Astronomers utilizing ESO’s Very Large Telescope (VLT) have measured the carbon and nitrogen isotope ratios of 3I/ATLAS, the third known interstellar visitor to pass through our solar system. Their findings indicate that interstellar comets likely formed in the frigid outer regions of protoplanetary disks surrounding significantly older and less metal-rich stars than our Sun.
This image depicts a portion of the spectrum of interstellar comet 3I/ATLAS captured by ESO’s Very Large Telescope’s UVES instrument in December 2025. Image credit: ESO / C. Opitom / Manfroid others / O. Hainaut.
3I/ATLAS is just the third interstellar object ever documented, following 1I/’Oumuamua in 2017 and 2I/Borisov in 2019. Its brightness allowed for isotopic measurements that were not feasible with its predecessors.
“Interstellar objects originating from planetary systems beyond our own present a unique chance to explore materials formed in various protoplanetary disks, each likely experiencing distinct physical and chemical conditions,” stated Dr. Ciriel Opitom, an astronomer at the University of Edinburgh.
“When such an object becomes active and sublimates, the resulting gas can be analyzed spectroscopically, enabling direct determination of its volatile composition and isotopic ratios.”
“Isotope ratios serve as vital tools for tracing the origins and evolutionary pathways of different species.”
“Given that the fractionation process is influenced by temperature and radiation environments, isotopic ratios can map the chemical evolution of materials from the prestellar phase to fully formed planets and planetesimals.”
Dr. Opitom and his collaborators observed 3I/ATLAS from December 6 to 26, 2025, following its closest approach to the Sun.
Using the VLT’s Ultraviolet-Visible Echelle Spectrometer (UVES), they examined emissions from cyanide (CN), a molecule frequently found in comet atmospheres, and measured the carbon to nitrogen isotope ratios.
The carbon isotope ratio (carbon-12/carbon-13) was approximately 151, while the nitrogen isotope ratio (nitrogen-14/nitrogen-15) was around 363.
In contrast, most solar system comets possess carbon isotope ratios near 90 and nitrogen isotope ratios close to 150.
This image of interstellar comet 3I/ATLAS was captured on January 18, 2026, using the FORS2 instrument aboard ESO’s Very Large Telescope. Image credit: ESO/O. Hainaut.
“3I/ATLAS presents an exciting opportunity to investigate the composition of other planetary systems that formed long before our Sun and Solar System came into existence,” noted Dr. Rosemary Dorsey, an astronomer at the University of Helsinki.
The elevated nitrogen ratio in 3I/ATLAS aligns with the hypothesis that it formed far from its parent star, where the effectiveness of isotope-selective chemistry diminishes.
Chemical evolution models of galaxies suggest that older, metal-poor stars yield planetary materials rich in carbon-12 compared to carbon-13.
The astronomers’ high carbon ratio measurement aligns with these predictions, corroborating previous findings indicating that comets originated around ancient stars relatively deficient in heavy elements.
“The nitrogen-14/nitrogen-15 ratio exceeds the typical value of 150 found in solar system comets, approaching values observed in the interstellar medium, prestellar phases, or outside protoplanetary disks,” the researchers stated.
“The carbon-12/carbon-13 ratio also surpasses commonly measured figures in solar system comets and the local interstellar medium.”
“These measurements support the theory that 3I/ATLAS originated in the outer disk surrounding older, less metallic stars, offering potential insights into planetesimal formation efficiency around such stars.”
For further details, the team’s study is published in today’s issue of Nature Astronomy.
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C. Opitom others. High isotope ratios of nitrogen and carbon in interstellar comet 3I/ATLAS. Nat Astron published online on July 6, 2026. doi: 10.1038/s41550-026-02921-7
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is an early Cambrian marine predator from China’s Chengjiang biota, notable for preserving the earliest evidence of chelicerae. This unique structure is a precursor to the fangs of spiders and pincers of scorpions.
Artist’s impression of Urocodia equalis, a marine predator that roamed Cambrian seas around 518 million years ago. Image credit: Xiaodong Wang.
Spiders, scorpions, and ticks belong to a significant group of invertebrates known as chelicerates, which includes over 100,000 described species.
Characterized by articulated limbs and an external skeleton, these creatures are particularly known for their specialized limbs, called chelicerae, used for capturing prey.
The earliest fossil records of chelicerae emerged not from terrestrial habitats but from marine organisms inhabiting Cambrian seas over 500 million years ago.
In a groundbreaking study, paleontologists examined Urocodia equalis from the renowned Chengjiang Fossil Site in Yunnan Province, China.
This diminutive creature measures just 2 to 3 centimeters and features large, stalked eyes, a segmented skeleton, and articulated limbs extending from its elongated body.
“The Urocodia equalis was part of an ancient ecosystem with over 200 species thriving in the ocean more than 500 million years ago,” stated Professor Mark Williams from the University of Leicester.
“These excellently preserved fossils offer invaluable insights into the early evolution of life on Earth.”
Utilizing X-ray tomography, Professor Williams and his team conducted an in-depth analysis of Urocodia equalis, uncovering much of its soft tissue still intact.
The scans revealed small, scissor-like limbs located behind the eyes, representing an early evolutionary version of the chelicerae that later developed into the fangs of spiders and pincers of scorpions.
“During our X-ray tomography analysis, we discovered soft anatomy that had remained buried for millions of years, including these fascinating scissor-like limbs,” remarked Professor Yu Liu, a paleontologist at Yunnan University and the University of Leicester.
“This fossil is particularly intriguing as it is a distant ancestor of chelicerates like scorpions and spiders.”
Urocodia equalis‘s legs also exhibit features similar to gills, a respiratory adaptation still observed in modern horseshoe crabs.
This discovery extends the fossil record of this unique trait, providing a rare glimpse into the origins of one of evolution’s most successful hunting adaptations that emerged in ancient oceans.
“Urocodia equalis has a seven-segmented head with a sclerotized lower mouth, pincer-like appendages, and bilobed body appendages equipped with overlapping exit valves,” noted the paleontologists.
“These scissor-like appendages illustrate a transitional structure between a multi-segmented appendage and a true chelicera; mega keiran represents the origin of book gills.”
Further details of these findings are published in the latest issue of Nature.
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Y. Liu et al., Urokodia: Shedding light on the origin of chelicerae and their book gills. Nature, published online July 1, 2026. doi: 10.1038/s41586-026-10713-2
Human laughter, characterized by rapid and rhythmically timed bursts, is not exclusive to humans. Recent research from the University of Warwick and the University of Portsmouth reveals that all great apes, including orangutans, gorillas, and chimpanzees, share the same fundamental timing structure for laughter. This finding indicates that our common ancestor with these great apes was capable of recognizable smiling at least 15 million years ago.
Analysis of laughter tempo in five great ape species: orangutans, gorillas, bonobos, chimpanzees, and humans. Points represent individual observations, with color coding for evolutionary distance. Image credit: De Gregorio et al., 10.1038/s42003-026-10499-z.
Chiara de Gregorio, a researcher at the University of Warwick, stated, “Sounds do not fossilize, complicating the traceability of song sounds, spoken words, and languages.”
She added, “Comparative studies of the behaviors of our closest living relatives, the (non-human) great apes, serve as the only extant model for the vocal abilities and adaptive features that our ancestors may have lost.”
“Although every major hominid lineage has developed unique vocalization repertoires shaped by their specific social ecologies, laughter remains a conserved vocalization across species and age-sex categories.”
This study recorded laughter in various tickle play and social play scenarios involving 17 individuals from all five great ape species.
The research comprised four orangutans, two gorillas, three bonobos, four chimpanzees, and four humans, including children aged 6 months to 7 years.
Analysis showed that laughter across all species is isochronous, meaning it occurs at regular, evenly spaced intervals. This rhythm mirrors those found in music and speech.
Scientists have confirmed that this fundamental rhythmic structure was already present in our common ancestor 15 million years ago and continues to be remarkably conserved across modern great apes.
However, they identified noteworthy differences along the evolutionary line. The closer a species is to humans on the evolutionary tree, the faster and more variable their laughter becomes, with increased sensitivity to social contexts.
Humans were unique in adjusting the tempo of their laughter depending on whether they were engaged in tickling or free play.
The researchers noted that variations in human laughter tempo are perceived as more emotionally warm and socially positive, indicating that rhythmic flexibility holds significant social implications.
Dr. Adriano Lamelia from the University of Warwick remarked, “Assessing the vocal forms of extinct ancestors directly is impossible.”
“Laughter is an evolutionarily ancient trait shared by all extant great apes, providing a valuable evolutionary perspective on vocal changes that occurred throughout human evolution leading to the emergence of the first humans.”
“This research counters the classical view that the first humans suddenly acquired distinct vocal control abilities; instead, the evolution of laughter illustrates the continuum of vocal control capabilities that developed cumulatively over 15 million years.”
For further details, refer to the findings published in the Journal on June 25, 2026, in Communication Biology.
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C. De Gregorio et al. 2026. The rhythm and timing of laughter reveal that human vocal plasticity is part of the hominid continuum. Comm Biol 9,824; doi: 10.1038/s42003-026-10499-z
Recent analysis of data from NASA’s Juno spacecraft reveals that Jupiter’s bow shocks not only deflect the solar wind but also serve as potent particle accelerators, propelling electrons to relativistic energies of at least 1 MeV.
As celestial bodies traverse streams of charged particles, their magnetic fields act as barriers. This interaction results in incoming particles being slowed and redirected, creating a ‘bow shock.’ Just beyond this boundary lies the foreshock, a dynamic area where magnetic forces can accelerate particles to speeds approaching that of light. Image credit: Ben C. Smith, Johns Hopkins Applied Physics Laboratory.
A shock is a disturbance caused by an object moving faster than the local speed of sound through a medium, leading to a sudden change in pressure at the interface.
Jupiter’s bow shock, for instance, arises where the planet’s magnetic field interacts with the solar wind, similar to how a ship’s bow creates waves in the water.
Most shocks in space plasma are collisionless due to low particle density, which prevents direct collisions and energy transfer through heat. Instead, electromagnetic forces govern these interactions.
Collisionless shocks are believed to be key sites where cosmic rays are accelerated to near-light speeds in a process termed relativistic electron acceleration.
Despite this understanding, scientists have faced challenges in directly observing and confirming the mechanisms behind these structures.
“Since the discovery of cosmic rays over a century ago, astronomers have been tracing their origins,” stated Dr. Savas Raptis from Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory and his colleagues.
“These high-energy particles originate from various sources, including supernovae and solar eruptions.”
“When solar cosmic rays interact with Earth, they can induce space weather impacts that disrupt satellites, communications, and electricity grids.”
“The NASA mission illustrated how some electrons attain high energy levels in regions near Earth known as foreshocks, where solar particles first encounter Earth’s magnetic field.”
“Scientists have long suspected that this same acceleration process occurs in the foreshocks of other planetary bodies and astrophysical systems, but confirmation has been elusive until now.”
The research team analyzed data gathered by Juno during its approach to Jupiter on October 1, 2023.
Before passing through the bow shock, Juno traversed a foreshock, a turbulent area where the solar wind initially senses the planet’s magnetic field.
Over approximately 20 minutes, Juno detected a significant bubble-like disturbance identified as a foreshock transient.
The spacecraft employed three onboard instruments to measure electrons accelerated to energies reaching up to 1 MeV within this transient structure.
“By utilizing these observations and supplementary data from our solar system, we propose a universal scaling law for the Hyras limit, empirically linking the size of observable transients to maximum particle energy,” the authors concluded.
“Applying this model across diverse environments, from planetary bow shocks to protostellar jets and supernova remnants, suggests a range for maximum achievable particle energies from the MeV scale to tens of GeV and TeV, offering a method for constraining maximum cosmic ray energies in astrophysical shocks.”
The team’s paper was published in the journal Nature on June 3, 2026.
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S. Raptis et al. 2026. Relativistic electron acceleration in Jupiter’s bow shock and beyond. Nature 654, 47-51; doi: 10.1038/s41586-026-10473-z
The expression “survival of the fittest” is so closely linked to Darwinism that many mistakenly attribute it to Charles Darwin himself. However, this phrase was popularized by his contemporary Herbert Spencer. Nonetheless, it holds an element of truth. In On the Origin of Species, Darwin stressed competition as a key driver of evolution, shaped by the environments in which organisms develop.
Darwin characterized nature as a fierce battle for survival, not merely because he believed this to be true, but to resonate with an audience influenced by the era’s imperialistic and industrial narratives. During this time, thinkers like Thomas Malthus and Thomas Hobbes painted humanity as innately competitive and ruthless. Darwin’s critique of this viewpoint was valid. Over time, Darwinism has been misused to rationalize humanity’s darker actions.
Yet, viewing Darwin’s theories through alternative lenses can be enlightening. Even before the term “ecology” was introduced, Darwin recognized the importance of interconnectedness in natural systems. This perspective might hold keys to unraveling one of science’s biggest enigmas: the origin of life itself.
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Darwinism cited as scientific justification for humanity’s worst sins “
A promising pathway to elucidating how life emerged from non-life draws on concepts from microbiologist Carl Woese. He proposed that life likely evolved within a co-culture, consisting of loosely interconnected molecules.
Intriguingly, contemporary research indicates that essential elements and processes of life—including metabolism and genetic coding for proteins—can arise spontaneously through chemical reactions. Rather than perceiving life as a solitary victor emerging from “some warm little pond” (a phrase coined by Darwin), it may be more accurate to say that cooperation has been foundational to life’s development from its inception.
Paleontologists have studied 1.75 billion-year-old microfossils from the ancient ocean floor of Australia, revealing that early eukaryotes—the ancestors of all plants, animals, and fungi—thrived in patches of oxygen-rich ocean floor for over a billion years before they ventured into the open ocean.
Eukaryotic fossils from Northern Territory, Australia. Image credit: Lechte et al., doi: 10.1038/s41586-026-10533-4.
Eukaryotes encompass a wide range of life forms, including humans, plants, animals, fungi, and various microorganisms.
Understanding their origins is crucial for grasping the evolution of life’s diversity and complexity on Earth.
“Our goal was to uncover the environments in which early eukaryotes existed, particularly to determine if these early fossils had acquired mitochondria, enabling them to thrive in aerobic conditions,” stated Professor Galen Halverson from McGill University.
“Interestingly, the earliest eukaryotes we studied already demonstrated some level of dependence on oxygen,” remarked Dr. Leigh-Anne Readman, a paleontologist at the University of California, Santa Barbara.
“The distribution of these fossils indicated they lived on or within the ocean floor,” she added.
In this groundbreaking study, paleontologists examined microscopic fossils preserved within fine-grained rocks found in the Macarthur and Billindudu basins of Australia’s Northern Territory.
Today, this area features diverse landscapes, from outback terrains and savannas to the lush environments of Kakadu National Park.
However, between 1.75 billion and 1.4 billion years ago, it was a shallow inland sea with lagoons, tidal flats, and calm coastal waters.
To decode the habitat of these ancient eukaryotes, researchers analyzed the rocks’ chemistry.
By examining oxygen-sensitive elements like iron, they confirmed that the seawater inhabited by these early eukaryotes was oxygen-rich, despite most oceans lacking oxygen during that time.
“We now understand that the earliest known eukaryotes lived predominantly in oxygen-abundant benthic (seafloor) environments near the coast,” Professor Halverson explained.
“This compelling evidence suggests that oxygen availability was a significant factor in the early evolution of eukaryotes,” Dr. Readman noted.
Historically, many scientists believed early eukaryotes existed without oxygen or floated within water columns.
The revelation that oxygen was integral to early life on Earth overturns longstanding assumptions.
The location of these fossils provided additional insights into how these primitive organisms existed.
Dr. Maxwell Lechte, a paleontologist from the University of Sydney, stated: “The fossil distribution implies that eukaryotes likely inhabited the ocean floor and didn’t venture into the open ocean until about a billion years later, when significant environmental changes occurred.”
This discovery aligns with recent studies on microorganisms closely related to eukaryotic ancestors, indicating their ability to utilize oxygen.
“Eukaryotes constitute most of the visible life around us,” Professor Halverson remarked.
“Understanding their origin remains a pivotal scientific challenge, key to comprehending the biodiversity we see on Earth and the potential for life on other habitable planets.”
Pendulum Clocks: Pioneering Accuracy in Timekeeping
Panumas Nikhomkhai / Alamy
The pioneering design of a quantum grand clock integrates a single atom, a micro mirror, and light. This innovative architecture seeks to enhance our comprehension of timekeeping in the quantum realm and delve into avant-garde physics concepts.
At its core, time can be measured using simple methods like sand falling in an hourglass. However, the emergence of mechanical timepieces such as grand clocks and pendulum clocks in the 17th century revolutionized accuracy in timekeeping. Researchers at Collège de France have now unveiled the quantum equivalent of these timepieces.
“We questioned if pendulum clocks conform to the principles of quantum mechanics,” explains Matteo Brunelli, one of the lead researchers.
A pendulum clock comprises three essential components: the pendulum, which regulates the ticking; a weight using gravity’s pull to swing the pendulum; and an “escapement mechanism,” which transforms the pendulum’s motion into clock arm movement while also supplying energy to counteract friction-related slowdown. For consistent oscillation, the escapement must manage the vertical movement of the weight precisely.
The research team has created a mathematical model that replicates these clock characteristics within quantum systems. Their quantum clock design showcases a cavity between two mirrors—one stationary and the other oscillating. Within this cavity, atoms exist at three distinct energy levels. Minor temperature variations spark atomic transitions, some resulting in photon emissions. These photons bounce between the mirrors, triggering vibrations akin to a pendulum’s motion.
The atom in this setup functions as the escapement mechanism, cycling through energy levels to maintain a tick-tock rhythm. Brunelli comments that this represents the most minimal form of an escapement mechanism. Mathematical evaluations indicated that proper tuning would allow the quantum clock to achieve a stable and consistent ticking, paralleling a pendulum clock’s functionality.
Unlike the premier atomic clocks that require laser precision for control, this new clock is envisioned to operate autonomously as a self-sufficient thermodynamic device. While prior designs of autonomous quantum clocks existed, their precision suffered due to inadequate escapement mechanisms for maintaining uniform oscillation.
Notably, this new clock overcomes the “thermodynamic uncertainty relation,” a barrier that previously impaired many autonomous clocks. Its accuracy is now linked to the energy required for backward movement, thus demonstrating a significant advantage in timekeeping.
Sreenath Manikandan from the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research in Hyderabad emphasizes that comprehending autonomous clocks is essential for efficient time management. As these clocks do not rely on external sources for accuracy, they provide insight into fundamental processes. Enhanced knowledge of quantum clocks at a basic level could further unravel new physics phenomena, including gravitational interactions in the quantum framework. “A deeper understanding of clock mechanisms is critical, and our research marks a notable advancement in this direction,” states Manikandan.
Experiments with diminutive cavities and photons are prevalent, suggesting that the necessary materials for constructing these clocks are readily available in labs. Yet, Brunelli acknowledges that the groundbreaking escapement mechanism presents significant technical challenges. “While it is complex, it remains feasible,” he asserts.
The cruise ship MV Hondius is anchored off the coast of Cape Verde.
AFP/Getty Images
Three individuals showing symptoms of hantavirus were evacuated from the cruise ship MV Hondius after an outbreak that
tragically claimed the lives of three passengers. The evacuees are set to receive medical care in the Netherlands.
The ship embarked from Ushuaia, Argentina, on April 1st, journeying across the South Atlantic with stops in Antarctica,
South Georgia, Nightingale Island, Tristan da Cunha, St. Helena, and Ascension Island.
Two fatalities occurred onboard, and a third individual died in South Africa two days post-disembarkation in St. Helena.
Additionally, a British passenger remains in intensive care in Johannesburg, South Africa.
A Swiss man who disembarked at the end of April also tested positive for hantavirus after exhibiting symptoms. The Britain’s
Health and Safety Executive noted that two asymptomatic British passengers from the ship are currently self-isolating at home.
Understanding Hantavirus
Hantaviruses belong to a category of viruses carried by rodents that can lead to severe illness in humans. Infection typically
occurs through contact with infected rodents or their excreta.
Different hantaviruses are linked to varying clinical syndromes across different global regions. In the Americas,
hantaviruses can trigger a critical respiratory condition known as hantavirus cardiopulmonary syndrome (HCPS),
carrying a mortality rate of up to 50% among diagnosed cases. In Europe and Asia, they cause hemorrhagic fever with
renal syndrome (HFRS), largely impacting the kidneys and blood vessels.
Globally, estimates suggest around 10,000 to over 100,000 hantavirus infections annually, predominantly in Asia and Europe.
According to South Africa’s National Institute of Infectious Diseases, two individuals who disembarked from the ship tested
positive for Andes virus, a type of hantavirus associated with HCPS. It’s believed this virus can be transmitted between
humans through prolonged close contact.
Symptoms of Hantavirus
Initial symptoms often include fever, muscle pain, headache, and gastrointestinal issues, with some patients advancing
to develop respiratory complications. Diagnosis typically relies on specialized blood tests.
Transmission Routes of Hantavirus
The primary mode of infection is through contact with infected rodents, especially inhaling the virus from contaminated
rodent urine, feces, or saliva.
Due to this, investigations into suspected cases often concentrate on identifying potential exposure to rodent-contaminated
environments such as grocery stores, ship cabins, or storage areas. Hantaviruses are not generally considered easily
transmissible between humans, as explained by Roger Hewson
from the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine.
Infection may also arise from a rodent bite. Activities such as cleaning poorly ventilated spaces, farming, forestry
work, or sleeping in rodent-infected areas elevate the risk of exposure.
As noted by the WHO, human-to-human transmission has only been recorded in cases of Andes virus in the Americas and is
deemed rare. When transmission occurs, it typically involves prolonged close contact, particularly among family members
or intimate partners, especially in the early disease stages when the virus is more transmissible.
Current Spread of Infection: A Cause for Concern?
According to Adam Taylor,
a researcher at Lancaster University in the UK, there is no need for public alarm. “Transmission of hantaviruses usually
requires contact with animal products, rather than human-to-human spread,” he stated. “Precautions are being implemented
onboard to minimize risk, but these are just safety measures.”
Hewson emphasized that one should not hastily conclude the cruise ship setting is the source of infection. “The connection
of confirmed cases to a single ship does not inherently suggest that exposure occurred aboard. It could also have taken
place prior to embarkation, during shore excursions, or from other common environmental sources,” he remarked. “This is
why public health surveillance, laboratory confirmations, and ideally, viral sequencing are crucial.”
Article Updated on May 6, 2026
Correction made regarding the details about a Swiss man who tested positive for hantavirus.
The cruise ship MV Hondius is anchored off the coast of Cape Verde.
AFP/Getty Images
An outbreak of hantavirus has been reported on the Dutch-flagged cruise ship MV Hondius, anchored off the coast of Cape Verde in the Atlantic Ocean. This virus can result in severe illness in humans, with a mortality rate of up to 50%.
So far, seven individuals have been infected, with three fatalities confirmed.
Understanding Hantavirus
Hantaviruses are a category of viruses carried by rodents known to cause severe illnesses in humans. Infection typically occurs through exposure to infected rodents or their urine, feces, or saliva.
Different hantaviruses cause various clinical syndromes across the globe. In the Americas, they can lead to a severe illness known as hantavirus cardiopulmonary syndrome (HCPS), which has a fatality rate of about 50%. In Europe and Asia, they primarily cause hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome (HFRS), affecting kidneys and blood vessels.
It is estimated that there are 10,000 to over 100,000 hantavirus infections annually worldwide, with the highest rates in Asia and Europe.
The specific strain of hantavirus affecting those on board the ship remains unidentified. “There are multiple species, at least 24, that can be harmful to humans,” says Adam Taylor, a researcher at Lancaster University, UK. “Until we determine which strains are involved, we cannot fully understand the situation.”
Where Was the Ship Located?
The World Health Organization (WHO) has been notified of this outbreak. On May 2, a statement announced an outbreak of severe acute respiratory illness onboard the MV Hondius, including two fatalities and one critically ill passenger.
The cruise departed from Ushuaia, Argentina, on April 1, 2026, and traveled across the South Atlantic, with stops including Antarctica, South Georgia, Nightingale Island, Tristan da Cunha, St. Helena, and Ascension Island. WHO identified the Argentine port as a focal point for investigations into the outbreak due to the presence of the Andes virus, known for limited person-to-person transmission in South America.
A total of 147 individuals from 23 nationalities were onboard, consisting of 88 passengers and 59 crew members. The extent of contact with local wildlife during the voyage remains unclear, as per WHO’s statement.
What Are the Symptoms of Hantavirus?
Initial symptoms may include fever, muscle aches, headaches, and gastrointestinal issues. Some patients may develop respiratory complications. Diagnosis typically involves specialized blood tests.
How Does Hantavirus Spread?
The primary route of infection is contact with infected rodents, particularly through inhalation of virus particles from contaminated rodent droppings, urine, or saliva.
“For this reason, investigations often focus on potential exposure to rodent-contaminated areas,” stated Roger Hewson from the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine. “Hantaviruses are not generally believed to be easily transmissible between humans.”
While rarer, infection may also occur through rodent bites. High-risk activities include cleaning poorly ventilated spaces, farming, and sleeping in rodent-infested environments. According to WHO, human-to-human transmission has only been recorded for the Andes virus in the Americas, occurring with close and prolonged contact, mainly among family and intimate partners, particularly during the early stages of the disease.
Current Outlook on the Infection Spread
According to Taylor, there is no need for panic. “Transmission of hantaviruses usually requires contact with animal products, not person-to-person contact,” he emphasized. “While precautions are in place on board, they are just that—precautions.”
Hewson added that it’s crucial not to make assumptions based on the cruise ship context. “Infection confirmation among passengers does not clarify whether the exposure occurred on the ship, prior to embarkation, during shore excursions, or through common environmental contact,” he remarked. “Therefore, public health surveillance, lab confirmations, and possible virus sequencing are vital.”
Once a cohesive group, the Ngogo chimpanzees have divided, leading to escalation in violence and conflict. Researchers suggest this division might indicate that warfare is an innate aspect of our nature, rather than a recent development linked to our evolving culture.
According to Aaron Sandel and his team from the University of Texas at Austin, a comprehensive analysis of 24 years of social networks, 10 years of GPS tracking, and 30 years of demographic data on the chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) in Kibale National Park, Uganda, was conducted.
Sandel emphasizes caution with terminology: “These are chimpanzees. Terms like war and civil war carry specific meanings for humans. While the conflict is not a civil war, there exist notable parallels, particularly regarding the shifts in group identity that precipitate lethal conflict.”
Chimpanzees are notorious for violence, predominantly targeting infants of rivals or outsider males.
The Ngogo population, comprising 150 to 200 individuals, is closely related to bonobos (Pongo niger), recognized as humans’ nearest relatives.
Between 1995 and 2015, the Ngogo chimpanzees were known for their cooperative behavior, showcasing fission-fusion dynamics, where individuals form temporary associations throughout the day and regroup each evening.
During puberty, female chimpanzees typically leave the group, while males remain for life. Prior to 2015, adult males formed alliances with females, facilitating hunting and territory patrols.
However, on June 24, 2015, a pivotal confrontation occurred when one faction, known as the central group, violently expelled the western group from their shared territory.
Following this event, the unity among the chimpanzees deteriorated. By 2018, the groups had permanently separated. During the ensuing years, the western group undertook 24 attacks, resulting in the deaths of seven adults and 17 infants from the other faction.
Chimpanzees from the Western Group on Patrol
Aaron Sandel
Sandel noted that the central chimpanzees were the first to pursue the western group; yet, the initial aggressors remain unclear. “As new factions emerged and divisions solidified, both groups engaged in territorial disputes,” he explained. “However, the western group has become the dominant aggressor, responsible for all fatal attacks.”
Various factors are believed to have contributed to the conflict’s escalation. Initial disagreements over food resources may have sparked tensions. In 2014, the deaths of five males and one female likely weakened the social structure. Changes in alpha male dynamics further exacerbated the situation, culminating in an outbreak of respiratory disease.
This outbreak, which claimed 25 Ngogo chimpanzees in January 2017, including the last surviving males of both factions, extinguished hopes for reconciliation.
Sandel and his team propose that the patterns observed in chimpanzee conflicts could provide insights into the evolutionary foundations of human warfare. While contemporary human conflicts are often attributed to ethnic, religious, and political divisions, this perspective may overlook the fundamental social dynamics shared with our primate relatives.
“In specific scenarios, the path toward peace may stem from simple, everyday acts of reconciliation,” the researchers articulated in their findings.
Maud Muzino from Boston University emphasizes that there are two predominant theories regarding the origins of human conflict. The first posits that war is a recent cultural innovation stemming from agrarian society and the establishment of nation-states. The alternative viewpoint asserts that the roots of warfare trace back through human evolution. “Ngogo’s findings significantly contribute to understanding the deep-seated origins of human conflict,” Muzino notes.
This study reveals that social fragmentation and subsequent conflicts can arise independently of the cultural differences often presumed to trigger human wars, be it in beliefs, language, or religious practices, states Luke Glowacki, also from Boston University.
In a groundbreaking analysis of spontaneous performances by a male chimpanzee named Ayumu, researchers discovered that the chimp’s rhythmic prowess and expressive “playful face” provide insights into how early humans might have transformed vocal emotions into musical instrument sounds.
Chimpanzee Ayumu exhibited long, multi-element musical displays by drumming and manipulating objects. The analysis of his rhythmic transitions revealed structured sequences, primarily isochronous timing, and a more stable tempo with tools compared to body drumming. His playful expressions suggest heightened arousal and positive emotions, reinforcing the concept that emotional vocal expressions can manifest through instrumental sounds. Image provided by: Hattori et al., doi: 10.1111/nyas.70239.
In February 2023, Ayumu, a 26-year-old male chimpanzee at the Center for Research on the Origins of Human Behavior and Evolution at Kyoto University, showcased a spontaneous musical performance that intrigued researchers.
He creatively removed floorboards to use as drums, generating complex sounds reminiscent of vocal expressions.
Dr. Yuko Hattori of Kyoto University noted, “Ayumu’s drumming is not unprecedented.” Chimpanzees are indeed recognized for their musical talents, especially in drumming.
However, Dr. Hattori emphasized that Ayumu’s unique combination of drumming and vocalizations introduced multiple rhythmic elements, marking a novel instance.
Between February 2023 and March 2025, researchers documented a total of 89 spontaneous performances by Ayumu.
The recordings reveal him ripping floorboards apart to create music through innovative tool use.
“Observing chimpanzees utilize tools to produce diverse sounds and express vocal emotions was fascinating,” remarked Dr. Hattori.
The researchers aimed to determine if vocal expressions could transition to instrumental sounds based on Ayumu’s performances.
They meticulously categorized his actions into elements such as hitting, dragging, and throwing.
Transition analysis was utilized to differentiate between random occurrences and intentional actions.
Finally, they assessed the rhythmic stability of tool use versus hand and foot drumming by analyzing intervals between strikes.
Notably, they found that the order of sounds produced was structured, with isochronous intervals that maintained a constant tempo, akin to a metronome.
Indeed, using tools yielded a more consistent rhythm compared to solely relying on hands and feet.
The researchers also documented Ayumu’s facial expressions, including the “play face,” commonly associated with playfulness and positive emotions.
This type of emotional signaling, typically absent in audio displays, suggests that vocal emotions may have previously been externalized into sounds produced with tools.
“Ayumu’s performance illustrates that non-human primates have the capacity to externalize voice-like expressions through musical instruments,” the authors concluded.
Moving forward, they expressed interest in studying the reactions of other chimpanzees and the influence of Ayumu’s performance within his social group.
For detailed insights, refer to the study published in Annual Report of the New York Academy of Sciences.
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Yuko Hattori et al., 2026. Combination of Instrument Sound Production in Captive Chimpanzees: Evolution of Vocal Externalization. Annual Report of the New York Academy of Sciences 1557 (1): e70239; doi: 10.1111/nyas.70239
A lawyer-turned-archaeologist has made a groundbreaking discovery while sifting through dusty excavation reports and old text that challenges conventional history of human gambling.
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The findings, published on Thursday in the journal American Antiquity, reveal that Native Americans engaged in dice and probability games as far back as 12,000 years ago, predating similar activities in the Old World such as Europe, Africa, and Asia.
Research indicates that these early gambling activities, rooted in chance, randomness, and probability, originated in what is now the southwestern United States, not in ancient cultures like Mesopotamia.
“What we observed in North America, beginning 12,000 years ago, is a sophisticated understanding of complex intellectual concepts that weren’t addressed in other regions until millennia later,” said study author Robert Madden, a doctoral student from Colorado State University. “These concepts laid the groundwork for modern scientific and economic thought.”
Mr. Madden, 62, transitioned from a trial lawyer to archaeology. He dedicated three years to analyzing old site reports and establishing a timeline of archaeological research. Previously, no unified standards existed in the field for documenting Native American dice.
“My discovery wasn’t about unearthing new dice,” he clarified. “It was about collating existing information.”
The use of dice by Native Americans has been researched for over a century. Traditionally, these dice are double-sided, crafted from bone or wood, and meticulously shaped to achieve random outcomes, often marked with symbols.
Early examples of dice discovered in Nebraska, Wyoming, and Colorado.Robert Madden / Colorado State University
Previous studies traced such artifacts back approximately 2,000 years; however, Madden’s research indicates that dice could date back to the end of the last Ice Age, with finds from the early 20th century among the Folsom culture, which date between 12,255 and 12,845 years ago.
The newly established timeline shows that these dice were continuously used in the southwestern United States.
“We see them appearing throughout this region from 12,000 AD until European contact and continuing into the present,” Madden noted.
Robert Wiener, a postdoctoral fellow at Dartmouth College specializing in gambling and religion in New Mexico’s Chaco Canyon, highlighted that gambling is often referenced in Native American oral histories.
“In the Southwest, gambling stories typically suggest a potential for addiction, yet many cultural practices view it as almost sacred, serving as social gatherings,” Wiener stated.
In certain narratives, such as the Zuni mythology, even the gods participate in gambling.
To date, no prehistoric dice have been found in eastern North America. The lack of discovery remains unclear but may stem from preservation issues and perceived biases in the archaeological record.
Madden speculates that prehistoric Native American bands frequently traveled, with games serving as a social tool to foster trade and communication. Written accounts of Native American dice games trace back to the 1600s, suggesting many events occurred in eastern North America, often featuring rapid gameplay between unfamiliar groups.
“These events were typically social and vibrant, drawing large crowds and encouraging many side bets,” he explained.
Despite this, there are no documented accounts of prehistoric dice games, leaving many questions unanswered.
“Were they calculating the odds? It’s uncertain,” Madden confessed.
Nevertheless, his research supports the notion that Native Americans practiced complex counting and likely were the first to explore concepts like the law of large numbers, which illustrates how random samples average out over time.
“What we’re analyzing here is a significant intellectual achievement,” he remarked.
Evidence of early dice predates similar artifacts from Bronze Age civilizations in Africa, Europe, and Asia by approximately 6,000 years.
“This discovery is monumental as it highlights that the intellectual contributions of Native American cultures were often overlooked or suppressed by colonial powers,” Wiener stated.
“Dice games of chance provide an intuitive, direct, and emotional way for individuals to engage with probability challenges,” he added.
Robert Madden examines Late Pleistocene dice at the Smithsonian Institution.Provided by Robert Madden
Madden’s academic journey began with a focus on archaeology, followed by a 25-year tenure as a trial lawyer. As a partner at Gibbs & Brands in Houston, he specialized in the 2008 financial crisis.
He left his law practice in 2017 to explore the Olmec civilization, an ancient Mesoamerican culture, before enrolling in a master’s program in archaeology, his lifelong passion, in 2022.
Madden’s years spent in legal research, including analyzing “millions of pages of documents,” equipped him with the skills needed to navigate the extensive archaeological records.
“He took the initiative to meticulously review a vast number of reports,” Wiener stated. “Often, it requires an outside perspective to see things in a new light.”
The natural world often teaches us about life through vivid examples. Many kids learn about reproduction through birds laying eggs and bees pollinating flowers instead of focusing on human examples, which can be more challenging to convey.
However, as evolutionary and behavioral biologist Heung-sun Lee discusses in his thought-provoking book On the Origins of Sex: The Weird and Wonderful Science of How Our Planet is Populated, the “birds and bees” analogy is far too simplistic. It overlooks the vivid diversity and intricacies involved in animal reproduction.
Even species that might appear unremarkable have fascinating reproductive practices. For instance, barnyard hens can expel sperm from less dominant males, while male ducks sport corkscrew-shaped penises. Interestingly, female ducks have evolved opposite-spinning vaginas, enabling them to exert control over paternity.
On the Origins of Sex presents numerous examples to illustrate fundamental biological concepts. The wide range of breeding methods observed makes many human practices seem mundane. However, Sun’s ambitious goal is to delve deeper into the critical questions surrounding reproduction, especially the very existence of sexual reproduction.
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The rigid male/female binary feels increasingly outdated. “
This question might baffle readers unfamiliar with evolutionary biology, but from an evolutionary standpoint, sexual reproduction can be far more complex and resource-intensive than asexual reproduction. Achieving sexual reproduction requires two partners—one generating male gametes and the other producing female gametes. At first glance, asexual reproduction appears more efficient, a method still employed by numerous species, including bacteria and fungi. Parthenogenesis, a form of asexual reproduction where embryos develop without fertilization, is noted in over 80 vertebrate species, encompassing California condors, booby sharks, and Komodo dragons.
So why did sexual reproduction become prevalent? Sun dedicates the book’s first section to addressing this question, succinctly introducing essential concepts like the Müller ratchet, proposed in 1964 by geneticist Hermann Müller. This theory describes how the absence of genetic mixing in asexual reproduction leads to the gradual accumulation of detrimental mutations.
Additionally, the Red Queen hypothesis likens evolution to a continuing arms race, suggesting that species must evolve continuously to survive and outpace their competitors, underscoring the inherent risks of sexual reproduction.
Sun, a distinguished research professor at Central Washington University, draws from his connections with numerous scientists whose work he references throughout the book. On the Origins of Sex is his fourth work aimed at a general readership, following his explorations into fairness in nature and the history of beavers.
Despite Sun’s admission that On the Origins of Sex is a selective narrative, the intended audience isn’t always clear. While readers might need some background knowledge in evolutionary biology, the book remains captivating, enriched with examples of exotic animal reproduction that are well-paced.
Sun’s passion for his subject is infectious, particularly evident in his discussions on sexual adaptation and variation. He advocates for a broader understanding of gender, arguing that current definitions are “hopelessly homocentric and disconnected from evolutionary realities.” His detailed, step-by-step explanations of the sciences underpinning sex and gender reveal just how much human society relies on these biological concepts.
He articulates, “In popular discussions, gender is often perceived as a social construct. What is often overlooked is a deeper understanding of gender as a biological construct—something evolutionary biology can elucidate.”
Though careful not to engage in cultural arguments, Sun primarily focuses on evolutionary biology in non-human animals. It becomes evident that nature’s binary classification is an oversimplification. “Biological sex is not merely about distinguishing species that produce sperm from those that produce eggs,” he asserts. Consider fish like eels, clownfish, and wrasse, which can naturally change sex. Within birds and mammals (including humans), numerous variations exist, including intersex individuals.
Gender fluidity is far more prevalent among animals than traditionally understood, affecting not just reproductive roles but also behaviors and social structures. For example, hyenas, known for their matrilineal society, exhibit females possessing a “pseudopenis,” which aids in food competition and complicates pregnancy.
By highlighting this diversity, Sun urges a paradigm shift regarding sex and gender, advocating for a perspective that embraces differences as “natural and adaptive aspects of life’s continuum.” He concludes: “The rigid male/female binary is increasingly recognized as limited and outdated.”
In previous discussions, Sun has expressed a desire to infuse scientific insights into debates about diversity and social justice. He effectively meets this goal through a science-focused approach, enriched with examples from the natural world. Indeed, he posits that the immense diversity of non-human life and the numerous unanswered questions about reproduction should inspire us to welcome complexity and openness.
We may presume to understand the fundamentals of life, yet even Sun closes the book in awe of “how little we truly grasp.”
Check out this essential 1993 favorite, praised by Lixing Sun for shaping contemporary views on sex and gender with its “sharp wit and engaging prose.”
This witty and insightful book showcases the remarkable diversity of sexual behaviors in animals while providing crucial lessons about human sexual diversity.
This 2026 publication explores human attraction and emotional bonds. Justin Garcia, an esteemed evolutionary biologist and executive director of the Kinsey Institute, brings his expertise to the science of dating.
Recent research analyzed 31 ancient societies from Europe, Asia, and the Americas, revealing that democratic institutions were more prevalent than previously thought and not solely dependent on factors like population size or geography.
Acropolis of Athens by Leo von Klenze.
The term “democracy” originated in ancient Greece, where it was defined as the power of the people (demo = people, kratos = power).
This definition transcends specific institutional frameworks, framing democracy as an overarching goal.
Traditionally, scholars rooted in Western social science have viewed the core elements of democratic governance—such as power centralization and national inclusiveness—as products of the classical Mediterranean world, which lay dormant for over a millennium until the Renaissance reinvigorated these ideals in Europe and its colonies.
Yet, this prevalent perspective that democratic governance emerged exclusively in the West has rarely undergone systematic scrutiny.
“Many believe that democracy first flourished in Greece and Rome,” says Dr. Gary Fineman, MacArthur Curator of Mesoamerican and Central American Anthropology at the Field Museum’s Negaunee Center for Integrative Research.
“However, our research indicates that numerous societies around the globe devised methods to limit the authority of rulers and empower ordinary citizens.”
In contrast to democracies, dictatorships centralize power in a single individual or a small group, examples of which include absolute monarchies and authoritarian regimes.
In a democracy, decision-making is a collective process among the populace. While elections often correlate with democratic practices, this association is not always accurate; many dictators are elected through popular votes.
“Elections alone do not serve as the best indicators of democratic value, thus our study emphasized historical instances of political organization,” Dr. Fineman noted.
“We identified two critical governance aspects: the concentration of power within individuals or institutions, and the degree of inclusiveness, reflecting how accessible power is to significant segments of the population.”
The current study evaluated 40 cases from 31 distinct political entities across Europe, North America, and Asia over numerous millennia.
Due to varying record-keeping methods, not all societies maintained written archives, necessitating innovative approaches to infer their governance structures.
“The spatial arrangement of societies is particularly revealing,” Dr. Fineman remarked.
“Urban areas featuring open spaces and public structures that facilitate community gatherings tend to exhibit more democratic tendencies.”
Conversely, architectural remnants suggesting concentrated power—such as pyramids with limited upper space or urban designs funneling into a ruler’s residence—signal more authoritarian regimes.
The researchers developed an “authoritarianism index” to classify each society along a continuum from highly authoritarian to highly democratic.
“Many archaeologists maintain that Athens and the Roman Republic represent the only democracies of the ancient era, while governance in Asia and the Americas was predominantly autocratic,” stated Dr. Fineman.
“Our analysis reveals that various regions possessed democratic structures comparable to those of Athens and Rome.”
“These results indicate that both democratic and authoritarian governance existed widely in the ancient world,” commented David Stasavage, a professor at New York University.
“Societies innovated ways to democratize power and enhance inclusivity, suggesting that democratic principles have profound and unexpected historical roots,” added Dr. Linda Nicholas of the Field Museum.
The study also challenges the notion that population size and political complexity inherently lead to authoritarian rule, highlighting how funding mechanisms shaped authority.
“Societies reliant on income controlled by leaders—such as mines, trade routes, or warfare gains—tended to be more authoritarian,” Dr. Fineman explained.
“On the contrary, societies that primarily derived funds from community labor or domestic taxes were more likely to decentralize power and uphold shared governance.”
Furthermore, the research found that societies with more inclusive political frameworks generally exhibited lower economic inequality.
“These insights contradict the belief that dictatorship and high inequality are inevitable outcomes of socio-economic complexity and growth,” Dr. Fineman stated.
“Historical evidence shows that people globally have developed inclusive political systems, even under challenging conditions.”
For more information, check out the research paper, recently published in Scientific Progress.
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Gary M. Feynman et al. 2026. Distribution of power and inclusiveness over deep time. Scientific Progress 12(12); doi: 10.1126/sciadv.aec1426
A 74-million-year-old leg bone unearthed from a fossil bed in New Mexico Tyrannosaurus rex suggests groundbreaking insights in a recent study published in Scientific Reports.
This discovery supports the theory that Tyrannosaurus did not migrate from Asia, but instead originated in what is now the American Southwest. This shift in understanding implies that the group evolved into giants much earlier than previously believed.
The shin bone, found in the Kirtland Formation of New Mexico and dating to the late Campanian period, measures 96 centimeters (3.1 feet) long—approximately 84 percent the size of the largest known Tyrannosaurus specimen’s tibia.
Based on its measurements, researchers estimate that the animal weighed around 4,700 kg (10,400 lb), making it the largest known Tyrannosaurus of its time—roughly 50 percent heavier than its contemporary rivals.
The researchers propose three possible origins for the bone: it may belong to a particularly large theropod dinosaur, identified as Vista hebersol; it could represent a newly recognized lineage of giant tyrannosaurs; or it might be an early member of the Tyrannosaurini, related to Tyrannosaurus and its closest relatives.
Of these theories, the authors believe the last is the most plausible. Lead researcher Dr. Nicholas Longrich from the University of Bath noted that the bones closely resemble those of Tyrannosaurus.
“This sounds like Tyrannosaurus,” he remarked in an interview with BBC Science Focus. “If these bones were found in the same beds we know Tyrannosaurus were found, no one would doubt it.”
This bone belonged to an animal that predates Tyrannosaurus by 8 to 9 million years – Photo credit: Nick Longrich
This suggests that the Tyrannosaurus lineage may have originated in southern North America, with connections to the giant tyrannosaurus, Tyrannosaurus macraiensis, identified from the slightly younger Hall Lake Formation in New Mexico. Longrich discovered this latest bone while photographing specimens on a museum shelf.
Large-scale clustering of Tyrannosaurus remains in the American Southwest indicates that this lineage likely evolved in that area before dispersing across the continent, millions of years prior to their emergence further north.
Further excavations of the Kirtland Formation may help clarify the ownership of this bone. Longrich expressed that “the potential for new materials to be discovered is very high,” noting that teeth might be a promising avenue for discovery due to their superior preservation compared to bones.
A more complete skeleton would allow researchers to formally name the species and determine if it represents a direct ancestor of Tyrannosaurus or an early relative.
Explore the #SingingDog hashtag on social media, and you’ll discover countless clips of dogs harmonizing to popular songs. But does this showcase true musicality? Does dog howling indicate a genuine understanding of music?
This intriguing question was tackled by psychologist Aniruddha Patel, a professor at Tufts University. His latest research reveals that some dogs can recognize pitch and modulate their vocalizations accordingly.
The inspiration for this study arose from the howling behavior of wolves.
“Howling resembles human singing as it involves sustained vocalizations,” Patel notes. Observations suggest that wolves use varying tones to create a collective sound, which may serve as a protective strategy against threats.
The researchers faced challenges in testing this behavior experimentally; therefore, they enlisted dog owners to record their pets’ howls to their favorite songs. This included recordings in both the original key and a version transposed three semitones higher and lower to assess the dogs’ responsiveness to pitch changes.
The focus was on two ancient breeds, the Samoyed and the Shiba Inu, believed to be more closely related to wolves than contemporary breeds. To ensure reliable results, each dog contributed a minimum of 30 howls in each transposed version, with each howl lasting at least one second.
All four Samoyeds in the study demonstrated a remarkable sensitivity to pitch, consistently adjusting their howls to new keys, though they did not achieve perfect harmony.
“They seem to be attempting to connect their sound to the music rather than simply providing a reflexive response,” Patel explains. You can view one of the participants, Luna, performing “Shallow” by Lady Gaga and Bradley Cooper here.
Conversely, the two Shiba Inus appeared to be tone-deaf. Patel proposes, “Genetic variations among ancient breeds might predispose some individuals to howling,” although he acknowledges a larger sample size might yield more musical findings.
This discovery could illuminate the evolutionary roots of human music. While some theorists argue that song evolved from fine motor control in vocalizations, the dogs’ ability to control pitch without extensive vocal training suggests that language might not be an essential precursor. “The tendency to match pitch could have deep evolutionary origins, predating our sophisticated imitative capabilities,” Patel adds.
The motivation behind the dogs’ vocalizations remains unclear. “Based on observed videos, the dogs genuinely seem engaged with the music,” he states. They were not merely seeking treats from their owners but were gazing off thoughtfully. “Music appears to serve as a howling signal, placing them in a social mindset and encouraging participation.”
Researcher Buddhamas Prale Kriengwattana from the University of Leuven in Belgium finds these findings fascinating but would welcome a broader sample for comparison. “I’d love to see comparisons between ancient and modern breeds,” she expresses.
Regarding the dogs’ somewhat off-pitch performances, she suggests various factors could influence pitch discrepancies. “Perhaps they want their voices heard when they sing,” she speculates.
Illustration of Grecopithecus freybergi, a great ape from southeastern Europe 7.2 million years ago
Velizar Simeonovski, Chicago
Discoveries indicate that 7.2 million years ago, early apes might have been walking upright in present-day Bulgaria. Researchers uncovered ancient leg bones exhibiting characteristics of bipedalism.
These leg bones predate all known human fossils, including those from Africa, suggesting that bipedalism—a critical milestone in human evolution—may have originated in Europe rather than Africa.
“The earliest signs of bipedalism are found in Europe,” states Madeleine Boehme, from the University of Tübingen, Germany.
Boehme and a dedicated team have been excavating at Azmaka near Chirpan, Bulgaria, since 2008, uncovering a sediment layer approximately 20 meters thick, deposited by rivers over time.
A crucial find in 2016 was a right femur, known to be 7.2 million years old and nearly intact, nicknamed “Diva.” This femur, measuring 21.5 centimeters, offers substantial insight into the locomotion of early humans.
“This discovery is incredibly significant,” remarks Clement Zanoli from the University of Bordeaux, France, who was not involved in the study. “The femur’s exceptional preservation is rare in the Miocene hominin fossil record.”
During early epochs, Europe hosted various great apes, yet by 7.2 million years ago, most had become extinct. Today, all closest relatives to modern apes are located in Africa, as are the earliest human ancestors, or hominins.
The only ape confirmed from Azmaka is Grecopithecus freybegii, known primarily from a damaged jawbone found in Greece, and some teeth from North Macedonia and Azmaka. Consequently, Böhme’s team posits that the femur likely belongs to Grecopithecus.
“This is the most reasonable assumption at this time,” states Zanoli, but he stresses that more fossil evidence is necessary for stronger validation.
“The relationships among these fossils remain unclear,” explains Kelsey Pugh from OCAD University, Toronto, Canada.
Femoral bones of Grecopithecus (left), Lucy (Australopithecus afarensis, center), and a chimpanzee (right). Long femoral neck (shown in red) associated with upright walking.
Spasov et al. 2026
Böhme’s team meticulously measured the femur and conducted CT scans, uncovering attributes indicative of a bipedal organism. Notably, a short neck that laterally extends and forms a rounded ball fits into the pelvis, resembling structures found in bipedal hominids but absent in knuckle-walking species. Additionally, the outer bone layer’s thickness at the neck’s base supports vertical loads.
An additional ridge was identified, which would have allowed for the attachment of buttock muscles, playing a vital role in maintaining an upright posture, according to Boehme.
While other scientists find the findings intriguing, they remain unconvinced. “This femur displays several traits,” Zanoli points out. “Some suggest bipedalism, while others imply quadrupedal movement. Hence, determining the locomotion remains complex.”
The nuanced study of extinct great apes has revealed increasing challenges in accurately diagnosing bipedalism based solely on isolated fossil bones. Pugh notes, “Many features once thought exclusive to bipedal hominids have also been noted in quadrupedal apes. Thus, prioritization of diagnostic traits is crucial.”
Much attention has focused on Sahelanthropus tchadensis, known from a solitary location in Chad and considered the earliest hominid. This species lived 7 million years ago, slightly younger than the Azmaka specimen. The femur of Sahelanthropus has long fueled debate about bipedalism.
Boehme and her team are determined to establish that significant steps in early human evolution transpired in Europe. They’ve identified potential hominid features in Grecopithecus, despite past controversies linked to a damaged jawbone. Furthermore, they have also detailed another European ape, Danuvius guggenmosi, which existed approximately 11.6 million years ago.
These early human-like ancestors might have migrated to Africa, potentially driven by climate changes. Research indicates that this migration likely gave rise to all subsequent hominins, including modern humans.
Zanoli comments, “Numerous other animals migrated between Africa and Eurasia. If fauna can do it, why can’t hominins?”
Yet, Professor Pugh asserts that further discoveries are essential to substantiate bipedalism evidence in Grecopithecus, allowing detailed analysis of relationships among other apes and early humans. Without this, she emphasizes that it’s premature to construct comprehensive evolutionary narratives.
Discovery Tour: Archaeology, Human Origins, and Paleontology
New Scientist regularly reports on fascinating archaeological sites worldwide that reshape our understanding of species and civilization’s early days. Why not explore them too?
Württemberg State Museum / Hendrik Zwietasch, CC BY 4.0
Recent research on enigmatic symbols engraved on artifacts from Germany indicates that Stone Age humans, around 40,000 years ago, utilized a rudimentary form of writing. This discovery could potentially delay the timeline for the emergence of primitive writing systems by over 30,000 years, paralleling early cuneiform scripts.
Early Homo sapiens, particularly after migrating to Europe about 45,000 years ago, began to make intentional marks on various objects. These included pendants, tools, and intricately carved figurines adorned with graphic symbols—ranging from lines and crosses to dots. These groups also illustrated symbols on cave walls alongside animal representations, and their meanings remain a subject of scholarly debate.
“The systematic arrangement and repeated use of distinct symbols mark a notable advancement,” explains archaeologist Eva Dutkiewicz from the Museum of Prehistory and Early History in Berlin, Germany.
The overarching question concerns the meanings behind these ancient symbols. Without a ‘Rosetta Stone’ equivalent, deciphering their significance is complex; however, studying their application offers valuable insights.
To delve deeper, Dutkiewicz and linguist Christian Benz from Saarland University analyzed markings on artifacts unearthed in the Swabian Jura region, dating between 43,000 and 34,000 years ago, during the Aurignacian period. They examined 260 artifacts, including flutes and animal-human hybrid figurines, which featured 22 different symbols over 3,000 times, primarily employing a V-shaped notch, lines, crosses, and dots.
The researchers employed computer models to assess the complexity and density of information encoded in these sequences. By comparing these patterns to modern scripts and Protocuneiform—Mesopotamia’s oldest known writing dating from 3500 to 3350 BC—they aimed to identify parallels between Stone Age markings and later systems of communication.
“Information can be encoded through the variety and combination of symbols,” says Benz, noting that even the 26 letters of the English alphabet can generate extensive meanings through different arrangements.
The analysis indicated a clear distinction between Aurignac symbols and contemporary letters. Surprisingly, the statistical properties of these 40,000-year-old symbols closely resemble those found in early proto-cuneiform tablets. “Their characteristics show notable similarity,” Benz remarks.
This discovery suggests that early Homo sapiens in Europe may have developed a symbolic recording system, aligned with one definition of writing: a visual communication method using established markings.
“The study indicates that the markings from the Aurignac period mirror a compositional style akin to proto-cuneiform,” states paleoanthropologist Geneviève von Petzinger. “They exhibit repetition and organization.” Yet, this does not imply that both systems shared identical meanings.
While cuneiform originated primarily for accounting purposes—such as recording crop amounts—the question arises about the meaning of “writing” in the Stone Age. Some markings on Aurignac artifacts hint at potential calendrical functions. For instance, an ivory plaque featuring a lion-human figure called Adorant showcases sequences of dots that may represent “calendar observations,” Dutkiewicz suggests, noting their likely interest in tracking time.
Dutkiewicz and Benz further analyzed object symbol usage, revealing intriguing patterns. Despite the cross being common, it was never used on human depictions but frequently found on animal and tool carvings, especially relating to horses and mammoths. Conversely, dots were absent from tool representations.
Mammoth Figurine from Vogelherd Cave
University of Tübingen/Hildegard Jensen, CC-BY-SA 4.0
“While we cannot definitively interpret the meanings, a consistent pattern suggests deliberate choices in symbol application,” Dutkiewicz notes. Additionally, the consistency in these markings over millennia points to a tradition that was likely transmitted across generations.
“These markings were intentionally placed and had significance for the creators,” observes von Petzinger. “Their exact meanings, however, remain elusive.”
This research builds upon a 2023 study suggesting that sequences of dots and lines accompanying cave paintings, allegedly encoding predator behaviors, hint at early systems of recordkeeping.
Overall, while cuneiform emerged around 3200 BC as the first comprehensive writing system, its roots could trace back as far as 40,000 years.
The ancestors of Britain’s Bell Beaker people inhabited wetlands and heavily relied on fishing.
Sheila Terry/Science Photo Library
Analysis of ancient DNA has meticulously unveiled the origins of a fascinating group that emerged in Britain around 2400 B.C., nearly displacing the builders of Stonehenge within just a century.
This group is associated with the Bell Beaker culture, which emerged in Western Europe during the Early Bronze Age, named after the distinctive pots they left behind. While previously thought the culture stemmed from Portugal or Spain, recent research indicates that the people who populated Britain originated from the delta regions of Northwest Europe, across the North Sea. Remarkably, this resilient group maintained aspects of their hunter-gatherer lifestyle and ancestry for thousands of years, despite the spread of early farming communities across Europe.
David Reich and his team from Harvard University analyzed the genomes of 112 individuals who lived in present-day Netherlands, Belgium, and western Germany throughout the period of 8,500 to 1,700 BC.
“The Netherlands was once considered a mundane place, with every square inch traversed millions of times. Yet, it reveals itself as one of the most intriguing areas in Europe.”
The DNA sequenced in Reich’s lab indicates that this population emerged from the Rhine-Meuse delta, bordering the Netherlands and Belgium. This group derived from resourceful hunter-gatherer communities, thriving on fish, waterfowl, game birds, and diverse plant life found in the flooded wetlands surrounding these expansive rivers.
Originating in Anatolia, Neolithic farmers began to expand throughout Europe around 6500 BC, likely due to their agricultural advantage, allowing for larger family units compared to hunter-gatherers. This led to the near disappearance or significant dilution of hunter-gatherers’ genetic ancestry in regions where farmers settled.
However, research reveals that these wetlands served as zones where farmers’ genetic influx remained minimal for thousands of years. The dynamic, often flooded environments of rivers, swamps, dunes, and peat bogs posed significant challenges for early farmers, yet offered abundant opportunities for those adept at surviving in such terrains, as noted by Luc Amkreutz at the National Archaeological Museum in Leiden, Netherlands. “These hunter-gatherers charted their course from a position of strength.”
Genetic testing indicates that, despite their enduring hunter-gatherer lifestyle, the people of the wetlands engaged in gradual integration with farmers through intermarriage. While their Y chromosomes passed through male lineages, their mitochondrial DNA and X chromosomes displayed a steady influx of genetic contribution from farmers’ daughters. “This revelation was unexpected for us,” remarks Evelyn Altena of Leiden University Medical Center. “Without DNA, this knowledge would remain elusive.”
Reich posits that this interaction was likely peaceful, characterized by men remaining at homesteads while women migrated. Nonetheless, an aspect of conflict cannot be dismissed, although the extent of reciprocal exchange remains uncertain due to the preservation challenges of DNA from arid farmer regions.
Bell Beaker Pottery from Germany
Peter Endig/DPA Picture Alliance/Alamy
Archaeological findings indicate that, over time, these hunter-gatherers adopted pottery techniques, cultivated grains, and domesticated animals, yet they retained core aspects of their original way of life.
Then, circa 3000 BC, a nomadic group known as the Yamuna, or Yamnaya, began migrating west from the vast steppes of modern Ukraine and Russia. Their interactions with Eastern European farmers birthed the cord-shaped pottery culture characterized by decorative cord patterns. Although their descendants spread throughout much of Europe, they had minimal influence on the delta region.
Excavations revealed a skeleton from this era that bore the Yamnaya Y chromosome alongside pots, some evidently used for cooking fish. This exemplifies how wetland inhabitants creatively integrated foreign objects into their traditional practices, though overall, very few people bore steppe ancestry.
The dynamics shifted with the arrival of the Bell Beaker culture around 2500 BC. This group, characterized by a hybrid of steppe and farmer ancestry, introduced steppe genes into the DNA of the wetland peoples while retaining notable portions of both hunter-gatherer and early farmer genetics, approximately 13 to 18 percent. They may have begun to fade into history from that point onwards, yet the saga was far from over.
Human remains analyzed from Oostwoud, Netherlands
North Holland Archaeological Depository (CC by 4.0)
Recent studies reveal that those who arrived in Britain around 2400 BC bore an almost identical genetic mixture of Bell Beaker and wetland community ancestry. Within a century, they were largely or entirely replaced by Neolithic farmers who constructed Stonehenge. “Our model shows that at least 90 percent, and up to 100 percent, of original ancestry has vanished from Britain,” observes Reich.
It remains uncertain if this transition commenced with the influx of the Bell Beaker culture or if other groups preceded them. Before their arrival, Britons commonly cremated their deceased, resulting in minimal DNA preservation.
Regardless, the extent of change was “so dramatic that it defies belief,” according to Reich. The rapid populace replacement has captured archaeologists’ attention since its initial suggestion in a 2018 study. Reich theorizes that a plague-like disease, possibly affecting individuals in continental Europe, may have played a role. Conversely, the native population in the UK might have been more susceptible to such ailments.
Team members contend that religious fervor likely did not influence the transition, as indicated by Harry Fockens from Leiden University. “Monuments like Stonehenge and Avebury continued to see use and expansion even after their creators disappeared.”
Michael Parker Pearson from University College London is intrigued by the ways in which the new inhabitants adopted British monument styles, like henges and stone circles, whilst simultaneously introducing new lifestyles, including different pottery and clothing styles.
The Bell Beakers also introduced metalworking to Britain, with certain gold ornaments discovered in Beaker tombs in England bearing striking similarities to those found in Belgium.
Discover the Origins of Humanity: A Gentle Walk Through Prehistoric Times in South-West England
Immerse yourself in the fascinating early human eras of the Neolithic, Bronze Age, and Iron Age on this special walking tour.
Paleontologists from Australia and China have conducted two groundbreaking studies on the fossilized remains of a remarkable Devonian lungfish. Utilizing advanced imaging technology, they have unearthed previously overlooked anatomical details, significantly enhancing our understanding of early vertebrate evolution. Their findings have been published in the Canadian Journal of Zoology and the journal Current Biology.
Paleolophus yunnanensis, a unique lungfish species that thrived in southern China’s waters 410 million years ago. Image credit: Brian Choo, Flinders University.
In a recent study, lead researcher Alice Clement, a paleontologist at Flinders University, investigates The Mystery of Kainokara, a fossil known from a single specimen found in the Late Devonian Gogo Formation of Western Australia.
“New research, including the analysis of previously neglected specimens, is gradually uncovering the rich diversity of lungfishes found in Australia’s significant fossil sites,” said Dr. Clement.
“One particularly enigmatic specimen originates from Australia’s earliest ‘Great Barrier Reef’, a Devonian reef located in the Kimberley region of northern Western Australia.”
“When first described in 2010, this unusual specimen was so perplexing that the authors speculated it might represent an entirely new type of fish never documented in science.”
“Using advanced scanning techniques, we developed comprehensive digital images of both the external and internal structures of the skull, revealing the complexity of this fascinating lungfish’s brain cavity.”
“In fact, we confirmed that earlier interpretations may have been from an upside-down perspective.”
“We were also able to compare the well-preserved inner ear region with other lungfishes,” noted Flinders University paleontologist Hannah Thiele.
“This provides an essential data point in the rich collection of lungfish and early vertebrate species.”
“This research enhances our understanding of the evolutionary progression of these ancient lobe-finned fishes, both in Gondwana and globally.”
In a separate study, Flinders University paleontologist Brian Chu and colleagues reveal a newly discovered species of lungfish from the Devonian period in China, Paleolophus yunanensis.
“The discovery of Paleolophus yunanensis offers unprecedented insight into the transitional phase between the early appearance of lungfish and their extensive diversification millions of years later,” said Dr. Chu.
“At this time, this group was just beginning to develop unique feeding adaptations that would serve them well throughout the remainder of the Devonian period and into the present.”
“Lungfish, including the ancient lineage found in Queensland, Australia, have fascinated researchers due to their close evolutionary relationship with tetrapods, the four-limbed vertebrates that include humans.”
“The distinctive skull of the newly discovered lungfish from 410-million-year-old rock formations in Yunnan offers crucial insights into the rapid evolutionary changes during the Early, Middle, and Late Devonian periods.”
“The new specimens exhibited both similarities and differences compared to the earliest known specimens, such as Diabolepis fossils from southern China and uranolophus found in locations like Wyoming and Australia.
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Hannah S. Thiele et al., deciphering The Mystery of Kainokara from the Late Devonian Gogo Formation, Australia. Canadian Journal of Zoology, published online January 28, 2026. doi: 10.1139/cjz-2025-0109
Tuo Qiao et al., 2026. New fish fossil sheds light on the rapid evolution of early lungfish. Current Biology 36 (1): 243-251; doi: 10.1016/j.cub.2025.11.032
Treponema pallidum Bacteria Linked to Syphilis and Related Diseases
Source: Science Photo Library / Alamy
New research reveals that traces of Treponema pallidum—the bacteria responsible for syphilis—have been identified in the bones of ancient inhabitants of Colombia, dating back over 5,000 years. This discovery suggests that syphilis was infecting humans far earlier than previously believed, prior to the advent of intensive agriculture, which many experts think may have facilitated its spread.
Currently, Treponema pallidum encompasses three subspecies that cause syphilis, bejel, and framboise. The origins and transmission pathways of these diseases remain topics of scientific debate. Although ancient DNA and infectious markers on bones offer insights, they are often limited and ambiguous.
In a groundbreaking study, researchers analyzed DNA from 5,500-year-old remains discovered in the Bogotá savannah. The unexpected finding of Treponema pallidum in a human leg bone provides critical evidence of its historical prevalence.
“This discovery was entirely unanticipated, as there was a lack of skeletal evidence indicating an infectious disease,” notes Nasreen Broumandkoshbacht from the University of California, Santa Cruz.
Many scholars have long posited that the majority of diseases affected humans only after the rise of intensive agriculture, which led to denser populations. However, this individual lived in a contrasting setting—small, nomadic hunter-gatherer bands that maintained close contact with wild animals.
“These results shed light on the extensive evolutionary history of these organisms,” states Davide Bozzi from the University of Lausanne, Switzerland. “They reveal longstanding relationships between the bacterium and human populations.”
As researchers, including Blumandhoschbacht and Bozzi, correlated ancient genomes with contemporary ones, they identified that the pallidum strain was part of a distinct lineage, separate from any known modern relatives. This indicates that early variants of syphilis were already diversifying and infecting humans in the Americas millennia ago, with many of the same genetic traits that make present-day strains particularly pathogenic.
The findings imply that these pathogens were not only early residents in the Americas but may have been affecting human populations globally for much longer than previously assumed.
Rodrigo Barquera, a researcher at the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology in Leipzig, Germany, suggests that this ancient strain might link to an elusive “missing” pathogen, Treponema carathaeum, known primarily for its physical characteristics rather than its genetic makeup.
Kertu Majumdar, a researcher at the University of Zurich in Switzerland, posits, “The genomes of even older organisms might provide insights into a variety of extinct lineages and diseases caused by these pathogens.”
For Bozzi, unearthing the evolutionary adaptations of pathogens like syphilis is crucial for understanding their genetic attributes that enhance their virulence in new hosts.
Same-sex sexual activity isn’t exclusive to humans; various primates engage in it too.
A recent study identified 59 non-human primate species, including bonobos, chimpanzees, and macaques, that exhibit same-sex behavior.
This extensive research, published in Nature Ecology & Evolution, is the most thorough review to date of same-sex behavior among primates (excluding humans). The findings challenge existing assumptions about the purpose of sexual activities within the animal kingdom and indicate that sex may serve a more complex social function.
The authors propose that same-sex behavior has evolved to assist primates in navigating complex social structures, reducing conflict, and strengthening bonds. They suggest that both genetic factors and external environmental stresses influence this behavior.
Vincent Savolainen, director of the Georgina Mace Center for the Living Planet at Imperial College London and lead author of the study, stated: “Our findings illustrate that homosexuality is not an anomaly; it’s widespread, beneficial, and essential.”
In their study, Savolainen and colleagues evaluated existing data from 491 primate species, focusing on documented instances of same-sex sexual activities.
“The behaviors observed included mounting, ventral-to-ventral, or ventral-to-dorsal contact, genital touching, and fellatio, encompassing both male-to-male and female-to-female interactions,” the study highlighted. Non-sexual same-sex interactions were excluded to maintain clarity.
Findings suggest that same-sex behavior is more prevalent among animals needing social cohesion to endure harsh environmental conditions, facing predation risks, or competing for resources. It is particularly common in social structures with rigid hierarchies, where sexual behaviors help individuals manage competition and foster alliances to reduce intergroup aggression.
“People often underestimate the significance of same-sex behavior in societal dynamics; it is as crucial as eating, fighting, parenting, and nurturing,” Savolainen remarked.
He likened same-sex sexual interactions to a form of “currency” that may enhance social standing, create opportunities, and facilitate resource sharing.
“In times of social strife, utilizing same-sex behavior can be advantageous,” Savolainen explained.
He noted that while this behavior is likely to be present in more than 23 primate species, limited data in the field and a lack of focused studies hinder comprehensive understanding.
Observing and interpreting same-sex sexual behavior can be challenging for scientists. Historically, many researchers viewed these behaviors as unusual and neglected documentation. Additionally, securing funding for studies on same-sex behavior in animals has been difficult, particularly from government sources.
“We have a plethora of species about which we lack knowledge. This knowledge gap is significant,” Savolainen warned. “Unless we incorporate same-sex behavior into our understanding of social dynamics, we can’t fully grasp how societies operate. We aim to gather more data in forthcoming studies.”
While the new research doesn’t directly relate its findings to contemporary human sexual behavior, it suggests that our ancestors experienced social and environmental pressures similar to those driving same-sex behavior in other primates.
Marlene Zook, an evolutionary biologist at the University of Minnesota who studies same-sex behavior in animals, commented on the interesting breadth of the analysis.
“The extensive range of data collected in this study is particularly impressive,” she noted.
Zook expressed no surprise at the conclusion emphasizing the influence of environmental and social factors on same-sex behavior. The study prompts a reconsideration of widespread misconceptions regarding animal sexual conduct, emphasizing its complexity beyond mere reproduction.
“Sexual behavior often transcends reproduction, a fact evident in our species. However, many tend to overlook this reality in animals,” Zook observed. “People seem to assume that animals, unlike humans, conduct sexual activities purely for procreation purposes, which is quite inaccurate.”
Zook added that the scientific community has traditionally dismissed the concept of a “gay gene” that directly influences homosexual behavior.
“No single gene dictates homosexual behavior in humans or other animals. Instead, a complex interplay of genetic and environmental factors shape nearly all behaviors and traits, whether they be physical or psychological,” she concluded.
Recent discoveries of hominin fossils in the Thomas Quarry I cave located in Casablanca, Morocco, provide crucial insights into the early origins of homo sapiens. These findings indicate that the lineage leading to modern humans was potentially established in Africa nearly 800,000 years ago. The fossils, although similar in age to the ancestor of homo discovered in Spain, display a mix of primitive and advanced traits reminiscent of post-Eurasian hominins, including homo sapiens.
Reconstruction of homo erectus.
Paleoanthropologists have long debated the origins of Neanderthals and Denisovans, the last common ancestors of modern humans. Genetic studies reveal that this ancestor likely existed between approximately 765,000 and 550,000 years ago, although fossil records are still inconclusive.
While some researchers have posited a Eurasian origin based on fossils unearthed in Atapuerca, Spain, dating back to 950,000 to 770,000 years ago, the new findings from Morocco reinforce the theory of an African origin.
Recent discoveries from the Moroccan cave, including mandible fragments, teeth, vertebrae, and femur pieces, bolster the evidence supporting Africa as the cradle of human evolution.
Analysis of the sediments surrounding these fossils indicates that they date back approximately 773,000 years, coinciding with significant changes in the Earth’s magnetic field, aligning with the era of the ancestor of homo.
Interestingly, the new fossils present distinct morphological differences. The evidence suggests that regional differentiation between Europe and North Africa was already evident by the late Early Pleistocene, spanning from around 1.8 million to 780,000 years ago.
The Moroccan fossils exhibit a blend of primitive features linked to species like homo erectus alongside more modern traits found in homo sapiens and Neanderthals.
For instance, their molar size aligns with earlier homo sapiens fossils, while the jaw shape resembles that of Neanderthals and other African archaic humans.
Although the Moroccan fossil may not serve as the ultimate last common ancestor of modern humans, Neanderthals, and Denisovans, it is likely a close precursor.
“The Moroccan fossils likely represent an advanced form of homo erectus in North Africa, situated on a lineage close to the evolutionary divergence between African and Eurasian lineages,” stated the researchers.
“Our findings underscore the Maghreb region as vital for understanding the emergence of our species and strengthen the argument for an African origin of homo sapiens,” they concluded.
Findings are detailed in a recent study published in Nature.
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J.J. Havlin and colleagues. Early human fossils from Morocco and the emergence of homo sapiens. Nature, published online January 7, 2026. doi: 10.1038/s41586-025-09914-y
The San people of southern Africa utilize poison arrows for hunting, a practice rooted in ancient traditions.
imageBROKER.com / Alamy
Discoveries of plant poisons on 60,000-year-old arrowheads in South Africa suggest that ancient hunters harnessed toxic materials far earlier than previously believed.
Prior to this discovery, evidence for poisoned arrows extended back only about 8,000 years. However, a 2020 study of arrow tips dating from 50,000 to 80,000 years ago indicated they exemplified designs similar to modern poison arrows.
Led by Professor Marlies Lombard, researchers at the University of Johannesburg uncovered that the tips of 60,000-year-old arrowheads were coated in a sticky substance, though poison’s presence couldn’t initially be confirmed.
Recently, Professor Lombard and her team confirmed the presence of toxic alkaloids, such as bupandrin and epibufanisin, in five quartzite arrowheads retrieved from Umhlatuzana rock caves in KwaZulu-Natal province.
The scientists believe these toxins likely originated from milky exudates from the roots of the plant species Buffondistica, which could be applied directly to arrow tips or processed to create a potent resin.
“If we found this in just one artifact, it could have been a mere coincidence,” Lombard noted. “However, finding it in five out of ten artifacts strongly indicates it was systematically used 60,000 years ago.”
The same toxic sap is still employed by the San people today, suggesting an unbroken tradition lasting at least 60,000 years.
Toxic plant traces discovered on arrow points from the Umhlatuzana rock shelter
Marlies Lombard
The plant’s poison is lethal to rodents within 30 minutes and can induce nausea and coma in humans. For larger prey, the toxins likely slowed them down, allowing hunters to successfully track and kill them.
Professor Lombard speculates that the poison may have first been discovered when early humans ingested toxic bulbs, which could lead to illness or death. The plant also possesses antiseptic, antibacterial, and hallucinogenic qualities and is utilized in traditional medicine, though accidental overdoses still occur.
To verify their findings, researchers tested arrows collected by Carl Peter Thunberg, a Swedish naturalist who documented the use of poisoned arrows by indigenous hunters in the 1770s. These tests also revealed the presence of toxic alkaloids from the same plant species.
Sven Isaacson, a member of the research team at Stockholm University, noted that this discovery signifies an early example of sophisticated plant utilization. “While humans have utilized plants for nourishment and tools for millennia, this represents a distinct advancement — harnessing the biochemical attributes of plants to create drugs, medicines, and poisons.”
The emergence of antibiotic resistance genes presents a significant and escalating threat to global public health. A comprehensive review from scientists at Hohai University delves into the evolutionary origins, ecological factors contributing to the spread and proliferation of antibiotic resistance genes, and their broader environmental implications.
The evolution of antibiotic resistance genes is linked to unique physiological roles and ecological compartmentalization. Image credit: Xu et al., doi: 10.48130/biocontam-0025-0014.
Antibiotic resistance genes have become one of the most critical global challenges to public health, increasingly spreading across interconnected environments involving humans, animals, and the ecosystem.
These genes have been identified in some of the most pristine and extreme habitats on Earth, such as the depths of the Mariana Trench and ancient permafrost deposits, where they have remained unaffected by human-induced antibiotic exposure.
This pervasive distribution indicates that these bacteria evolved their antibiotic resistance capabilities millions of years before antibiotics were ever utilized in clinical or agricultural contexts.
“Antibiotic resistance is not a modern phenomenon,” states Guxiang You, Ph.D., corresponding author of the review.
“Many resistance genes initially evolved to enable bacterial survival under environmental stresses, long before the advent of antibiotics.”
“The pressing danger today is that human activities are disrupting natural barriers, facilitating the spread of these genes to harmful pathogens.”
“Many resistance genes stem from common bacterial genes that perform essential roles, such as the excretion of toxic substances or nutrient transport,” the researchers elucidated.
“Over time, these genes have acquired protective capabilities against antibiotics as a secondary feature.”
In natural ecosystems like soils and lakes, most resistance genes tend to remain confined within specific microbial communities, posing minimal risk to human health.
“The primary reason for this containment is genomic incompatibility,” they noted.
“Bacteria with significant genetic variations often cannot easily exchange and utilize resistance genes.”
“This natural genetic mismatch serves as a biological firewall, limiting the transmission of resistance across different species and habitats.”
“However, human actions are compromising this firewall.”
In their review, the authors emphasize how agriculture, wastewater discharge, urbanization, and global trade are increasing connectivity between once-isolated environments.
Antibiotics used in medicine and livestock create intense selection pressures, while fertilizer use, wastewater recycling, and pollution foster the interaction of bacteria from soil, animals, and humans.
These factors facilitate the infiltration of resistance genes into disease-causing microbes.
“Human-induced changes in habitat connectivity alter everything,” explained Dr. Yi Xu, the lead author.
“When bacteria from disparate environments come into repeated contact under antibiotic pressure, previously harmless resistance genes can transform into a significant public health menace.”
“Wastewater treatment plants have been identified as crucial hotspots where high bacterial populations and antibiotic residues promote genetic exchange.”
“Agricultural lands enriched with fertilizers also serve as conduits, enabling resistance genes to transfer from livestock to environmental bacteria and ultimately back to humans via food, water, or direct contact.”
Critically, scientists note that not all resistance genes pose equal threats.
High environmental abundance does not automatically equate to high risk.
Identifying which genes are mobile, compatible with human pathogens, and linked to diseases is vital for effective monitoring and control efforts.
Researchers advocate for ecosystem-centered approaches to combat antibiotic resistance.
Proposed strategies include minimizing unnecessary antibiotic use, enhancing wastewater treatment methods, meticulously managing fertilizers and sludge, and safeguarding relatively untouched ecosystems that offer a baseline for natural resistance levels.
“Antibiotic resistance extends beyond being solely a medical issue,” remarked Dr. Yu.
“It is deeply connected to ecological factors and our interactions with the environment.”
“To preserve antibiotics for future generations, we must maintain the integrity of our current ecosystems.”
“By incorporating evolutionary biology, microbial ecology, and environmental science, the One Health approach provides a pragmatic pathway to tackle one of the greatest health challenges we face today.”
Source: review published in the Online Journal on December 5, 2025, Biological Contaminants.
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Yi Shu et al. 2025. Evolutionary origins, environmental factors, and consequences of the proliferation and spread of antibiotic resistance genes: A “One Health” perspective. Biological Contaminants 1: e014; doi: 10.48130/biocontam-0025-0014
The anaconda is among the largest surviving snake species in the world. Typically, its length ranges from 4 to 5 meters, although exceptional cases can reach up to 7 meters. A recent study conducted by paleontologists on giant anaconda fossils from South America suggests that these tropical reptiles achieved their maximum size approximately 12.4 million years ago and have maintained their large dimensions continuously since then.
Green anaconda (Eunectes murinus). Image credit: MKAMPIS / CC BY-SA 4.0.
“Current snakes display a broad spectrum of body lengths, averaging about 1 meter, with sizes ranging from 10 centimeters for the smallest leptotyphloid thread snakes to roughly 7 meters for anacondas.” Eunectes Andrés Alfonso Rojas, a PhD student at the University of Cambridge, and his colleagues state:
“Within the Eunectes genus, the green anaconda (Eunectes murinus) is the largest species, averaging 4 to 5 meters in length, with maximum recorded lengths of 6 to 7.2 meters.”
“Limited fossil findings from Brazil, Colombia, Peru, and Venezuela suggest that the evolutionary timeline of anacondas dates back to the mid-to-late Miocene.”
“However, our understanding of the body size of early anacondas, which coexisted with massive crocodilians, turtles, ungulates, and xenartranians, remains scarce.”
In their research, the authors examined 183 fossilized anaconda spines representing at least 32 snakes discovered in the state of Falcón, Venezuela.
By integrating these measurements with fossil data from various South American locations, they concluded that ancient anacondas measured 4 to 5 meters in length, similar to today’s anacondas.
“While other species, including giant crocodiles and colossal turtles, have become extinct since the Miocene—likely due to declining global temperatures and reduced habitats—giant anacondas have persisted. They demonstrate remarkable adaptability,” noted Alfonso Rojas.
“The analysis of fossils indicates that anacondas’ body size evolved significantly soon after their emergence in tropical South America around 12.4 million years ago, and this size has remained consistent ever since.”
The researchers cross-verified their estimates using an alternative method known as ancestral state reconstruction, employing snake family trees to estimate the length of giant anacondas and related modern species like tree boas and rainbow boas.
This method corroborates the notion that when anacondas first appeared in the Miocene, their average size was 4 to 5 meters.
Anacondas inhabit swamps, marshes, and substantial rivers, such as the Amazon. During the Miocene, northern South America resembled the contemporary Amazon region, allowing anacondas to thrive in wider areas than seen today.
Nonetheless, the current environment still offers ample food sources, including capybaras and fish, and suitable habitats that support the continued growth of modern anacondas.
As snakes are particularly sensitive to temperature changes, it was previously believed that anacondas might have grown even larger during earlier warm periods.
“This finding is unexpected, as ancient anacondas were thought to have reached lengths of 7 to 8 meters,” remarked Alfonso Rojas.
“However, we found no evidence supporting the existence of larger snakes during the Miocene, even when global temperatures were higher.”
These findings were published recently in the Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology.
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Andres F. Alfonso-Rojas et al. Early origins of gigantism in anacondas (Serpentes: Eunectes) revealed by the fossil record. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology published online on December 1, 2025. doi: 10.1080/02724634.2025.2572967
Domestic cats trace their lineage back to North African wildcats
Maria Boyko/Alamy
Research indicates that domestic cats originated in North Africa, subsequently dispersing to Europe and East Asia over the last 2000 years, a timeline earlier estimates had not suggested.
The domestic cat (Felis catus) has its roots in the African wildcat (Felis lybica lybica) and is now present on every continent apart from Antarctica.
Prior studies proposed that domestic cats might have first appeared in the Levant, potentially arriving in Europe around 9600 BC.
Claudio Ottoni, a professor at Tor Vergata University in Rome, along with his team, examined 225 ancient cat remains from around 100 archaeological sites across Europe and present-day Turkey. This research yielded 70 ancient genomes that spanned over 10,000 years, dating from the 9th millennium BC to the 19th century AD. They also investigated museum specimens and 17 modern ocelot genomes from Italy, Bulgaria, Morocco, and Tunisia.
The oldest genetically identified cat from this research was sourced from Sardinia and dated to the second century AD, categorized as an African wildcat or domestic cat. All early European specimens were genetically determined to be European wildcats (Felis silvestris).
This research implies that the spread of domestic cats occurred significantly later than previously believed.
Ottoni emphasized that Mediterranean civilizations during the first millennium BC played a crucial role in the relocation of African wildcats, involving at least two genetically distinct populations. One group likely consisted of wildcats introduced to Sardinia from northwest Africa, establishing the current wildcat population on the island, while the other formed the genetic basis of modern domestic cats.
“Initially, during the domestication phase, cats likely adapted well to human surroundings,” he explains. “Their ecological flexibility enabled them to thrive. They have coexisted with humans in various urban and suburban areas and even traveled with them over great distances, showcasing their evolutionary success.”
Leopard cats (Prionailurus bengalensis) cohabited with humans in ancient China
Tuchart Duando/Getty Images
In a related study, Luo Shujing and her team from Peking University investigated 22 sets of feline remains from China, dating back over 5,000 years, while analyzing genomes from 130 modern and ancient Eurasian cat specimens. They identified a different wildcat species, the leopard cat (Prionailurus bengalensis), which is native to East Asia.
“These cats were likely drawn to human settlements due to the abundance of rodents, but they were never genuinely domesticated,” states Luo.
The findings show that true domestic cats made their way to China significantly later, around 1,300 years ago during the Tang Dynasty. Genomic data connects these cats to those originating from the Middle East and Central Asia, suggesting they arrived in China via the Silk Road through traders.
Despite a relationship that lasted over 3,500 years, leopard cats were ultimately never domesticated and reverted to their natural habitats, according to Luo.
“We often get inquiries from the public about whether it’s feasible to keep these adorable ocelots as pets, particularly if raised from youth,” she remarks. “My straightforward response is: Forget it. Our ancestors tried for over 3,000 years and didn’t succeed.”
Cairo and Alexandria, the forerunners of ancient science: Egypt
Set off on an extraordinary journey through Cairo and Alexandria, two of Egypt’s hallmark cities, where the allure of ancient history intertwines with modern vibrancy.
The origins of the sperm swimming mechanism date back to ancient times.
Christoph Burgstedt/Alamy
The evolutionary roots of sperm can be traced to the unicellular forerunners of all existing animals.
Nearly all animals go through a unicellular phase in their life cycle, which involves two forms of sex cells, or gametes. Eggs are sizeable cells that hold genetic information and the nutrients necessary for early development, while sperm transport genetic material from one organism to another to fertilize eggs and create new life.
“Sperms play a crucial role in the process that allows life to be transmitted from generation to generation,” states Arthur Matt from Cambridge University. “It carries the legacy of over 700 million years of evolutionary history and is likely linked to the origins of animals themselves. Our aim was to explore this extensive evolutionary narrative to understand the origins of sperm.”
Matt and his team utilized an open science dataset containing information about sperm proteins from 32 animal species, including humans. They combined this data with the genomes of 62 organisms, including various related single-cell groups, to track the evolution of sperm across different animal lineages.
The research revealed a “sperm toolkit” comprising about 300 gene families that make up the last universal common sperm core genome.
“We have now identified numerous significant advancements in sperm mechanisms occurring long before multicellular animals emerged, even before the sperm themselves,” explains Matt.
This indicates that the sperm mechanics, represented by a “flagellum that propels a single cell,” were already evolving prior to the development of multicellular organisms.
Thus, our ancient progenitors were once all single-celled oceanic swimmers, and the sperm toolkit was present in our earliest swimming unicellular predecessors long before the advent of animals.
“Animals evolved multicellularity and cellular differentiation, but they did not create sperm from nothing. They repurposed the body structure of their swimming forebears as the foundation for sperm,” states Matt. “In essence, sperm are not a novel creation of multicellular organisms but are constructed upon the designs of a single-celled organism repurposed for reproduction.”
The study also indicated that the significant technological developments leading to the vast variety of current sperm primarily affected the cell heads, while the tails have remained largely constant since their common ancestor.
According to the research team members, fertilization can occur in various manners, with some sperm reaching the egg within the body, while others swim in open waters, notes Adria Leboeuf, also from the University of Cambridge. “Finding eggs in these different settings presents unique challenges and requires specialized machinery,” she explains. “However, the tail remains well-preserved since it must be capable of swimming in all environments.”
“This illustrates how evolution can modify existing structures instead of creating mechanisms from scratch,” says Jenny Graves, from La Trobe University in Melbourne, Australia.
Karo people overlooking the Omo River Valley in Ethiopia
Michael Honegger/Alamy
Here’s a snippet from Our Human Story, a newsletter focusing on advancements in archaeology. Subscribe to receive it monthly in your inbox.
On the eastern shores of Lake Turkana in Kenya lies Namorotuknan Hill, where a river once flowed but has since dried up. The area features a dry landscape with sparse shrubbery.
Between 2013 and 2022, a team of researchers led by David Brown from George Washington University excavated clay layers adjacent to the river. Their findings included 1,290 stone tools crafted by ancient humans, dating back between 2.44 and 2.75 million years. They reported their discoveries in Nature Communications last week.
The tools belong to the Oldowan type, which are prevalent in various regions of Africa and Eurasia. These items are among the oldest Oldowan tools ever found.
Brown and his team noted a remarkable consistency in the tools’ design. Despite spanning 300,000 years, the creators displayed a preference for specific rock types, indicating a reliable and habitual approach to tool-making rather than isolated incidents.
The tools from Namorotuknan represent yet another significant discovery from the Omo Turkana Basin, a key site for understanding human origins.
Basins, Cradles, and Rifts
Since the 1960s, the Omo Turkana Basin has served as a focal point for human evolution research.
It stretches from the sandy beaches of southern Ethiopia, where the Omo River flows southward into Lake Turkana—one of the world’s longest lakes, extending deep into Kenya. The Türkwel and Kerio rivers also flow into its southern reaches.
Various fossil-rich locations pepper the basin. On the lake’s western side is the Nachukui Formation, while the Kobi Fora is situated on the east. Additional archaeological sites include the Usno Formation near Omo in the north and Kanapoi near Kerio in the south.
Map of fossil and tool sites in the Omo Turkana Basin
François Marchal et al. 2025
Led by François Marchal, a team from France’s Aix-Marseille University has compiled all known human fossil findings from the Omo Turkana Basin into a database. They detailed these patterns in the Human Evolution Journal, offering a snapshot of historical paleoanthropological research and a wealth of knowledge about human evolution.
Research in the Omo Turkana Basin began with early expeditions led by a collaborative French, American, and Kenyan team, including notable figures such as Camille Aramboul, Yves Coppens, F. Clark Howell, and Richard Leakey. Leakey also spearheaded explorations in the eastern Koobi Fora and western sites like Nachukwi.
Richard Leakey was a pivotal figure in the study of human evolution during the 1960s, 70s, and 80s. He is part of a family legacy in paleoanthropology, being the son of Louis and Mary Leakey, renowned for their groundbreaking work in the Oldupai Valley, Tanzania; his daughter Louise continues the exploration of human evolution.
Research on the Omo Turkana Basin transcends individual contributions. Marchal’s team collected a substantial 1,231 hominin specimens from around 658 individuals, accounting for about one-third of all known hominin remains across Africa.
Alongside the Great Rift Valley of East Africa—encompassing places like the Oldupai Gorge and the Cradle of Humanity in South Africa—the Omo Turkana Basin ranks as one of Africa’s richest hominid fossil sites.
Discovery
To the north, near the Omo River, researchers have uncovered some of the earliest Homo sapiens remains on record. At Omo Kibishu, two skull fragments and several bones were found, along with numerous teeth. Ongoing studies reveal these remains date back significantly further than initially believed, once estimated at 130,000 years, later revised to 195,000 years ago, and a subsequent analysis in 2022 indicated they could be at least 233,000 years old. Of all discovered, only the fossils from Morocco’s Jebel Irhoud are older, dating back to about 300,000 years.
The fossils from Omo Kibishu and Jebel Irhoud significantly deepen our understanding, suggesting that our species may have been evolving far earlier than the previously accepted timeline of around 200,000 years.
This trend also extends to the Homo genus, encompassing various groups like Homo erectus and Neanderthals. Determining which branch of Homo originated first remains complex—although records regarding Homo are sparse before 2 million years ago, they become increasingly elusive as one goes further back.
By meticulously analyzing fossils from the Omo Turkana Basin, Marchal and his team determined that Homo thrived in the region between 2.7 and 2 million years ago.
The earliest known Homo specimens in this basin are from the Shungra Formation, estimated to be between 2.74 and 2.58 million years old. Despite being announced in 2008, detailed examinations have yet to be conducted.
Faced with this gap, Marchal’s team posits that an influx of unexamined material could bring the number of known early Homo individuals to 75, creating a substantial and informative dataset, suggesting that there is “much more than just a handful of fossils.”
Notably, the Homo genus became well-established in the Omo Turkana Basin between 2.7 and 2 million years ago. While they were not the dominant species, another genus, Paranthropus, featuring smaller brains and larger teeth, was twice as prevalent. Numerous species from the Australopithecus genus also existed, indicating a period of cohabitation among different hominins. Importantly, some Homo individuals likely produced the Oldowan tools found.
This type of discovery is made possible by decades of dedicated research, and it is anticipated that the Omo Turkana Basin will continue to illuminate our origins for years to come.
Neanderthals, ancient humans, and cave art: France
Accompany New Scientist’s Kate Douglas on an intriguing journey through time, exploring significant Neanderthal and Upper Paleolithic sites across southern France, from Bordeaux to Montpellier.
Bubbles formed in water can generate electric sparks powerful enough to ignite methane.
In marshy areas, observers sometimes notice a mysterious flash of blue light hovering above the surface. A plausible explanation for these “Will-o’-the-wisps,” or Ignis Fatuus, is that the flashes originate from the combustion of gases such as methane and phosphine, produced by decomposing organic matter in the murky waters below. However, the ignition source for these gases remains uncertain, with theories suggesting causes ranging from static electricity to lightning strikes.
Recently, Richard Zare from Stanford University and his team have observed spontaneous electrical sparks occurring between methane bubbles and air submerged underwater, dubbing them microlites. They assert that these occurrences have sufficient energy to ignite methane gas.
“We are continually uncovering new phenomena about water. They seem obvious once we grasp them, but prior to that, they appear entirely bizarre,” Zare remarks. “People typically associate water with extinguishing fires, not igniting them. Instead, it can generate sparks that light a fire. This concept is revolutionary.”
Zare and his team previously documented water droplets, comparable to the size of salt grains, generating sparks spontaneously. This led them to hypothesize that similar effects could arise from methane bubbles in water. They employed nozzles to inject microbubbles of methane combined with air into water and utilized a high-speed camera, photon counter, and spectrometer to monitor bubble interactions.
As the bubbles ascended through the water, they altered their shape and merged. Upon collision, the contrast in charge between the bubbles sparked flashes, which Zare’s team successfully recorded using both the camera counter and the photon counter.
They also analyzed the light frequency from the flashes, finding it consistent with signatures of specific chemically excited compounds. This indicates that the sparks are potent enough to ignite gases like methane.
Microlight between air and methane-containing foam
Yusia
“[The Italian physicist Alessandro] Volta was the first to assert that these ignis fatuus exist and speculated on their nature. In some ways, he was correct, but not for the reasons he thought. They actually originate from the droplets.”
“This is incredibly intriguing,” states Detlef Lohse from the University of Twente in the Netherlands. While this does not definitively resolve the mystery of Will-o’-the-wisps, it presents a credible explanation, and the findings are likely to stimulate further research.
The latter part of the first millennium in Central and Eastern Europe witnessed profound cultural and political changes. This transformative era is typically linked to the emergence of the Slavs, supported by textual documentation and corresponding archaeological findings. However, there remains no agreement on whether this archaeological horizon spread through transition, a process termed “slabization,” or a mix of both. Notably, the prevalent cremation practices observed during the initial phases of slab settlements lack sufficient genetic data. In a recent investigation, scientists sequenced the genomes of 555 ancient individuals, including 359 samples from the Slavic context dating back to the 7th century AD. The new findings reveal significant population movements in Eastern Europe between the 6th and 8th centuries, which replaced over 80% of the local gene pools in areas such as East Germany, Poland, and Croatia.
The seal of Yaroslav, the grand prince of Kiev from 1019 to 1054, and the father of Anna Yaroslav, the Queen of France. Image credit: Sheremetievs Museum.
The term “Slavs” first emerged to describe a nation in Constantinople during the 6th century and later gained recognition in the West.
Written records initially appeared north of the Lowward Now River and subsequently shifted to regions north of the Carpathian Basin, the Balkans, and the Eastern Alps.
Many areas were under the influence of the Avar Khaganate along the central Danube from around 567 AD to 800 AD.
Evidence indicates the presence of slab cultures in several regions of Eastern and Southeastern Europe during the 7th century.
Slavic settlements, previously inhabited by Roman, Germanic, and other pre-Slavic communities, transitioned to a simpler lifestyle, often represented archaeologically by small pithouse settlements, cremation burials, handmade and unembellished pottery, and a modest low-metal material culture associated with the Pragukorchak group.
Later, more sophisticated social structures and control emerged within the contact zone of the Byzantine-Christian West.
The Transformation of Europe by the Slavs
The first comprehensive ancient DNA analysis of medieval Slavic groups reveals that the rise of the Slavs was fundamentally a narrative of migration.
Their genetic signature points to origins in an area spanning southern Belarus to central Ukraine, aligning with longstanding linguistic and archaeological theories.
“Although direct evidence from the early Slavic core regions is still limited, our genetic findings provide initial substantial insights into the formation of Slavic ancestors, suggesting origins that may lie between the Donets and Don rivers.”
In this study, Dr. Gretzinger and colleagues gathered genome-wide data from 555 distinct ancient individuals from 26 sites throughout Central and Eastern Europe. They combined this with previously published data, creating comprehensive sampling networks for three regions.
New findings indicate that starting in the 6th century AD, large-scale migrations spread Eastern European ancestry throughout a vast area of central and eastern Europe, thus altering the genetic make-up of regions such as East Germany and Poland.
However, this expansion did not conform to a model of conquest or empire. Rather than obliterating existing military and structural hierarchies, newcomers founded new communities centered around extended families and patriarchal kinships.
This pattern was not uniform across all areas.
In eastern Germany, the changes were significant. Large, multi-generational lineages formed the backbone of society, and kinship networks became more broadly structured compared to the smaller nuclear families observed in earlier migration phases.
In contrast, areas such as Croatia experienced much less disruption in existing social patterns with the arrival of Eastern European groups.
Here, social structures often retained characteristics from previous periods, resulting in communities where new traditions harmonized with existing ones.
The regional diversity in social frameworks highlights that the spread of the Slavic group was not a one-size-fits-all process, but rather a dynamic adaptation to local contexts and histories.
“The expansion of the Slavs does not occur as a single event; it demonstrates that it is not a monolithic phenomenon, but each instance blends adaptation and integration according to its circumstances.”
Historical Overview of European Slabs: The timeline lists major historical events related to Central European Slabs. This map illustrates historical proof of the appearance of the slab (Sklavenoi – Slavvi – Winedi). The italic count indicates the date of the proven event, with each report date being in the bracket. Image credit: Gretzinger et al., doi: 10.1038/s41586-025-09437-6.
East Germany
The genetic data reveals a particularly significant narrative in East Germany.
Following the decline of the Kingdom of Thuringia, more than 85% of the region’s ancestry can be traced back to new arrivals from the east.
This reflects a shift from an earlier period of diverse populations, as epitomized by the Brucken site.
With the rise of the Slavs, this diversity gave way to a population composition resembling that of modern Slavic-speaking groups in Eastern Europe.
These new communities were structured around large extended families and patriarchal lineages, with women of marriageable age often moving to form new households elsewhere, leaving their native villages.
Notably, the genetic heritage of these initial Eastern European settlers is still present among the Sorbs, the Slavic-speaking minority in East Germany.
Amidst centuries of cultural and linguistic changes, Sorbs maintain genetic profiles closely related to early medieval Slavic populations that settled in the region over a millennium ago.
Poland
In Poland, research notably challenges previous assumptions regarding long-standing population continuity.
Genetic findings indicate that early inhabitants of the region, beginning in the 6th and 7th centuries AD—especially descendants of a population closely tied to Northern Europe and Scandinavia—were nearly completely replaced by newcomers from the East, closely related to modern Poles, Ukrainians, and Belarusians.
While overwhelming population shifts occurred, genetic evidence also reveals small traces of intermingling with local populations.
These insights underscore both the magnitude of population change and the intricate dynamics shaping the ancestry of present-day Central and Eastern European languages.
Croatia
In Northern Balkans, the patterns observed differ markedly from those in northern immigrant regions, narrating a tale of both transformation and continuity.
Ancient DNA analyses from Croatia and surrounding areas illustrate a significant influx of ancestors from Eastern Europe, yet without total genetic replacement.
Instead, Eastern European immigrants integrated with diverse local populations to form hybrid communities.
Genetic studies show that in modern Balkan populations, the proportion of Eastern European ancestry varies significantly, often reaching around half or less of the current genetic mix.
In this context, Slavic migration wasn’t characterized by conquest but was a gradual process of intermarriage and adaptation, leading to the rich cultural, linguistic, and genetic diversity that defines the Balkans today.
A New Chapter in European History
In most instances, when early Slavic groups are referenced in archaeological and historical contexts, their genetic markers are consistent, indicating a shared ancestral origin, though regional variations reflect the extent of blending with local populations.
In the north, early Germanic communities mostly left, providing space for Slavic integration.
In the south, Eastern European migrants merged with established societies.
This patchwork integration elucidates the remarkable diversity present in the cultures, languages, and genetics of contemporary Central and Eastern European societies.
“The spread of the Slavs was likely the last significant demographic event to irreversibly reshape both the genetic and linguistic landscapes of Europe,” remarked Dr. Johannes Kraus, director of the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology.
The findings were published in the journal on September 3rd Nature.
____
J. Gretzinger et al. Ancient DNA connects large-scale migration with the spread of the Slavs. Nature, published online on September 3, 2025. doi:10.1038/s41586-025-09437-6
This article is adapted from the original release by the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology.
The mantle of Mars houses ancient fragments measuring up to 4 km in width from its formation, as revealed by an analysis of seismic data gathered by NASA’s InSight Mission.
The immense collisions during early Mars’ history resulted in a global ocean of magma. Image credit: Vadim Sadovski / Imperial College London.
The planet’s mantle serves as a significant layer, located between the crust and core, preserving vital evidence about its formation and evolution.
In contrast to Earth, where active plate tectonics constantly mix the mantle, Mars functions as a smaller planet with a single plate surface.
This results in considerably less mixing of the Martian mantle, which may retain records of early internal history, providing valuable insights into the formation and evolution of rocky worlds.
Utilizing data from NASA’s InSight Lander, Dr. Constantinos Charalambous from Imperial College London and his colleagues analyzed the seismic signatures of Marsquakes to better understand the composition of the Martian mantle.
They studied eight recorded quakes, including those triggered by the impact of meteorites, discovering that the arrival of high-frequency P-waves is consistently delayed as they traverse deeper regions of the mantle.
The authors suggest that these delays indicate variations in the composition of the mantle stretching over kilometers.
Given that Mars lacks plate tectonics and large-scale recycling processes, these minor irregularities are likely remnants of its formative history.
Investigating the heterogeneity of the Martian mantle implies that it results from an intense and destructive process, reflecting the significant events of the planet’s early history that caused extensive interior disruption and mixed both foreign and crustal materials at a planetary scale.
Furthermore, additional variations might have arisen from the vast ocean of crystallized magma formed during this aftermath.
Rather than being erased, these features were preserved as the Martian crust cooled and mantle convection ceased.
“The seismic signals displayed clear signs of interference while traveling deep within Mars,” Dr. Charalambous noted.
“This coincides with a mantle composed of structures originating from various compositions, representing Mars’ early remnants.”
“What occurred on Mars is that following these initial events, the surface hardened into a stagnant lid.”
“It became isolated from the mantle, entrapping ancient, chaotic features like planetary time capsules.”
“Our observations reveal the distribution of fractals, where energy from violent collisions exceeds an object’s strength.”
“This mirrors the effect seen when glass falls onto a tiled floor, akin to meteorite impacts with a planet. It results in the formation of both large and small fragments.”
“It’s astonishing that we can still detect this distribution today.”
“The Jet Propulsion Research Institute” stated Dr. Mark Panning, a researcher at NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory.
“It’s exhilarating to witness scientists uncovering new findings through the earthquakes we observe!”
The team’s paper was published today in the journal Science.
____
Constantinos Charalambous et al. 2025. Evidence of a highly uneven Mars mantle inferred from earthquake analysis. Science 389 (6763): 899-903; doi: 10.1126/science.adk4292
During pregnancy, stress can elevate certain immune cells in the fetal skin and cause them to react excessively, typically around 6 to 8 months, potentially leading to eczema.
Skin mast cells, a type of immune cell, release histamines and other chemicals that result in redness, swelling, and itching during allergic responses. Though eczema is not classified as an allergy, these chemicals can instigate inflammatory flare-ups triggered by irritating substances like soaps, detergents, and diapers.
A series of studies on mice have demonstrated that mast cells become hypersensitized when exposed to stress hormones from the mother.
“What our findings indicate is that the emotional experiences of pregnant women can significantly impact their children’s health,” stated Nicolas Gaudenzio from the Toulouse Institute for Infectious and Inflammatory Diseases in France. “The sense of guilt for mothers is not the focus of this study; it may serve as a message for female partners and their support networks.”
Previous research has indicated a connection between maternal stress and eczema development in newborns. To investigate this further, Gaudenzio and his team conducted experiments with several pregnant mice.
Some mice underwent stress by being placed in a narrow tube exposed to bright light for 30 minutes over a span of 5 days. Researchers specifically targeted late third trimester periods, crucial for immune and nervous system development. They found heightened levels of stress hormones in the mice’s blood and amniotic fluid during this time.
After the mice gave birth, researchers simulated diaper-wearing by attaching saline-soaked pads to the backs of the hind knees and elbows to mimic common eczema-prone areas.
Offspring from stressed mothers predominantly displayed red, itchy, or scaly rashes in the targeted areas. In contrast, pups from control mothers, allowed to roam freely during pregnancy, exhibited only mild reactions without severe lesions.
Analysis of RNA sequences from sensory neurons connecting the skin to the spinal cord revealed nearly 300 differently expressed genes in the offspring of stressed mice. The puppies born to stressed mothers responded more aggressively to light touch, including being brushed with fine nylon fibers.
When immune cells from the skin of these puppies were sequenced, 500 genes showed differential expression in mast cells. Microscopically, these cells appeared primed to release histamine. “They were already in an active state in a neutral environment, indicating that the skin is predisposed to inflammation,” noted Gaudenzio.
Researchers repeated their experiments with pregnant mice treated to inhibit the production of corticosterone, a hormone integral to the stress response in rodents. They also administered additional corticosterone to unstressed pregnant mice, which resulted in their offspring developing eczema.
Moreover, genetically modified pups completely lacking certain immune responses did not develop eczema, even when their mothers were stressed.
This study represents a thorough and fascinating investigation,” commented Thomas Plum, a specialist in cell immunology at the German Cancer Research Center in Heidelberg. “It underscores the significance of interactions among immune cells, structural cells, and the nervous system at the tissue level.”
However, it’s essential to consider that these experiments were conducted in mice. “It’s an intriguing finding, but just the beginning,” Plum remarked.
Researchers have made significant progress in unraveling one of biology’s most profound puzzles: how the fundamental molecules of life came together over 4 billion years ago.
Proteins, composed of chains of amino acids, are pivotal to life, supporting tissue structure and performing countless functions within an organism. However, they lack the ability to self-replicate.
This task falls to RNAs, which serve as messengers and translators of genetic information in all living cells today.
The enigma lies in how these two distinct types of molecules first interacted, ultimately leading to the genetic code and the chain of events that produced us.
“RNA molecules transmit information between themselves in a highly predictable and efficient manner, but they struggle to communicate with the amino acids required for protein synthesis,” explains Senior Author of the study, Professor Matthew Powner told BBC Science Focus.
“For decades, the mechanisms and reasons behind the initial linkage of these two molecules have remained open questions.”
Previous laboratory attempts to replicate this chemistry faced challenges, as amino acids typically reacted with one another rather than with RNA, and unstable states in water hindered the reactions.
Adopting an innovative approach, the Powner team combined amino acids into a sulfur-containing compound called thioesters, a high-energy bond still utilized by cells today. This allowed for natural and selective reactions between the molecules and RNA.
Intriguingly, the inherent structure of RNA appears to direct amino acids to the proper position at the RNA strand’s edge.
Warm, nutrient-rich pools like those found in Yellowstone National Park today may have provided an ideal setting for these reactions to take place. – Credit: Getty
This suggests a viable chemical pathway through which fundamental processes in life began, without the necessity of more complex catalysts like enzymes.
“All these molecules were quite simple and likely present on the early Earth,” Powner noted.
The early ocean’s conditions would have been too limiting for these reactions to proceed, but nutrient-laden pools, ponds, and lakes offered an ideal environment.
This research also connects two longstanding theories: the “RNA world,” which emphasizes RNA’s crucial role, and the “thioester world,” which suggests high-energy thioesters were vital for early metabolism.
For Powner, the upcoming challenge is clear: he aims to “understand the origins of the universal genetic code of life.” This understanding could lead to insights on exactly how and where it originated on our planet.
“Scientists are constructing a validated framework that could lead to the creation of ‘cells’,’” Powner adds.
These cells not only have the potential to evolve but also to illuminate the origins of universal life structures and their organization.
“These reactions provide the crucial information needed to reasonably explore how and where life began on Earth.”
read more:
About our experts
Matthew Powner is a professor of organic chemistry at the University of London. His work focuses on the chemistry related to life’s origins, and alongside his research group, he contributes to fields such as nucleic acid and amino oxidation, protometabolic networks, ribozymes, lipids, crystal engineering, green chemistry, catalysis, and photochemistry.
Researchers from University College London and other institutions have analyzed the molars of female Boss Torus (cattle) discovered at Stonehenge.
Stonehenge. Image credit: Regina Wolf.
In 1924, archaeologists restored the jawbone of an elderly cow found at the base of the groove surrounding Stonehenge Stage 1, constructed between 2995 and 2900 BC.
Professor Michael Parker Pearson from University College London and his team dated the find between 3350 and 2920 BC through isotopic analysis of a tooth, suggesting its origins in Wales.
“This offers even more intriguing evidence of Stonehenge’s connection to Southwest Wales, the source of Bluestone,” noted Professor Parker Pearson.
“It heightens the likelihood that these cows assisted in transporting the stones.”
Researchers recorded chemical signals from the second year of the animal’s life and sectioned its third molar into nine horizontal slices.
This enabled them to measure isotopes of carbon, oxygen, strontium, and lead, each shedding light on the cow’s diet, environment, and movements.
The varying concentrations and types found in the teeth offered insights into the cattle’s lifestyle.
Oxygen isotopes indicated that the teeth recorded about six months of growth spanning winter to summer, while carbon isotopes revealed seasonal dietary changes: forest feed in winter and pasture in summer.
Moreover, strontium isotopes suggested that these seasonal food sources came from different geological regions, implying that the cattle may have moved seasonally or that winter feed was transported.
Lead isotopes indicated a spike in composition between late winter and spring, suggesting older lead sources than the other dental leads.
The findings imply that the cattle originated from much older Paleozoic rock formations in the Pleshri hills of Pembrokeshire, Wales.
“This research revealed six months of unprecedented details about the life of this cow, presenting the first evidence of cattle movements from Wales and documenting dietary shifts and life events from around 5,000 years ago,” remarked Professor Jane Evans, an archaeologist at the National Environmental Isotope Facility at the British Geological Survey.
“One slice of cow tooth has conveyed an extraordinary narrative. I am hopeful that more revelations will emerge from her extensive journey as new scientific tools become available.”
Additionally, scientists concluded that unusual lead signals could not be attributed solely to local contamination or movement.
Rather, this lead, retained in the cow’s bones, was regenerating during the stress of pregnancy.
If accurate, this indicates that the cow was female during the formation of the teeth and was either pregnant or breastfeeding.
To validate this hypothesis, the authors employed peptide-based sex determination techniques, suggesting that the animal was likely a female.
“This study offers significant new insights into the life history of this enigmatic cow, whose remains were deposited at such a pivotal location at the entrance to Stonehenge,” said Professor Richard Majwick of Cardiff University.
“It provides unparalleled details regarding the animal’s distant origins and the arduous journey it undertook.”
“Often, grand narratives dominate research on major archaeological sites, but this detailed biographical examination of individual animals brings a fresh perspective to Stonehenge’s story.”
The team’s findings were published on June 17th, 2025, in the Journal of Archaeological Science.
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J. Evans et al. 2025 Boss Torus Evaluating the comparative sources and uptake times of teeth, strontium and lead from Stonehenge. Journal of Archaeological Science 180:106269; doi:10.1016/j.jas.2025.106269
Language remains one of the few attributes regarded as uniquely human. While animals like chimpanzees and songbirds exhibit advanced communication systems, they do not convey meaning on the same scale as humans. So, what prompted our ancestors to develop language?
Madeleine Beekman, an evolutionary biologist with a focus on insects, particularly honeybees, presents an engaging explanation in her first book aimed at general audiences regarding the evolution of human language.
Her hypothesis suggests that language emerged as a necessity to meet the challenges of parenting. In comparison to other mammals, human infants are quite helpless at birth and need around-the-clock care.
Echoing decades of paleontological research, Beekman links the vulnerable state of infants to two factors: a larger brain and a narrower pelvis. “As our bodies adapted for bipedalism, our hips narrowed,” she notes. As a result, our brains grew larger. “A big-headed baby and a mother with a narrow pelvis don’t work well together,” Beekman elaborates.
To circumvent this “obstetric dilemma,” infants are born at an earlier stage, leading to the situation where their heads are too large for a narrow birth canal. This adaptation allows for safer childbirth but necessitates extended care for the fragile young.
Thus far, the narrative is familiar. Beekman’s significant leap is to propose that the requirements of caring for human offspring spurred the development of complex languages. “Caring for human babies is incredibly challenging, leading evolution to craft entirely new tools to assist with this effort,” she asserts, “the design flaws that initiated the issue ultimately offered a solution.” While our brains made childbirth more complicated, we simultaneously developed our capacity for a richer, more flexible language.
In presenting this idea, Beekman navigates a bustling marketplace of theories on language evolution. Various hypotheses exist; some contend that language arose alongside toolmaking, where the development of advanced tools required more descriptive language for instruction. Others suggest language served as a means of social distinction, encompassing clever wordplay and insults. Additionally, it may have initially been a cognitive tool, primarily for individual thought before evolving to facilitate communication with others.
One intriguing element of Beekman’s theory is her emphasis on the roles of women and children. Science has historically leaned towards male-centered viewpoints, often overshadowing the significant evolutionary shifts linked to pregnancy (e.g., the “Hunter” model).
“
The authors contend that language is around 100,000 years old and unique to our species. “
It’s essential to reflect on the contributions of women and children in the story of language’s origins. However, this doesn’t necessarily affirm Beekman’s thesis. She presents compelling evidence, notably showing that many large birds, including parrots and New Caledonian crows, produce underdeveloped offspring. Why? A 2023 study indicated that the primary predictor of avian brain size was the degree of parental care.
All of this resonates with Beekman’s narrative. Yet, the most pressing question remains: timing. Humans have been walking on two legs for at least 6 million years, and our brains have expanded rapidly for the last 2 million years. Given this extensive timeline, when did language actually develop?
Beekman posits that modern language is roughly 100,000 years old and specific to our species. She references 2020 research pinpointing “unique gene regulatory networks that shape the anatomy crucial for precise word production.” These networks appear to exist solely in our species, indicating that other human relatives, like Neanderthals, may not have possessed the same linguistic capabilities.
Beekman considers this “conclusive,” yet other scholars have unearthed evidence that suggests the possibility of complex language in other human species. The evolution surrounding human childbirth remains as intertwined as it is uncertain. In summary, robust ideas necessitate further proof.
Michael Marshall is a writer based in Devon, UK
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Stone tools unearthed in Sulawesi, Indonesia, crafted by an enigmatic ancient human species
Budianto Hakim et al.
Seven stone tools discovered on Sulawesi, Indonesia, represent the earliest proof of ancient humans navigating the ocean, with an estimated age of 1.4 million years.
These artifacts may shed light on how a diminutive human species known as the “Hobbit” reached neighboring Flores Island.
The first artifact was found embedded in a sandstone outcrop at a location called Calio Budiant Hakim. In 2019, excavations revealed six additional tools on the same outcrop, courtesy of the Indonesian National Research Innovation Agency.
Alongside the stone tools, Hakim and his team also discovered parts of an upper jaw, teeth, and remains of a large species of pig, Celebochoerus, along with fragments from unidentified young elephants.
While researchers couldn’t date the tools directly, sediment analysis combined with fossil pig teeth allowed them to estimate an age range between 1.04 million and 1.48 million years. Previously, the oldest human evidence in Sulawesi was dated to 194,000 years ago.
A least one of the new artifacts appears to be a flake removed from a larger piece, with its edges skillfully shaped, as noted by team member Adam Blum from Griffith University in Brisbane, Australia. While non-human primates such as chimpanzees utilize hammer-like stones to crack nuts, they don’t manipulate flakes to create tools.
“This represents an early form of cognitive ability from a species that has since vanished,” states Brumm. “We don’t ascertain the specific species, but these creations indicate human intellect at the Calio site.”
The distinct hominin species, Homo floresiensis, was unearthed in Flores in 2003. Archaeological findings suggest human presence on the island over a million years ago. However, the means by which these early humans reached the island remains a mystery.
Both Flores and Sulawesi were separated from mainland Southeast Asia by expansive oceanic barriers, even during periods of the lowest sea levels. According to Blum, the distance to Sulawesi is too great for swimming, leading to the conclusion that these early human species likely could not construct maritime vessels.
“It’s conceivable that a rare geological event, such as a tsunami, swept some early humans into the ocean, where they might have clung to floating trees or mats of vegetation, eventually reaching these islands to form isolated populations,” he suggests.
Martin Porr from the University of Western Australia identifies Homo erectus as the most probable candidate for seafaring at that time, given similarities between the tools found in Sulawesi and those associated with this species.
While the new finds support this theory, they raise numerous questions, particularly regarding whether the skills of these early human groups may need to be reassessed.
Led by the late archaeologist Mike Morwood, the team who first identified Homo floresiensis was the first to propose that Sulawesi could be crucial in understanding the ancestry of the Hobbit. As Kira Westaway from Macquarie University in Sydney, Australia mentions, “Sulawesi is positioned along a significant current that flows from Sulawesi to Flores.”
“Even Mike would have been astonished by the discovery of these ancient stone tools,” she remarks. “Though one might argue that seven tools are insufficient to support major claims, they undeniably represent the presence of early human activities.”
Neanderthals, ancient humans, cave art: France
Join new scientist Kate Douglas as she embarks on a captivating exploration of the prominent Neanderthal and Upper Paleolithic sites across southern France, spanning from Bordeaux to Montpellier.
Potato tubers are a product of ancient hybridization events
Jackie Bale/Getty Images
The common potato has been discovered to originate from a cross between the ancient tomato and a lesser-known South American lineage called Etuverosam.
Plants from the Etuverosam group resemble potato plants but lack one significant feature: they do not yield the starch-rich tubers that make cultivated potatoes a vital food source globally.
Sandra Knapp from The Natural History Museum in London and her team examined the genetics of three groups within the Solanum genus: Petota, which includes 107 species of cultivated potatoes, alongside 17 tomato types and three Etuverosam species. All three groups are believed to have diverged from a shared ancestor roughly 14 million years ago.
The researchers analyzed 450 genomes from cultivated potatoes and 56 wild potato species, revealing a consistent genetic mixture of tomato and Etuverosam genes across all samples.
Findings suggest that the origins of potato strains result from hybridization events with tomato ancestors, likely from a lineage situated in present-day Chile, dating back about 8 million years.
These hybridization events have led to novel gene combinations and innovations like tuber formation. “This process facilitates gene sharing, enabling new strains to produce tubers and helping these plants to thrive in newly formed, cold and arid environments,” Knapp explains.
This indicates that hybridization acts as “a significant driver of diversity evolution,” according to Knapp.
“While the edible parts of tomatoes and potatoes appear quite different, the actual plants are remarkably similar,” she elaborates. “If you happen to find a potato plant that produces fruit, it will yield green, tomato-like berries, but these are inedible and taste unpleasant.”
Brett Summerrell from a Botanical Garden in Sydney, Australia, which did not participate in the study, mentions that this new research offers substantial evidence of hybridization and resultant species diversification.
“This study underscores the necessity of understanding the evolutionary importance of crops and safeguarding their wild relatives, which may be crucial for addressing future agricultural challenges,” Summerrell emphasizes.
“Many relatives of potato-like species face threats posed by habitat destruction and climate change.”
Mars may appear spherical, yet it is actually a triaxial ellipsoid. Unlike the other rocky planets in our solar system, which resemble rugby balls, Mars varies in size along all three axes.
This is most apparent in the notable bulge of the Tharsis rise region and the contrasting region known as Sirtis Major.
Astronomer Dr. Michael Efroysky of the US Navy Observatory recently proposed that this peculiar shape may be attributed to the absence of an ancient moon on Mars.
The moon, named Nerio after the Roman goddess of war, who was associated with Mars, influenced the shape of the planet through tidal forces, similar to the oceans here on Earth.
However, once Mars cooled down, its deformed shape became permanently fixed.
Mars is roughly half the size of Earth, with a diameter of 6,790km (4,219 miles) compared to Earth’s 12,750km (7,922 miles) – Credit: Mark Garlic via Getty/Science Photo Library
Nerio’s tidal stress weakened the elevated regions of Mars, facilitating the impact of geological processes such as internal convection, structural shifts, and volcanic activity, all of which contributed to Mars’ asymmetrical shape.
Researchers propose that, in synchronous orbit around Mars, Nerio—being less than a third of Earth’s mass—could easily have formed the planet’s initial triaxial shape. The equatorial bulge would have been even more pronounced if Nerio had existed during the planet’s magma ocean phase.
Currently, Mars lacks such a moon, having only the small moons Deimos and Phobos. At some point, Nerio was either destroyed by another large body or pulled away by gravitational forces.
This article answers the question posed by Otto Sykes in an email: “Why does Mars have such a strange shape?”
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Biofluorescence, the process of absorbing high-energy light and re-emitting it as low-energy wavelengths, has been observed in various vertebrate and invertebrate lineages, particularly among fish. Research conducted by the American Museum of Natural History indicates that fish biofluorescence can be traced back at least 112 million years and has evolved over 100 times, predominantly in fish inhabiting coral reefs.
Phylogenesis of teleosts showing ancestral state reconstruction (absence/present) of biological fluorescence. Image credit: Carr et al., doi: 10.1038/s41467-025-59843-7.
“Researchers have long known that biological fluorescence is prevalent in marine creatures, including sea turtles and corals, particularly among fish,” stated PhD Emily Kerr, a student at the American Museum of Natural History.
“To truly grasp the reasons and methods behind this unique adaptation, we need to explore the evolutionary background and the variety of biofluorescence currently utilized for camouflage, predation, or reproduction.”
In a first study published in the journal Natural Communication, Carr and colleagues investigated all known biological fluorescent extents, focusing on a species of bony fish, which comprises the largest living vertebrate group today.
This research identified 459 biological fluorescent species, including 48 previously unrecognized as biologically fluorescent.
The researchers discovered that biological fluorescence has evolved over 100 times in marine teleost fish, dating back to approximately 112 million years ago, with the initial occurrence found in eels.
Furthermore, fish species residing in or near coral reefs developed biological fluorescence approximately ten times faster than their non-reef counterparts, leading to a surge in fluorescent species following the mass extinction event around 66 million years ago that wiped out non-avian dinosaurs.
“This pattern coincides with the emergence of modern coral reefs and the rapid infiltration of fish into these environments, particularly after a significant loss of coral diversity due to the Cretaceous extinction,” Kerr explained.
“These relationships imply that the rise of contemporary coral reefs may have spurred the diversification of fluorescence in reef-associated teleost fish.”
Among the 459 documented biological fluorescent extents indicated in this study, the majority are linked to coral reefs.
In a second survey published in the journal PLOS 1, Kerr and co-authors employed a specialized photographic system with ultraviolet and blue excitation lights, alongside emission filters, to analyze the wavelengths emitted by fish from the ichthyology collection at the American Museum of Natural History.
These specimens, collected over the past 15 years during museum expeditions to locations like the Solomon Islands, Greenland, and Thailand, had shown fluorescence previously; however, the full spectrum of biological fluorescence emissions remained unexplored.
This study unveiled a broader diversity in the colors emitted by teleost fish, with some displaying at least six distinct fluorescence emission peaks across various wavelengths, surpassing prior reports.
“The unexpected variation observed among a wide array of these fluorescent fish suggests that they may utilize highly diverse and intricate signaling systems based on species-specific fluorescent emission patterns.”
“As these studies illustrate, biological fluorescence is extensive and remarkably phenotypically diverse among marine fish.”
“Our goal is to enhance our understanding of how fluorescence operates within these varied marine ecosystems and its role in evolutionary diversification.”
“The multitude of fluorescence emission wavelengths identified in this study could significantly impact the discovery of new fluorescent molecules that are routinely employed in biomedical applications, including the diagnosis and treatment of fluorescence-related ailments.”
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Carr et al. 2025. The extensive evolution of repeated biological fluorescence in marine fish. Nat Commun 16, 4826; doi:10.1038/s41467-025-59843-7
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