeau's woke authoritarian policies.” used for conspiratorial rhetoric About “Globalist Elite” and Promises to reduce immigration While blaming the Liberal Party for economic inflation.
Many of Poièvre's points revolve around the adoption of virtual currencies, cuts to government funding, and a new punitive government position with the power to withhold government subsidies to universities that don't protect free speech. It's reminiscent of ideas that Musk himself might promote, such as creating a “guardian of the world.” We are committed to protecting freedom of speech on campus. Poilievre also Support ban on trans women It promised to cut funding from women's bathrooms, locker rooms and sports, and cut funding to Canada's national public broadcaster and news organizations.
Musk posted a 2023 clip of Poièvre eating an apple while disdainfully answering questions from a local news editor, calling it a “masterpiece.” The billionaire also praised Poièvre's video talking about spending cuts and inflation. In a third post, Musk tweeted, “Great interview,” sharing Poilievre's remarks. Talking with right-wing commentator Jordan PetersonIn it, the Conservative leader promised “the biggest crackdown on crime in Canadian history.” Mr Poièvre's interview with Mr Peterson drew condemnation from both the Liberal Party and the NDP over the fact that it was sponsored by a US-based Christian anti-abortion group.
According to opinion polls taken before Prime Minister Trudeau resigned, the Conservative Party has great advantages And Canada this year, even if Last month's survey It has been shown that only 37% of Canadians view Poièvre himself favorably.
Despite Musk's support, Poièvre may also face a balancing act over how closely to work with Trump, who remains an unpopular figure in Canada. According to a public opinion poll during the US presidential election, Only 21% of Canadians support it While Trump was re-elected, another poll in November showed that About 19% of Canadians trust Musk's opinion. about their country's politics.
As in the U.S., many of the Canadian political accounts Musk is associated with tend to be respected conservative media influencers, which Musk spreads to his millions of followers. are.
In one post this week, Musk shared misleading claims about Trudeau from far-right media entrepreneur Ezra Levant, which were later corrected by a community note. Levant publishes the website Rebel News, whose contributors include British anti-Muslim extremist Tommy Robinson, Proud Boys founder Gavin McInnes and former top commentators. face goldiewas fired after appearing on a neo-Nazi podcast. Musk also exchanged tweets with Lauren Southern, an early “alt-right” Canadian influencer and former Rebel Media host who gained notoriety by creating anti-immigrant YouTube videos. promote of white supremacist “The Great Successor” conspiracy theory.
Jordan Peterson is another Canadian touchstone for Musk. In addition to sharing Peterson interviews with Poièvre and exchanging the occasional tweet, Musk appeared on Peterson's show last year. In it, the tech mogul claimed that his transgender child “died” after receiving gender-affirming care and was “killed by a wake-up mind virus.” . Vivian Wilson, Musk's transgender daughter, responded that Musk's characterization was wrong and that her father was absent.
Musk also frequently interacts with Canadian marketing professor Gad Saad at X. Gad Saad has developed an online following through his books and podcast appearances attacking what he calls “the parasitic ideas that are destroying the Western world.”
“I read your insightful book on the parasitic wake-mind virus,” Musk tweeted on Third last year. “It gave me nightmares.”
Musk celebrates Prime Minister Trudeau's resignation
While Mr. Musk has expressed support for Mr. Poièvre, he is relishing Mr. Trudeau's fall from grace. On Wednesday, he shared an AI-generated meme of Donald Trump playing a sad violin in the background of Trudeau's resignation speech, and also responded to an old tweet of his own in which he predicted Trudeau would lose power. did.
Musk has expressed opposition to Trudeau multiple times in recent years over issues such as COVID-19 safety restrictions, most notably in 2022 when he shared a meme comparing Trudeau to Hitler. It was. Musk deleted the tweet after being criticized by the Auschwitz-Birkenau Holocaust Museum, but as recently as December he again called for Trudeau's political ouster.
Prime Minister Trudeau had been a target of right-wing media long before the Musk attack, with far-right commentators such as former Fox News host Tucker Carlson portraying him as some kind of socialist dictator and of Canada as a dystopian hellscape. He dedicated a corner to drawing like this.
Within Canada, the reasons for Trudeau's resignation are more complex. Although he maintained a progressive glow internationally, many Canadians across the political spectrum came to find Mr. Trudeau's personality sinister and hypocritical. domestic scandal. Rising cost of living, inflation and fatigue with the minority Liberal government lost significant support from his party. The recent collapse of the cabinet, the failure of last year's by-elections and the threat of a no-confidence vote ended up being a death sentence for his leadership.
In certain areas of the world, such as Canada’s Hudson Bay, gravity is slightly lower than in other areas.
This is because an object with more mass has more gravity, and since Earth’s mass is not uniform, gravity varies from place to place. However, you need a very accurate scale to notice it. Hudson Bay’s gravity is about four thousandths of a percent lower than Earth’s average.
When scientists discovered this anomaly in the 1960s, they developed two theories to explain it. The first is that the Earth’s crust is still recovering from the last Ice Age.
About 20,000 years ago, the huge Laurentide ice sheet covered North America. The weight of the ice, which was more than 3 kilometers (almost 2 miles) thick in places, pushed down on the continent’s crust.
When the Ice Age ended, the Laurentide melted rapidly, but the Earth’s crust slowly returned to normal. It rebounds by about 12 mm (0.5 inch) each year, meaning it will take another 300,000 years to return to its original position. This indentation left in the Earth’s crust means that Hudson Bay has slightly less mass and therefore slightly less gravity.
The second theory concerns the movement of the mantle beneath the Earth’s crust.
The mantle is made of molten rock heated by the Earth’s core. It rises over geological time scales and then sinks again as it cools. This creates convection currents that move the plates. Ocean currents can also pull continents downward, slightly reducing mass and gravity in the area.
Satellite measurements in 2002 revealed both theories to be correct. The Hudson Bay gravity anomaly is caused by a combination of mantle convection and the legacy of the Laurentide ice sheet. Therefore, even after the Earth’s crust has fully rebounded, gravity in this part of the world will remain slightly lower than average.
This article answers the question (asked by Victor Gregory via email): “Is it true that people in Canada weigh less?” If you have any questions, please email us at:questions@sciencefocus.com or send us a messagefacebook,×orInstagramPage (remember to include your name and location).
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Canada’s spy agency claims that India is using cyber technology to monitor separatists abroad, following accusations from the Indian government that senior Indian officials authorized violent acts, including the killing of a Sikh activist in Vancouver.
The Canada Communications Security Establishment (CSE) reported that India is utilizing cyber capabilities to surveil activists and dissidents living overseas, including increasing cyberattacks on Canadian government networks.
Canada is home to a large Sikh community outside of India, which includes advocates for an independent Sikh nation.
Ottawa is currently investigating the case of Hardeep Singh Nijjar, a Canadian citizen and prominent campaigner for Khalistan, a separatist movement seeking independence for Sikhs in India’s Punjab province. The murder of Nijjar in Vancouver in 2023 is believed to have been orchestrated by India.
CSE Commissioner Caroline Xavier stated, “India poses a growing cyber threat to Canada,” during a press conference.
The report attributes the strain in Canada-India relations to India’s surveillance activities and cyberattacks.
Following Canada’s accusations, a pro-Indian hacktivist group launched DDoS attacks on Canadian websites, disrupting their operations.
Officials revealed that Canada was monitoring a campaign targeting Khalistani activists, linking it to senior Indian government officials, including Home Affairs Minister Amit Shah.
Canadian Prime Minister Scott Morrison confirmed Shah’s involvement in intelligence gathering and violent attacks, including Nijjar’s murder in 2023.
Prime Minister Justin Trudeau and the national police suspect India’s involvement in the killing and other forms of intimidation against Khalistani activists.
India denied the allegations, leading to the expulsion of ambassadors and diplomats between Delhi and Ottawa.
Four Indian nationals have been arrested in connection with Nijjar’s murder.
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