Paleontologists from Australia and China have conducted two groundbreaking studies on the fossilized remains of a remarkable Devonian lungfish. Utilizing advanced imaging technology, they have unearthed previously overlooked anatomical details, significantly enhancing our understanding of early vertebrate evolution. Their findings have been published in the Canadian Journal of Zoology and the journal Current Biology.
Paleolophus yunnanensis, a unique lungfish species that thrived in southern China’s waters 410 million years ago. Image credit: Brian Choo, Flinders University.
In a recent study, lead researcher Alice Clement, a paleontologist at Flinders University, investigates The Mystery of Kainokara, a fossil known from a single specimen found in the Late Devonian Gogo Formation of Western Australia.
“New research, including the analysis of previously neglected specimens, is gradually uncovering the rich diversity of lungfishes found in Australia’s significant fossil sites,” said Dr. Clement.
“One particularly enigmatic specimen originates from Australia’s earliest ‘Great Barrier Reef’, a Devonian reef located in the Kimberley region of northern Western Australia.”
“When first described in 2010, this unusual specimen was so perplexing that the authors speculated it might represent an entirely new type of fish never documented in science.”
“Using advanced scanning techniques, we developed comprehensive digital images of both the external and internal structures of the skull, revealing the complexity of this fascinating lungfish’s brain cavity.”
“In fact, we confirmed that earlier interpretations may have been from an upside-down perspective.”
“We were also able to compare the well-preserved inner ear region with other lungfishes,” noted Flinders University paleontologist Hannah Thiele.
“This provides an essential data point in the rich collection of lungfish and early vertebrate species.”
“This research enhances our understanding of the evolutionary progression of these ancient lobe-finned fishes, both in Gondwana and globally.”
In a separate study, Flinders University paleontologist Brian Chu and colleagues reveal a newly discovered species of lungfish from the Devonian period in China, Paleolophus yunanensis.
“The discovery of Paleolophus yunanensis offers unprecedented insight into the transitional phase between the early appearance of lungfish and their extensive diversification millions of years later,” said Dr. Chu.
“At this time, this group was just beginning to develop unique feeding adaptations that would serve them well throughout the remainder of the Devonian period and into the present.”
“Lungfish, including the ancient lineage found in Queensland, Australia, have fascinated researchers due to their close evolutionary relationship with tetrapods, the four-limbed vertebrates that include humans.”
“The distinctive skull of the newly discovered lungfish from 410-million-year-old rock formations in Yunnan offers crucial insights into the rapid evolutionary changes during the Early, Middle, and Late Devonian periods.”
“The new specimens exhibited both similarities and differences compared to the earliest known specimens, such as Diabolepis fossils from southern China and uranolophus found in locations like Wyoming and Australia.
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Hannah S. Thiele et al., deciphering The Mystery of Kainokara from the Late Devonian Gogo Formation, Australia. Canadian Journal of Zoology, published online January 28, 2026. doi: 10.1139/cjz-2025-0109
Tuo Qiao et al., 2026. New fish fossil sheds light on the rapid evolution of early lungfish. Current Biology 36 (1): 243-251; doi: 10.1016/j.cub.2025.11.032
Treponema pallidum Bacteria Linked to Syphilis and Related Diseases
Source: Science Photo Library / Alamy
New research reveals that traces of Treponema pallidum—the bacteria responsible for syphilis—have been identified in the bones of ancient inhabitants of Colombia, dating back over 5,000 years. This discovery suggests that syphilis was infecting humans far earlier than previously believed, prior to the advent of intensive agriculture, which many experts think may have facilitated its spread.
Currently, Treponema pallidum encompasses three subspecies that cause syphilis, bejel, and framboise. The origins and transmission pathways of these diseases remain topics of scientific debate. Although ancient DNA and infectious markers on bones offer insights, they are often limited and ambiguous.
In a groundbreaking study, researchers analyzed DNA from 5,500-year-old remains discovered in the Bogotá savannah. The unexpected finding of Treponema pallidum in a human leg bone provides critical evidence of its historical prevalence.
“This discovery was entirely unanticipated, as there was a lack of skeletal evidence indicating an infectious disease,” notes Nasreen Broumandkoshbacht from the University of California, Santa Cruz.
Many scholars have long posited that the majority of diseases affected humans only after the rise of intensive agriculture, which led to denser populations. However, this individual lived in a contrasting setting—small, nomadic hunter-gatherer bands that maintained close contact with wild animals.
“These results shed light on the extensive evolutionary history of these organisms,” states Davide Bozzi from the University of Lausanne, Switzerland. “They reveal longstanding relationships between the bacterium and human populations.”
As researchers, including Blumandhoschbacht and Bozzi, correlated ancient genomes with contemporary ones, they identified that the pallidum strain was part of a distinct lineage, separate from any known modern relatives. This indicates that early variants of syphilis were already diversifying and infecting humans in the Americas millennia ago, with many of the same genetic traits that make present-day strains particularly pathogenic.
The findings imply that these pathogens were not only early residents in the Americas but may have been affecting human populations globally for much longer than previously assumed.
Rodrigo Barquera, a researcher at the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology in Leipzig, Germany, suggests that this ancient strain might link to an elusive “missing” pathogen, Treponema carathaeum, known primarily for its physical characteristics rather than its genetic makeup.
Kertu Majumdar, a researcher at the University of Zurich in Switzerland, posits, “The genomes of even older organisms might provide insights into a variety of extinct lineages and diseases caused by these pathogens.”
For Bozzi, unearthing the evolutionary adaptations of pathogens like syphilis is crucial for understanding their genetic attributes that enhance their virulence in new hosts.
Same-sex sexual activity isn’t exclusive to humans; various primates engage in it too.
A recent study identified 59 non-human primate species, including bonobos, chimpanzees, and macaques, that exhibit same-sex behavior.
This extensive research, published in Nature Ecology & Evolution, is the most thorough review to date of same-sex behavior among primates (excluding humans). The findings challenge existing assumptions about the purpose of sexual activities within the animal kingdom and indicate that sex may serve a more complex social function.
The authors propose that same-sex behavior has evolved to assist primates in navigating complex social structures, reducing conflict, and strengthening bonds. They suggest that both genetic factors and external environmental stresses influence this behavior.
Vincent Savolainen, director of the Georgina Mace Center for the Living Planet at Imperial College London and lead author of the study, stated: “Our findings illustrate that homosexuality is not an anomaly; it’s widespread, beneficial, and essential.”
In their study, Savolainen and colleagues evaluated existing data from 491 primate species, focusing on documented instances of same-sex sexual activities.
“The behaviors observed included mounting, ventral-to-ventral, or ventral-to-dorsal contact, genital touching, and fellatio, encompassing both male-to-male and female-to-female interactions,” the study highlighted. Non-sexual same-sex interactions were excluded to maintain clarity.
Findings suggest that same-sex behavior is more prevalent among animals needing social cohesion to endure harsh environmental conditions, facing predation risks, or competing for resources. It is particularly common in social structures with rigid hierarchies, where sexual behaviors help individuals manage competition and foster alliances to reduce intergroup aggression.
“People often underestimate the significance of same-sex behavior in societal dynamics; it is as crucial as eating, fighting, parenting, and nurturing,” Savolainen remarked.
He likened same-sex sexual interactions to a form of “currency” that may enhance social standing, create opportunities, and facilitate resource sharing.
“In times of social strife, utilizing same-sex behavior can be advantageous,” Savolainen explained.
He noted that while this behavior is likely to be present in more than 23 primate species, limited data in the field and a lack of focused studies hinder comprehensive understanding.
Observing and interpreting same-sex sexual behavior can be challenging for scientists. Historically, many researchers viewed these behaviors as unusual and neglected documentation. Additionally, securing funding for studies on same-sex behavior in animals has been difficult, particularly from government sources.
“We have a plethora of species about which we lack knowledge. This knowledge gap is significant,” Savolainen warned. “Unless we incorporate same-sex behavior into our understanding of social dynamics, we can’t fully grasp how societies operate. We aim to gather more data in forthcoming studies.”
While the new research doesn’t directly relate its findings to contemporary human sexual behavior, it suggests that our ancestors experienced social and environmental pressures similar to those driving same-sex behavior in other primates.
Marlene Zook, an evolutionary biologist at the University of Minnesota who studies same-sex behavior in animals, commented on the interesting breadth of the analysis.
“The extensive range of data collected in this study is particularly impressive,” she noted.
Zook expressed no surprise at the conclusion emphasizing the influence of environmental and social factors on same-sex behavior. The study prompts a reconsideration of widespread misconceptions regarding animal sexual conduct, emphasizing its complexity beyond mere reproduction.
“Sexual behavior often transcends reproduction, a fact evident in our species. However, many tend to overlook this reality in animals,” Zook observed. “People seem to assume that animals, unlike humans, conduct sexual activities purely for procreation purposes, which is quite inaccurate.”
Zook added that the scientific community has traditionally dismissed the concept of a “gay gene” that directly influences homosexual behavior.
“No single gene dictates homosexual behavior in humans or other animals. Instead, a complex interplay of genetic and environmental factors shape nearly all behaviors and traits, whether they be physical or psychological,” she concluded.
Recent discoveries of hominin fossils in the Thomas Quarry I cave located in Casablanca, Morocco, provide crucial insights into the early origins of homo sapiens. These findings indicate that the lineage leading to modern humans was potentially established in Africa nearly 800,000 years ago. The fossils, although similar in age to the ancestor of homo discovered in Spain, display a mix of primitive and advanced traits reminiscent of post-Eurasian hominins, including homo sapiens.
Reconstruction of homo erectus.
Paleoanthropologists have long debated the origins of Neanderthals and Denisovans, the last common ancestors of modern humans. Genetic studies reveal that this ancestor likely existed between approximately 765,000 and 550,000 years ago, although fossil records are still inconclusive.
While some researchers have posited a Eurasian origin based on fossils unearthed in Atapuerca, Spain, dating back to 950,000 to 770,000 years ago, the new findings from Morocco reinforce the theory of an African origin.
Recent discoveries from the Moroccan cave, including mandible fragments, teeth, vertebrae, and femur pieces, bolster the evidence supporting Africa as the cradle of human evolution.
Analysis of the sediments surrounding these fossils indicates that they date back approximately 773,000 years, coinciding with significant changes in the Earth’s magnetic field, aligning with the era of the ancestor of homo.
Interestingly, the new fossils present distinct morphological differences. The evidence suggests that regional differentiation between Europe and North Africa was already evident by the late Early Pleistocene, spanning from around 1.8 million to 780,000 years ago.
The Moroccan fossils exhibit a blend of primitive features linked to species like homo erectus alongside more modern traits found in homo sapiens and Neanderthals.
For instance, their molar size aligns with earlier homo sapiens fossils, while the jaw shape resembles that of Neanderthals and other African archaic humans.
Although the Moroccan fossil may not serve as the ultimate last common ancestor of modern humans, Neanderthals, and Denisovans, it is likely a close precursor.
“The Moroccan fossils likely represent an advanced form of homo erectus in North Africa, situated on a lineage close to the evolutionary divergence between African and Eurasian lineages,” stated the researchers.
“Our findings underscore the Maghreb region as vital for understanding the emergence of our species and strengthen the argument for an African origin of homo sapiens,” they concluded.
Findings are detailed in a recent study published in Nature.
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J.J. Havlin and colleagues. Early human fossils from Morocco and the emergence of homo sapiens. Nature, published online January 7, 2026. doi: 10.1038/s41586-025-09914-y
The San people of southern Africa utilize poison arrows for hunting, a practice rooted in ancient traditions.
imageBROKER.com / Alamy
Discoveries of plant poisons on 60,000-year-old arrowheads in South Africa suggest that ancient hunters harnessed toxic materials far earlier than previously believed.
Prior to this discovery, evidence for poisoned arrows extended back only about 8,000 years. However, a 2020 study of arrow tips dating from 50,000 to 80,000 years ago indicated they exemplified designs similar to modern poison arrows.
Led by Professor Marlies Lombard, researchers at the University of Johannesburg uncovered that the tips of 60,000-year-old arrowheads were coated in a sticky substance, though poison’s presence couldn’t initially be confirmed.
Recently, Professor Lombard and her team confirmed the presence of toxic alkaloids, such as bupandrin and epibufanisin, in five quartzite arrowheads retrieved from Umhlatuzana rock caves in KwaZulu-Natal province.
The scientists believe these toxins likely originated from milky exudates from the roots of the plant species Buffondistica, which could be applied directly to arrow tips or processed to create a potent resin.
“If we found this in just one artifact, it could have been a mere coincidence,” Lombard noted. “However, finding it in five out of ten artifacts strongly indicates it was systematically used 60,000 years ago.”
The same toxic sap is still employed by the San people today, suggesting an unbroken tradition lasting at least 60,000 years.
Toxic plant traces discovered on arrow points from the Umhlatuzana rock shelter
Marlies Lombard
The plant’s poison is lethal to rodents within 30 minutes and can induce nausea and coma in humans. For larger prey, the toxins likely slowed them down, allowing hunters to successfully track and kill them.
Professor Lombard speculates that the poison may have first been discovered when early humans ingested toxic bulbs, which could lead to illness or death. The plant also possesses antiseptic, antibacterial, and hallucinogenic qualities and is utilized in traditional medicine, though accidental overdoses still occur.
To verify their findings, researchers tested arrows collected by Carl Peter Thunberg, a Swedish naturalist who documented the use of poisoned arrows by indigenous hunters in the 1770s. These tests also revealed the presence of toxic alkaloids from the same plant species.
Sven Isaacson, a member of the research team at Stockholm University, noted that this discovery signifies an early example of sophisticated plant utilization. “While humans have utilized plants for nourishment and tools for millennia, this represents a distinct advancement — harnessing the biochemical attributes of plants to create drugs, medicines, and poisons.”
The emergence of antibiotic resistance genes presents a significant and escalating threat to global public health. A comprehensive review from scientists at Hohai University delves into the evolutionary origins, ecological factors contributing to the spread and proliferation of antibiotic resistance genes, and their broader environmental implications.
The evolution of antibiotic resistance genes is linked to unique physiological roles and ecological compartmentalization. Image credit: Xu et al., doi: 10.48130/biocontam-0025-0014.
Antibiotic resistance genes have become one of the most critical global challenges to public health, increasingly spreading across interconnected environments involving humans, animals, and the ecosystem.
These genes have been identified in some of the most pristine and extreme habitats on Earth, such as the depths of the Mariana Trench and ancient permafrost deposits, where they have remained unaffected by human-induced antibiotic exposure.
This pervasive distribution indicates that these bacteria evolved their antibiotic resistance capabilities millions of years before antibiotics were ever utilized in clinical or agricultural contexts.
“Antibiotic resistance is not a modern phenomenon,” states Guxiang You, Ph.D., corresponding author of the review.
“Many resistance genes initially evolved to enable bacterial survival under environmental stresses, long before the advent of antibiotics.”
“The pressing danger today is that human activities are disrupting natural barriers, facilitating the spread of these genes to harmful pathogens.”
“Many resistance genes stem from common bacterial genes that perform essential roles, such as the excretion of toxic substances or nutrient transport,” the researchers elucidated.
“Over time, these genes have acquired protective capabilities against antibiotics as a secondary feature.”
In natural ecosystems like soils and lakes, most resistance genes tend to remain confined within specific microbial communities, posing minimal risk to human health.
“The primary reason for this containment is genomic incompatibility,” they noted.
“Bacteria with significant genetic variations often cannot easily exchange and utilize resistance genes.”
“This natural genetic mismatch serves as a biological firewall, limiting the transmission of resistance across different species and habitats.”
“However, human actions are compromising this firewall.”
In their review, the authors emphasize how agriculture, wastewater discharge, urbanization, and global trade are increasing connectivity between once-isolated environments.
Antibiotics used in medicine and livestock create intense selection pressures, while fertilizer use, wastewater recycling, and pollution foster the interaction of bacteria from soil, animals, and humans.
These factors facilitate the infiltration of resistance genes into disease-causing microbes.
“Human-induced changes in habitat connectivity alter everything,” explained Dr. Yi Xu, the lead author.
“When bacteria from disparate environments come into repeated contact under antibiotic pressure, previously harmless resistance genes can transform into a significant public health menace.”
“Wastewater treatment plants have been identified as crucial hotspots where high bacterial populations and antibiotic residues promote genetic exchange.”
“Agricultural lands enriched with fertilizers also serve as conduits, enabling resistance genes to transfer from livestock to environmental bacteria and ultimately back to humans via food, water, or direct contact.”
Critically, scientists note that not all resistance genes pose equal threats.
High environmental abundance does not automatically equate to high risk.
Identifying which genes are mobile, compatible with human pathogens, and linked to diseases is vital for effective monitoring and control efforts.
Researchers advocate for ecosystem-centered approaches to combat antibiotic resistance.
Proposed strategies include minimizing unnecessary antibiotic use, enhancing wastewater treatment methods, meticulously managing fertilizers and sludge, and safeguarding relatively untouched ecosystems that offer a baseline for natural resistance levels.
“Antibiotic resistance extends beyond being solely a medical issue,” remarked Dr. Yu.
“It is deeply connected to ecological factors and our interactions with the environment.”
“To preserve antibiotics for future generations, we must maintain the integrity of our current ecosystems.”
“By incorporating evolutionary biology, microbial ecology, and environmental science, the One Health approach provides a pragmatic pathway to tackle one of the greatest health challenges we face today.”
Source: review published in the Online Journal on December 5, 2025, Biological Contaminants.
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Yi Shu et al. 2025. Evolutionary origins, environmental factors, and consequences of the proliferation and spread of antibiotic resistance genes: A “One Health” perspective. Biological Contaminants 1: e014; doi: 10.48130/biocontam-0025-0014
The anaconda is among the largest surviving snake species in the world. Typically, its length ranges from 4 to 5 meters, although exceptional cases can reach up to 7 meters. A recent study conducted by paleontologists on giant anaconda fossils from South America suggests that these tropical reptiles achieved their maximum size approximately 12.4 million years ago and have maintained their large dimensions continuously since then.
Green anaconda (Eunectes murinus). Image credit: MKAMPIS / CC BY-SA 4.0.
“Current snakes display a broad spectrum of body lengths, averaging about 1 meter, with sizes ranging from 10 centimeters for the smallest leptotyphloid thread snakes to roughly 7 meters for anacondas.” Eunectes Andrés Alfonso Rojas, a PhD student at the University of Cambridge, and his colleagues state:
“Within the Eunectes genus, the green anaconda (Eunectes murinus) is the largest species, averaging 4 to 5 meters in length, with maximum recorded lengths of 6 to 7.2 meters.”
“Limited fossil findings from Brazil, Colombia, Peru, and Venezuela suggest that the evolutionary timeline of anacondas dates back to the mid-to-late Miocene.”
“However, our understanding of the body size of early anacondas, which coexisted with massive crocodilians, turtles, ungulates, and xenartranians, remains scarce.”
In their research, the authors examined 183 fossilized anaconda spines representing at least 32 snakes discovered in the state of Falcón, Venezuela.
By integrating these measurements with fossil data from various South American locations, they concluded that ancient anacondas measured 4 to 5 meters in length, similar to today’s anacondas.
“While other species, including giant crocodiles and colossal turtles, have become extinct since the Miocene—likely due to declining global temperatures and reduced habitats—giant anacondas have persisted. They demonstrate remarkable adaptability,” noted Alfonso Rojas.
“The analysis of fossils indicates that anacondas’ body size evolved significantly soon after their emergence in tropical South America around 12.4 million years ago, and this size has remained consistent ever since.”
The researchers cross-verified their estimates using an alternative method known as ancestral state reconstruction, employing snake family trees to estimate the length of giant anacondas and related modern species like tree boas and rainbow boas.
This method corroborates the notion that when anacondas first appeared in the Miocene, their average size was 4 to 5 meters.
Anacondas inhabit swamps, marshes, and substantial rivers, such as the Amazon. During the Miocene, northern South America resembled the contemporary Amazon region, allowing anacondas to thrive in wider areas than seen today.
Nonetheless, the current environment still offers ample food sources, including capybaras and fish, and suitable habitats that support the continued growth of modern anacondas.
As snakes are particularly sensitive to temperature changes, it was previously believed that anacondas might have grown even larger during earlier warm periods.
“This finding is unexpected, as ancient anacondas were thought to have reached lengths of 7 to 8 meters,” remarked Alfonso Rojas.
“However, we found no evidence supporting the existence of larger snakes during the Miocene, even when global temperatures were higher.”
These findings were published recently in the Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology.
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Andres F. Alfonso-Rojas et al. Early origins of gigantism in anacondas (Serpentes: Eunectes) revealed by the fossil record. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology published online on December 1, 2025. doi: 10.1080/02724634.2025.2572967
Domestic cats trace their lineage back to North African wildcats
Maria Boyko/Alamy
Research indicates that domestic cats originated in North Africa, subsequently dispersing to Europe and East Asia over the last 2000 years, a timeline earlier estimates had not suggested.
The domestic cat (Felis catus) has its roots in the African wildcat (Felis lybica lybica) and is now present on every continent apart from Antarctica.
Prior studies proposed that domestic cats might have first appeared in the Levant, potentially arriving in Europe around 9600 BC.
Claudio Ottoni, a professor at Tor Vergata University in Rome, along with his team, examined 225 ancient cat remains from around 100 archaeological sites across Europe and present-day Turkey. This research yielded 70 ancient genomes that spanned over 10,000 years, dating from the 9th millennium BC to the 19th century AD. They also investigated museum specimens and 17 modern ocelot genomes from Italy, Bulgaria, Morocco, and Tunisia.
The oldest genetically identified cat from this research was sourced from Sardinia and dated to the second century AD, categorized as an African wildcat or domestic cat. All early European specimens were genetically determined to be European wildcats (Felis silvestris).
This research implies that the spread of domestic cats occurred significantly later than previously believed.
Ottoni emphasized that Mediterranean civilizations during the first millennium BC played a crucial role in the relocation of African wildcats, involving at least two genetically distinct populations. One group likely consisted of wildcats introduced to Sardinia from northwest Africa, establishing the current wildcat population on the island, while the other formed the genetic basis of modern domestic cats.
“Initially, during the domestication phase, cats likely adapted well to human surroundings,” he explains. “Their ecological flexibility enabled them to thrive. They have coexisted with humans in various urban and suburban areas and even traveled with them over great distances, showcasing their evolutionary success.”
Leopard cats (Prionailurus bengalensis) cohabited with humans in ancient China
Tuchart Duando/Getty Images
In a related study, Luo Shujing and her team from Peking University investigated 22 sets of feline remains from China, dating back over 5,000 years, while analyzing genomes from 130 modern and ancient Eurasian cat specimens. They identified a different wildcat species, the leopard cat (Prionailurus bengalensis), which is native to East Asia.
“These cats were likely drawn to human settlements due to the abundance of rodents, but they were never genuinely domesticated,” states Luo.
The findings show that true domestic cats made their way to China significantly later, around 1,300 years ago during the Tang Dynasty. Genomic data connects these cats to those originating from the Middle East and Central Asia, suggesting they arrived in China via the Silk Road through traders.
Despite a relationship that lasted over 3,500 years, leopard cats were ultimately never domesticated and reverted to their natural habitats, according to Luo.
“We often get inquiries from the public about whether it’s feasible to keep these adorable ocelots as pets, particularly if raised from youth,” she remarks. “My straightforward response is: Forget it. Our ancestors tried for over 3,000 years and didn’t succeed.”
Cairo and Alexandria, the forerunners of ancient science: Egypt
Set off on an extraordinary journey through Cairo and Alexandria, two of Egypt’s hallmark cities, where the allure of ancient history intertwines with modern vibrancy.
The origins of the sperm swimming mechanism date back to ancient times.
Christoph Burgstedt/Alamy
The evolutionary roots of sperm can be traced to the unicellular forerunners of all existing animals.
Nearly all animals go through a unicellular phase in their life cycle, which involves two forms of sex cells, or gametes. Eggs are sizeable cells that hold genetic information and the nutrients necessary for early development, while sperm transport genetic material from one organism to another to fertilize eggs and create new life.
“Sperms play a crucial role in the process that allows life to be transmitted from generation to generation,” states Arthur Matt from Cambridge University. “It carries the legacy of over 700 million years of evolutionary history and is likely linked to the origins of animals themselves. Our aim was to explore this extensive evolutionary narrative to understand the origins of sperm.”
Matt and his team utilized an open science dataset containing information about sperm proteins from 32 animal species, including humans. They combined this data with the genomes of 62 organisms, including various related single-cell groups, to track the evolution of sperm across different animal lineages.
The research revealed a “sperm toolkit” comprising about 300 gene families that make up the last universal common sperm core genome.
“We have now identified numerous significant advancements in sperm mechanisms occurring long before multicellular animals emerged, even before the sperm themselves,” explains Matt.
This indicates that the sperm mechanics, represented by a “flagellum that propels a single cell,” were already evolving prior to the development of multicellular organisms.
Thus, our ancient progenitors were once all single-celled oceanic swimmers, and the sperm toolkit was present in our earliest swimming unicellular predecessors long before the advent of animals.
“Animals evolved multicellularity and cellular differentiation, but they did not create sperm from nothing. They repurposed the body structure of their swimming forebears as the foundation for sperm,” states Matt. “In essence, sperm are not a novel creation of multicellular organisms but are constructed upon the designs of a single-celled organism repurposed for reproduction.”
The study also indicated that the significant technological developments leading to the vast variety of current sperm primarily affected the cell heads, while the tails have remained largely constant since their common ancestor.
According to the research team members, fertilization can occur in various manners, with some sperm reaching the egg within the body, while others swim in open waters, notes Adria Leboeuf, also from the University of Cambridge. “Finding eggs in these different settings presents unique challenges and requires specialized machinery,” she explains. “However, the tail remains well-preserved since it must be capable of swimming in all environments.”
“This illustrates how evolution can modify existing structures instead of creating mechanisms from scratch,” says Jenny Graves, from La Trobe University in Melbourne, Australia.
Karo people overlooking the Omo River Valley in Ethiopia
Michael Honegger/Alamy
Here’s a snippet from Our Human Story, a newsletter focusing on advancements in archaeology. Subscribe to receive it monthly in your inbox.
On the eastern shores of Lake Turkana in Kenya lies Namorotuknan Hill, where a river once flowed but has since dried up. The area features a dry landscape with sparse shrubbery.
Between 2013 and 2022, a team of researchers led by David Brown from George Washington University excavated clay layers adjacent to the river. Their findings included 1,290 stone tools crafted by ancient humans, dating back between 2.44 and 2.75 million years. They reported their discoveries in Nature Communications last week.
The tools belong to the Oldowan type, which are prevalent in various regions of Africa and Eurasia. These items are among the oldest Oldowan tools ever found.
Brown and his team noted a remarkable consistency in the tools’ design. Despite spanning 300,000 years, the creators displayed a preference for specific rock types, indicating a reliable and habitual approach to tool-making rather than isolated incidents.
The tools from Namorotuknan represent yet another significant discovery from the Omo Turkana Basin, a key site for understanding human origins.
Basins, Cradles, and Rifts
Since the 1960s, the Omo Turkana Basin has served as a focal point for human evolution research.
It stretches from the sandy beaches of southern Ethiopia, where the Omo River flows southward into Lake Turkana—one of the world’s longest lakes, extending deep into Kenya. The Türkwel and Kerio rivers also flow into its southern reaches.
Various fossil-rich locations pepper the basin. On the lake’s western side is the Nachukui Formation, while the Kobi Fora is situated on the east. Additional archaeological sites include the Usno Formation near Omo in the north and Kanapoi near Kerio in the south.
Map of fossil and tool sites in the Omo Turkana Basin
François Marchal et al. 2025
Led by François Marchal, a team from France’s Aix-Marseille University has compiled all known human fossil findings from the Omo Turkana Basin into a database. They detailed these patterns in the Human Evolution Journal, offering a snapshot of historical paleoanthropological research and a wealth of knowledge about human evolution.
Research in the Omo Turkana Basin began with early expeditions led by a collaborative French, American, and Kenyan team, including notable figures such as Camille Aramboul, Yves Coppens, F. Clark Howell, and Richard Leakey. Leakey also spearheaded explorations in the eastern Koobi Fora and western sites like Nachukwi.
Richard Leakey was a pivotal figure in the study of human evolution during the 1960s, 70s, and 80s. He is part of a family legacy in paleoanthropology, being the son of Louis and Mary Leakey, renowned for their groundbreaking work in the Oldupai Valley, Tanzania; his daughter Louise continues the exploration of human evolution.
Research on the Omo Turkana Basin transcends individual contributions. Marchal’s team collected a substantial 1,231 hominin specimens from around 658 individuals, accounting for about one-third of all known hominin remains across Africa.
Alongside the Great Rift Valley of East Africa—encompassing places like the Oldupai Gorge and the Cradle of Humanity in South Africa—the Omo Turkana Basin ranks as one of Africa’s richest hominid fossil sites.
Discovery
To the north, near the Omo River, researchers have uncovered some of the earliest Homo sapiens remains on record. At Omo Kibishu, two skull fragments and several bones were found, along with numerous teeth. Ongoing studies reveal these remains date back significantly further than initially believed, once estimated at 130,000 years, later revised to 195,000 years ago, and a subsequent analysis in 2022 indicated they could be at least 233,000 years old. Of all discovered, only the fossils from Morocco’s Jebel Irhoud are older, dating back to about 300,000 years.
The fossils from Omo Kibishu and Jebel Irhoud significantly deepen our understanding, suggesting that our species may have been evolving far earlier than the previously accepted timeline of around 200,000 years.
This trend also extends to the Homo genus, encompassing various groups like Homo erectus and Neanderthals. Determining which branch of Homo originated first remains complex—although records regarding Homo are sparse before 2 million years ago, they become increasingly elusive as one goes further back.
By meticulously analyzing fossils from the Omo Turkana Basin, Marchal and his team determined that Homo thrived in the region between 2.7 and 2 million years ago.
The earliest known Homo specimens in this basin are from the Shungra Formation, estimated to be between 2.74 and 2.58 million years old. Despite being announced in 2008, detailed examinations have yet to be conducted.
Faced with this gap, Marchal’s team posits that an influx of unexamined material could bring the number of known early Homo individuals to 75, creating a substantial and informative dataset, suggesting that there is “much more than just a handful of fossils.”
Notably, the Homo genus became well-established in the Omo Turkana Basin between 2.7 and 2 million years ago. While they were not the dominant species, another genus, Paranthropus, featuring smaller brains and larger teeth, was twice as prevalent. Numerous species from the Australopithecus genus also existed, indicating a period of cohabitation among different hominins. Importantly, some Homo individuals likely produced the Oldowan tools found.
This type of discovery is made possible by decades of dedicated research, and it is anticipated that the Omo Turkana Basin will continue to illuminate our origins for years to come.
Neanderthals, ancient humans, and cave art: France
Accompany New Scientist’s Kate Douglas on an intriguing journey through time, exploring significant Neanderthal and Upper Paleolithic sites across southern France, from Bordeaux to Montpellier.
Bubbles formed in water can generate electric sparks powerful enough to ignite methane.
In marshy areas, observers sometimes notice a mysterious flash of blue light hovering above the surface. A plausible explanation for these “Will-o’-the-wisps,” or Ignis Fatuus, is that the flashes originate from the combustion of gases such as methane and phosphine, produced by decomposing organic matter in the murky waters below. However, the ignition source for these gases remains uncertain, with theories suggesting causes ranging from static electricity to lightning strikes.
Recently, Richard Zare from Stanford University and his team have observed spontaneous electrical sparks occurring between methane bubbles and air submerged underwater, dubbing them microlites. They assert that these occurrences have sufficient energy to ignite methane gas.
“We are continually uncovering new phenomena about water. They seem obvious once we grasp them, but prior to that, they appear entirely bizarre,” Zare remarks. “People typically associate water with extinguishing fires, not igniting them. Instead, it can generate sparks that light a fire. This concept is revolutionary.”
Zare and his team previously documented water droplets, comparable to the size of salt grains, generating sparks spontaneously. This led them to hypothesize that similar effects could arise from methane bubbles in water. They employed nozzles to inject microbubbles of methane combined with air into water and utilized a high-speed camera, photon counter, and spectrometer to monitor bubble interactions.
As the bubbles ascended through the water, they altered their shape and merged. Upon collision, the contrast in charge between the bubbles sparked flashes, which Zare’s team successfully recorded using both the camera counter and the photon counter.
They also analyzed the light frequency from the flashes, finding it consistent with signatures of specific chemically excited compounds. This indicates that the sparks are potent enough to ignite gases like methane.
Microlight between air and methane-containing foam
Yusia
“[The Italian physicist Alessandro] Volta was the first to assert that these ignis fatuus exist and speculated on their nature. In some ways, he was correct, but not for the reasons he thought. They actually originate from the droplets.”
“This is incredibly intriguing,” states Detlef Lohse from the University of Twente in the Netherlands. While this does not definitively resolve the mystery of Will-o’-the-wisps, it presents a credible explanation, and the findings are likely to stimulate further research.
The latter part of the first millennium in Central and Eastern Europe witnessed profound cultural and political changes. This transformative era is typically linked to the emergence of the Slavs, supported by textual documentation and corresponding archaeological findings. However, there remains no agreement on whether this archaeological horizon spread through transition, a process termed “slabization,” or a mix of both. Notably, the prevalent cremation practices observed during the initial phases of slab settlements lack sufficient genetic data. In a recent investigation, scientists sequenced the genomes of 555 ancient individuals, including 359 samples from the Slavic context dating back to the 7th century AD. The new findings reveal significant population movements in Eastern Europe between the 6th and 8th centuries, which replaced over 80% of the local gene pools in areas such as East Germany, Poland, and Croatia.
The seal of Yaroslav, the grand prince of Kiev from 1019 to 1054, and the father of Anna Yaroslav, the Queen of France. Image credit: Sheremetievs Museum.
The term “Slavs” first emerged to describe a nation in Constantinople during the 6th century and later gained recognition in the West.
Written records initially appeared north of the Lowward Now River and subsequently shifted to regions north of the Carpathian Basin, the Balkans, and the Eastern Alps.
Many areas were under the influence of the Avar Khaganate along the central Danube from around 567 AD to 800 AD.
Evidence indicates the presence of slab cultures in several regions of Eastern and Southeastern Europe during the 7th century.
Slavic settlements, previously inhabited by Roman, Germanic, and other pre-Slavic communities, transitioned to a simpler lifestyle, often represented archaeologically by small pithouse settlements, cremation burials, handmade and unembellished pottery, and a modest low-metal material culture associated with the Pragukorchak group.
Later, more sophisticated social structures and control emerged within the contact zone of the Byzantine-Christian West.
The Transformation of Europe by the Slavs
The first comprehensive ancient DNA analysis of medieval Slavic groups reveals that the rise of the Slavs was fundamentally a narrative of migration.
Their genetic signature points to origins in an area spanning southern Belarus to central Ukraine, aligning with longstanding linguistic and archaeological theories.
“Although direct evidence from the early Slavic core regions is still limited, our genetic findings provide initial substantial insights into the formation of Slavic ancestors, suggesting origins that may lie between the Donets and Don rivers.”
In this study, Dr. Gretzinger and colleagues gathered genome-wide data from 555 distinct ancient individuals from 26 sites throughout Central and Eastern Europe. They combined this with previously published data, creating comprehensive sampling networks for three regions.
New findings indicate that starting in the 6th century AD, large-scale migrations spread Eastern European ancestry throughout a vast area of central and eastern Europe, thus altering the genetic make-up of regions such as East Germany and Poland.
However, this expansion did not conform to a model of conquest or empire. Rather than obliterating existing military and structural hierarchies, newcomers founded new communities centered around extended families and patriarchal kinships.
This pattern was not uniform across all areas.
In eastern Germany, the changes were significant. Large, multi-generational lineages formed the backbone of society, and kinship networks became more broadly structured compared to the smaller nuclear families observed in earlier migration phases.
In contrast, areas such as Croatia experienced much less disruption in existing social patterns with the arrival of Eastern European groups.
Here, social structures often retained characteristics from previous periods, resulting in communities where new traditions harmonized with existing ones.
The regional diversity in social frameworks highlights that the spread of the Slavic group was not a one-size-fits-all process, but rather a dynamic adaptation to local contexts and histories.
“The expansion of the Slavs does not occur as a single event; it demonstrates that it is not a monolithic phenomenon, but each instance blends adaptation and integration according to its circumstances.”
Historical Overview of European Slabs: The timeline lists major historical events related to Central European Slabs. This map illustrates historical proof of the appearance of the slab (Sklavenoi – Slavvi – Winedi). The italic count indicates the date of the proven event, with each report date being in the bracket. Image credit: Gretzinger et al., doi: 10.1038/s41586-025-09437-6.
East Germany
The genetic data reveals a particularly significant narrative in East Germany.
Following the decline of the Kingdom of Thuringia, more than 85% of the region’s ancestry can be traced back to new arrivals from the east.
This reflects a shift from an earlier period of diverse populations, as epitomized by the Brucken site.
With the rise of the Slavs, this diversity gave way to a population composition resembling that of modern Slavic-speaking groups in Eastern Europe.
These new communities were structured around large extended families and patriarchal lineages, with women of marriageable age often moving to form new households elsewhere, leaving their native villages.
Notably, the genetic heritage of these initial Eastern European settlers is still present among the Sorbs, the Slavic-speaking minority in East Germany.
Amidst centuries of cultural and linguistic changes, Sorbs maintain genetic profiles closely related to early medieval Slavic populations that settled in the region over a millennium ago.
Poland
In Poland, research notably challenges previous assumptions regarding long-standing population continuity.
Genetic findings indicate that early inhabitants of the region, beginning in the 6th and 7th centuries AD—especially descendants of a population closely tied to Northern Europe and Scandinavia—were nearly completely replaced by newcomers from the East, closely related to modern Poles, Ukrainians, and Belarusians.
While overwhelming population shifts occurred, genetic evidence also reveals small traces of intermingling with local populations.
These insights underscore both the magnitude of population change and the intricate dynamics shaping the ancestry of present-day Central and Eastern European languages.
Croatia
In Northern Balkans, the patterns observed differ markedly from those in northern immigrant regions, narrating a tale of both transformation and continuity.
Ancient DNA analyses from Croatia and surrounding areas illustrate a significant influx of ancestors from Eastern Europe, yet without total genetic replacement.
Instead, Eastern European immigrants integrated with diverse local populations to form hybrid communities.
Genetic studies show that in modern Balkan populations, the proportion of Eastern European ancestry varies significantly, often reaching around half or less of the current genetic mix.
In this context, Slavic migration wasn’t characterized by conquest but was a gradual process of intermarriage and adaptation, leading to the rich cultural, linguistic, and genetic diversity that defines the Balkans today.
A New Chapter in European History
In most instances, when early Slavic groups are referenced in archaeological and historical contexts, their genetic markers are consistent, indicating a shared ancestral origin, though regional variations reflect the extent of blending with local populations.
In the north, early Germanic communities mostly left, providing space for Slavic integration.
In the south, Eastern European migrants merged with established societies.
This patchwork integration elucidates the remarkable diversity present in the cultures, languages, and genetics of contemporary Central and Eastern European societies.
“The spread of the Slavs was likely the last significant demographic event to irreversibly reshape both the genetic and linguistic landscapes of Europe,” remarked Dr. Johannes Kraus, director of the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology.
The findings were published in the journal on September 3rd Nature.
____
J. Gretzinger et al. Ancient DNA connects large-scale migration with the spread of the Slavs. Nature, published online on September 3, 2025. doi:10.1038/s41586-025-09437-6
This article is adapted from the original release by the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology.
The mantle of Mars houses ancient fragments measuring up to 4 km in width from its formation, as revealed by an analysis of seismic data gathered by NASA’s InSight Mission.
The immense collisions during early Mars’ history resulted in a global ocean of magma. Image credit: Vadim Sadovski / Imperial College London.
The planet’s mantle serves as a significant layer, located between the crust and core, preserving vital evidence about its formation and evolution.
In contrast to Earth, where active plate tectonics constantly mix the mantle, Mars functions as a smaller planet with a single plate surface.
This results in considerably less mixing of the Martian mantle, which may retain records of early internal history, providing valuable insights into the formation and evolution of rocky worlds.
Utilizing data from NASA’s InSight Lander, Dr. Constantinos Charalambous from Imperial College London and his colleagues analyzed the seismic signatures of Marsquakes to better understand the composition of the Martian mantle.
They studied eight recorded quakes, including those triggered by the impact of meteorites, discovering that the arrival of high-frequency P-waves is consistently delayed as they traverse deeper regions of the mantle.
The authors suggest that these delays indicate variations in the composition of the mantle stretching over kilometers.
Given that Mars lacks plate tectonics and large-scale recycling processes, these minor irregularities are likely remnants of its formative history.
Investigating the heterogeneity of the Martian mantle implies that it results from an intense and destructive process, reflecting the significant events of the planet’s early history that caused extensive interior disruption and mixed both foreign and crustal materials at a planetary scale.
Furthermore, additional variations might have arisen from the vast ocean of crystallized magma formed during this aftermath.
Rather than being erased, these features were preserved as the Martian crust cooled and mantle convection ceased.
“The seismic signals displayed clear signs of interference while traveling deep within Mars,” Dr. Charalambous noted.
“This coincides with a mantle composed of structures originating from various compositions, representing Mars’ early remnants.”
“What occurred on Mars is that following these initial events, the surface hardened into a stagnant lid.”
“It became isolated from the mantle, entrapping ancient, chaotic features like planetary time capsules.”
“Our observations reveal the distribution of fractals, where energy from violent collisions exceeds an object’s strength.”
“This mirrors the effect seen when glass falls onto a tiled floor, akin to meteorite impacts with a planet. It results in the formation of both large and small fragments.”
“It’s astonishing that we can still detect this distribution today.”
“The Jet Propulsion Research Institute” stated Dr. Mark Panning, a researcher at NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory.
“It’s exhilarating to witness scientists uncovering new findings through the earthquakes we observe!”
The team’s paper was published today in the journal Science.
____
Constantinos Charalambous et al. 2025. Evidence of a highly uneven Mars mantle inferred from earthquake analysis. Science 389 (6763): 899-903; doi: 10.1126/science.adk4292
During pregnancy, stress can elevate certain immune cells in the fetal skin and cause them to react excessively, typically around 6 to 8 months, potentially leading to eczema.
Skin mast cells, a type of immune cell, release histamines and other chemicals that result in redness, swelling, and itching during allergic responses. Though eczema is not classified as an allergy, these chemicals can instigate inflammatory flare-ups triggered by irritating substances like soaps, detergents, and diapers.
A series of studies on mice have demonstrated that mast cells become hypersensitized when exposed to stress hormones from the mother.
“What our findings indicate is that the emotional experiences of pregnant women can significantly impact their children’s health,” stated Nicolas Gaudenzio from the Toulouse Institute for Infectious and Inflammatory Diseases in France. “The sense of guilt for mothers is not the focus of this study; it may serve as a message for female partners and their support networks.”
Previous research has indicated a connection between maternal stress and eczema development in newborns. To investigate this further, Gaudenzio and his team conducted experiments with several pregnant mice.
Some mice underwent stress by being placed in a narrow tube exposed to bright light for 30 minutes over a span of 5 days. Researchers specifically targeted late third trimester periods, crucial for immune and nervous system development. They found heightened levels of stress hormones in the mice’s blood and amniotic fluid during this time.
After the mice gave birth, researchers simulated diaper-wearing by attaching saline-soaked pads to the backs of the hind knees and elbows to mimic common eczema-prone areas.
Offspring from stressed mothers predominantly displayed red, itchy, or scaly rashes in the targeted areas. In contrast, pups from control mothers, allowed to roam freely during pregnancy, exhibited only mild reactions without severe lesions.
Analysis of RNA sequences from sensory neurons connecting the skin to the spinal cord revealed nearly 300 differently expressed genes in the offspring of stressed mice. The puppies born to stressed mothers responded more aggressively to light touch, including being brushed with fine nylon fibers.
When immune cells from the skin of these puppies were sequenced, 500 genes showed differential expression in mast cells. Microscopically, these cells appeared primed to release histamine. “They were already in an active state in a neutral environment, indicating that the skin is predisposed to inflammation,” noted Gaudenzio.
Researchers repeated their experiments with pregnant mice treated to inhibit the production of corticosterone, a hormone integral to the stress response in rodents. They also administered additional corticosterone to unstressed pregnant mice, which resulted in their offspring developing eczema.
Moreover, genetically modified pups completely lacking certain immune responses did not develop eczema, even when their mothers were stressed.
This study represents a thorough and fascinating investigation,” commented Thomas Plum, a specialist in cell immunology at the German Cancer Research Center in Heidelberg. “It underscores the significance of interactions among immune cells, structural cells, and the nervous system at the tissue level.”
However, it’s essential to consider that these experiments were conducted in mice. “It’s an intriguing finding, but just the beginning,” Plum remarked.
Researchers have made significant progress in unraveling one of biology’s most profound puzzles: how the fundamental molecules of life came together over 4 billion years ago.
Proteins, composed of chains of amino acids, are pivotal to life, supporting tissue structure and performing countless functions within an organism. However, they lack the ability to self-replicate.
This task falls to RNAs, which serve as messengers and translators of genetic information in all living cells today.
The enigma lies in how these two distinct types of molecules first interacted, ultimately leading to the genetic code and the chain of events that produced us.
“RNA molecules transmit information between themselves in a highly predictable and efficient manner, but they struggle to communicate with the amino acids required for protein synthesis,” explains Senior Author of the study, Professor Matthew Powner told BBC Science Focus.
“For decades, the mechanisms and reasons behind the initial linkage of these two molecules have remained open questions.”
Previous laboratory attempts to replicate this chemistry faced challenges, as amino acids typically reacted with one another rather than with RNA, and unstable states in water hindered the reactions.
Adopting an innovative approach, the Powner team combined amino acids into a sulfur-containing compound called thioesters, a high-energy bond still utilized by cells today. This allowed for natural and selective reactions between the molecules and RNA.
Intriguingly, the inherent structure of RNA appears to direct amino acids to the proper position at the RNA strand’s edge.
Warm, nutrient-rich pools like those found in Yellowstone National Park today may have provided an ideal setting for these reactions to take place. – Credit: Getty
This suggests a viable chemical pathway through which fundamental processes in life began, without the necessity of more complex catalysts like enzymes.
“All these molecules were quite simple and likely present on the early Earth,” Powner noted.
The early ocean’s conditions would have been too limiting for these reactions to proceed, but nutrient-laden pools, ponds, and lakes offered an ideal environment.
This research also connects two longstanding theories: the “RNA world,” which emphasizes RNA’s crucial role, and the “thioester world,” which suggests high-energy thioesters were vital for early metabolism.
For Powner, the upcoming challenge is clear: he aims to “understand the origins of the universal genetic code of life.” This understanding could lead to insights on exactly how and where it originated on our planet.
“Scientists are constructing a validated framework that could lead to the creation of ‘cells’,’” Powner adds.
These cells not only have the potential to evolve but also to illuminate the origins of universal life structures and their organization.
“These reactions provide the crucial information needed to reasonably explore how and where life began on Earth.”
read more:
About our experts
Matthew Powner is a professor of organic chemistry at the University of London. His work focuses on the chemistry related to life’s origins, and alongside his research group, he contributes to fields such as nucleic acid and amino oxidation, protometabolic networks, ribozymes, lipids, crystal engineering, green chemistry, catalysis, and photochemistry.
Researchers from University College London and other institutions have analyzed the molars of female Boss Torus (cattle) discovered at Stonehenge.
Stonehenge. Image credit: Regina Wolf.
In 1924, archaeologists restored the jawbone of an elderly cow found at the base of the groove surrounding Stonehenge Stage 1, constructed between 2995 and 2900 BC.
Professor Michael Parker Pearson from University College London and his team dated the find between 3350 and 2920 BC through isotopic analysis of a tooth, suggesting its origins in Wales.
“This offers even more intriguing evidence of Stonehenge’s connection to Southwest Wales, the source of Bluestone,” noted Professor Parker Pearson.
“It heightens the likelihood that these cows assisted in transporting the stones.”
Researchers recorded chemical signals from the second year of the animal’s life and sectioned its third molar into nine horizontal slices.
This enabled them to measure isotopes of carbon, oxygen, strontium, and lead, each shedding light on the cow’s diet, environment, and movements.
The varying concentrations and types found in the teeth offered insights into the cattle’s lifestyle.
Oxygen isotopes indicated that the teeth recorded about six months of growth spanning winter to summer, while carbon isotopes revealed seasonal dietary changes: forest feed in winter and pasture in summer.
Moreover, strontium isotopes suggested that these seasonal food sources came from different geological regions, implying that the cattle may have moved seasonally or that winter feed was transported.
Lead isotopes indicated a spike in composition between late winter and spring, suggesting older lead sources than the other dental leads.
The findings imply that the cattle originated from much older Paleozoic rock formations in the Pleshri hills of Pembrokeshire, Wales.
“This research revealed six months of unprecedented details about the life of this cow, presenting the first evidence of cattle movements from Wales and documenting dietary shifts and life events from around 5,000 years ago,” remarked Professor Jane Evans, an archaeologist at the National Environmental Isotope Facility at the British Geological Survey.
“One slice of cow tooth has conveyed an extraordinary narrative. I am hopeful that more revelations will emerge from her extensive journey as new scientific tools become available.”
Additionally, scientists concluded that unusual lead signals could not be attributed solely to local contamination or movement.
Rather, this lead, retained in the cow’s bones, was regenerating during the stress of pregnancy.
If accurate, this indicates that the cow was female during the formation of the teeth and was either pregnant or breastfeeding.
To validate this hypothesis, the authors employed peptide-based sex determination techniques, suggesting that the animal was likely a female.
“This study offers significant new insights into the life history of this enigmatic cow, whose remains were deposited at such a pivotal location at the entrance to Stonehenge,” said Professor Richard Majwick of Cardiff University.
“It provides unparalleled details regarding the animal’s distant origins and the arduous journey it undertook.”
“Often, grand narratives dominate research on major archaeological sites, but this detailed biographical examination of individual animals brings a fresh perspective to Stonehenge’s story.”
The team’s findings were published on June 17th, 2025, in the Journal of Archaeological Science.
____
J. Evans et al. 2025 Boss Torus Evaluating the comparative sources and uptake times of teeth, strontium and lead from Stonehenge. Journal of Archaeological Science 180:106269; doi:10.1016/j.jas.2025.106269
Language remains one of the few attributes regarded as uniquely human. While animals like chimpanzees and songbirds exhibit advanced communication systems, they do not convey meaning on the same scale as humans. So, what prompted our ancestors to develop language?
Madeleine Beekman, an evolutionary biologist with a focus on insects, particularly honeybees, presents an engaging explanation in her first book aimed at general audiences regarding the evolution of human language.
Her hypothesis suggests that language emerged as a necessity to meet the challenges of parenting. In comparison to other mammals, human infants are quite helpless at birth and need around-the-clock care.
Echoing decades of paleontological research, Beekman links the vulnerable state of infants to two factors: a larger brain and a narrower pelvis. “As our bodies adapted for bipedalism, our hips narrowed,” she notes. As a result, our brains grew larger. “A big-headed baby and a mother with a narrow pelvis don’t work well together,” Beekman elaborates.
To circumvent this “obstetric dilemma,” infants are born at an earlier stage, leading to the situation where their heads are too large for a narrow birth canal. This adaptation allows for safer childbirth but necessitates extended care for the fragile young.
Thus far, the narrative is familiar. Beekman’s significant leap is to propose that the requirements of caring for human offspring spurred the development of complex languages. “Caring for human babies is incredibly challenging, leading evolution to craft entirely new tools to assist with this effort,” she asserts, “the design flaws that initiated the issue ultimately offered a solution.” While our brains made childbirth more complicated, we simultaneously developed our capacity for a richer, more flexible language.
In presenting this idea, Beekman navigates a bustling marketplace of theories on language evolution. Various hypotheses exist; some contend that language arose alongside toolmaking, where the development of advanced tools required more descriptive language for instruction. Others suggest language served as a means of social distinction, encompassing clever wordplay and insults. Additionally, it may have initially been a cognitive tool, primarily for individual thought before evolving to facilitate communication with others.
One intriguing element of Beekman’s theory is her emphasis on the roles of women and children. Science has historically leaned towards male-centered viewpoints, often overshadowing the significant evolutionary shifts linked to pregnancy (e.g., the “Hunter” model).
“
The authors contend that language is around 100,000 years old and unique to our species. “
It’s essential to reflect on the contributions of women and children in the story of language’s origins. However, this doesn’t necessarily affirm Beekman’s thesis. She presents compelling evidence, notably showing that many large birds, including parrots and New Caledonian crows, produce underdeveloped offspring. Why? A 2023 study indicated that the primary predictor of avian brain size was the degree of parental care.
All of this resonates with Beekman’s narrative. Yet, the most pressing question remains: timing. Humans have been walking on two legs for at least 6 million years, and our brains have expanded rapidly for the last 2 million years. Given this extensive timeline, when did language actually develop?
Beekman posits that modern language is roughly 100,000 years old and specific to our species. She references 2020 research pinpointing “unique gene regulatory networks that shape the anatomy crucial for precise word production.” These networks appear to exist solely in our species, indicating that other human relatives, like Neanderthals, may not have possessed the same linguistic capabilities.
Beekman considers this “conclusive,” yet other scholars have unearthed evidence that suggests the possibility of complex language in other human species. The evolution surrounding human childbirth remains as intertwined as it is uncertain. In summary, robust ideas necessitate further proof.
Michael Marshall is a writer based in Devon, UK
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Stone tools unearthed in Sulawesi, Indonesia, crafted by an enigmatic ancient human species
Budianto Hakim et al.
Seven stone tools discovered on Sulawesi, Indonesia, represent the earliest proof of ancient humans navigating the ocean, with an estimated age of 1.4 million years.
These artifacts may shed light on how a diminutive human species known as the “Hobbit” reached neighboring Flores Island.
The first artifact was found embedded in a sandstone outcrop at a location called Calio Budiant Hakim. In 2019, excavations revealed six additional tools on the same outcrop, courtesy of the Indonesian National Research Innovation Agency.
Alongside the stone tools, Hakim and his team also discovered parts of an upper jaw, teeth, and remains of a large species of pig, Celebochoerus, along with fragments from unidentified young elephants.
While researchers couldn’t date the tools directly, sediment analysis combined with fossil pig teeth allowed them to estimate an age range between 1.04 million and 1.48 million years. Previously, the oldest human evidence in Sulawesi was dated to 194,000 years ago.
A least one of the new artifacts appears to be a flake removed from a larger piece, with its edges skillfully shaped, as noted by team member Adam Blum from Griffith University in Brisbane, Australia. While non-human primates such as chimpanzees utilize hammer-like stones to crack nuts, they don’t manipulate flakes to create tools.
“This represents an early form of cognitive ability from a species that has since vanished,” states Brumm. “We don’t ascertain the specific species, but these creations indicate human intellect at the Calio site.”
The distinct hominin species, Homo floresiensis, was unearthed in Flores in 2003. Archaeological findings suggest human presence on the island over a million years ago. However, the means by which these early humans reached the island remains a mystery.
Both Flores and Sulawesi were separated from mainland Southeast Asia by expansive oceanic barriers, even during periods of the lowest sea levels. According to Blum, the distance to Sulawesi is too great for swimming, leading to the conclusion that these early human species likely could not construct maritime vessels.
“It’s conceivable that a rare geological event, such as a tsunami, swept some early humans into the ocean, where they might have clung to floating trees or mats of vegetation, eventually reaching these islands to form isolated populations,” he suggests.
Martin Porr from the University of Western Australia identifies Homo erectus as the most probable candidate for seafaring at that time, given similarities between the tools found in Sulawesi and those associated with this species.
While the new finds support this theory, they raise numerous questions, particularly regarding whether the skills of these early human groups may need to be reassessed.
Led by the late archaeologist Mike Morwood, the team who first identified Homo floresiensis was the first to propose that Sulawesi could be crucial in understanding the ancestry of the Hobbit. As Kira Westaway from Macquarie University in Sydney, Australia mentions, “Sulawesi is positioned along a significant current that flows from Sulawesi to Flores.”
“Even Mike would have been astonished by the discovery of these ancient stone tools,” she remarks. “Though one might argue that seven tools are insufficient to support major claims, they undeniably represent the presence of early human activities.”
Neanderthals, ancient humans, cave art: France
Join new scientist Kate Douglas as she embarks on a captivating exploration of the prominent Neanderthal and Upper Paleolithic sites across southern France, spanning from Bordeaux to Montpellier.
Potato tubers are a product of ancient hybridization events
Jackie Bale/Getty Images
The common potato has been discovered to originate from a cross between the ancient tomato and a lesser-known South American lineage called Etuverosam.
Plants from the Etuverosam group resemble potato plants but lack one significant feature: they do not yield the starch-rich tubers that make cultivated potatoes a vital food source globally.
Sandra Knapp from The Natural History Museum in London and her team examined the genetics of three groups within the Solanum genus: Petota, which includes 107 species of cultivated potatoes, alongside 17 tomato types and three Etuverosam species. All three groups are believed to have diverged from a shared ancestor roughly 14 million years ago.
The researchers analyzed 450 genomes from cultivated potatoes and 56 wild potato species, revealing a consistent genetic mixture of tomato and Etuverosam genes across all samples.
Findings suggest that the origins of potato strains result from hybridization events with tomato ancestors, likely from a lineage situated in present-day Chile, dating back about 8 million years.
These hybridization events have led to novel gene combinations and innovations like tuber formation. “This process facilitates gene sharing, enabling new strains to produce tubers and helping these plants to thrive in newly formed, cold and arid environments,” Knapp explains.
This indicates that hybridization acts as “a significant driver of diversity evolution,” according to Knapp.
“While the edible parts of tomatoes and potatoes appear quite different, the actual plants are remarkably similar,” she elaborates. “If you happen to find a potato plant that produces fruit, it will yield green, tomato-like berries, but these are inedible and taste unpleasant.”
Brett Summerrell from a Botanical Garden in Sydney, Australia, which did not participate in the study, mentions that this new research offers substantial evidence of hybridization and resultant species diversification.
“This study underscores the necessity of understanding the evolutionary importance of crops and safeguarding their wild relatives, which may be crucial for addressing future agricultural challenges,” Summerrell emphasizes.
“Many relatives of potato-like species face threats posed by habitat destruction and climate change.”
Mars may appear spherical, yet it is actually a triaxial ellipsoid. Unlike the other rocky planets in our solar system, which resemble rugby balls, Mars varies in size along all three axes.
This is most apparent in the notable bulge of the Tharsis rise region and the contrasting region known as Sirtis Major.
Astronomer Dr. Michael Efroysky of the US Navy Observatory recently proposed that this peculiar shape may be attributed to the absence of an ancient moon on Mars.
The moon, named Nerio after the Roman goddess of war, who was associated with Mars, influenced the shape of the planet through tidal forces, similar to the oceans here on Earth.
However, once Mars cooled down, its deformed shape became permanently fixed.
Mars is roughly half the size of Earth, with a diameter of 6,790km (4,219 miles) compared to Earth’s 12,750km (7,922 miles) – Credit: Mark Garlic via Getty/Science Photo Library
Nerio’s tidal stress weakened the elevated regions of Mars, facilitating the impact of geological processes such as internal convection, structural shifts, and volcanic activity, all of which contributed to Mars’ asymmetrical shape.
Researchers propose that, in synchronous orbit around Mars, Nerio—being less than a third of Earth’s mass—could easily have formed the planet’s initial triaxial shape. The equatorial bulge would have been even more pronounced if Nerio had existed during the planet’s magma ocean phase.
Currently, Mars lacks such a moon, having only the small moons Deimos and Phobos. At some point, Nerio was either destroyed by another large body or pulled away by gravitational forces.
This article answers the question posed by Otto Sykes in an email: “Why does Mars have such a strange shape?”
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Biofluorescence, the process of absorbing high-energy light and re-emitting it as low-energy wavelengths, has been observed in various vertebrate and invertebrate lineages, particularly among fish. Research conducted by the American Museum of Natural History indicates that fish biofluorescence can be traced back at least 112 million years and has evolved over 100 times, predominantly in fish inhabiting coral reefs.
Phylogenesis of teleosts showing ancestral state reconstruction (absence/present) of biological fluorescence. Image credit: Carr et al., doi: 10.1038/s41467-025-59843-7.
“Researchers have long known that biological fluorescence is prevalent in marine creatures, including sea turtles and corals, particularly among fish,” stated PhD Emily Kerr, a student at the American Museum of Natural History.
“To truly grasp the reasons and methods behind this unique adaptation, we need to explore the evolutionary background and the variety of biofluorescence currently utilized for camouflage, predation, or reproduction.”
In a first study published in the journal Natural Communication, Carr and colleagues investigated all known biological fluorescent extents, focusing on a species of bony fish, which comprises the largest living vertebrate group today.
This research identified 459 biological fluorescent species, including 48 previously unrecognized as biologically fluorescent.
The researchers discovered that biological fluorescence has evolved over 100 times in marine teleost fish, dating back to approximately 112 million years ago, with the initial occurrence found in eels.
Furthermore, fish species residing in or near coral reefs developed biological fluorescence approximately ten times faster than their non-reef counterparts, leading to a surge in fluorescent species following the mass extinction event around 66 million years ago that wiped out non-avian dinosaurs.
“This pattern coincides with the emergence of modern coral reefs and the rapid infiltration of fish into these environments, particularly after a significant loss of coral diversity due to the Cretaceous extinction,” Kerr explained.
“These relationships imply that the rise of contemporary coral reefs may have spurred the diversification of fluorescence in reef-associated teleost fish.”
Among the 459 documented biological fluorescent extents indicated in this study, the majority are linked to coral reefs.
In a second survey published in the journal PLOS 1, Kerr and co-authors employed a specialized photographic system with ultraviolet and blue excitation lights, alongside emission filters, to analyze the wavelengths emitted by fish from the ichthyology collection at the American Museum of Natural History.
These specimens, collected over the past 15 years during museum expeditions to locations like the Solomon Islands, Greenland, and Thailand, had shown fluorescence previously; however, the full spectrum of biological fluorescence emissions remained unexplored.
This study unveiled a broader diversity in the colors emitted by teleost fish, with some displaying at least six distinct fluorescence emission peaks across various wavelengths, surpassing prior reports.
“The unexpected variation observed among a wide array of these fluorescent fish suggests that they may utilize highly diverse and intricate signaling systems based on species-specific fluorescent emission patterns.”
“As these studies illustrate, biological fluorescence is extensive and remarkably phenotypically diverse among marine fish.”
“Our goal is to enhance our understanding of how fluorescence operates within these varied marine ecosystems and its role in evolutionary diversification.”
“The multitude of fluorescence emission wavelengths identified in this study could significantly impact the discovery of new fluorescent molecules that are routinely employed in biomedical applications, including the diagnosis and treatment of fluorescence-related ailments.”
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Carr et al. 2025. The extensive evolution of repeated biological fluorescence in marine fish. Nat Commun 16, 4826; doi:10.1038/s41467-025-59843-7
Carr et al. 2025. Marine fish display exceptional variability in biological fluorescence emission spectra. PLOS 1 20 (6): E0316789; doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0316789
Paleontologists have uncovered fossilized tracks of reptile-like creatures from the early Carboniferous Tonan period, approximately 355 million years ago, within the snow plain formation in Victoria, Australia. This discovery indicates that such animals originated from Gondwana, where Australia was centrally located.
Artist’s impression of early reptile track makers from 355 million years ago. Image credit: Martin Ambrozik.
Tetrapods evolved from a group of fish that transitioned from aquatic to terrestrial life around 390 million years ago during the Devonian period.
These ancestral beings are the forebears of all modern vertebrates inhabiting land, including amphibians and various mammals, reptiles, and birds.
The oldest known amniotic fossils previously discovered date back to the late Carboniferous period, roughly 320 million years ago.
The findings from this 355 million-year-old snow plains slab, found by two amateur paleontologists, reveal that reptiles were already present 35 million years earlier than previously thought, at the dawn of the Carboniferous.
“Upon recognizing this, I understood that we had the oldest evidence globally of animals akin to reptiles, pushing back the evolutionary record by at least 35 million years beyond prior findings in the Northern Hemisphere,” stated Professor John Long from Flinders University.
“The fossilized tracks uncovered in the Mansfield region of northern Victoria, Australia, were created by creatures resembling small, agile, Goanna-like animals.”
A slab containing 355 million-year-old tracks from Australia’s Snowy Plains formation. Image credit: Long et al., doi: 10.1038/s41586-025-08884-5.
“When I initially encountered this specimen, I was astounded. Just seconds later, I noticed that the nail impressions were remarkably preserved,” said Dr. Grzegorz Niedwiedzki, a researcher at Uppsala University.
“Nails are characteristic of all early amniotic species but are absent in other quadruped lineages,” added Per Erik Ahlberg, a professor at Uppsala University.
“The combination of nail marks and foot shapes suggests that the track maker was a primitive reptile.”
According to the research team, this discovery profoundly impacts the understanding of early tetrapod evolution.
Although all stem tetrapods and stem amniotes must have emerged during the Devonian period, evidence suggests that tetrapod evolution progressed significantly faster than previously believed, with far fewer Devonian tetrapods than assumed.
“Skeletons can reveal much about an animal’s capabilities, but trackways capture behavior and illustrate how the animal functioned,” explained Dr. Alice Clement from Flinders University.
“This new fossilized trackway we examined dates from the early Carboniferous, making accurate age identification crucial. We achieved this by comparing the various fish fauna in these rocks to similar morphotypes found in well-dated sedimentary layers from across the globe, providing a timeline constraint of approximately 10 million years.”
“This finding redefines a segment of evolutionary history,” remarked Dr. Gillian Garvey from La Trobe University.
“Much has occurred in Australia and Gondwana, indicating that the narrative is still unfolding.”
The findings are detailed in a paper published in the journal Nature.
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Ja Long et al. Early amniote tracks revise the timeline of tetrapod evolution. Nature published online on May 14th, 2025. doi:10.1038/s41586-025-08884-5
Tracks that form an impression of artists with lizard-like beings
Marcin Ambrozik
A discovery in Victoria, Australia has unearthed evidence of some of the earliest reptile-like ancestors, which are the forerunners to many modern creatures including birds, reptiles, and mammals. This finding could potentially alter the timeline of when such animals transitioned from aquatic environments to terrestrial habitats, marking a pivotal evolutionary milestone, though opinions remain divided.
In 2021, two amateur fossil hunters stumbled upon a sandstone slab while exploring the banks of a river near Mansfield, Victoria. This slab bore three distinct sets of tracks, believed to belong to the same type of tetrapod—four-legged creatures. Notably, two of these sets exhibited five-digit impressions with curved claws.
Fossils caught the attention of John Long from Flinders University in Adelaide, who, along with his team, dated the slab to around 356 million years ago. This predates the previously known oldest nail fossils by over 35 million years, which were discovered in Nova Scotia, Canada, according to research findings.
“These new trackways clearly illustrate beautiful five-fingered hands and hooked claws,” Long states. He describes these as “remarkable finds,” representing creatures that developed young in amniotic fluid or via egg-laying—this includes reptiles, mammals, and notably, humans.
Moreover, Long eliminates the possibility that these animals were amphibians since early amphibians were characterized by a larval stage of development. “None of the early amphibians possessed well-formed claws.” he affirms.
This implies that the fossilized tracks are likely the earliest known examples of land-dwelling reptiles. “This marks a profound change in evolution, as it suggests that hard-shelled eggs allowed these creatures to move onto dry land and populate new territories,” he explains.
Fossil tracks illustrate front footprints (yellow) and rear footprints (blue)
Grzegorz Niedzwiedzki
Additional evidence indicating that the tracks were made on land, rather than in water, includes the presence of raindrop impressions within the surrounding slabs, according to Long. While researchers remain cautious, he expresses a strong belief that “99% certainty points to early reptiles.”
Blake Dixon from the University of New South Wales in Sydney adds that both images and analyses suggest confidence that the fossils belong to clawed animals. “This represents the earliest evidence we have of advanced terrestrial movement,” he asserts.
However, trackway researchers Stephen Salisbury and Anthony Romilio from the University of Queensland acknowledge the significance of the new fossils but raise questions regarding whether the impressions are true nails or merely pointed digits.
“The discovery is on the cusp of understanding claws,” remarks Romilio. “If they are indeed nail impressions, that positions them closer to reptiles.” Long maintains that he believes these footprints do represent nails.
Salisbury also points out that the presence of raindrop impressions does not definitively indicate when the tracks were made; rather, it reflects conditions of the surface at the time. Long counters, stating, “The fact that raindrops left impressions signifies that they were present before the creature made its tracks, thus ruling out underwater creation.” The implications of these findings are extensive for understanding early terrestrial life.
The genus Tyrannosaurus had its direct ancestors migrate from Asia over 70 million years ago, according to a groundbreaking study conducted by researchers at University College of Paleontologists in London.
Tyrannosaurus Rex evolved in North America, while its direct ancestors originated from Asia. Image credit: Pedro Salas/Sergey Krasovskiy.
This research, led by Cassius Morrison, a Ph.D. student at University College London, indicates that the rapid increase in the size of tyrannosaur dinosaurs and their close relatives, the Megaraptors, coincided with a global climate cooling that followed a temperature peak 92 million years ago.
This finding suggests that Tyrannosaurus Rex and its relatives may have been better adapted to cooler climates compared to other dinosaur groups at the time, likely due to their feathers and warmer physiology.
The geographical origins of Tyrannosaurus Rex have been a topic of intense debate,” stated Morrison.
“Paleontologists remain divided over whether their ancestors originated from Asia or North America.”
“Our modeling indicates that the “grandparents” of Tyrannosaurus Rex likely migrated to North America from Asia, crossing the Bering Strait between modern-day Siberia and Alaska.”
“This aligns with prior research showing that Tyrannosaurus Rex shares a closer relation to Asian relatives like Turbosaurus than to North American relatives such as Daspletosaurus.
“Numerous Tyrannosaurus Rex fossils have been found in North America, but our findings imply that the direct ancestors of this group may not yet have been unearthed in Asia.”
Paleontologists concluded that Tyrannosaurus Rex actually evolved in North America, particularly in Lalamidia, and was widely distributed across the region.
This conclusion contradicts last year’s findings suggesting that Tyrannosaurus mcraeensis, discovered in New Mexico, could be North American ancestors of Tyrannosaurus Rex from 3 to 5 million years ago. The team argued that the fossils of Tyrannosaurus mcraeensis were not properly dated.
For this study, researchers examined the migratory patterns of Tyrannosaurus and its relatives across the globe.
They employed mathematical models that represented fossils, dinosaur evolutionary trees, as well as the geography and climate of the era.
Importantly, the model addressed gaps in the fossil record and factored in uncertainties in the calculations.
Megaraptors are considered one of the most enigmatic large carnivorous dinosaurs.
In contrast to Tyrannosaurus Rex, they evolved slender heads and limbs as long as human height, with claws measuring up to 35 cm (14 inches).
Scientists conclude that Megaraptors were more widely distributed than previously thought, first appearing in Asia around 120 million years ago, spreading to Europe, and likely reaching Gondwana (encompassing regions of present-day Africa, South America, and the Southwest).
This suggests that Megaraptors inhabited regions like Europe and Africa, where no fossils had been found before.
They may have adapted differently from their Tyrannosaurus relatives, perhaps utilizing their claws for hunting instead of relying on powerful bites.
In South Gondwana, they could have preyed on small sauropods, while Tyrannosaurus Rex hunted large herbivores such as Triceratops, Edmontosaurus, and Ankylosaurus.
Both Tyrannosaurids and Megaraptors grew to enormous sizes nearly simultaneously as the climate cooled after the Cretaceous thermal peak 92 million years ago.
This rapid growth occurred following the extinction of other giant carnivorous dinosaurs, Carcharodontosaurids, which left a void at the top of the food chain.
The authors suggest that both Tyrannosaurus and Megaraptor could utilize cooler temperatures more effectively than their rival dinosaur groups.
By the end of the dinosaur age, Tyrannosaurus Rex weighed up to 9 tons (similar to very large African elephants and light tanks), while the Megaraptor reached lengths of up to 10 meters.
“Our findings illuminate the emergence of the largest tyrannosaurs in North and South America during the Cretaceous period and how they thrived by the end of the dinosaur epoch,” remarked Charlie Scheller of the University of London.
“They may have achieved their massive size to fill the ecological role left by the similarly large Carcharodontosaurid theropods that went extinct approximately 90 million years ago.”
“This extinction likely removed any ecological barriers that previously constrained the growth of tyrannosaurs.”
“Around 120 million years ago, Megaraptors were part of a diverse array of dinosaur species,” stated Dr. Mauro Alanciagaroland, a paleontologist at the Museum of Natural Sciences and the Bernardino Rivadavia Museum in Argentina.
“As the Cretaceous period progressed and the continents began to drift apart, these predators became increasingly specialized.”
“Such evolutionary shifts prompted them to adapt to more specific habitats.
“In areas like Asia, Megaraptors were ultimately replaced by Tyrannosaurus, but in regions like Australia and Patagonia, they became apex predators, dominating these ecosystems.”
This study is published in the journal Royal Society Open Science.
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Cassius Morrison et al. 2025. The Rise of the King: the origins of Gondwanan and the evolution of the Megaraptor dinosaurs. R. Soc. Open Sci. 12(5): 242238; doi: 10.1098/rsos.242238
In the early 2000s, bats infected with coronavirus transmitted the virus to raccoon dogs and other wild mammals in southwestern China. Many of these animals were sold in markets where the coronavirus resurfaced. Consequently, the SARS pandemic spread to 33 countries, resulting in 774 fatalities. Months later, researchers identified a mammalian coronavirus known as Palmcoten, found in markets central to the outbreak.
In astudy published Wednesday, a team of researchers drew comparisons between the evolutionary paths of SARS and COVID-19, 17 years apart. They examined the genomes of the two coronaviruses responsible for the pandemics, alongside 248 related coronaviruses in bats and other mammals.
Jonathan Pechal, an evolutionary virologist at the University of Edinburgh and author of the study, noted that the histories of the two coronaviruses mirrored each other. “In my opinion, they are very similar,” he stated.
In both instances, Dr. Pekal and his team assert that coronavirus transmission originated from bats in southwestern China to wild mammals. Soon after, wildlife traders transported infected animals hundreds of miles to urban markets, leading to widespread human outbreaks.
“When wildlife is sold in urban centers, pandemics often follow,” stated Michael Warby, an evolutionary biologist at the University of Arizona and co-author of the research.
This research appears at a politically charged moment. Last month, the White House launched a web page titled “Laborek: The True Origins of COVID-19,” asserting the pandemic stemmed from a lab accident in Wuhan, rather than market interactions.
In a budget proposal issued on Friday, the White House indicated that it was “confirming” the lab leak theory, which justified an $18 billion cut to the National Institutes of Health.
“A thorough and detailed investigation into the origin of the virus should be conducted in the United States,” the statement read.
Sergei Pond, a virologist at Temple University, expressed skepticism regarding the resolution of COVID’s origins. He voiced concerns that political rhetoric from both governments could hinder scientific inquiries into the virus’s origins.
“If it weren’t tragic, you’d have to laugh at how things have unfolded,” Dr. Pond commented.
In the initial weeks of the early 2020 pandemic, the virus responsible, SARS-CoV-2, emerged alongside notions of biological weapons created by the Chinese military. A cohort of scientists analyzing available data at that time dismissed this claim, indicating that while they could not dismiss accidental lab leaks, they leaned towards the natural origins of COVID.
Over the ensuing months, Dr. Warby, who was not part of that group, grew dissatisfied with the lack of compelling evidence favoring one theory over another. He co-signed an open letter with 17 other scientists advocating for further investigation to ascertain the most likely explanation.
“We felt there was much yet to be learned, so let’s not dismiss the lab leak theory,” Dr. Warby asserted. “Let’s investigate.”
As Dr. Warby and other researchers scrutinized COVID’s origins, the American intelligence agencies conducted their assessments. Their conclusions were varied. The FBI and CIA support the lab escape theory from the Wuhan Institute, albeit with little certainty. The Department of Energy expresses low confidence in the possibility of a virus escape from another lab in Wuhan, while other institutions favor a natural origin.
Scientists have struggled to evaluate the evidence behind these conclusions as the relevant institutions have not published supporting data or analyses. However, Dr. Warby and his colleagues have released several papers in scientific journals. Along this journey, Dr. Warby became convinced that the COVID pandemic originated at the Huanan Seafood Market in Wuhan.
“Scientifically, that’s evident,” Dr. Warby remarked, referencing both HIV and the Spanish flu, two diseases with origins that have been thoroughly studied.
In their recent study, Dr. Warby, Dr. Pekal, and their colleagues examined 250 genomes of coronaviruses, leveraging genetic similarities and differences to establish relationships. They successfully reconstructed the evolutionary timeline of the coronaviruses responsible for both SARS and COVID-19, known as SARS-CoV and SARS-CoV-2.
The ancestors of both coronaviruses have been circulating in bats across China and its neighboring regions for hundreds of thousands of years, specifically inhabiting southwestern China and northern Laos for the last 50 years.
When coronaviruses infect bats, they sometimes cohabitate with another coronavirus. This can lead to the accidental creation of a hybrid virus carrying genetic material from both original coronaviruses, a process referred to as recombination.
“These are not ancient events,” noted David Rasmussen, a virologist at North Carolina State University involved in the new research. “These occurrences happen frequently; these viruses are truly mosaic in nature.”
In 2001, shortly before the SARS pandemic emerged, researchers found that SARS-CoV had undergone significant genetic mixing among bats. This led to the virus’s potential evolution into a human pathogen. However, given that Guangzhou is hundreds of miles from the ancestral area of SARS-CoV, it’s improbable that the virus gradually reached the city through bats.
Researchers generally concur that ancestors of SARS-CoV infected wild mammals, which were subsequently sold in markets around Guangzhou. Shortly after the onset of the SARS pandemic, the presence of SARS-CoV was confirmed in palm civets and other wild mammals traded in the market.
A similar trend was observed with SARS-CoV-2, the virus responsible for COVID-19. The final recombination event in bats occurred between 2012 and 2014, just five to seven years prior to the COVID outbreak, hundreds of miles away from northeastern Wuhan.
Moreover, this signifies a considerable distance from the area where the virus’s ancestors circulated, paralleling the journey that SARS-CoV undertook via the wildlife trade.
Proponents of the lab leak theory emphasize the significant distance between Wuhan and the habitats of the closest relatives of SARS-CoV-2. They argue that if bats traveled to the area around Wuhan without infecting local mammals, scientists must have been collecting coronaviruses from bats in southwestern China and experimenting on them in the lab.
American scientists have critiqued the Wuhan Institute of Virology for lax safety measures in their coronavirus experiments. Nevertheless, no evidence has confirmed that the ancestors of SARS-CoV-2 were present at the institute prior to the pandemic. Recent research by Dr. Warby and his colleagues illustrates that bat coronaviruses can traverse considerable distances via wildlife trade without any scientific intervention.
The researchers argue that these findings align with a study published in 2022, identifying the Huanan Wet Market in Wuhan as the site of the initial COVID outbreak. Wild mammals were sold at this venue, and early cases of COVID were documented there. Moreover, Chinese researchers collected various strains of SARS-CoV-2, exhibiting different mutations at this location. Dr. Warby and his team posited that the virus likely spilled over from wild mammals at the market on two separate occasions.
Dr. Pond stated that while the new study supports the wildlife spillover theory, he does not believe the issue has been definitively settled. He highlighted two statisticians’ critiques from last year, regarding the modeling behind the 2022 study. Dr. Warby and his colleagues have provided a rebuttal to those criticisms. “That debate is still ongoing,” Dr. Pond remarked.
Mark Eloit, former director of the Pasteur Institute in Paris, emphasized the importance of the new research in clarifying the origins of SARS-CoV-2.
However, he also noted that the coronavirus exhibits significant differences from closely related bat viruses. Following its divergence from those viruses, it would have undergone mutations or recombination to effectively spread among humans.
“I contend that the potential for recombination events—either incidental or deliberate—remains as plausible as the hypothesis of zoonotic transfer via intermediate hosts at the market,” Dr. Eloit argued.
Dr. Eloit and other scientists concurred that discovering intermediate hosts of SARS-CoV-2 among wild mammals would significantly bolster the argument for natural spillover. However, Chinese officials examined various animals at the onset of the pandemic but found no traces of the virus.
Before scientists could conduct studies, wildlife vendors at the Huanan Market removed animals from the stalls, and when China ceased wildlife trade, farmers culled their animals.
“There are large gaps in our knowledge, and we can’t overlook that,” Dr. Pond remarked.
Stephen Goldstein, a geneticist at the University of Utah, remarked that while he was not involved in the new study, the findings serve as a cautionary reminder of future pandemic risks. Wild mammals traded in markets within regions where SARS and COVID-19 emerged can wreak havoc in urban centers hundreds of miles away. “These viral fragments are present in numerous places,” Dr. Goldstein concluded.
New genus and species of the Simotoidan isopod, which lived in the early Cretaceous period, have been identified from two well-conserved specimens found in Lebanon. Originating from the environment of freshwater lakes, this isopod provides an unconventional perspective on the evolutionary origins of Simotoids inhabiting living caves and groundwater.
Reconstruction of paleoenvironmental habitats Dysopodus gezei (Foreground): Valemian freshwater lake in the current Bkassine region of Lebanon. Image credit: Aldrich Hezekiah.
Dysopodus gezei He lived in a shallow freshwater lake in Lebanon (Epoch of the early Cretaceous period) about 125 million years ago.
This creature had an elongated body and was more than twice its width (total length 1.8-2.5 cm).
That was a type Isopodorder of crustaceans, including both aquatic and locally populated species.
“Isopoda is a diverse group of Malacostracan crustaceans, including more than 10,000 described organisms,” said Dr. Mario Södel, a paleontologist at the Senkenberg Centre at the University of Tenbingen, and his colleagues.
“Most living species lie in a variety of marine environments ranging from deep waters to sandy beaches and rocky coasts.”
“Isopoda can be considered primarily as a marine group, and it is most likely that the latest ancestor of all isopods is ocean.”
“But there are also many isopods that live outside the marine realm.”
“The species-rich group of isopodas – oniscidea – houses over 3,800 species, most of which live in a variety of fully terrestrial habitats.”
“Apart from the marine and terrestrial environments, isopods also live in brackish and freshwater environments, with about 1,000 described species living in freshwater.”
“Isopods have freshwater habitats colonized in multiple independent habitats, with a wide variety of different species in freshwater habitats, ranging from old to in some cases highly species-rich groups to single phylogenetically isolated species.”
Dysopodus gezei There were strong similarities to the living non-parasitic strains of Cirolanidaea group of isopods within subordered Shimotoida.
“The Shimotoida is a group of isopods that contain scavengers, predators, microrelets and parasites,” the paleontologist said.
“In this, finely repaired and parasitic species can form natural groups.”
“With Timotoida, many freshwater species are parasites that are likely to enter freshwater habitat along with hosts, either fish or crustaceans.”
“There are many representatives of Shimotoida (Shimotoida people – not confused with Shimotoids) throughout their lifetimes that are neither micropredata nor parasites.”
“These are often referred to as Cirolanidae, a group of morphologically distinct isopods.”
Dysopodus gezeiholotype. Image credits: Shadell et al. , doi: 10.1098/rsos.241512.
Two specimens of Dysopodus gezei It was excavated in Lebanon in 2003 and 2023.
“The specimen was found at the Lebanese Disol in Jdeidet Bkassine,” the researchers said.
“These layers correspond to finely stacked, organically rich deposits harvested in five mining areas within the Grace Duriban Alloformation, one in the north of Lebanon, one in the center, and three regions in southern Lebanon.
“All evidence shows a series of small shallow lakes and marsh areas near the volcanic buildings.”
The rarity of living freshwater silolanide species emphasizes the importance of discovery Dysopodus gezei As an extinct species that supports true freshwater archaeological fabrics, it not only has its history of evolution on earth, but also of the evolution of underground freshwater species.
“The discovery of new fossils represents the rare discovery of fossil isopods from freshwater habitats,” the scientist said.
“This places a new perspective on the origins of the existing non-parasitic freshwater simotoid people.”
“This finding does not disprove the colonization of cave and groundwater habitats through the cutting of underground species by regressing coastlines, but the presence of freshwater Simotoids in the eastern Tethian region during the early Cretaceous period gives a different light to the origins of living freshwater animals.”
“Additional specimens of this species may provide more morphological details, as they may maintain fine morphological details, and can then be used to draw more accurate conclusions between Cretaceous freshwater species and existing cave and groundwater fauna.”
Survey results Published in the April 2025 issue of the journal Royal Society Open Science.
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Mario Shadell et al. 2025. Freshwater isopods from 125 million years ago shed new light on the origins of underground freshwater species. R. Soc. Open SCI 12(4): 241512; doi: 10.1098/rsos.241512
Broadcast journalist Gale King and singer Katy Perry were set to embark on a brief journey to space on Monday aboard a flight operated by Jeff Bezos’ private company Blue Origin. This marks the first all-female crew going to space since 1963.
Their flight on Blue Origin’s New Shepard Rocket was scheduled to launch from Blue Origin’s launch site 1 in West Texas, approximately 120 miles southeast of El Paso. The launch could occur as early as 9:30 am Eastern Time.
This flight will be the 11th human flight for the New Shepard program, having carried 52 individuals, including repeat astronauts. Above the Kalman Line, which marks the internationally recognized boundary of the universe approximately 62 miles (100 kilometers) above Earth.
The New Shepard Rocket flight, offering minutes of weightlessness, will be piloted.
Bezos’ fiancée, former broadcast journalist Lauren Sanchez, was also slated to be part of the NS-31 Mission. The couple’s wedding reportedly is set to take place in Venice this summer.
Another passenger is Aisha Bowe, a former NASA rocket scientist. Elle Magazine reported that she is the first person of Bahamian heritage to venture into space. Also onboard are film producer Kerianne Flynn and Amanda Nguyen, a research scientist at Bioastronauts and a prominent advocate for sexual assault survivors.
According to Blue Origin, Nguyen will be the first Vietnamese woman to travel to space.
“It’s a dream come true, and for me, it was a dream deferred,” Nguyen shared with Elle.
After studying astrophysics and working for NASA, Nguyen shifted her focus to activism following a traumatic event of sexual assault.
“Gender-based violence is a significant factor leading many women in STEM to discontinue their training. I was one of them,” she stated, referring to science, technology, engineering, and mathematics.
This marks the first space flight featuring an all-female crew since Valentina Tereshkova’s solo flight for the Soviet Union in 1963, making her the first woman in space.
However, there are critics questioning whether all-female crews truly represent moments of feminist progress. The New Shepard program, a cornerstone of Blue Origin’s Space Tourism Business, is seen as a venture for the wealthy and powerful to access space.
Actress Olivia Munn was criticized as being “somewhat tone-deaf” while appearing as a guest host on Today with Jenna and Hoda earlier this month.
“I know this isn’t fashionable, but there are so many other important issues in the world right now,” Munn remarked. “What exactly are you going to do in space?”
During an interview on CBS Morning with an interview aired on Friday, host Vladimir Dutier asked King if she had concerns that the flight may be seen as an advertisement for Amazon founder Bezos. Dutier highlighted the scrutiny Bezos faces due to Amazon’s business practices and ownership of The Washington Post.
Amazon warehouse workers and delivery drivers have raised concerns about unsafe working conditions. In 2023, the Federal Trade Commission and 17 states filed lawsuits against Amazon, alleging monopolistic practices in online retail.
The Washington Post has seen a wave of resignations in recent times amid concerns about leadership, notably Bezos redirecting the newspaper’s opinion section to advocate for “personal liberty and free markets.”
“I share those concerns as well,” King acknowledged. “There have been questionable decisions made.”
“But in this instance, Vlad, this is much larger than one individual and one company,” she continued. “I have chosen to separate the two.”
Bezos has invested billions in Blue Origin and envisions a future where humans inhabit space colonies. He was part of Blue Origin’s inaugural suborbital passenger flight in 2021.
The New Shepard Rocket is named in honor of Alan Shepard, the first American to journey into space in 1961 and one of the moon-walking astronauts.
Last year, Meta CEO Mark Zuckerberg and one of his top EUs, Tom Allison, were discussing how to rebuild Facebook for the future of social networking.
Zuckerberg, who grew Facebook to a $1.5 trillion company renamed Meta from the dorm room project, wanted to regain some of the original rationales for social networks, or what he called the “OG Facebook” vibe, Alison said. After adding many years of features, executives felt that some of Facebook’s important features were dead.
So they asked themselves: Why not build some features similar to old Facebook?
On Thursday, Meta did it with a simple adjustment. The company now includes a separate news feed for users, featuring posts shared only by people’s friends and family.
A feature called The Friends tab replaces the app’s tab that displays new friends’ requests or suggested friends. Instead, Friends Tab will display a scroll feed of posts such as photos, video stories, text, birthday notifications, and friend requests. For now, Facebook users are only available in the US and Canada.
“We’re looking forward to seeing you in the facebook app,” said Allison, head of the Facebook app. “We’re making sure there’s still a place on Facebook for something like this, something you shouldn’t get lost in the modern social media mix.”
The new feed is a sudden departure from the way social media has evolved over the past decade. The rise of apps like Tiktok has become accustomed to seeing feed posts from influencers and content creators. Other companies followed suit. Meta’s apps, including Instagram, have begun to lean more towards recommended content to attract people for a longer period of time.
Now people see apps like YouTube, Instagram, Tiktok as something similar to TV.
Not everyone is welcoming shifts. When Zuckerberg founded Facebook in 2004, it was intended to help college students connect with friends on campus. As the app becomes more popular, it is now helping all users stay up to date with posts from friends and family.
So, when Zuckerberg announced in 2022 that Meta would insert recommended content on Facebook from people who were not connected to users, many users rebelled. Many people first discovered recommended content – it relied on surface suggestions – it was jarring. After some criticism, Zuckerberg slightly reduced the amount of such content added to people’s Facebook feeds.
Still, that didn’t stop meta from accepting algorithmically recommended content. In recent years, much of the people’s feed on Facebook and Instagram has been dominated by creators, businesses and brands. Recommended content, such as Meta’s video product Reels, has led people to spend more time on the app, the company said.
Meta has no plans to stop adding recommended content to users’ feeds, Alison said in an interview. For now, the company doesn’t think The Friends Tab is more popular than the recommended home feed.
And there could be more changes to Facebook. Meta is planning to bring in other features and updates to Facebook next year, making social media still “social,” Alison said.
Last year, Meta CEO Mark Zuckerberg and one of his top EUs, Tom Allison, were discussing how to rebuild Facebook for the future of social networking.
Zuckerberg, who grew Facebook to a $1.5 trillion company renamed Meta from the dorm room project, wanted to regain some of the original rationales for social networks, or what he called the “OG Facebook” vibe, Alison said. After adding many years of features, executives felt that some of Facebook’s important features were dead.
So they asked themselves: Why not build some features similar to old Facebook?
On Thursday, Meta did it with a simple adjustment. The company now includes a separate news feed for users, featuring posts shared only by people’s friends and family.
A feature called The Friends tab replaces the app’s tab that displays new friends’ requests or suggested friends. Instead, Friends Tab will display a scroll feed of posts such as photos, video stories, text, birthday notifications, and friend requests. For now, Facebook users are only available in the US and Canada.
“We’re looking forward to seeing you in the facebook app,” said Allison, head of the Facebook app. “We’re making sure there’s still a place on Facebook for something like this, something you shouldn’t get lost in the modern social media mix.”
The new feed is a sudden departure from the way social media has evolved over the past decade. The rise of apps like Tiktok has become accustomed to seeing feed posts from influencers and content creators. Other companies followed suit. Meta’s apps, including Instagram, have begun to lean more towards recommended content to attract people for a longer period of time.
Now people see apps like YouTube, Instagram, Tiktok as something similar to TV.
Not everyone is welcoming shifts. When Zuckerberg founded Facebook in 2004, it was intended to help college students connect with friends on campus. As the app becomes more popular, it is now helping all users stay up to date with posts from friends and family.
So, when Zuckerberg announced in 2022 that Meta would insert recommended content on Facebook from people who were not connected to users, many users rebelled. Many people first discovered recommended content – it relied on surface suggestions – it was jarring. After some criticism, Zuckerberg slightly reduced the amount of such content added to people’s Facebook feeds.
Still, that didn’t stop meta from accepting algorithmically recommended content. In recent years, much of the people’s feed on Facebook and Instagram has been dominated by creators, businesses and brands. Recommended content such as Meta’s video product, Reels, has led people to spend more time on the app, the company said.
Meta has no plans to stop adding recommended content to users’ feeds, Alison said in an interview. For now, the company doesn’t think The Friends Tab is more popular than the recommended home feed.
And there could be more changes to Facebook. Meta is planning to bring in other features and updates to Facebook next year, making social media still “social,” Alison said.
New research shows that satiety-inducing molecules called bombesins are present not only in humans and other vertebrates, but also invertebrates such as starfish and their marine relatives.
Common starfish (Rubens of Asteria) Brofjorden is located in Govik, the Lysekil municipality in Sweden. Image credit: W. Carter.
Bombesin, a small peptide, plays an important role in regulating hunger by signaling when it is sufficient for us to eat.
When injected into mammals, bombesin was found to reduce the size of the meal and increase the time between meals.
This has led scientists to believe that bombesin-like neurohormones produced in the brain and intestines are part of the body’s natural system to control food intake.
Furthermore, along with weight loss inducers such as Ozempic, compounds that mimic the action of bombesin are occurring for the treatment of obesity.
In a new study, Professor Maurice Elphick and colleagues at Queen Mary University in London explored the evolutionary history of bombesin.
By analyzing the genome of invertebrates, they discovered a gene encoding a bombesin-like neurohormone. Common starfish (Rubens of Asteria) other cerebral dermatosis, such as sea urchins and sea cucumbers.
“It was like searching for needles in a haystack, but eventually we discovered a gene encoding a bombesin-like neurohormones in the genome of a starfish and its parent,” Professor Elphick said.
Researchers then turned their attention to the function of the bombesin in this starfish, named Arbn.
Mass spectrometry was used to determine the molecular structure of ARBNs and to be chemically synthesized and tested.
They investigated how ARBN affects starfish feeding behavior. Starfish have a unique way of eating. The stomach is stretched out from the mouth to digest prey such as mussels and oysters.
“When I tested Arbn, I found that it caused a starfish stomach contraction,” said Dr. Weiling Huang, a researcher at Queen Mary University in London.
“This suggested that ARBN may be involved in stimulating stomach contractions when starfish stop feeding.”
“And this is exactly what I found. When I injected Albun into the starfish while pounding my stomach, it caused my stomach and returned it to my mouth.”
“In addition, it took longer to surround the mussels compared to those injected with ARBN, which also delayed the onset of feeding.”
The discovery of the ancient role of bombesin in appetite regulation sheds light on the evolutionary origins of animal feeding behavior.
“We can estimate that this function dates back 5 billion years to the common ancestors of starfish, humans and other vertebrates,” Professor Elphick said.
a paper Regarding the survey results, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.
____
Heiling Han et al. 2025. Discovery and functional characterization of bombesin-type neuropeptide signaling systems in invertebrates. pnasin press; doi: 10.1073/pnas.2420966122
Exploring the origins of life is a profound scientific question. While evolution explains how life changes over time, the initial creation of the first biological structures remains a mystery.
In order for life to appear, the Earth required specific molecules containing carbon and nitrogen. However, these essential compounds were absent for millions of years after the planet’s formation. Recent research suggests a potential source for these crucial molecules.
This study proposes that microlites, small bursts of electricity generated when a water droplet breaks, played a key role in the formation of these compounds. These energy bursts are a common occurrence in nature, from ocean waves crashing against the shore to waterfalls spraying mist.
Research indicates that these intense energy releases may have triggered a chemical reaction that produced the fundamental components necessary for life to begin.
Professor Richard Zare, a co-author of the research published in Advances in Science, explains the importance of carbon-nitrogen bonds in creating amino acids and nucleic acids, the building blocks of proteins and DNA.
While previous theories, like the Miller-Urey hypothesis, suggested that lightning strikes into the ocean could have jump-started the chemistry of life, criticisms have been raised about the feasibility of this scenario. New research proposes that the building blocks of life may have been formed over time through numerous small electrical discharges worldwide.
The discovery of microlites producing organic molecules from simple components has broader implications beyond the origins of life. This research suggests that these small electrical discharges could play a significant role in various natural chemical processes.
Dr. Zare emphasizes the importance of studying the chemistry of small water droplets, highlighting the potential for groundbreaking discoveries in this area. This study demonstrates how seemingly insignificant everyday processes may hold the key to profound mysteries, such as the origins of life.
About our experts
Richard Zare is a distinguished chemist and professor at Stanford University, with numerous publications in prestigious journals and multiple awards for his research and educational contributions.
As we know, the sparks between the droplets may have begun life
Shutterstock/Perry Correll
The first molecules needed for life on Earth may have been created when small flickers of “microlites” between water droplets triggered a necessary chemical reaction.
“This is a new way to think about how the building blocks of life were formed,” he says. Richard Zare At Stanford University in California.
There was a lasting hole in our knowledge of the origin of life. In particular, how simple gases react to produce organic molecules that combine carbon with nitrogen, such as proteins and enzymes, and the lives we know depend on.
“When you look at the gas people thought they were on the early planet, they don’t contain any carbon-nitrogen bonds,” says Zare. “They are gases like methane, water, ammonia, nitrogen.”
Experiments by Stanley Miller and Harold Urey In 1952, electricity revealed that water and such gases can be converted into necessary organic molecules, but the hypothesis was that electrical energy came from lightning.
However, the unlikely chance that lightning will hit high concentrations of gases into the diluted spread of the ocean or atmospheric means that many people have never been convinced that it is behind the emergence of life on Earth about 4 billion years ago.
Now, Zare and his colleagues spray water droplets into a mixture of methane, carbon dioxide, ammonia and nitrogen gas, showing that external power sources can lead to the formation of organic molecules with unnecessary carbon-nitrogen bonds.
Zare says that water spray droplets produce small charges, which works. “Smaller droplets are negatively charged, while larger droplets are actively charged,” he says. This depends on what is called the Renl effect, where waterfall-like droplets collide and split, creating charge.
However, what the team discovered using high-speed cameras was that, on the other hand, a small flash of electricity, what Zare calls microlites, jumped between them, when the charged droplets were close enough.
This is like how static electricity is generated, or how lightning is accumulated in the clouds and discharged. “When water droplets come within nanometers of each other, we get an electric field, which causes a failure,” he says.
Microlite flashes carried enough energy (approximately 12 electron volts) to allow gas molecules to lose electrons and react with each other, and produced organic molecules through carbon-nitrogen bonds containing one of the components of RNA, hydrogen cyanide, amino acid glycine and uracil.
“It’s amazing that microlites can start chemistry starting with nitrogen. But the reported observations are compelling.” Veronica Vaida University of Colorado at Boulder University. “It brings a new, yet unreported role for water in the origin of life.”
This piece means it was sufficient to provide the chemicals needed to start on this planet, says Zare.
Water sprays are ubiquitous, often landing on rocks, allowing organic chemicals to accumulate in the gaps, he says. The area will then dry and moisten again. Such wet dry cycles are known to combine shorter molecules with longer molecules.
“This study suggests that microlites were abundant in early Earth’s water-rich environments, and could have driven prebiotic chemistry, especially when other energy sources such as lightning and ultraviolet rays were rare.” Kumar Vanka At the National Institute of Chemistry, Pune, India.
Vaida believes that this work also influences searching for extraterrestrial life. We may need to look for a place that allows small droplets to collide, she says.
Culex Pipiens f. Molester It is a species of mosquito found in cities around the world
BlickWinkel / Alamy Stock Photo
The shape of mosquitoes associated with the London Underground Railway has evolved to live in human environments long before the birth of the Underground Railway, born at the age of 19.thh century.
Culex Pipiens f. Molester It was found in cities around the world, but was widely known as an underground mosquito in London after World War II.
It is closely related to the chewing shape of the same species of bird, known as Culex Pipiens f. Pipiens, And biologists thought that within the past few centuries the form of molestation had evolved in urban environments.
To learn more about its origins, Lindy McBride Princeton University and her colleagues analyzed the DNA of 790 mosquitoes from 44 countries around the world, including the shapes of Molestus and Pipiens, several closely related species.
The results suggest that rather than occurring in London's tube tunnels, Molestus Mosquito evolved in the Middle East perhaps thousands of years ago. There are three main evidence for this.
First, the morphology of Molestus is genetically closer to the pipiens population in the Mediterranean basin than the pipiens population in Northern Europe. They are such things as these Mediterranean Pipiens mosquitoes, suggesting that one arises from the other.
Additionally, molestation mosquitoes in the Eastern Mediterranean region are more genetically diverse than molestation in underground habitats in northern Europe. “This suggests that they have been in the Eastern Mediterranean for quite some time,” says McBride.
Finally, Pipiens forms do not exist in the Middle East. This makes it much easier to imagine how the ancestors of Molestus Mosquitoes colonized the region and evolved to bite humans in isolation without mating with bird-biting pipingan insects , says McBride.
Based on the team's analysis of genetic variation, it is almost certain that Molestus mosquitoes are much older than previously thought, McBride says. “Our calculations show that it must have been at least 1,000 years ago, and 2000 to 10,000 years ago. [that they evolved]. This is perfectly aligned with the development of agriculture in the Middle East. ”
“Instead of evolving from scratch in urban underground spaces, Molestus was already prepared for urban life thanks to much older adaptations,” she says. “It could have evolved even further since it was once established in a city.”
The busy urban environment could lead to a new hybrid between the bite and human bite forms of birds, which are public health significance, says McBride. “Even if hybridization is rare, these mosquitoes may exhibit intermediate behavior and may exhibit improved ability to communicate through the West Nile. [virus] From birds to humans. ”
Blue Origin's reusable New Glenn rocket successfully launched and reached orbit, but engineers were unable to safely land the first stage rocket booster on Earth as they had hoped. There wasn't. Still, the company's first launch into orbit shows that Jeff Bezos' space company can challenge Elon Musk's SpaceX's current dominance in the commercial space launch business.
“We are extremely proud that New Glenn reached orbit on its first attempt,” said Blue Origin CEO Dave Limp. in a statement.
New Glenn, as tall as a 30-story building, launched from Cape Canaveral Space Force Station in Florida around 2 a.m. local time (7 a.m. Japan time). The rocket has experienced numerous delays and setbacks, with its last launch being canceled due to unwanted ice forming in some of the rocket engine pipes.
About 13 minutes after liftoff, the rocket's second stage reached orbit. This has been Blue Origin's goal since its founding more than 20 years ago. It carried a test payload called the Blue Ring Pathfinder, which included communications equipment, power systems, and a flight computer.
Another goal of this mission was to land the rocket booster on a floating landing platform in the Atlantic Ocean so it could be reused on future missions to reduce overall costs. However, engineers stopped receiving data from the booster shortly after launch. “We knew it was an ambitious goal to land the booster on the first try. We learned a lot from today and plan to try again at our next launch this spring,” Limp said.
If you ask anyone who regularly conducts interviews, they will tell you that being the one interviewed is a strange experience. It becomes even more bizarre when the interviewer has been deceased for a year and a half. Virtually Parkinson is a new podcast where celebrities are interviewed by an AI model trained to mimic the late Michael Parkinson. The announcement of this podcast last year caused quite a stir, with some calling it blasphemous and others questioning its purpose in the realm of AI innovation.
The podcast requires a team of engineers, researchers, and producers to ensure that the AI model accurately replicates Parkinson’s style of interviewing. However, despite the technological advancements, there are concerns about the ethical implications of using AI in this manner. The producers of Virtually Parkinson are conscious of these concerns and ensure that all interviews are conducted responsibly.
The podcast aims to explore the relationship between AI and humans, sparking discussions on the future of technology in entertainment. While some may find the concept exploitative, others see it as a way to preserve a national treasure’s legacy. The series continues to evolve, with each interview improving the AI model based on feedback.
During an interview with the AI Parky, the experience was both intriguing and uncanny. The AI model’s rigid format and lack of emotional response made the interaction feel artificial. Despite this, the interview showcased the potential of AI technology in the entertainment industry.
As technology continues to advance rapidly, the future of AI in entertainment looks promising. The creators of Virtually Parkinson are constantly refining the AI model to enhance the user experience. Whether you agree with the concept or not, it’s clear that the future is already here with AI-driven interviews like Virtually Parkinson.
New Glenn on the launch pad in Cape Canaveral, Florida
blue origin
Blue Origin, the space company owned by Amazon founder Jeff Bezos, is scheduled to launch its first reusable New Glenn rocket on January 10th. If successful, the rocket could rival SpaceX's Falcon Heavy rocket, which has become the go-to launch vehicle for companies looking to send large payloads into orbit.
What is Newglen?
New Glenn is a 98-meter-tall rocket, the height of a 30-story building, designed to carry a payload of up to 45 tons into low-Earth orbit. It is expected to compete with SpaceX's Falcon Heavy, which can carry about 64 tons of cargo.
The rocket has two stages. The first stage is designed to land on a maritime platform, similar to the Falcon Heavy, and Blue Origin claims it can be reused for 25 missions. The top of the rocket has a disposable upper stage that can store cargo and mission payloads.
When will the launch take place?
New Glenn was cleared by the Federal Aviation Administration to launch from Cape Canaveral Space Force Station in Florida in a three-hour window beginning at 1 a.m. local time (6 a.m. GMT) on January 10.
The launch window had already been approved by the FAA as January 6th, but Blue Origin also confirmed the January 10th window for the first time. “This is our first flight, and we have prepared thoroughly for it,” said Blue Origin's Jarrett Jones. in a statement.
After announcing development of the rocket in 2016, Blue Origin initially aimed to launch New Glenn in 2020, but delays and setbacks have postponed the first launch.
What does a test flight involve?
The main purpose of the test flight, called NG-1, is to get the rocket into orbit, but the second stage will also be equipped with Blue Origin's Blue Ring Pathfinder, which includes communications equipment, power systems, and Blue Ring equipment. A collection of flight computers) will also be installed. The spacecraft will help guide and maneuver future payloads in orbit.
Blue Origin aims to emulate the success of SpaceX's rapid testing and development schedule, which involves launching as often as possible, even if some tests end in fiery explosions. “No matter what happens, we will learn, refine and apply that knowledge to our next launch,” Jones said.
Ultimately, Blue Origin asked New Glenn to launch a satellite as part of Amazon's Project Kuiper, a planned satellite internet constellation similar to SpaceX's Starlink, that would fly to the space station Blue Origin is developing. I would like to have the parts delivered.
What other rockets has Blue Origin launched?
Blue Origin has previously focused on space tourism with its New Shepard rocket, which launched founder Jeff Bezos and three other passengers to an altitude of 107 kilometers (107 kilometers) in 2021. It has since launched eight more crew members to similar altitudes, the most recent in November 2024.
Recent research has uncovered the reason behind the evolution of our brains, pointing to the influence of gut microbes. Specifically, the study suggests that the intestines may have played a key role in boosting energy production over time, leading to the growth of crucial organs.
The study reveals that organisms with larger brains relative to body size, like humans and squirrel monkeys, have higher energy levels compared to those with smaller brains, thanks to their digestive microbes. These microbes help in breaking down food and producing energy efficiently.
This groundbreaking research is the first to demonstrate how the gut microbiome can drive biological differences between animal species.
“The connection between the gut and brain has always been acknowledged on some level. We often refer to ‘gut feelings,’ and it’s known that stress and anxiety can manifest as gut symptoms,” said lead author of the study, Katherine Amato, Associate Professor at Northwestern University, in an interview with BBC Science Focus.
Amato further elaborated, stating, “This study goes beyond that and proposes that the activities in the gut may have laid the groundwork for the evolution of our brains.”
The intestines harbor over 100 trillion microorganisms, a count that surpasses the number of cells in the body. These intestinal microbes collectively weigh around 2 kg (4.4 pounds) – equivalent to the weight of a large pineapple.
Researchers were particularly intrigued by how these tiny gut microbes influence brain size in relation to body size. While humans may not have the largest brains in the animal kingdom, they have a significantly higher brain-to-body ratio compared to other species.
The experiment, detailed in the journal microbial genomics, involved transferring gut microbes from three primate species to mice – two with large brains (humans and squirrel monkeys) and one with a small brain (macaque). The results showed that mice receiving gut bacteria from larger-brained species produced more energy to support brain function, while those with gut flora from smaller-brained primates stored more energy as fat.
Amato explained, “Our findings suggest that as humans and squirrel monkeys independently evolved larger brains, their microbial communities also adapted in similar ways to meet the energy demands.” The study also found that the outcomes of feeding human microbes to mice were more akin to other large-brained species than previously thought.
Researchers are now extending their studies to other primate species to further explore the impact of gut microbes on brain evolution.
About our experts:
Dr. Katherine Amato is an Associate Professor of Biological Anthropology at Northwestern University in Illinois, USA. Her research interests include the gut microbiome, human evolution, and primate ecology.
Swedish and Polish paleontologists are using hundreds of fossilized fecal and vomit samples from the Polish Basin in central Europe to reconstruct the rise of dinosaurs to play a dominant role in Earth’s ancient ecosystems. I investigated.
Bone-crushing archosaur fecal fossil smoke, smoke In the background is reconstruction. Image credit: Grzegorz Niedzwiedzki.
The fossil record shows that dinosaurs evolved during the mid-Triassic period (247 to 237 million years ago).
However, the dominance of dinosaurs in terrestrial ecosystems was not seen until the early Jurassic period, about 30 million years later.
Although many non-dinosaur tetrapods (four-limbed vertebrates) were expelled during this period, questions remain as to why dinosaurs came to dominate the ecosystem.
“The real detective work is piecing together ‘who ate who’ in the past,” said Martin Kvarnström, a paleontologist at Uppsala University.
“Being able to examine what animals ate and how they interacted with their environment helps us understand what enabled dinosaurs to be so successful.”
Dr. Kvarnström and his colleagues reconstructed the food web using more than 500 fossilized remains of digestive material (such as feces and vomit), known as bromalite, collected from the Polish Basin, which spans the Late Triassic to Early Jurassic period. We investigated this transition by constructing a.
“The research material was collected over a period of 25 years,” said Dr. Grzegorz Niedrzywicki, a paleontologist at Uppsala University and the Polish Geological Institute.
“It took years to piece everything together and paint a coherent picture.”
“Our study is innovative because we chose to understand the ecology of early dinosaurs based on their dietary preferences.”
“There were a lot of surprising discoveries along the way.”
Analysis of these remains (including 3D imaging of internal structures to reveal undigested food content) is compared to the existing fossil record, along with climate and botanical data, to determine the size and presence of vertebrates during this period. We estimated the change in quantity.
These data indicate that non-dinosaur tetrapods replaced omnivorous ancestors of early dinosaurs that evolved into the first carnivorous and herbivorous dinosaurs towards the end of the Triassic.
Researchers now believe that environmental changes associated with increased volcanic activity may have led to a greater variety of plant prey, which in turn led to the emergence of larger and more diverse herbivore species. Suggests.
This led to the evolution of even larger carnivorous dinosaurs by the beginning of the Jurassic period, completing the transition to dinosaur dominance within the ecosystem.
This analysis sheds light on the emergence of dinosaur dominance within the Polish Basin ecosystem.
“Our findings support the idea that stochastic processes and competitive advantage enabled dinosaurs’ great evolutionary success,” the authors said.
“Dinosaurs gradually achieved supremacy over 30 million years of evolution.”
“The processes illustrated by the Polish data may explain global patterns and shed new light on the emergence of environmentally dominated dinosaur dominance and gigantism that persisted until the mass extinction at the end of the Cretaceous.” We suggest that there is a
M. Kvarnström others. Digestive content and food webs record the advent of dinosaur supremacy. naturepublished online on November 27, 2024. doi: 10.1038/s41586-024-08265-4
The origins of the world’s oldest known writing system may be traced back to painted decorated cylinders used for indicating ownership. Some symbols found on these cylindrical seals match those used in Protocuneiform, a form of protowriting utilized in Mesopotamia.
This finding suggests that the development of writing in Mesopotamia was a decentralized process, with numerous people from different regions contributing to the collection of symbols used.
“There have been various reconstructions over the years regarding the emergence of writing in Mesopotamia, but this is likely the earliest instance of writing invention in the world,” mentions Silvia Ferrara from the University of Bologna, Italy. “We are following a more vibrant and less constrained trajectory.”
The oldest confirmed writing system, cuneiform, was developed in Mesopotamia around 3200 BC. This was preceded by the introduction of a simpler writing system known as Protocuneiform, which was in use from 3350 to 3000 BC.
Proto-cuneiform texts lack grammatical rules, making them incapable of conveying complex meanings, as highlighted by Amy Richardson from the University of Reading, UK, who was not part of the research. For example, while proto-cuneiform can label something as “7 bushels of wheat”, only a sophisticated script like cuneiform can express “7 bushels of wheat are being delivered to you.”
The inception of proto-cuneiform is often associated with clay tokens, which were tokenized in various shapes like disks and spheres, engraved with patterns, and pressed into wet clay to create symbols. Some token symbols bear resemblance to those found in proto-cuneiform, as noted by Dennis Schmandt-Becker in a publication at the University of Texas at Austin in 1992 (before writing).
There is evidence supporting the role of tokens in the genesis of proto-cuneiform, according to Ferrara. However, as she mentions, not all signs can be explained by tokens.
Ferrara, along with her colleagues Kathryn Kelly and Mattia Caltrano, researchers at the University of Bologna, took a different approach by investigating another source of symbols: cylinder seals. These cylindrical artifacts, inscribed with patterns and images, when rolled over wet clay, imprint a set of rectangular symbols, often signifying the goods being transported or the individuals involved in the transaction, as described by Caltrano.
Both sides of the original cuneiform dial
CDLI
The researchers analyzed cylinder seals from the period between 4400 BC and 3400 BC across a vast region of southwest Asia, including Mesopotamia, and identified several symbols corresponding to those in proto-cuneiform.
“One prominent example we encountered was the depiction of fringed cloth and containers inside netting,” mentioned Caltrano. These symbols hold well-defined meanings related to goods transportation and are common in both cylindrical seals and proto-cuneiform tablets.
The concept that symbols on cylinder seals influenced those in proto-cuneiform had been previously proposed by scholars like Holly Pittman in a 1994 book chapter at the University of Pennsylvania in Philadelphia, with further developments in subsequent publications (link to publication). Pittman expressed satisfaction with the increasing recognition of her ideas among newer scholars with expertise in cuneiform.
“There seems to be a compelling correlation in the specific examples described in this article,” remarked Richardson. She cited her own research findings on the use of cylinder seals in recording interactions between cities.
This does not undermine the potential role of tokens. Richardson noted that there are still valid arguments suggesting the foundational importance of tokens, particularly in the development of counting systems.
If proto-cuneiform indeed originated from a mix of sources like tokens and cylinder seals, it sheds light on the diverse origins of this writing system. Ferrara pointed out that the evidence supports the argument that writing invention in Mesopotamia was more widespread and decentralized than previously thought. While the elites in the metropolis of Uruk played a crucial role, other administrators, as well as merchants scattered throughout the region, might have also contributed. “There is a growing body of evidence suggesting a broader and diversified impetus for the development of writing,” she added.
Initially, writing served administrative purposes rather than narrative ones. Richardson commented, “Early written records were primarily focused on organizing materials, goods, people, and things, aiming to establish social systems.”
Kakapo (Strigops habroptilus) is a species of flightless parrot endemic to New Zealand.
Kakapo (Strigops habroptilusImage courtesy of Jake Osborne.
“Our research has prompted us to rethink our native fauna,” said Dr Paul Schofield, from Canterbury Museum.
“Many species that were thought to be iconic natives of New Zealand – the classic example being the takahe – are now known to be relatively recent species that arrived from Australia only a few million years ago.”
In their study, Dr Schofield and his colleagues focused on the so-called St Bathans Fauna, a collection of more than 9,000 specimens from 33 palaeontological sites and individual deposits near the village of St Bathans in Central Otago, New Zealand’s South Island.
These sites, once the bed of a large prehistoric lake, provide the only significant insight into non-marine life in New Zealand from 20 million years ago (the Early Miocene).
Rare creatures in the St Bathans fauna include: Hercules’ Unexpected a giant parrot that scientists have named Squawkzilla, two mysterious mammals, flamingos, a three-metre crocodile, a giant horned turtle, and a giant bat.
“Twenty-three years of excavations at St Bathans have changed our ideas about the age of New Zealand’s fauna and the importance of some animals over others,” Dr Schofield said.
“For example, we previously thought that birds like kiwis and moas were the oldest representatives of New Zealand’s fauna.”
“We are now beginning to realise that the kakapo, New Zealand’s little wrens and bats, and even the odd freshwater limpet are the true ancient inhabitants of New Zealand.”
The authors conclude that this rare group of animals became extinct as a result of a dramatic drop in temperature over the past five million years or so.
“The work at St Bathans has transformed our understanding of the non-marine vertebrate fauna of New Zealand during the Early Miocene, around 20 million years ago,” Dr Trevor Worthy, from Flinders University, said.
“It’s incredibly exciting to be part of a project that continues to discover brand new things about what animals lived in New Zealand’s lakes, rivers, and surrounding forests at such a pivotal time in history.”
“Every year we find new specimens – amazing discoveries of new species that we never could have imagined when we first started working there.”
“The animals that lived in New Zealand 20 million years ago were very different to those found today,” said Dr Vanessa De Pietri, from the University of Canterbury.
“For example, there was another giant eagle that was not related to Haast’s eagle (Hieraethus Moulay)”
“We had a lot of pretty unusual songbirds, we had alligators and maybe even some small mammals that we call waddling mice.”
“Research is still ongoing to understand what it was exactly.”
This study paper Published in the journal Geobios.
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Trevor H. Worthy othersSummary of the Early Miocene St Bathans fauna of New Zealand. GeobiosPublished online August 6, 2024; doi: 10.1016/j.geobios.2024.03.002
This article has been adapted from an original release by Canterbury Museum.
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