Domestic cats (Felis catus) and African wildcats (Felis silvestris lybica) have successfully adapted to human environments worldwide. The precise origin of the domestic cat—whether it emerged in the Levant, Egypt, or another part of the African wildcat’s range—remains uncertain. A research team from the University of Rome Tor Vergata, led by Tor Vergata, has sequenced the genomes of 87 ancient and modern cats. Their research challenges the traditional belief that domestic cats were brought to Europe during the Neolithic period, suggesting instead that their arrival occurred several thousand years later.
Ancient cat genomes from European and Anatolian sites indicate that domestic cats were introduced to Europe from North Africa around 2,000 years ago, many years after the Neolithic period began in Europe. The Sardinian African wildcat has a separate lineage originating from northwest Africa. Image credit: De Martino et al., doi: 10.1126/science.adt2642.
The history of domestic cats is extensive and complex, yet it contains many uncertainties.
Genetic analyses reveal that all modern domestic cats can trace their ancestry back to the African wildcat inhabiting North Africa and the Near East.
Yet, limited archaeological evidence and the challenges of differentiating between wild and domestic cats through skeletal remains pose significant obstacles in comprehending the origins and diffusion of early domestic cats.
“The timing and specifics surrounding cat domestication and dispersal are still unclear due to the small sample size of ancient and modern genomes studied,” stated Dr. Marco De Martino from the University of Rome Tor Vergata and fellow researchers.
“There are ongoing questions regarding the historical natural habitats of African and European wildcats and the possibility of their interbreeding.”
“Recent investigations have shown that ancient gene flow can complicate the understanding of cat dispersal, especially when relying on mtDNA data.”
“The origins of African wildcat populations on Mediterranean islands like Sardinia and Corsica are equally obscure.”
“Current research suggests these populations constitute a distinct lineage rather than stemming from domestic cats.”
To explore these issues, the team examined the genomes of 70 ancient cats retrieved from archaeological sites in Europe and Anatolia, in addition to 17 modern wildcat species from Italy (including Sardinia), Bulgaria, and North Africa (Morocco and Tunisia).
In contrast to earlier studies, they concluded that domestic cats most likely emerged from North African wildcats rather than the Levant, and that true domestic cats appeared in Europe and southwest Asia several thousand years post-Neolithic.
The early cats of Europe and Turkey predominantly consisted of European wildcats, indicating ancient interbreeding instead of early domestication.
Once introduced, North African domestic cats proliferated across Europe, following routes used by Roman military forces, and reached Britain by the first century AD.
This study also reveals that the Sardinian wildcat is more closely related to North African wildcats than to either ancient or modern domestic cats, suggesting that humans transported wildcats to islands where they do not naturally exist, and that the Sardinian wildcat did not descend from early domestic cat populations.
“By identifying at least two distinct waves of introduction to Europe, we redefine the timeline of cat dispersal,” the researchers noted.
“The first wave likely introduced wildcats from northwest Africa to Sardinia, forming the island’s current wildcat population.”
“A separate, as yet unidentified population in North Africa triggered a second dispersal no later than 2,000 years ago, establishing the modern domestic cat gene pool in Europe.”
The team’s findings are highlighted in this week’s edition of Science.
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M. De Martino et al. 2025. Approximately 2,000 years ago, domestic cats migrated from North Africa to Europe. Science 390 (6776); doi: 10.1126/science.adt2642
Domestic cats trace their lineage back to North African wildcats
Maria Boyko/Alamy
Research indicates that domestic cats originated in North Africa, subsequently dispersing to Europe and East Asia over the last 2000 years, a timeline earlier estimates had not suggested.
The domestic cat (Felis catus) has its roots in the African wildcat (Felis lybica lybica) and is now present on every continent apart from Antarctica.
Prior studies proposed that domestic cats might have first appeared in the Levant, potentially arriving in Europe around 9600 BC.
Claudio Ottoni, a professor at Tor Vergata University in Rome, along with his team, examined 225 ancient cat remains from around 100 archaeological sites across Europe and present-day Turkey. This research yielded 70 ancient genomes that spanned over 10,000 years, dating from the 9th millennium BC to the 19th century AD. They also investigated museum specimens and 17 modern ocelot genomes from Italy, Bulgaria, Morocco, and Tunisia.
The oldest genetically identified cat from this research was sourced from Sardinia and dated to the second century AD, categorized as an African wildcat or domestic cat. All early European specimens were genetically determined to be European wildcats (Felis silvestris).
This research implies that the spread of domestic cats occurred significantly later than previously believed.
Ottoni emphasized that Mediterranean civilizations during the first millennium BC played a crucial role in the relocation of African wildcats, involving at least two genetically distinct populations. One group likely consisted of wildcats introduced to Sardinia from northwest Africa, establishing the current wildcat population on the island, while the other formed the genetic basis of modern domestic cats.
“Initially, during the domestication phase, cats likely adapted well to human surroundings,” he explains. “Their ecological flexibility enabled them to thrive. They have coexisted with humans in various urban and suburban areas and even traveled with them over great distances, showcasing their evolutionary success.”
Leopard cats (Prionailurus bengalensis) cohabited with humans in ancient China
Tuchart Duando/Getty Images
In a related study, Luo Shujing and her team from Peking University investigated 22 sets of feline remains from China, dating back over 5,000 years, while analyzing genomes from 130 modern and ancient Eurasian cat specimens. They identified a different wildcat species, the leopard cat (Prionailurus bengalensis), which is native to East Asia.
“These cats were likely drawn to human settlements due to the abundance of rodents, but they were never genuinely domesticated,” states Luo.
The findings show that true domestic cats made their way to China significantly later, around 1,300 years ago during the Tang Dynasty. Genomic data connects these cats to those originating from the Middle East and Central Asia, suggesting they arrived in China via the Silk Road through traders.
Despite a relationship that lasted over 3,500 years, leopard cats were ultimately never domesticated and reverted to their natural habitats, according to Luo.
“We often get inquiries from the public about whether it’s feasible to keep these adorable ocelots as pets, particularly if raised from youth,” she remarks. “My straightforward response is: Forget it. Our ancestors tried for over 3,000 years and didn’t succeed.”
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National Health Secretary Robert F. Kennedy Jr. emphasizes that addressing the “epidemic” of chronic illness is fundamental to his vision for American health, frequently citing alarming statistics as a pressing need for reform in public health across the nation.
On Friday, President Trump proposed a budget that would nearly halve funding for the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, completely eliminating the Chronic Disease Center, a move that left many state and city health officials in disbelief.
“Most Americans suffer from some form of chronic illness,” stated Dr. Matifha Frathschwei Davis, health director for the city of St. Louis.
Addressing the proposed cuts, she asked, “How do you reconcile this with an effort to make America healthy again?”
Last month, the Federal Health Administration eliminated 2,400 jobs at the CDC. The Chronic Disease Center, which handles the largest budget within the CDC, was particularly impacted.
In a reorganization last month, programs focused on lead poisoning, smoking cessation, and reproductive health were discontinued.
The proposed budget would slash CDC funding to around $4 billion, down from $9.2 billion in 2024.
Moreover, the budget plan does not account for the $1.2 billion Prevention and Public Health Fund, suggesting that the cuts could surpass what Trump has proposed.
Programs targeting injury prevention, including those related to firearms, along with HIV surveillance and public health emergency preparedness grants, would also be affected.
According to the budget proposal, reductions aim to eliminate “duplicate, DEI, or simply unnecessary programs.” While Congress will formulate a federal budget, it remains uncertain how Trump’s proposal will evolve given the Republican majority and his allegiance to Trump.
Robert F. Kennedy Jr. of the Department of Health and Human Services at the White House last month.credit…Eric Lee/The New York Times
CDC officials have been informed that the functions of the Chronic Disease Center will be relocated to a new entity within the health department called Management for a Healthy America.
Additionally, the proposal released on Friday seems to allocate $500 million to the Health Secretary for initiatives focusing on “nutrition, physical activity, healthy lifestyle choices, medications, and treatments.”
Yet, the Chronic Disease Center’s budget at the CDC was nearly tripled. Even if some chronic disease centers are revived under AHA, it’s unlikely that CDC scientists, who have relocated from Atlanta, will be involved.
“The actual subject matter experts managing the program may no longer be at the CDC,” remarked Dr. Scott Harris, Alabama’s state health officer. “We certainly don’t have the same level of expertise in my state.”
The Department of Health and Human Services did not respond to requests for comment.
The CDC’s Chronic Disease Center has launched programs aimed at the prevention of cancer, heart disease, diabetes, epilepsy, and Alzheimer’s disease. However, it also supports initiatives beyond traditional boundaries, like developing walking trails and ensuring healthy food options are available in airports.
Dr. Davis from St. Louis indicated that her department has already been impacted by cuts that affect smoking cessation programs, lead poisoning initiatives, and health equity efforts, with a loss of over $11 billion in funding that the CDC previously provided to the state’s health department.
Diabetes Prevention Program at the Bronx YMCAcredit…Benjamin Norman from New York Times
The center is involved in various initiatives, from developing walking paths to ensuring that healthy food options like salads are available at airports.credit…Tony Senicola/The New York Times
“I’m going to see the impacts of COVID-19 reflected in our current situation,” Dr. Davis emphasized.
In the proposed budget, the administration claims that discontinued programs could be more effectively managed at the state level. However, the state’s health department already oversees most chronic disease initiatives, with approximately three-quarters of the CDC Center’s funding dedicated to these programs.
Dr. Harris expressed that the funding loss is “devastating for us.”
Alabama has one of the highest chronic disease rates nationwide, with upwards of 84% of the Department of Public Health’s budget sourced from the CDC, Dr. Harris noted. Approximately $6 million is estimated to support chronic disease initiatives, including blood pressure screenings, diabetes education, and promoting physical activity.
If these funds are cut, he added, “I have no idea now where the funding will come from.” “No one truly seems to know what to expect, and we are not solicited for input on these matters.”
The Minnesota health department has already terminated 140 positions, with hundreds more potentially at risk if CDC funding reductions continue. Cuts to chronic disease prevention have direct repercussions on nursing homes, vaccination clinics, and public health efforts for Native Americans in the region.
“Federal decisions have left us unsupported in a fragile situation without a safety net,” stated Dr. Brooke Cunningham, the state health commissioner.
Dr. Cunningham noted that until recently, there seemed to be a shared understanding at all levels of government regarding the importance of investing in health.
In 2023, Dr. Brooke Cunningham, Commissioner of the Minnesota Department of Health.credit…David Joles/Star Tribune via the Associated Press
The impact of the CDC Chronic Disease Center is felt in many surprising facets of American life.
In Prairie Village, Kansas, Stephanie Barr learned about the center when she worked as a waitress without health insurance and discovered a lump in her breast 15 years ago.
Thanks to the CDC’s National Early Breast and Cervical Cancer Detection Program, she received mammograms and ultrasounds, with staff assisting her in registering for Medicaid for treatment after a biopsy revealed the mass was cancerous, Barr recounted.
“It was caught just in time,” said Barr, now 45 and cancer-free.
Since its inception in 1991, the program has provided over 16.3 million screenings for more than 6.3 million individuals, with no other affordable options available.
The organization 530 Health has circulated a petition urging lawmakers to reject the proposed HHS budget, which could cut discretionary funding by approximately one-third. The signers contend that these cuts would “effectively devastate” the nation’s research and public health infrastructure.
The budget also suggests dismantling the disease registry and surveillance system.
“Without collecting data or maintaining these surveillance systems, we lose sight of trends,” mentioned Dr. Philip Fan, director of Dallas County Health and Human Services in Texas.
“You’re losing all historical context,” he explained.
In a previous role as Director of Chronic Diseases in Texas, Dr. Huang worked closely with CDC specialists who effectively decreased tobacco use among Americans.
“Abolishing smoking cessation efforts is utterly irrational if you aim to address chronic illnesses,” he stated.
The Chronic Disease Center’s programs target cancer, heart disease, diabetes, epilepsy, and Alzheimer’s disease.credit…Tony Leon of the New York Times
Smoking continues to be a leading cause of preventable deaths in the U.S., causing over 480,000 fatalities annually, according to the CDC.credit…Jenny Kane/Applications
Smoking remains a top contributor to preventable deaths in the United States, leading to over 480,000 deaths each year, per CDC data.
More than one in ten Americans smoke regularly; however, rates vary significantly by region, and CDC monitoring is crucial for targeting areas where cessation programs are most necessary.
“While smoking rates have declined, if the federal government eases regulations, tobacco companies are poised to regain ground,” cautioned Erica Seward, vice president of advocacy for the American Lung Association.
She highlighted that tobacco firms continually innovate new products, such as nicotine pouches. Usage among teenagers doubled last year. “It would be significantly more challenging to reverse this trend,” she added.
The CDC Chronic Disease Center collaborates with both community and academic organizations to promote effective programs, ranging from engaging youth in rural areas of Iowa to training members of Black churches in Columbia, South Carolina.
In rural Missouri, numerous walking trails have been established in the Bootheel region, an area with high obesity and diabetes rates, as noted by Ross Brownson, a public health researcher at Washington University in St. Louis, who is partnering with the CDCC to lead the Center for Prevention Research.
“Research indicates that enhancing walkability in a community can significantly increase physical activity levels,” Dr. Brownson commented. “Though there may be no fitness centers in rural areas, residents can enjoy nature and outdoor walking, and land is relatively affordable.”
In Rochester, New York, CDC support is training both deaf and hearing individuals to lead exercise and wellness programs targeted at others who are deaf and often excluded from mainstream fitness classes.
In San Diego, investigators are exploring strategies to shield farmworkers from ultraviolet and heat-related health issues.
“When they initiate these efforts from the ground up, they’re community-driven and not reliant on government support,” commented Allison Bey, who recently lost her position overseeing such initiatives at the CDC.
The CDC’s reorganization has also resulted in the termination of the lead poisoning program. Lead poisoning is “among our most significant public health challenges in Cleveland,” pointed out Dr. David Margolius, the city’s public health director.
While the CDC does not directly fund Cleveland’s lead program, the state provides the necessary resources. “We rely on federal expertise to guide us toward a lead-free future, so this will have a profound impact on us,” he stated.
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