Credit: National Astronomical Observatory of Japan / Ko Arimatsu
Recent research reveals that a small, icy celestial body located in the Kuiper Belt, comparable to Pluto, possesses an atmosphere.
This object, designated as (612533) 2002 XV93, marks its discovery nearly 25 years ago and has a diameter under 500 kilometers.
It is classified within the Plutino group, sharing a similar stable orbit with Pluto, completing three solar revolutions for every two of Neptune.
On January 10, 2024, (612533) 2002 XV93 caused an occultation, passing in front of a distant star. A team led by Wataru Arimatsu at Kyoto University monitored this event across three locations in Japan.
If there were no atmosphere, the star’s light would have blinked away almost instantaneously as it obscured 2002 XV93.
However, the researchers noticed that the star’s light gradually faded and returned within approximately 1.5 seconds at the shadow’s edge.
“This gradual change suggests that starlight is being refracted by a thin atmosphere enveloping 2002 XV93,” explains Arimatsu.
The team estimates a surface pressure of 100 to 200 nanobars—dramatically thinner than Earth’s atmosphere, approximately 5 to 10 million times less, and about 50 to 100 times thinner than Pluto’s atmosphere.
“I couldn’t breathe, feel the wind, or see anything reminiscent of Earth’s sky,” said Arimatsu. “Nonetheless, this thin atmosphere significantly bends starlight, indicating the presence of volatile gases around small icy bodies.”
While the exact composition of the atmosphere remains undetermined, Arimatsu speculates that methane, nitrogen, and carbon monoxide could be potential constituents, as these gases are highly volatile even under the frigid temperatures of the outer solar system.
Another question arises regarding the gas emissions from the interior of 2002 XV93, potentially suggesting volcanic activity or a result of cosmic collisions.
“This discovery reshapes our understanding of small celestial bodies in the outer solar system,” Arimatsu asserts. “Traditionally, detectable atmospheres were believed to be exclusive to planets, dwarf planets, and a select few large moons. 2002 XV93 stands as one of the smallest known celestial objects with a clearly detectable atmosphere.”
Astonished, Ben Montet from the University of New South Wales in Sydney remarked, “If one stood on this icy surface, they wouldn’t see a sky like ours. This challenges the belief that even the faintest atmosphere cannot exist on small celestial bodies.”
Explore the Mysteries of the Universe: Cheshire, England
Join a weekend adventure with some of science’s leading minds and delve into the enigmas of the universe, featuring a tour of the iconic Lovell Telescope.
A team of Japanese astronomers has discovered a thin atmosphere surrounding the trans-Neptunian object (612533) 2002 XV93, which has an approximate diameter of 500 km. This celestial body is too small and cold to retain a substantial atmosphere.
Artist’s conception of trans-Neptunian object 2002 XV93. Image by: National Astronomical Observatory of Japan
“The cold regions of the outer solar system host thousands of small bodies known as trans-Neptunian objects (TNOs) because they orbit outside Neptune.” according to Dr. Ko Arimatsu from Ishigakijima Observatory.
“While Pluto, the most well-known TNO, has been observed with a thin atmosphere, studies of other TNOs generally yield negative results.”
“Most TNOs are extremely cold and possess weak surface gravity, making it unlikely for them to maintain an atmosphere.”
Astronomers utilized stellar occultation to study trans-Neptunian object 2002 XV93, measuring its light fluctuations as background stars passed behind it.
“With a diameter of around 500 km, 2002 XV93 is significantly smaller than Pluto, which has a diameter of 2,377 km,” they noted.
“On January 10, 2024, 2002 XV93’s orbit caused it to briefly obscure a background star.”
“As the star gradually dimmed while being obscured by 2002 XV93, it indicated the possibility of light attenuation due to the thin atmosphere, or a sudden disappearance as it moved behind the solid surface of the TNO.”
The researchers concluded that the observed behavior best supports the existence of a thin atmosphere around 2002 XV93.
They estimate that this atmosphere could vanish in approximately 1,000 years unless it is replenished in some manner.
This suggests that the atmosphere must have formed or been replenished relatively recently.
“Observations with the NASA/ESA/CSA James Webb Space Telescope reveal no indications of frozen gas that could sublimate to create an atmosphere on 2002 XV93,” the authors stated.
“One hypothesis is that deep internal processes brought frozen or liquid gas to the surface of the TNO.”
“Alternatively, a comet may have collided with 2002 XV93, releasing gas and forming a temporary atmosphere.”
“Further investigations are essential to clarify these possibilities.”
“This finding sheds light on the potential for even smaller TNOs to temporarily harbor atmospheres, challenging conventional volatile retention models,” the researchers concluded.
“Our results imply that some distant icy bodies could be sustained by ongoing cryovolcanism or exhibit atmospheres formed by recent impacts from small icy objects.”
The team’s research paper was published in the journal Nature Astronomy.
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Kazuya Arimatsu et al.. Discovery of the atmosphere surrounding a trans-Neptunian object beyond Pluto. Nat Astron, published online on May 4, 2026. doi: 10.1038/s41550-026-02846-1
Happy 50th birthday, Apple! As we approach April 2026, let’s dive into some of the tech giant’s most iconic products, the challenges that shaped them, and what exciting innovations lie ahead.
Iconic Products
#1 Apple II
The Apple II, launched in 1977, was pivotal in transforming Apple from a budding startup to a technology powerhouse.
VisiCalc, the first mainstream spreadsheet application, launched on Apple II – Image credit: Getty Images
Unlike the DIY computer kits of its era, the Apple II arrived fully assembled, featuring color graphics and connectivity to home televisions.
Its success was fueled by software innovations, most notably VisiCalc, which became a staple in small and medium-sized businesses. This revenue surge financed Apple’s ascent during the 1980 stock market boom and paved the way for future innovations.
#2 Macintosh 128K
While the Apple II laid the foundation, the Macintosh 128K, introduced in 1984, fundamentally redefined user interaction with computers.
Its revolutionary graphical user interface replaced complex text commands with intuitive mouse control, catalyzing a desktop publishing revolution.
The Macintosh 128K played a pivotal role in shaping Apple’s identity – Image credit: Getty Images
Though sales were modest, the Macintosh solidified Apple’s reputation for sleek design and enhanced user experience, distinguishing it from IBM competitors.
#3 iMac G3
The iMac G3, designed by Jony Ive, revitalized Apple under Steve Jobs – Image courtesy of Getty Images
Launched in 1998, the iMac G3 emerged as Apple faced significant financial struggles. This all-in-one computer was instrumental in reviving the brand, featuring vibrant colors and innovative USB connectivity.
The controversial “hockey puck” mouse became iconic, and the iMac G3 solidified Apple’s reputation by merging functionality with modern design.
#4 iPod (1st Generation)
When the iPod debuted in 2001, it catapulted Apple into the musical spotlight, changing the way we consume music forever.
The iPod transformed music purchasing and listening habits – Image credit: Getty Images
With an intuitive scroll wheel and seamless integration with iTunes, the iPod outperformed its competitors, setting new music consumption standards and laying the groundwork for future mobile technologies.
#5 iPhone 3G
While the original iPhone marked Apple’s entry into smartphones, the iPhone 3G, released in 2008, truly revolutionized mobile technology.
With major upgrades including 3G connectivity and the introduction of the App Store, the iPhone 3G redefined mobile usability.
The iPhone 3G epitomized Apple’s vision for smartphones – Image courtesy of Alamy
Developers quickly flocked to create thousands of apps, skyrocketing sales and launching the modern smartphone era.
Notable Missteps
Apple III
In its rush to compete with IBM, Apple released the Apple III without comprehensive testing, leading to overheating and stability issues that tarnished the brand’s credibility.
Apple Pippin
Apple’s attempt to merge gaming with the Macintosh experience fell flat with the Pippin, unable to compete due to its high price and limited game library, selling only 42,000 units against a target of 500,000.
Apple Vision Pro
Despite its innovation, high costs have hampered the Vision Pro’s success – Image courtesy of Apple
The Vision Pro, featuring advanced optics and software, impressed critics but struggled with sales due to its steep price and limited practicality for the average consumer.
The Future of Apple
What lies ahead for Apple? Speculations abound regarding AI-driven smart glasses, smart home displays, and even proprietary security cameras. However, the most buzz surrounds the rumored “iPhone Fold,” possibly set for release this year.
The iPhone Fold aims to eliminate the creases that plague current foldable tech – Image credit: Getty Images
The anticipated “iPhone Fold” is expected to transition from a 5.5-inch display to an iPad mini-sized screen, a “book-style” foldable design.
While competitors like Google and Samsung have forayed into this territory, Apple’s history suggests that innovation often comes with its own timing.
However, this foldable device won’t come cheaply; reports suggest a price tag of around $2,500 (£1,900).
Monkeys Navigate Virtual Worlds Using Brain-Computer Interface
Peter Jansen et al. 2026
Equipped with advanced brain-computer interfaces (BCIs), monkeys demonstrated their ability to navigate various virtual worlds using only their thoughts. Researchers aim to use these findings to help individuals with paralysis explore virtual environments and control motorized wheelchairs intuitively.
Peter Jansen and colleagues at the University of Leuven in Belgium conducted transplants in three rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) fitted with BCIs. Each monkey received three implants containing 96 electrodes strategically placed in the primary motor cortex, dorsal, and ventral premotor cortex. The primary motor cortex is crucial in BCI research and is associated with physical movement, while the other two regions facilitate abstract movement planning. Electrical signals from the implants were interpreted by an AI model to control a virtual reality (VR) avatar as the monkey interacted with a 3D monitor.
During the experiment, the monkeys could control a sphere that moved across a VR landscape from a fixed viewpoint. They progressed to directing an animated monkey avatar from a third-person perspective, similar to popular video games. Subsequent trials allowed the monkeys to navigate their virtual surroundings by interacting with doors and moving from room to room.
Unlike previous BCI experiments involving humans, which required physical movements like finger motions to manipulate cursors, Janssen believes that placing sensors within the monkeys facilitated a more intuitive connection to movement.
“We can’t directly communicate with these monkeys, but fundamentally, we think this method provides a more natural way to control systems,” Janssen remarked. He likened current BCI experiences to “trying to move your ears,” noting that this disconnection can be frustrating and requires extended practice to master.
Janssen is optimistic that this innovative approach may eventually translate to humans, empowering those with paralysis to navigate virtual environments or control electric wheelchairs with ease. However, he also acknowledged the complexities of precise sensor placements in human subjects, stating, “It requires thorough research to pinpoint the right areas, given our limited understanding of these regions in humans. Nevertheless, once identified, it should be feasible and even simpler since humans can articulate their experiences.”
Andrew Jackson from the University of Newcastle in the UK commended the study’s ability to allow monkeys to maintain control across various perspectives and situations. This suggests that BCI may engage abstract parts of the brain related to movement, providing an adaptable approach similar to how people switch between different video games using the same controller.
“With a multitude of buttons available, different games demand specific mappings that can be challenging to navigate,” Jackson noted. “However, this approach simplifies the process as there are only limited combinations to explore. A scenario requiring you to abandon your controller for an external task would present a greater challenge.”
Preliminary trials of simpler BCIs have been conducted on humans. For instance, a paralyzed individual successfully piloted a virtual drone through an intricate obstacle course merely by envisioning finger movements, with AI interpreting the resulting signals. In another instance, imagining writing with a pen enabled a computer to transcribe thoughts into text.
In 2024, Neuralink, co-founded by the controversial billionaire Elon Musk, announced a groundbreaking development: the first human BCI installation, allowing cursor control on a computer. However, reports later revealed that approximately 85% of the electrode threads had misaligned within a month, compromising functionality. Neuralink has faced scrutiny over suspicions of animal mistreatment, claims Musk has denied while also navigating a U.S. government investigation tied to the experiment. The situation has seemingly stalled under President Donald Trump.
Recent archival data from ESA’s Cassini mission reveals that Saturn’s magnetic bubble is asymmetrically shaped, influenced not only by the solar wind but also by Saturn’s rapid rotation and the material emitted by its moons.
A diagram illustrating Saturn’s magnetosphere configuration affected by solar wind and rapid rotation. Image credit: Xu et al., doi: 10.1038/s41467-026-69666-9.
Saturn’s magnetosphere serves as a shield, protecting the planet from highly charged particles in the solar wind.
Its magnetic footprint is vast, spanning over 10 times the width of Saturn.
A study led by Professor Andrew Coates from University College London analyzed six years of Cassini data to precisely locate Saturn’s cusp, the point where magnetic fields bend towards the planet’s poles and charged particles descend into its atmosphere.
The researchers discovered that this cusp is displaced to the right from the sun’s perspective, typically found between 1 PM and 3 PM (akin to a clock face), compared to the 12 PM position seen on Earth.
This asymmetry is attributed to Saturn’s rapid rotation, which completes a cycle in just 10.7 hours, along with the dense plasma environment resulting from its moons, especially Enceladus.
These factors contribute to pulling the magnetic field lines to the right, though further simulations are needed for validation.
Enceladus, known for its icy plumes erupting from subsurface oceans, holds potential for extraterrestrial life. Saturn’s diverse environment is particularly intriguing as it is slated to be the focus of a significant ESA mission launching in the 2040s.
“The cusp allows the solar wind direct access into the magnetosphere,” states Professor Coates.
“Understanding the location of Saturn’s cusp is crucial for mapping its entire magnetic bubble.”
“Gaining deeper insights into Saturn’s environment is increasingly important as we prepare for missions returning to Saturn and its moon Enceladus.”
“These findings invigorate our enthusiasm for future explorations.”
“This time, we will search for signs of habitability and potential life.”
“The study supports the long-held theory that the rapid rotation of gas giants like Saturn, coupled with their active moons, displaces the solar wind, shaping their magnetospheres differently than Earth’s.”
“This suggests that gas giants like Saturn have unique magnetospheric behaviors compared to Earth.”
“Enceladus is a significant contributor to this dynamic, emitting substantial water vapor that ionizes and infuses the magnetosphere with heavy plasma, further influenced by Saturn’s rotation.”
“The contrasts between Saturn’s and Earth’s magnetic structures imply a fundamental process governing solar wind interactions among different planets,” explains Professor Zhonghua Yao from the University of Hong Kong.
“Comprehensive observations of Earth elucidate its mechanisms, while comparative studies across planets unveil fundamental laws applicable to understanding other celestial environments, including exoplanets.”
“By integrating Cassini’s observations with simulations, we illustrate how Saturn’s rapid rotation and Enceladus’s plasma emissions contribute to the asymmetric global distribution of cusps,” says researcher Dr. Yang Xu from Southern University of Science and Technology.
“We aim for this research to serve as a crucial reference for future explorations of Jupiter and Saturn’s environments.”
Let me be upfront: I’m not an expert in gardening. In fact, I’ve managed to kill remarkably hardy plants—including a cactus! Although I appreciate the beauty of flowers, this review reflects the perspective of a novice gardener who struggles to cultivate blooms.
Despite my lack of gardening skills, David George Haskell clearly possesses deep knowledge of flowering plants. His latest book, How Flowers Created Our World, is rich with insights drawn from his own garden and his involvement in habitat restoration projects. Haskell’s deep affection for flowers shines through every page.
Haskell is a biologist at Emory University in Atlanta, Georgia, and a seasoned author with several books on botany and ecology. His previous work, Wild and Broken Sounds, explored animal communications and the threats they face from human activities such as noise pollution and deforestation.
His core thesis asserts that society’s perception of flowering plants is fundamentally flawed. Haskell argues that in many Western cultures, flowers are often dismissed as fragile ornaments—pretty but devoid of strength or significance.
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Flowering plants emerged during the dinosaur era and swiftly dominated the landscape. “
This misunderstanding contributes to flowers being viewed as “feminine,” leading many men to shy away from floral garnishes on beverages—instead opting for traditional ales, ironically brewed from flowering plants.
However, Haskell emphasizes, “Flowers have the power to change the world.” The emergence and diversification of flowering plants during the late dinosaur period were pivotal in transforming ecosystems and spurring the evolution of various life forms. Rainforests, bees, savannahs, meadows, and even humans are intricately linked to the survival of flowering plants.
To illustrate his points, Haskell dedicates eight of the book’s nine chapters to exploring different facets of flower ecology, each centered around a specific flower species.
He begins with the Magnolia, a flower that has remained largely unchanged for 100 million years, serving as a window into the history of the earliest flowering plants. Angiosperms, as flowering plants are known, appeared during the age of the dinosaurs and quickly established dominance—addressing the long-standing debates regarding their exact timeline.
As flowering plants ascended, they relegated many ancient plant groups to the periphery of ecosystems. Most of what we consider “trees” are flowering plants, as are all grasses. Haskell writes, “Earth is a planet of flowers.”
Transitioning from magnolia to goat’s beard, he showcases how rapidly and innovatively flowering plants evolve. He argues that the repeated duplication of genomic fragments is fundamental, creating a vast genetic reservoir and allowing angiosperms to develop numerous advantageous traits.
Orchids exemplify the intricate relationships flowering plants form with insects, birds, and fungi, while seagrasses illustrate how flowering plants create entire ecosystems, offering habitats for various wildlife and reshaping their environments.
In the latter half of the book, Haskell focuses on the profound connection between humans and flowering plants. Using roses as a case study, he highlights the diverse scents flowers produce and their significance in human relationships, as well as their role in the perfume industry. Linnaeus’s modern classification system was partially based on his studies of tea plants. Essentially, all major grains like wheat and corn are flowering plants. Without these vital species, sustaining the global population would be impossible.
Though Haskell passionately argues for the significance of flowering plants, this fervor can sometimes lead to overgeneralizations. He portrays a pre-angiosperm world as dull and largely devoid of color and scent, not giving credit to the ancestral visual signals that date back to early complex animals during the Cambrian period. The exact colors of primitive marine life and flora remain a mystery.
Likewise, chemical communication, an ancient evolutionary trait, is widespread and not fully understood in the vast oceans.
Despite minor critiques, Haskell rightly emphasizes the critical role of flowering plants in our ecosystems and the necessity of preserving their biodiversity. In the final chapter, he delves into the future of flowers, fluidly discussing emerging concepts such as wildflower gardens and rewilding efforts.
My only reservation regarding this book is its structure. Haskell presents the idea that “flowers are cool” in a rather simplistic manner, stringing together loosely connected essays rather than crafting a cohesive narrative. Readers shouldn’t expect a gripping story; instead, they are invited to savor Haskell’s poetic prose.
I can’t help but think Haskell may have been inspired by Marcel Proust. In In Search of Lost Time, the narrator recalls memories through the taste of a madeleine. Haskell encourages readers to appreciate the tens of millions of years of evolution evident in magnolia petals and stamens.
While Haskell’s narrative style differs from my preferred directness, his works are well-researched, insightful, and vividly articulate. They possess great depth and merit.
Michael Marshall is a science writer based in Devon, UK, and the author of Genesis Quest.
Discover how plants can “hear” caterpillars munching and even exhibit learning and memory. Gagliano emphasizes that these capabilities often remain unnoticed due to their slower pace of operation compared to humans.
Explore the concept of a “wood wide web”—a network of roots and fungi enabling trees to communicate with one another. Simard’s research has been pivotal to our understanding of this intricate natural phenomenon.
Fungi, a unique and often misunderstood group of organisms, are central to our lives. Sheldrake dives into their roles in food production and the profound experiences they can provide.
The birth of a child is often celebrated as one of life’s happiest moments. Indeed, it can be emotionally intense, surpassing many other experiences the human brain can encounter.
However, that initial moment of becoming a parent is fleeting. Following it, you are on a lifelong journey of parenthood, which comes with its own set of challenges.
Across various societies and cultures, the significance of the parent-child relationship is emphasized and celebrated. Yet, research highlights the troubling trend of the “parental penalty,” revealing a disconnect between these societal beliefs and the reality of parenthood.
Numerous studies indicate that parents often report lower overall well-being compared to non-parents. This is particularly pronounced in developed nations, with the United States showcasing the largest happiness gap between parents and non-parents.
In contrast, countries like Portugal report that parents often feel happier than their non-parent counterparts, followed closely by Hungary, Spain, and Norway.
Understanding the Childcare Gap
Why does this happiness disparity exist? And why is it so variable across different countries?
The emotional bond between a parent and child is both powerful and complicated. While the emotional highs are profound, the lows can be equally overwhelming, often making the parenting journey emotionally taxing.
Moreover, various factors have been undermining parents’ access to essential resources such as jobs, housing, and community support in many developed nations. This has made it increasingly challenging for individuals to maintain stability, let alone pursue long-term goals like home ownership or career advancement.
The emotional landscape of parenting is complex; even the most intense joys come with significant challenges. – Image credit: Getty Images
If modern life is inherently stressful, the added burden of raising children amplifies this stress, reducing personal autonomy and choice.
This notion is supported by evidence from various countries. The United States, characterized by its individualistic culture, often provides limited social support to parents. Consequently, the weight of parenting responsibilities often remains unrelieved.
Conversely, nations like Portugal and Hungary extend considerable government support to parents, which may significantly alleviate stress and boost overall happiness.
Nevertheless, it’s crucial to note that research on happiness is multifaceted and not definitive. Variances in cultural attitudes towards community support can heavily influence findings.
Interestingly, some studies suggest a correlation between countries with the happiest parents and progressive policies, like the decriminalization of drugs. Yet, establishing clear connections remains complex.
What we can conclude, however, is that raising children is one of the most demanding roles a person can undertake. Many developed nations are beginning to acknowledge this, yet efforts to support parents effectively remain inadequate.
This article addresses the query from Rhonda Price of Powys: “Which country is the least happy for parents?”
If you have inquiries, please contact us at:questions@sciencefocus.com or reach out viaFacebook,Twitter, or Instagram(please include your name and location).
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Michael Pollan’s Exploration of Consciousness in ‘A World Appears’
Addictive Stock Creative / Aram
What is consciousness? This enduring question stands at the forefront of scientific inquiry, challenging our understanding of the human experience. Our familiarity with consciousness can often hinder its objective study. Science maintains an emphasis on objectivity, presenting a paradox in evaluating a phenomenon that is inherently subjective.
This dilemma is central to Michael Pollan’s compelling new book, The World Appears: A Journey into Consciousness. Pollan, known for transformative works such as The Omnivore’s Dilemma and How to Change Your Mind, delves into the intricacies of consciousness in a manner that is both enlightening and thought-provoking, capturing my interest as a science journalist.
Pollan approaches the topic with a genuine curiosity, grappling with the profound questions surrounding how and why both humans and other organisms experience consciousness. His explorations are as intriguing as the subject itself, and at times, they require deep reflection.
Over a span of five years, Pollan engaged with a variety of disciplines including artificial intelligence, plant biology, Victorian literature, and Buddhist philosophy to understand consciousness better. Managing such a broad scope of topics into a cohesive narrative is no small feat, and Pollan adeptly crafts his book into four chapters, each representing a deeper layer of consciousness.
Pollan’s initial insights stem from personal experiences with magic mushrooms, which led him to perceive the sentience of plants in his garden. His explorations prompted discussions with researchers studying similar phenomena. Noteworthy findings, such as plant roots possessing the ability to solve mazes, offer fascinating insights. While he is not yet convinced that plants have consciousness, he considers them sentient—existing in a realm just shy of awareness.
The second chapter shifts focus to emotions and feelings, presenting an intriguing yet troubling pitfall in understanding consciousness. Pollan introduces a series of scientists working on endowing machines with consciousness, including those programming computers to seek sustenance in a digital habitat. This reduction of consciousness to mere survival instincts raises unsettling questions: Is consciousness merely a byproduct of basic needs? This notion challenges our understanding and sense of wonder, a tension Pollan vividly addresses throughout the text.
The subsequent chapters address thought and self—a territory often neglected by scientists. Pollan wisely turns to philosophers and artists who have contemplated consciousness’ enigmas for much longer. He speculates that consciousness might arise from specific configurations of matter, typical in neural networks. However, this material perspective can undermine the richness and vibrancy inherent in the concept of consciousness.
Pollan ultimately posits that the materialist view of consciousness has reached an impasse. While not all scholars agree, he advocates for exploring ideas that challenge mainstream thinking, proposing that consciousness may not emerge solely from the brain or body but could be woven into the very fabric of reality, similar to fundamental forces like gravity.
Concluding his journey, Pollan acknowledges that he knows less about consciousness than he did at the outset. This sentiment resonates with me, echoing Christoph Koch—a prominent authority on consciousness—who suggests that acknowledging our limitations in understanding may pave the way to new possibilities. Pollan emphasizes that approaching consciousness as a practice, rather than a puzzle, allows us to engage fully with the present moment, a perspective I wholeheartedly support.
It’s easy to feel hopeless about the state of our planet. The climate crisis is intensifying, extinction rates are alarming, forests are vanishing, water cycles are disrupted, and pollution is suffocating urban areas, creating marine dead zones. The science that explains climate change is often disregarded as “scammer’s work.”
Yet, I remain optimistic. Green energy technologies are rapidly advancing and becoming more affordable, even catching the attention of influential figures like President Trump—especially since China‘s strong commitment to low-carbon solutions is reshaping global energy dynamics.
You might call me overly hopeful, but pessimism stifles action. Here are five reasons to be at least a bit optimistic about the future of our planet.
Reason 1: Nature is making a comeback in numerous regions. Species are adapting, evolving, and reclaiming spaces even in the most polluted landscapes. Wolves are roaming across Europe, and tiger populations are on the rise in India. While we must remain vigilant about biodiversity loss, it’s encouraging to see that nature is resilient. Many areas are now being returned to natural habitats as farmers step back from cultivation.
Reason 2: The population crisis is stabilizing. The once-feared baby boom is no longer considered an imminent threat. In fact, many couples today are opting for significantly fewer children, reflecting a reduction in birth rates. Trusting individuals to make their own reproductive choices is proving more effective than coercive policies, such as China’s former one-child policy.
Reason 3: Advances in technology are providing effective solutions to environmental challenges. When the Climate Change Treaty was established in 1992, renewable energy sources like wind turbines were just emerging. Today, over 40% of the world’s electricity is generated from affordable low-carbon technologies, signaling a shift toward reducing fossil fuel dependence.
Reason 4: A peak consumption event is occurring. The material consumption per person in places like Britain has dropped significantly this century, from 16 tons to 11 tons annually. Modern manufacturing processes create more value with fewer resources, and consumers are increasingly prioritizing experiences over material goods.
Reason 5: Local knowledge is a beacon of hope. Recent studies suggest that rural regions are often protectors of the environment rather than its adversaries. Indigenous lands serve as safe havens for biodiversity; deforestation rates are lower within these areas.
The prevalent notion that greed leads to environmental collapse—the so-called tragedy of the commons—is misguided. I believe that collective action by communities can enhance local environments, benefiting the global commons of our atmosphere, climate, and oceans.
While I acknowledge that the worst outcomes are still possible, the path to avoidance lies in decisive action, powered by optimism.
Imagine inhaling fungal spores, then feeling a peculiar sensation—maybe something biting. Suddenly, terror spreads as chaos ensues.
This dire scenario is central to the plot of Refrigerated, a thrilling film following a trio of unlikeliest heroes racing to avert an apocalypse. Their formidable foes? Mutated strains of Cordyceps sinensis—a fungus now infecting warm-blooded animals due to a malevolent twist of solar radiation. Sounds familiar, doesn’t it?
Traditionally, Cordyceps sinensis overtakes invertebrates, invading their systems and manipulating their behavior to ensure spore dispersal. Eventually, grotesque growths erupt from the decaying host, releasing spores into the environment, continuing the cycle of horror.
The shift to mammals is alarming yet plausible. This fungal nightmare isn’t new; it inspired works like The Girl with All the Gifts, which unleashed a zombie apocalypse in 2016, and HBO’s The Last of Us, which also utilized bioterrorism as a gripping theme. With a radio drama titled Spore releasing soon, the cultural fascination with this fungus is at an all-time high.
This obsession with Cordyceps sinensis misrepresents the vast fungal kingdom, which includes over 4,500 documented species in the UK National Collection of Pathogenic Fungi, far surpassing the limited narrative of terror.
Fungi boast incredible traits. For instance, Japanese oak mushroom is the largest organism on Earth, spanning approximately 10 square kilometers beneath Oregon’s Malheur National Forest. Fungi are also ancient ecosystem engineers—research indicates they colonized land before modern plants, laying the groundwork for soil. Some species, like the gill-splitting mushroom (Schizophyllum commune), exhibit remarkable sexual flexibility with over 23,000 mating types to increase reproductive success.
From decomposing organic matter to symbiotic relationships with 90% of plants, fungi play crucial roles in sustaining life. They’ve also given humankind antibiotics like penicillin, treatments for various ailments, and even contributed to beloved foods like sourdough and beer.
Despite representing only about 10% of the fungal diversity, these organisms inspire untold narratives for science fiction—from plastic-decomposing fungi to predatory strains with microscopic lassos. How will climate change affect fungal behavior to threaten crops?
Nonetheless, such inspirations remain overlooked, limiting imaginative portrayals. The fixation on Cordyceps sinensis fosters a narrow narrative that oversimplifies the rich tapestry of fungi. I urge writers to broaden their perspectives—this strange kingdom of fungi is ready to inspire and amaze.
Nick Crampton is a researcher at the Natural History Museum in London and a published children’s author.
Artificial Intelligence (AI) is revolutionizing education by automating tasks like grading and communication with parents, allowing teachers to focus more on student guidance, engagement, and hands-on learning. As technology advances, the future may hold real-time tracking of student progress, automated assessments, and personalized learning paths.
While AI enhances classroom efficiency, the UK government stresses its use should be limited to low-stakes assessments, urging teachers to maintain transparency. This emphasizes the crucial role of human expertise in ensuring the integrity and fairness of high-stakes evaluations.
Science educators possess profound subject knowledge, which is vital for equitable assessments. Their professional judgment and contextual understanding are key to accurately reflecting each student’s potential while maintaining assessment integrity.
Leverage Your Expertise in Education
Pearson, the world’s leading educational company, employs over 18,000 professionals across 70+ countries, positively impacting millions of learners and educators. Roles like examiners, facilitators, and subject experts are crucial in ensuring students achieve the grades necessary to thrive in their careers.
By becoming an Examiner with Pearson, you can play an essential part in our mission to empower students, using your expertise to help maintain the rigorous standards that shape educational qualifications and open doors to future opportunities.
Professional Development Opportunities
Taking on the role of an Examiner offers numerous benefits that positively impact your professional trajectory:
Insight: Gain a comprehensive view of national performance, learning from common mistakes and successful strategies that can benefit your students.
Additional Income: Enjoy flexible work-from-home opportunities that fit seamlessly with your existing educational responsibilities.
Expand Your Network: Connect with fellow education professionals from diverse backgrounds, exchanging ideas and building a supportive community.
Professional Evaluation: Achieve recognized CPD credentials, enriching your professional portfolio with respected subject matter expertise.
What Qualifications Are Required?
To qualify for most Pearson Examiner roles, candidates typically need at least one year of teaching experience within the last eight years, a degree in the relevant subject, and a pertinent educational qualification or its equivalent. A recommendation from a senior professional with teaching experience at your institution is also necessary.
Some vocational qualifications may only require relevant work experience, bypassing the need for a degree or teaching certification.
In 2009, the World Swimming governing body prohibited specific swimsuits from international competitions, citing unfair advantages. High-tech equipment from NASA was instrumental in designing these swimsuits, which featured ultrasonically welded seams instead of traditional stitching.
Swimmers donning these suits shattered 23 of the 25 world records during the 2008 Beijing Olympics. What made this swimwear so revolutionary? The answer lies in its remarkable ability to minimize friction between the swimmer and the water, enhancing speed and performance.
This instance illustrates the critical influence of friction in our world, a theme thoroughly investigated by Jennifer R. Vail in her book, Friction: Biography.
Bale is a tribologist, focusing on friction, wear, and lubrication as materials interact. She emphasizes, “The forces that resist movement drive us forward.” This concept forms the foundation of her work, which, while technical, delves into friction’s impact on science, technology, and civilization—a necessity as we confront future technological hurdles.
“We study friction because it is omnipresent,” Vail remarks. How did ancient Egyptians transport heavy materials for monumental projects? How do anoles and geckos scale vertical surfaces? Why was Teflon included in the Manhattan Project? What aerodynamic principles govern airplane wings? These queries all converge on friction.
From desert sands controlled by hair-like structures on animal legs to synthetic substances optimizing fluid interactions, friction plays a pivotal role, shaping everything from quantum activities to cosmic phenomena. Bale provides a detailed, passionate narrative on friction’s ubiquitous presence, showcasing its significance.
“
Friction has been central to civilization ever since humans began rubbing objects together to create fire. “
While discussing friction, Bale emphasizes the potential risks associated with harnessing this force. Our ability to manipulate friction has been integral to civilization, from the earliest fire-starting methods to modern innovations in engines, turbines, and contact lenses.
However, it is Bale’s outlook on the future that captivates readers. Alarmingly, friction consumes approximately 40% of energy in manufacturing processes, impacting both production and friction mitigation efforts. A study highlighted that an average car’s fuel consumption was over a third burnt solely to counteract friction. In a world increasingly challenged by energy conservation, optimizing friction is vital for sustainable practices.
Vail noted that innovations in tribology could potentially save energy equivalent to 34 million barrels of gasoline annually—180 times the daily gasoline consumption in the U.S. Bale’s urgent call for more tribologists in energy certification and greater emphasis on this field in educational curriculums is vital for our energy future.
This book is essential reading. Yet, despite Bale’s engaging tone and clear enthusiasm, the complexity may overwhelm some casual readers. Nevertheless, the effort is rewarding; gaining insight into friction enriches our understanding of the world, highlighting how countless interactions shape our experiences.
Image Credit: Christopher Michel/Contour RA by Getty Images
Civilizations often define their eras by significant materials. We speak of the Stone Age and the Bronze Age, and currently, we reside in the Silicon Age—marked by the prevalence of computers and mobile devices. What might the next defining era be? Omar Yagi from the University of California, Berkeley, posits that the innovative material he pioneered in the 1990s has promising potential: Metal-Organic Frameworks (MOFs). His groundbreaking work in this area made him a co-recipient of the 2025 Nobel Prize in Chemistry.
MOFs, along with their covalent organic frameworks (COFs) counterparts, are crystalline in structure and notable for their exceptional porosity. In 1999, Yagi and his team achieved a milestone by synthesizing a zinc-based structure known as MOF-5. This material is characterized by its numerous pores, boasting an internal surface area equivalent to that of a football field within merely a few grams (refer to the image below). Internally, the structure offers vastly more space than externally.
Over the years, Yagi has been a pioneer in the development of new MOFs and COFs, a field called reticular chemistry. Understanding how these materials can be utilized is a focal point of his research. Their porous nature allows them to absorb other molecules, making them invaluable for applications such as moisture extraction from arid desert air and atmospheric carbon dioxide capture. In an interview with New Scientist, Yagi expressed optimism about this research, discussing the past, present, and future of reticular chemistry and the impending era of these materials.
Karmela Padavic-Callaghan: What inspired your interest in reticular chemistry?
Omar Yagi: Initially, when we began our work with MOFs, we had no concept that we were addressing social issues; it was purely an intellectual pursuit. We aimed to construct materials molecule by molecule, akin to building a structure or programming using Legos. It was a formidable challenge in chemistry. Many doubted its feasibility and considered our efforts futile.
What made the design of materials seem unfeasible?
The primary hurdle in rationalizing material construction lies in the nature of component mixing, which typically results in disordered, complex arrangements. This aligns with physical laws, as nature tends to favor high entropy or disorder. Therefore, our goal was to engineer a crystal—an ordered entity with a recurring pattern.
It’s akin to instructing your children to form a perfect circle in their room—it demands significant effort. Even upon achieving that circle, if you release your hold, it may take too long to re-establish it. We were essentially attempting to crystallize materials in a day—what nature takes billions of years to accomplish. Nonetheless, I believed that with the right knowledge, anything could be crystallized.
In 1999, your intuition was validated with the publication:Synthesis of MOF-5. Did you foresee its potential utility?
We identified a valuable solvent for synthesizing stable MOFs and understanding its mechanism. This critical insight allows us to minimize disorder, effectively tuning the outcome. Subsequently, thousands of researchers have adopted this method.
Initially, I was just elated to create beautiful crystals. Observing their remarkable properties prompted thoughts of potential applications, particularly in trapping gases. Given their internal compartments, these substances can accommodate water, carbon dioxide, or other molecules.
What’s your perspective on creating these materials today?
I usually avoid elaborate cooking and prefer simple, healthy ingredients. This mindset parallels my approach to chemistry: striving for simplicity while utilizing only necessary chemicals. The first step involves selecting the backbone of material; the second, defining pore sizes; the third, administering chemistry on the backbone to incorporate trapping molecules. This process, while appearing simple, is intricately complex.
What pioneering technologies does this process enable?
By mastering molecular-level design, we foresee significant geological transformations. My vision, along with my company founded in 2020, Atco, encompasses progressing from molecules to practical societal applications—addressing material deficiencies in various tasks or enhancing poorly performed tasks with rational designs. Our advancements in material synthesis will elevate societal standards.
Recently, we unveiled COF-999, the most efficient material for capturing carbon dioxide. Undertaking extensive capture tests, we demonstrated its efficacy in collecting CO2 from the atmosphere for over 100 cycles here in Berkeley. Atoco aims to implement reticulated materials like COF-999 in carbon capture modules suitable for both industrial settings and residential buildings.
Additionally, we’ve devised a novel material capable of extracting thousands of liters of water daily from the atmosphere. This technology relies on our device which can pull moisture even in humidities below 20%, such as in desert locations like Nevada. I foresee that within the next decade, water harvesting will emerge as an everyday technology.
MOFs exhibit a crystalline structure filled with numerous small internal pores.
Image Credit: Eyes of Science/Science Photo Library
How do MOFs and COFs compare with other water and CO2 capture technologies?
We maintain a significant degree of control over the chemistry involved, allowing for sustainable device manufacturing. These devices are long-lasting, and when the MOF component eventually degrades, it can dissolve in water, thus preventing environmental contamination. Consequently, as MOFs scale to multi-ton applications, we should not anticipate a “MOF waste issue.”
For instance, we’ve developed a method to harness ambient sunlight for water release from harvesting devices, thereby enhancing energy efficiency. Similarly, carbon capture technologies can utilize waste heat from industrial processes, rendering them more economical and sustainable compared to competing systems.
However, challenges in scalability and precise molecular release control persist. While producing MOFs in large quantities is feasible, COFs production has not reached such scales yet. I am optimistic that improvements will come swiftly. Optimizing water retention is essential; we must strike the right balance between excessive and insufficient retention.
We are now leveraging artificial intelligence to streamline MOF and COF optimization, making the design process more efficient. Generally, while generating a basic MOF or COF is straightforward, achieving one with finely-tuned properties can be time-consuming, often taking a year. The integration of AI could significantly accelerate this timeline; our lab has successfully doubled the speed of MOF creation by employing large-scale language models.
What promising applications of reticular chemistry should capture public interest?
Reticular chemistry is a thriving field, with millions of new MOFs yet to be synthesized. One intriguing concept involves utilizing MOFs to replicate the catalytic functions of enzymes, enhancing the efficiency of chemical reactions important in drug development and other fields. Some MOFs have demonstrated capabilities comparable to enzymes but with improved longevity and performance, making them ripe for medical and therapeutic applications over the next decade.
An exciting future application lies in “multivariate materials.” This research, largely conducted in my lab, aspires to create MOFs with varied internal environments. By employing different modules paired with varying compounds, we can develop materials that selectively and efficiently absorb gases. This approach encourages chemists to expand their thinking beyond creating uniform structures toward designing heterogeneous frameworks that incorporate diverse elements.
What gives you confidence in the future of MOF and COF innovations?
We’ve merely scratched the surface, with no shortage of concepts for exploration. Since the 1990s, this field has flourished, and while interest in many areas declines over time, that hasn’t occurred here. An exponential rise in patents related to MOFs and COFs reflects ongoing curiosity and the pursuit of novel applications. I appreciate how this research links organic and inorganic chemistry, as well as engineering and AI, evolving beyond traditional chemistry into true scientific frontiers.
I genuinely believe we are at the cusp of a revolution. While it may not always feel that way, something extraordinary is transpiring. We can now design materials in unprecedented ways, connecting them to innovative applications that were once unimaginable.
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Oona Chaplin as Varang in Avatar: Fire and Ash
Image credit: 20th Century Studio, 2025. Unauthorized reproduction is prohibited.
Bethan Ackerley Deputy Editor, London
No one crafts blockbusters quite like James Cameron. Avatar: Fire and Ash, the highly anticipated third installment set on the enchanting moon of Pandora, is both spectacular and visually stunning. The narrative unfolds with captivating themes ranging from interspecies conflicts to deep family dynamics.
Around 15 years after the ex-Marine Jake Sully was embraced by the Na’vi, he now resides on Pandora with his partner Neytiri and their children, having played a crucial role in defeating the human invaders and merging with their Na’vi bodies.
However, they now face the heart-wrenching loss of their eldest son, Neteyam. Their arch-nemesis, Colonel Quaritch, has allied himself with an influential Na’vi tribe that inhabits a volcano and is led by the formidable Varan (as depicted above).
Shakespeare may not measure up (the dialogue is rather crude, to say the least), but the allure of this intricately designed universe is undeniable.
Prepare to be mesmerized by the breathtaking visuals and the story of Payakan, a member of the sentient whale-like species known as the Tulukun, who serves as the emotional core of the film.
Last year, I penned an article for New Scientist detailing how a physicist unveiled the precise method to flawlessly cook the Italian classic, cacio e pepe. The emulsion of black pepper, pecorino cheese, and water can often turn clumpy. Ivan di Terlizzi and his team at the Max Planck Institute for the Physics of Complex Systems experimented with cacio e pepe numerous times to perfect a method that guarantees consistent results.
This topic resonated with many readers. When I recently caught up with one of the scientists involved, he suggested the draw might stem from their research’s ability to unveil order in what can otherwise appear chaotic, especially when examined through the lens of mathematics and precision.
While this perspective is captivating, it also carries risks, as C. Thi Nguyen discusses in his book, Score: How to Stop Playing Someone Else’s Game. Formerly a food critic, Nguyen is now a philosophy professor at the University of Utah in Salt Lake City. He cautions that recipes promising flawless results can obscure the essential values of food as “an exercise of taste and preference.”
By employing scientific rigor—exact measurements and meticulous procedures—the outcomes might be repeatable, but this approach diminishes the diversity of culinary experiences and the delightful chaos that food can represent.
Cooking serves as merely one instance illustrating how modern tendencies to systematize and impose order on chaotic realities—often driven by state bureaucracies—can result in less-than-ideal outcomes. Nguyen constructs a vivid image of a world rife with such consequences.
Using his own academic journey as a reference, Nguyen contends with the rankings that universities and magazines impose. In philosophy, these ratings often derive from websites evaluating departments based on criteria like publishing prestige or scholars’ ability to address specialized queries, contrasting sharply with the “wild, unruly questions” that initially piqued his interest in philosophy. He began to sense a phenomenon he labeled “value capture,” where metrics intended to guide us begin to dictate our actions.
Nguyen argues for embracing these intricate rule-based systems by engaging in games as a means to explore and remain open to life’s experiences. This book encompasses a diverse array of his recreational pursuits, from Dungeons & Dragons to rock climbing, yoga, and yo-yo.
He effectively illustrates why choosing to abide by the rules within a game serves as a “spiritual vaccine” against societal pressures to conform to institutional scoring systems, like those found in educational assessments. While the notion that games can save us may seem optimistic, Nguyen compellingly presents it as a refreshing perspective.
Many of Nguyen’s concepts aren’t groundbreaking, drawing from numerous influential philosophers and scholars shaping his thought process—including Tim Marshall’s Prisoners of Geography, which explains the influence of geography on geopolitics, and James C. Scott’s Seeing Like a State, which scrutinizes the shortcomings of scientifically planned societies.
However, Nguyen’s imaginative approach to discussing the core themes of his book ensures the conversation remains engaging and thought-provoking. This work provides a compelling starting point for further exploration.
Marco Schioppo and Adam Park monitor ultra-stable lasers at the National Physical Laboratory in Teddington, UK.
David Severn, part of Quantum Untangled (2025), Science Gallery, King’s College London
In a striking portrayal, two physicists observe Britain’s revolutionary quantum technology involving ultra-stable lasers at the National Physical Laboratory in London. Captured by photographer David Severn for the **Quantum Untangled** exhibition at King’s College London, this fascinating image was shortlisted for the **Portrait of Britain Award**.
Severn states, “This portrait offers a rare peek into a domain typically hidden from view, like opening a door to a normally restricted lab.” While the photographs are contemporary, he notes that the scientists’ engagements with technology evoke imagery reminiscent of earlier eras, such as a 1940s submarine pilot or operators of a cotton spinning machine from the turn of the 20th century.
Having no background in quantum mechanics before this venture, Severn was briefed on current quantum physics projects in the UK. He observed that the bewildering aspects of quantum science closely align with artistic perspectives. “Although many scientific concepts eluded my detailed understanding, ideas like superposition and quantum entanglement resonated with me intuitively, akin to artistic realization,” he shared.
3D Printed Helmet Prototype
David Severn, part of Quantum Untangled (2025), Science Gallery, King’s College London
Severn’s captivating photographs highlight a range of innovations in quantum physics, showcasing a **3D-printed helmet** (above) designed to house a quantum sensor that images the brain using magnetic fields. He also features a complex **laser table** (below) monitored by Hartmut Grothe from Cardiff University, ensuring that the vacuum pumps sustaining the system remain operational.
Hartmut Grote at the Laser Table
David Severn, part of Quantum Untangled (2025), Science Gallery, King’s College London
Severn’s photography embraces a mystical quality, showcasing the **3D-printed imaging helmet** used by researchers from the University of Nottingham’s Sir Peter Mansfield Imaging Center (as shown above), along with the intricate network of pumps and mirrors essential for maintaining cleanliness in Grothe’s experiments (as depicted below). Severn asserts that this ethereal essence is intentional.
Joe Gibson Wearing a 3D Printed Imaging Helmet at the University of Nottingham
David Severn, part of Quantum Untangled (2025), Science Gallery, King’s College London
Complex Vacuum System from King’s College London’s Photonics and Nanotechnology Group
David Severn, part of Quantum Untangled (2025), Science Gallery, King’s College London
Severn references a favorite quote from photographer Diane Arbus: “Photographs are secrets about secrets. The more they tell you, the less you understand.” He finds a parallel in quantum physics, where just when one thinks they’ve grasped how light behaves, the quantum realm subverts those expectations and exposes the elusive truths underpinning our understanding of reality.
The **Quantum Untangled** exhibition is on display at the Science Gallery at King’s College London until February 28, 2025. This event is a reimagining of the traveling exhibition **Cosmic Titans: Art, Science and the Quantum Universe** organized by Lakeside Arts and ARTlab at the University of Nottingham.
Newly discovered planets orbiting V1298 Tau are unusually lightweight, possessing a density comparable to polystyrene. This discovery may bridge critical gaps in our understanding of planetary system formation.
Unlike most planets in our Milky Way galaxy, which are often larger than Earth and smaller than Neptune, this solar system showcases an uncommon configuration. Astronomers have cataloged numerous planetary systems that formed billions of years ago, complicating our understanding of their genesis.
The research team, led by John Livingstone from the Astrobiology Center in Tokyo and Eric Pettigura from UCLA, has identified four dense planets that likely formed recently around a young star, V1298 Tau, which is around 20 million years old.
“We are examining younger models of the types of planetary systems commonly found across our galaxy,” Pettigura remarked.
Initially discovered in 2017, V1298 Tau and its accompanying planets remained largely unstudied until now. Over five years, researchers utilized both terrestrial and space telescopes to observe tiny variances in orbital durations, revealing intricate gravitational interactions among the four planets. These measurements enable more precise calculations of each planet’s radius and mass.
To effectively employ this observational method, researchers required initial estimates of each planet’s orbital duration without gravitational interference. Lacking that data for the outermost planet, they relied on educated conjectures, risking inaccuracies in their calculations.
“I initially had my doubts,” Petitgras admitted. “There were numerous potential pitfalls… When we first acquired data from the outermost planet, it felt as exhilarating as making a hole-in-one in golf.”
By accurately measuring the orbital durations and subsequently estimating the radii and masses, the team determined the densities of the planets. They discovered these are the lowest-density exoplanets known, with radii spanning five to ten times that of Earth, yet only a few times its mass.
“These planets exhibit a density akin to Styrofoam, which is remarkably low,” Pettigura explained.
This low density can be attributed to the planets’ ongoing gravitational contraction, potentially classifying them as super-Earths or sub-Neptunes—types of planets typically formed during the evolutionary stages.
The planets of V1298 Tau operate in a so-called orbital resonance, indicating their orbital periods are harmonically related. This observation aligns with astronomers’ theories on the formation of most planetary systems, including our own solar system, which initially have tightly packed configurations that eventually evolve into less stable arrangements, according to Sean Raymond from the University of Bordeaux in France.
“This newly identified system of close, low-mass planets revolving around a relatively young star could provide insights into typical sub-Neptunian systems,” Raymond pointed out. “This discovery is remarkable due to the inherent challenges in characterizing such youthful systems.”
The flow of melted snow creates channels through a glacier cave at the Morteratsch Glacier in Switzerland.
Lander Van Tricht
Currently, approximately 1,000 glaciers are disappearing each year, and if nations fulfill their carbon emission reduction goals, this could escalate to 3,000 glaciers lost annually by 2040.
Over the past two decades, at least 4,000 glaciers have melted. Lander Van Tricht and researchers at ETH Zurich in Switzerland utilized climate models to forecast the fate of the globe’s 211,000 glaciers in the coming century under various global warming scenarios.
If current climate targets remain unchanged, the planet is predicted to warm by 2.7 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels this century. This projection implies that 79% of the world’s glaciers will vanish by 2100. Conversely, if humanity manages to limit climate change to 2 degrees Celsius, 63% of glaciers will disappear.
“While we are destined to lose many glaciers, we still have the potential to protect a significant number,” observes David Rounce, who conducted research at Carnegie Mellon University in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.
If countries fail to meet their emissions targets and global warming escalates to 4°C, a staggering 91% of glaciers will be lost.
The forecast for glacier melting is predicted to accelerate sea level rise this century by 25 centimeters. Additionally, it will diminish the summer snowmelt water supply that many regions depend on for irrigation. Approximately two billion individuals live in watersheds nourished by mountain snow and ice, with many residing near rivers originating from Himalayan glaciers.
Moreover, melting ice poses a higher risk of flooding caused by sudden water releases from glacial lakes. In a 2023 incident in India, flooding resulted in the deaths of 55 individuals.
Previous studies have indicated that even if warming is restricted to the Paris Agreement’s most ambitious goal of 1.5 degrees Celsius, half of all glaciers will still melt this century. The recent research suggests that up to 55% may be lost at this level of warming.
The study also outlines the annual glacier loss rate by region. This rate is expected to peak around the mid-century and then decline as smaller glaciers disappear, leaving behind larger ones, particularly in the North and South Poles.
“Large ice takes time to melt, so they will take longer to disappear,” Van Tricht explains.
According to current climate goals, western Canada and the continental United States are likely to lose nearly all their glaciers by 2100. This is a significant setback for tourism, as Montana’s Glacier National Park is expected to lose the majority of its glaciers, although some may endure as small glaciers or ice remnants, based on future studies from the U.S. Geological Survey.
Similarly, the Alps are projected to be largely devoid of glaciers. Local communities are already holding glacier funerals, chronicling the stories of global glacier losses at a dedicated website. In 2019, around 250 individuals, including professors from ETH Zurich involved in this research, trekked to the remnants of the Pizol glacier.
They gathered not only to bid farewell but also to convey to the public that “we are connected to the glacier,” stated Matthias Hass. “When they are gone, it will be a significant loss for us.”
Inside a drawstring bag, you’ll find equipment like bug nets, tweezers, and small plastic vials. This may seem unusual for a photographer, but for Michael Benson, it’s just part of his routine. He dedicated over six years to gathering specimens for his latest publication, Nanocosmos: A Journey Through Electronic Space, a collection showcasing the microscopic realm in exquisite detail.
“I’m fascinated by the boundary between known and unknown territories—an area often linked to science,” he shares. “However, I approach it as an artist, not a scientist.”
That didn’t deter Benson from utilizing tools typically reserved for physicists and biologists. He produced all images for Nanocosmos using a formidable scanning electron microscope (SEM). This advanced technique employs a highly focused electron beam to intricately map surface contours. The resulting images portray submillimeter objects with such clarity that they appear almost extraterrestrial.
Take, for instance, the Acilidae musbifolia (as seen in the main image) alongside a flowering plant in Alberta, Canada. Even together, they span only slightly more than 1 cm. But with SEM technology, we can observe nearly every hair on the fly’s body, each claw on its legs, and even some of the countless individual receptors forming its bulging eyes.
Benson first utilized SEM in 2013 at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology’s Media Lab. “Learning to master SEM was challenging, requiring several years of practice,” he notes. Every specimen must be coated with “a molecularly thin layer of platinum to prevent charging by the electron beam,” and meticulously dried to maintain surface details.
Wing of the Erythemis simplicicollis dragonfly, approximately 3 mm wide, seen from the tip.
The image above showcases the wing feathers of the eastern pontaka dragonfly (Erythemis simplicicollis), captured from beneath at the wing tip. This species is found across the eastern two-thirds of the United States, as well as in southern Ontario and Quebec, Canada. The wings are about 3 mm wide.
Below are images of single-celled marine organisms, specifically Hexalonche philosophica, collected from the equatorial region of the Pacific Ocean, measuring just 0.2 millimeters from tip to tip.
Marine organism Hexalonche philosophica, about 0.2 mm in length
Another marine specimen, Ornithocercus magnificus (featured below), is a type of plankton discovered in the Gulf Stream off Florida’s coast, measuring approximately 0.1 mm in width.
Ornithocercus magnificus, with a width of about 0.1 mm.
The late Ian M. Banks, renowned author of the Culture science fiction series
Ray Charles Redman
As an author of space operas set in unique universes, I’ve always created detailed world-building documents—everything from character arcs to intricate plot outlines and comprehensive cultural entries. This is a crucial aspect of my writing process, and I’ve been studying exemplary models in world-building. One outstanding example is the late Ian M. Banks, who passed in 2013 and was an exceptional architect of worlds.
Best known for his Culture series, Banks portrayed this cultural civilization as a “secular paradise.” In his envisioned world, human, machine, and AI coexist in a post-scarcity utopia, managed by a benevolent AI known as the Mind, which oversees societal well-being. Unlike other science fiction narratives that depict AI as tyrants (think The Matrix), in the Culture, humans and machines enjoy equal rights and meaningful, trusting relationships. Ultimately, while machines govern, they generally make sound decisions, leaving the human population free from oppression.
Yet, it’s rarely that straightforward. In Banks’ The Player of Games (1988), the protagonist, Guruge, becomes disenchanted with his seemingly perfect life within the Culture. His visit to the whimsical Empire of Azad reveals a stark contrast as its inhabitants challenge their cultural utopia, driven by valid grievances. This world has a condescending and ethnographic view of other civilizations, leading to debates about whether to leave them be or assimilate them. In the novella Consider Phlebas, members of the Contact Service acknowledge that integrating Earth into their world could lead to billions of deaths, yet they deem it acceptable if it ultimately creates something better. This ongoing struggle between an idyllic culture and a supremacist empire is a recurring theme, skillfully explored by Banks. His world-building richly contributes to this exploration.
As someone fascinated by the intricacies of world-building, I recently immersed myself in Banks’ posthumously published work, Culture: Drawing, which compiles a collection of his handwritten sketches and notes.
In this book, he addresses a question that resonates with my own writing: What languages do my characters speak, and why? What naming customs do I follow for people and places? How does technology influence not just societal structures but everyday life? Banks’ sketches provide insights into these queries, featuring rough designs of ships, elaborate diagrams of weaponry, numerical calculations, and detailed maps that illustrate both the utopian and militaristic elements of the Culture. These documents reveal the depth of Banks’ writing process and how he achieved the distinctive universe and civilization.
Concept art of the Mini Drone Advanced Weapons System (M-DAWS) microdrone by Iain M. Banks
Ian M. Banks Estate 2023
Currently, I am working on a novel that involves an advanced extraterrestrial culture. I often think back to Octavia Butler’s Lilith’s Brood, where a benevolent alien race restricts humanity’s agency. Additionally, Jack Sternberg’s short story “So Far From Home” comes to mind, depicting aliens visiting Earth with a persistent disdain for humanity. And then there’s Banks. His writings serve as a comprehensive guide for crafting worlds that feel authentic and relatable, even amidst the unfamiliar. While I may lack Banks’ artistic prowess, I share his inclination to visualize societies, design blueprints for communal spaces, and create star maps to highlight significant locations.
This is the exhilarating allure of science fiction for me—an imaginative world waiting to be explored.
Octavia E. Butler, a source of inspiration for Bethany Jacobs
Malcolm Ali/Wire Image/Getty
However, Banks’ world-building extends beyond the overt. The reason I am drawn to Banks, as previously mentioned, is his work Consider Phlebas, where the protagonist is an alien visitor to Earth. This character approaches Earth’s culture and history with a mix of curiosity and horror, discovering the complexities of humanity’s past. While the narrative often maintains a light-hearted tone, Banks deftly injects darker undertones that illustrate cultural dilemmas.
A notable scene occurs during a dinner party where the character Lee makes absurd claims about Earth’s destruction. His friends tease him, yet their seeming lack of urgency contrasts with the gravity of historical atrocities, akin to the “Final Solution.” The moment peaks when Lee presents lab-grown human cells for consumption—a grotesque dish of human flesh. “If only they could see us now!” one character exclaims joyously. “Cannibals from outer space!”
This world-building instance captivates me.
Consuming a human steak cultivated in a lab starkly differs in magnitude from historical atrocities like the Holocaust, yet both reveal a chilling numbness toward human life—a farcical detachment from those perceived as lesser beings. This scene offers a glance at a culture that Banks’ illustrations of weaponry and colossal ships may suggest but cannot fully convey on an emotional level. Thus, in Banks’ novels, world-building encompasses more than geography, language, and technology; it embodies tone. His unique blend of levity and unease showcases his mastery of the craft.
If you are new to Banks, I highly recommend exploring his sketches and technical notes. They afford valuable insights into the construction and mechanics of creating new worlds. Pay attention to the inherent contradictions and uncertainties woven through character dialogues and introspections, an area where Banks excels particularly. Observe his tone. Appreciate his humor. For me, this is the most profound lesson.
Bethany Jacobs is the Philip K. Dick Award-winning author of novels.Burning Stars(Trajectory). Ian M. Banks Culture novelThe Player of Games(Orbit) is the December 2025 read for the New Scientist Book Club. Join us for the discussion here.
Rollin Justin can navigate obstacles and serve beverages.
Henrik Sporer/laif/CameraPress
Human fascination with our own likeness is longstanding. The term “robot” was introduced by Czech writer Karel Čapek in his 1920s play Rossum’s Universal Robots, depicting human-like beings made to work in factories. Since then, numerous humanoid robots have been designed to interact with their environment in human-like manners.
Henrik Sporer, an acclaimed photographer with the agency Leif, investigates such themes in his project Tomorrow is the Problem. The main image above showcases the metal craftsmanship from the Institute of Robotics and Mechatronics at the German Aerospace Center, featuring a 200-kilogram robot named Rollin’ Justin. It can traverse extensive distances on wheels, capture images, navigate around obstacles, and serve drinks. Its potential applications include assisting astronauts and aiding individuals with disabilities.
Lola is the ideal robot for challenging terrains and new surroundings
Henrik Sporer/laif/CameraPress
The image above depicts Lola, a 1.8-meter tall robot developed by the Technical University of Munich. It can navigate new and unstable surfaces with ease.
Next up is Amar-6, a robot standing at 1.9 meters tall, designed by the Karlsruhe Institute of Technology. This machine can converse with people and assist in carrying heavy loads.
Amar-6 is designed to assist with heavy lifting
Henrik Sporer/laif/CameraPress
The final image below features ZAR5, a dual-armed robot engineered at the Technical University of Berlin, equipped to pick and place items with finesse.
ZAR5 is capable of lifting and placing items manually
YYou can picture the home fans belting out their chants at the Stadium of Light. “Top of the league, you’re smiling!” Until this afternoon, your Liverpool squad boasted a five-point advantage at the summit, but in the 82nd minute, they’re trailing by two. You might question where Mo Salah misplaced his finishing skills or why Virgil van Dijk has seemingly forgotten how to tackle. However, this is not on the players; the responsibility lies with you. You fix your gaze on the tactical screen, pondering which of the numerous adjustments could potentially alter the course of this disheartening match.
Football Manager has consistently served as a data-centric alternative to the visually stunning FIFA series (now EA Sports FC), yet the latest versions are beginning to close the visual gap. The 3D rendered match highlights have been revamped using the new Unity engine, and the results are remarkable. Premier League derbies, Champions League finals, and even away clashes in the North East now carry visual significance, despite replays and key moments occasionally dragging on. While you won’t hear fully orchestrated FIFA-style chants ringing throughout the stadium, the atmosphere is tangible, with your imagination filling in the empty spaces.
Specific influences on tactics …Football Manager 26. Photo: Sega
This new engine and enhanced match experience are the most significant indicators of Football Manager’s future direction. Nevertheless, visual improvements go beyond mere aesthetics; they have a substantial effect on tactical decisions. As you observe the match, you can analyze player movements on the field and make real-time adjustments. Yet, data-driven metrics remain crucial when you’re desperately aiming to turn the tide in front of a raucous crowd of 45,000 Mackems. You can also modify your build-up tactics to counter the press or overload one side with overlapping runs. The possibilities are endless, and you’ll be eager to experiment with them all.
The most significant change lies in the differentiation of tactical strategies when in possession versus when not in possession. This marks the most substantial overhaul in a decade and appropriately reflects the intricacies of modern gaming. You can now completely alter formations, rearrange player positions, and issue detailed instructions that vary based on which team controls the ball. Want to switch your full-backs as you enter the final third? Not only can you do this, but they’ll promptly revert to their original positions when Alexander Isak is taken down on the edge of the box.
However, there is a notable teeth problem. Following a year off to transition to a new engine, Football Manager 26 still feels somewhat unrefined. A series of hotfixes have been rolled out to address some of the more glaring bugs, yet several persist, such as duplicated UI elements, secondary players entering the pitch in jerseys, and menu glitches that hinder progress.
Between matches, adapting to the new UI will take some time. Notably, key screens that were once easy to access are now a few clicks away. All the same information is available, just in slightly altered positions (especially with the introduction of a women’s league). Re-learning years of muscle memory can be frustrating, and additional customization options would be beneficial, but this is a minor grievance that will be resolved over time.
Despite these challenges, this is still Football Manager, complete with intricate tactics that will keep you engaged. Thanks to an updated tactic and match engine, it has never been simpler to make the perfect tactical adjustments to stage a dramatic comeback and silence overconfident home fans. Football Manager 26 offers immediate feedback on split-second choices and allows you to envision enduring rivalries that can stretch across several seasons. And the exhilaration of scoring three goals in the final five minutes to triumph over Sunderland is unparalleled.
Waking up to a world without internet might seem liberating, but you may find yourself pondering your next steps.
If you have a checkbook handy, consider using it to purchase some groceries. Should your landline still function, you can reach out to your employer. Then, as long as you still remember how to find your way without modern navigation, a trip to the store is possible.
The recent outage in a Virginia data center highlighted that while the internet is a crucial component of contemporary existence, its foundation rests on aging systems and physical components, leading many to question what it would take for it to come crashing down.
The answer is straightforward: a streak of bad luck, deliberate cyberattacks, or a combination of both. Severe weather events can knock out numerous data centers. Unexpected triggers in AI-generated codes at significant providers like Amazon, Google, and Microsoft could lead to widespread software failures. Armed interventions targeting critical infrastructure could also play a role.
Although these scenarios would be devastating, the more significant concerns for a select group of internet specialists revolve around sudden failures in the outdated protocols that support the entire network. Picture this as a plumbing system that manages connection flows or an address directory that allows machines to locate one another.
We refer to it as “the big one,” but if that occurs, having a checkbook on hand might be crucial.
Something substantial could commenceWhen a tornado swept through Council Bluffs, Iowa, it ravaged a set of low-lying data centers critical to Google’s operations.
This region is known as us-central1, one of Google’s data center clusters, vital for various services including its cloud platform, YouTube, and Gmail (2019) power outages reported here took place that affected users across the United States and Europe.
As YouTube cooking videos become glitchy, dinner preparations go awry. Employees worldwide rush to update emails that suddenly vanish, resorting to face-to-face communication instead. US officials noted a deterioration in certain government services before refocusing their efforts on a new operation against Signal.
While this situation is inconvenient, it doesn’t signify the end of the internet. “Technically, as long as two devices are connected with a router, the Internet functions,” states Michał “Risiek” Wojniak, who works in DNS, the system linked to this week’s outage.
However, “there’s a significant concentration of control happening online,” points out Stephen Murdoch, a computer science professor at University College London. “This mirrors trends in economics: it’s typically more cost-effective to centralize operations.”
But what if extreme heat wipes out US East-1, part of the Virginia facility housing “Data Center Array,” a crucial node for Amazon Web Services (AWS), the epicenter of this week’s outage, as well as nearby regions? Meanwhile, a significant cluster in Europe suffers a cyberattack. frankfurt or London. As a result, the network may redirect traffic to a secondary hub (a less-frequented data center), which subsequently faces capacity issues akin to a congested side road in Los Angeles.
Aerial view of the Amazon Web Services data center known as US East-1 in Ashburn, Virginia. Photo: Jonathan Ernst/Reuters
Alternatively, if we shift focus from disaster scenarios to automation risks, increased traffic might unveil hidden bugs within AWS’s internally revised infrastructure, possibly an oversight from months prior. Earlierthis summer, two AWS employees were let go amid a broader push towards automation. Faced with an influx of unknown requests, AWS begins to falter.
The signal will falter, and so will Slack, Netflix, and Lloyds Bank. Your Roomba vacuum becomes silent. Smart mattresses may misbehave, just like smart locks.
Without Amazon and Google, the internet would be nearly unrecognizable. Together, AWS, Microsoft, and Google command over 60% of the global cloud services market, making it nearly impossible to quantify the number of services reliant on them.
“However, at its core, the Internet continues to operate,” remarks Doug Madley, an expert in internet infrastructure who studies disruptions. “While the usual activities may be limited, the underlying network remains functional.”
You might believe the biggest risk lies in attacks on undersea cables. While this notion captivates think tanks in Washington, little action has materialized. Undersea cables incur regular damage, Madley notes, with the United Nations estimating between 150 to 200 faults occurring annually.
“To significantly impair communication, a vast amount of data must be disrupted. The undersea cable sector often asserts, ‘We manage these issues routinely.’
Subsequently, a group of anonymous hackers targets a DNS service provider, a key player in the Internet’s directory system. For example, Verisign manages all online domains ending with certain “.com” or “.net” suffixes. Other providers oversee domains like “.biz” and “.us.”
According to Madley, the likelihood of such a provider being taken down is minimal. “If anything were to happen to VeriSign, .com would vanish, which presents a strong financial motivation for them to prevent that.”
Collectively, AWS, Microsoft, and Google dominate over 60% of the global cloud services market. Photo: Sebastian Boson/AFP/Getty Images
To genuinely disrupt the larger ecosystem, a colossal error involving fundamental infrastructure beyond Amazon or Google would be required. Such a scenario would be unprecedented; the closest parallel occurred in 2016 when an attack on Dyn, a small DNS provider, brought down Guardian, X, among others.
If .com were to disappear, essential services like banks, hospitals, and various communication platforms would vanish too. Although some elements of the government’s internet structure remain intact, such as the U.S. secure messaging system Siprnet.
Yet, the internet would persist, at least for niche communities. There are self-hosted blogs, decentralized social networks like Mastodon, and particular domains like “.io” or “.is.”
Murdoch and Madrid contemplate a drastic scenario capable of eliminating the rest. Murdoch alludes to a potential bug in the BIND software supporting DNS. Meanwhile, Madrid emphasizes testimonies from Massachusetts hackers who informed Congress in 1998 about a vulnerability that could “bring the Internet down in 30 minutes.”
This vulnerability pertains to a system one layer above DNS: the Border Gateway Protocol, directing all web traffic. Madley argues that such an event is highly improbable, as it would require a full-scale emergency response, and the protocols are “incredibly resilient; otherwise, we would have already experienced a collapse.”
Even if the internet were to be entirely shut down, it’s uncertain whether it would ever reboot, warns Murdoch. “Once the Internet is active, it doesn’t get turned off. The method of restarting it is not well understood.”
The UK previously had a contingency plan for such a situation. Should the internet ever be disabled, Murdoch notes, individuals knowledgeable about its workings would gather at a pub outside London and brainstorm the next steps.
“I’m not sure if this is still true. This was years ago, and I couldn’t recall the exact pub.”
Can solar energy dominate the global power landscape? Recently, the rate of solar power installation has increased dramatically, with capacity doubling between 2022 and 2024, now providing 7% of global electricity. What are the future projections?
In the first half of 2025, solar and wind energy reached historic milestones by surpassing coal in electricity generation for the first time, making renewables the leading electricity source worldwide. According to the UK-based think tank Ember, solar power has been the primary contributor to this pivotal shift in the energy landscape, accounting for 83% of the surge in global electricity demand this year. Ember’s analysis shows that solar has been the largest new power source for three consecutive years.
What’s the advantage of solar? Its affordability! Installation costs for solar systems have plummeted by 90% over the past 15 years, making solar energy the most economical electricity source globally. “Currently, silicon panels are on par with the cost of plywood,” remarks Sam Stranks, from Cambridge University.
This translates to abundant, cost-effective energy solutions that can be implemented almost anywhere. Is it unrealistic to envision a future where solar energy powers everything?
On a fundamental level, Earth receives almost limitless solar energy. Even with current panel efficiencies, roughly 450,000 square kilometers would be needed to meet the entire world’s energy demands using solar power, as estimated by a 2021 report from the British think tank “Carbon Tracker.” This represents just 0.3% of global land area.
Kingsmill Bond, one of the report’s authors now working with Ember, noted that while land usage trade-offs exist—like competition with agriculture—”there’s ample space for most nations to adopt these technologies.”
Next-Gen Solar Panels
The question is, what hinders solar energy from fully dominating the global electricity market? Efficiency is the foremost challenge. Photovoltaic panels primarily made of silicon convert about 20% of solar energy into electricity. In contrast, hydroelectric power plants convert 90%, wind turbines around 50%, and fossil fuel plants 30-40%.
This disparity necessitates more solar panels to equate to the output of other energy sources. Therefore, companies and researchers are eager to enhance solar panel efficiency, hoping the improvements will concurrently reduce costs and land requirements.
However, crystalline silicon panels are approaching efficiency limits, with top-tier cells currently achieving around 25% efficiency. “The practical ceiling for crystalline silicon is likely around 28%,” explains Jenny Nelson from Imperial College London.
Further efficiency improvements may require a transition to tandem solar cells, which utilize an additional semiconductor to better harness the solar spectrum. Tandem silicon perovskite cells are considered the most promising, with a theoretical efficiency limit near 50%. Although real-world tandem panels haven’t reached that potential, Stranks anticipates efficiencies between 35% and 37%.
The first tandem silicon perovskite solar panels have commenced commercial production. They are now undergoing industry tests to assess their real-world operational longevity. Stranks is optimistic, projecting they will become the market’s leading technology in a decade. “On the surface, they appear similar to current panels, but they generate 50% more power,” he states. “That’s a significant advancement.”
Efficiency enhancements could not only cut costs further but also foster new application opportunities, such as solar roofs on electric vehicles that can charge batteries during the day. This stored energy could then be utilized for transportation or domestic use after sunset, he adds.
Solving Storage Issues
Innovations like these could mitigate one of solar power’s primary challenges: variability. The sun isn’t always shining, which poses less of an issue in Sunbelt countries like India, Mexico, and parts of Africa, where sunlight is almost year-round, enabling surplus energy during the day to be stored for nighttime use. This solar and storage model is becoming more affordable, with lithium-ion battery costs declining 40% in the past two years, according to BloombergNEF.
“Ultimately, fossil fuels’ only edge over solar is their storage capabilities,” Bond points out. “However, this issue is mostly resolved through advancements in battery technology.”
In northern regions, where winter days are short and overcast, the scenario is different. “[Solar] serves as an incredibly effective energy source, producing zero pollution with a rapid energy investment return. It ticks all the right boxes,” comments Andrew Blakers from the Australian National University. “Unless you reside in northern Europe, northeast Asia, or the northeastern United States—where you have abundant summer sun but limited winter light—[solar] is distinctly superior.”
For areas experiencing long winter nights, wind energy can bridge the gap, but we must also develop energy storage solutions capable of holding power for extended periods. Such “seasonal storage” technology is still emerging, with only a few solutions at commercial scales. However, methods like pumped water, hydrogen, and compressed air storage show promise. “In the short term, batteries will suffice for now, while pumped hydro storage will take over in the long run,” predicts Blakers.
Political Challenges
If anything, enhancing efficiency and storage represents low-hanging fruit. “The bottlenecks are likely political, with inconsistencies in policy, regulatory challenges, and vested interests from other industries,” says Nelson.
The Trump administration in the U.S., known for its climate change skepticism, epitomizes this issue. Recently, federal authorities halted a massive solar project in Nevada that was set to be the world’s largest, continuing a trend of reducing solar funding and obstructing initiatives.
Yet, Bond is confident the shift to renewable energy is nearly inevitable, given its economic advantages over conventional power sources. “While certain companies may slow the solar tide in specific countries or projects, the current U.S. government is inadvertently jeopardizing the nation’s position in the global race for advanced technology deployment,” he asserts.
Blakers concurs, emphasizing that solar energy might be the solution to the rapidly increasing energy demands from AI data centers. “Even in the U.S., with a determined federal approach, it’s hard to envision solar moving backward since many states favor solar, and it’s by far the most expedient method to procure substantial energy,” he notes.
Another significant obstacle for clean energy is logistics. Existing power grids will need rewiring to accommodate large and varying energy supplies from new regions. A more adaptable grid that manages generation spikes and fine-tunes electricity demand will optimize green electricity usage. However, achieving these advanced power grids will incur substantial costs. In the UK alone, energy firms plan to invest £77 billion over the next five years to upgrade the electricity grid for wind and solar integration.
In low-income countries with less developed electricity grids, there’s an opportunity to expediently establish renewable-friendly infrastructures from scratch, facilitating deeper penetration of renewables into their grid supply. Currently, the BRICS nations (Brazil, China, Egypt, Ethiopia, India, Indonesia, Iran, Russia, South Africa, and the United Arab Emirates) together produce more than half of the world’s solar power generation, according to Ember.
The broader challenge for many nations is to electrify a larger share of their energy needs—covering heating, transportation, and more—which is crucial for decreasing fossil fuel reliance throughout the global economy. “To decarbonize our planet, electrification is a priority,” Nelson emphasizes. Low-income countries are currently leading the charge against wealthier ones, with China’s portion of electricity in final energy consumption set to hit 32% in 2023, far eclipsing the 24% electrification rate of the United States and affluent European nations, as noted by Ember.
What Lies Ahead for Solar?
Despite the year’s achievements, the technical, logistical, and political hurdles mentioned could hinder solar PV adoption in some regions in the short term. The International Energy Agency announced that renewable electricity is set to more than double by the end of 2030, yet it might not meet the target of tripling capacity by that time. The agency identified changes in U.S. policy and challenges related to grid integration as resisting factors against expanding renewable capacity.
However, energy market analysts remain optimistic that solar power will lead the global energy supply by mid-century. “By century’s end, it’s clear that all our electricity will derive from renewable sources, primarily solar,” asserts Bond, who forecasts that solar energy could account for up to 80% of the world’s electricity supply by 2100. Additionally, he expects that a minimum of 80% of the total global energy needs will be electrified.
All political, storage, and infrastructure barriers will eventually fade, paving the way for a green power revolution. “Human ingenuity drives us to convert energy into resources,” Bond concludes. “Now that we have discovered this affordable and universal energy source, it’s only a matter of time before we harness it.”
The primary goal of contemporary astronomy is to search for extraterrestrial life. All organisms on Earth require water, prompting scientists to postulate that locating water in space is essential for finding Earth-like life elsewhere. Discoveries indicate that substantial amounts of water exist in space, often in surprising locations. For example, researchers have identified frosty Calderason Mars and water geysers on Saturn’s Moon Enceladus, among other sites, including the worlds of water surrounding other stars.
Nonetheless, water-rich exoplanets do not necessarily mimic Earth. A prevalent category of exoplanets known as Sub-Neptunes can be 2-4 times Earth’s radius, typically composed of more gas and ice. Researchers have determined the density of these sub-Neptunes, suggesting they may possess a substantial inner layer rich in water, encased in hydrogen layers. This structure diverges from Earth’s, which features thin surface oceans and expansive underground water reserves.
Additionally, scientists have found numerous sub-Neptunes in close orbit to their stars, revealing that they maintain elevated equilibrium temperatures. Consequently, these exoplanets are unable to sustain liquid water layers; instead, they exhibit a vapor atmosphere above a water layer in a state between liquid and gas, referred to as supercritical.
Gas and supercritical fluids dominate over liquids, resulting in Steam Worlds that are inflated compared to colder sub-Neptunes. Their larger radius is sensitive to temperature changes, causing them to expand as they move away from their host star and contract as they approach it. Although scientists have developed computer models of steam worlds previously, outcomes varied as they overlooked either contraction effects or aged deformation.
In pursuit of a clearer understanding of these steam worlds, a collaboration between US and UK scientists generated dynamic simulations of the known exoplanet GJ 1214B to assess its transformations over 20 billion years. Their model featured planets orbiting a red star with a mass less than seven times that of Earth and a radius exceeding 3.3 times Earth’s, with equilibrium temperatures around 540°F (280°C). They structured the model planet across five distinct layers: an inner iron core, varying upper and lower mantle compositions, a high-pressure ice layer, and an external fluid water envelope.
To monitor the temperature changes within their steam world over time, the research team focused on its interior rather than the outermost layer. For planets with vaporous outer layers subjected to solar evaporation, internal temperatures can exceed expectations since atmospheric gases can trap more heat than escape to space. This explains why Venus, the second planet from the Sun, is hotter than Mercury, the closest planet to the Sun.
The team found that their model exoplanet generally cooled and contracted over its lifespan. Starting with a radius over 3.3 times Earth’s and internal temperatures near 1,300°F (700°C), within less than 10 million years, its radius reduced to 2.9 times Earth’s with an internal temperature of 260°F (130°C). After 100 million years, it measured 2.7 times Earth’s radius, while internal temperatures dropped to -190°F (-120°C). Ultimately, after 20 billion years, the model planet’s radius was 2.6 times that of Earth, with a frigid interior temperature of -400°F (-230°C).
The final findings revealed a cooler interior exoplanet, smaller than earlier models of water-rich sub-Neptunes, indicating that it remained tightly compressed and did not lose mass. A denser planet holds less steam in its outer layers. Additionally, its inner ice layer was influenced by chemical transformations between ice and cold plasma, exhibiting properties of both liquid and solid forms, termed superion ice.
The researchers conceded that their model may not accurately reflect real sub-Neptunes, as they assumed pure water layers within the steam world. In reality, these layers likely contain chemical impurities, accompanied by an outer hydrogen and helium gas shell. Nonetheless, they posited that these outcomes could aid international researchers in better deciphering the entirety of Sub-Neptunes, as they indicate a potential relationship between a sub-Neptune’s radius, its density, and the age of its host system. All three characteristics are currently under examination in ongoing missions like JWST and Gaia.
Recent explosive growth has led to the “erroneous” planet achieving the title of the fastest-growing planet ever observed.
Several months ago, this planet started to rumble within the gaseous envelope surrounding it, and it is now consuming 6 billion tonnes (2.2 trillion pounds) per second. New research reveals it as the most voracious world recorded to date.
Known as Cha 1107-7626, this celestial body is 5-10 times larger than Jupiter and located 620 light-years away. As a “rogue” planet, it does not orbit a star but instead moves freely in its own path.
While the origins of these rogue planets remain a mystery, this finding suggests they may form more like stars than traditional planets.
“People often envision planets as tranquil, stable environments, but this discovery indicates that objects on planets drifting freely in space can lead to an exhilarating landscape,” said Dr. Victor Almendros-Abad, an astronomer at the National Institute of Astrophysics in Italy and the lead researcher on this study.
CHA 1107-7626 is enveloped by a disc of gas and dust, which is spiraling onto its surface and facilitating its growth through a process called accretion.
Last year, astronomers observed the planet’s increasing appetite for gas, leading to a situation where, by August 2025, it had ingested eight times more gas than it had just months prior.
“This represents the most intense accretion event ever documented for planetary mass objects,” stated Almendros-Abad.
Astronomers have uncovered hundreds of rogue planets, yet their origins remain elusive – Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech
The exact characteristics of these drifting worlds have puzzled astronomers for years. There are currently two primary theories: they may have originally formed around stars but were ejected, or they emerged from a collapsing gas and dust cloud like stars.
To gather insights, astronomers captured light from the planet both before and during its recent growth spurt. They detected indications of a robust magnetic field influencing the gas accretion onto the planet. Additionally, they noticed signs of water vapor present during the growth phase but absent before it. Both phenomena are typically associated with growing stars and have not been observed on young planets.
“The concept that planetary objects can function like stars is awe-inspiring, prompting speculation about what an early stage of such worlds might entail,” remarked Dr. Amelia Bayo, an astronomer at the Southern Observatory in Europe, who contributed to this study.
IThe T image is among the most chilling representations of the Holocaust. A Nazi soldier with glasses points a gun at the head of a resigned man in a suit, kneeling before a pit filled with corpses, surrounded by German troops.
Photos from present-day Ukraine have long been incorrectly associated with the last Jew of Vinica, remaining cloaked in mystery for decades.
Jürgen Matthäus, a German historian based in the U.S., has meticulously pieced together this puzzle for years. With the aid of artificial intelligence, he believes he has successfully identified the perpetrator.
His findings are now published in the esteemed Zeitschrift für geschichtswissenschaft (Journal of Historical Studies), detailing a massacre conducted by the SS on July 28, 1941, likely in the afternoon, at the Berdychiv fortress.
For centuries, Berdychiv has been a vibrant center of Jewish life, located 150 km southwest of Kyiv and about 90 km north of what is now Vinnizzia in English.
One of several mobile units deployed in the newly occupied Soviet Union, the Einsatzgruppe C Commando, was tasked with eliminating “Jews and Partisans” just days before Adolf Hitler’s visit.
Among those involved was Jacobs Onnen, a teacher of French and English, born in the village of Tichelwarf, Germany, near the Dutch border in 1906.
Matthäus described the “incremental process” involving traditional excavations of dusty archives, fortuitous discoveries, peer consultations, and the innovative contributions of volunteers from the open-source journalism group BellingCat.
“This match has a remarkably high confidence level based on the algorithm’s outputs, according to experts,” Matthäus stated.
A preliminary investigation released last year uncovered critical details about the dates, locations, and units involved in the mass shooting, leading to media coverage in Germany.
“The rise of digital tools in the humanities is remarkable, yet most are focused on processing mass data rather than qualitative analysis,” Matthäus commented, reflecting on the potential for AI in his field. Photo: Metropole
Readers have stepped forward, suggesting that communications from Onnen’s family era indicate the shooter could be Jacobs Onnen, his wife’s uncle.
Letters from Onnen from the Eastern Front were destroyed by relatives in the 1990s, but they retained his photographs, which BellingCat volunteers can utilize for AI image analysis.
“Experts explain that achieving a match of 98 or 99.9% in historic photographs is challenging,” said Matthäus. “This often results in forensic discussions.”
Nevertheless, his strong likeness combined with circumstantial evidence provides sufficient credibility for public consideration.
“The growth of digital tools in the humanities is substantial, typically for mass data handling rather than in-depth analysis,” he remarked regarding AI’s application in research.
“It’s clearly not a magic solution; it’s just one of many tools, and human elements remain critical.”
Onnen, who aligned with the Nazi Party prior to Hitler’s ascension in 1933, was raised in an educated family and was fond of “travel and study” in his youth, Matthäus noted.
“Then his trajectory moves eastward, and here he stands,” he added. “Understanding his motivation is one of the toughest questions, as it raises emotional considerations about his posing and self-representation in that context.”
Onnen never advanced beyond a lower rank and was killed in action in August 1943.
“Being involved in such murders is undeniable, and it doesn’t earn you any merits when assigned to these execution units,” Matthäus remarked.
He expressed regret that a letter possibly revealing Onnen’s ideological stance was lost from the front. Relatives who recalled reading the letters described them as “mediocre.”
Until this spring, Matthäus served as the director of research at the U.S. Holocaust Memorial Museum in Washington, DC, where he has been active since 1994.
His latest work, *Gerahmte Gewalt* (Framed Violence), explores photo albums curated by Germans on the Eastern Front during World War II.
He noted that it is “highly likely” that the photograph depicting the Berdychiv genocide was taken by fellow soldiers, who often viewed such snapshots as “trophies” of civilian carnage.
Of the estimated 20,000 Jews in Berdychiv at the time of the German invasion in 1941, only 15 remained by early 1944, as reported by Del Spiegel in relation to the new study.
“These extensive executions persisted until the final day of German dominance in the East,” Matthäus observed.
“I believe this image should hold as much significance as the image of Auschwitz’s Gate, as it illustrates the tangible confrontation between the executioner and the victim.”
Jacobs Onnen, who enrolled in the Nazi Party prior to Hitler’s rise in 1933, hailed from a well-educated background. Photo: Metropole
He emphasized that comprehensive visual and written accounts circulated by German soldiers dismantle the myth of the civilian populace being unaware of the genocide perpetuated in their name.
Matthäus’s project also involves uncovering the identity of the victim in the photograph of Berdychiv. He collaborates with his Ukrainian colleague Andrii Mahaletskyi, utilizing Soviet-era records from the local community.
AI may also assist in this investigative endeavor, especially if equivalent images of men in suits can be identified.
He recognized the complexity of the mission, pointing out that while names of deported individuals from Western Europe were meticulously documented, the identities of most victims exterminated in the east remained unknown for over 80 years.
“The occupied Soviet Union witnessed over a million casualties,” he stated. “The majority remain anonymous, as intended by the perpetrators.”
I was 34 when the concept of the World Wide Web first came to me. I seized every chance to discuss it, presenting it in meetings, sketching it on whiteboards, or even carving it into the snow on ski poles during what was supposed to be a leisurely day with friends.
I approached the venerable folks at the European Nuclear Research Institute (CERN), where I first encountered this idea. “A bit eccentric” they said, but eventually, they relented and allowed me to pursue it. My vision involved merging two existing computer technologies: the Internet and hypertext, which facilitates linking standard documents with “links.”
I was convinced that if users had an effortless method to navigate the Internet, it would unleash creativity and collaboration on a global scale. Given time, anything could find its place online.
However, for the web to encompass everything, it had to be accessible to everyone. This was already a significant ask. Furthermore, we couldn’t ask users to pay for every search or upload they generated. To thrive, it had to be free. Hence, in 1993, CERN’s management made the pivotal decision to donate the World Wide Web’s intellectual property, placing it in the public domain. We handed over the web to everyone.
Today, as I reflect on my invention, I find myself questioning: Is the web truly free today? Not entirely. We witness a small number of large platforms extracting users’ private data and distributing it to commercial brokers and oppressive governments. We face omnipresent, addictive algorithms that negatively impact the mental health of teenagers. The exploitation of personal data for profit stands in stark contrast to my vision of a free web.
On many platforms, we are no longer customers; we have become products. Even our anonymous data is sold to entities we never intended to reach, allowing them to target us with specific content and advertisements. This includes deliberately harmful content that incites real-world violence, spreads misinformation, disrupts psychological well-being, and undermines social cohesion.
There is a technical solution to return that agency to the individual. SOLID is an open-source interoperability standard that my team and I developed at MIT more than a decade ago. Applications utilizing SOLID do not automatically own your data; they must request it, allowing you to decide whether to grant permission. Instead of having your data scattered across various locations on the Internet, under the control of those who could profit from it, you can manage it all in one place.
Sharing your information intelligently can lead to its liberation. Why do smartwatches store biological data in one silo? Why does a credit card categorize financial data in another format altogether? Why are comments on YouTube, posts on Reddit, updates on Facebook, and tweets all locked away in disparate places? Why is there a default expectation that you shouldn’t have access to this data? You create all this data: your actions, choices, body, preferences, decisions, and beyond. You must claim ownership of it. You should leverage it to empower yourself.
Somewhere between my original vision for Web 1.0 and the emergence of social media with Web 2.0, we veered off path. We stand at a new crossroads, one that will determine whether AI will serve to enhance or harm society. How do we learn from the mistakes of the past? Firstly, we must avoid repeating the decade-long lag that policymakers experienced with social media. Deciding on an AI governance model cannot be delayed; action is imperative.
In 2017, I composed a thought experiment regarding AI that works for you. I named it Charlie. Charlie is designed to serve you, similar to your doctor or lawyer, adhering to legal standards and codes of conduct. Why shouldn’t AI operate within the same framework? From our experiences with social media, we learned that power resides in monopolizing the control and collection of personal data. We cannot allow the same to happen with AI.
So, how do we progress? Much of the discontent with democracy in the 21st century stems from governments being sluggish in addressing the needs of digital citizens. The competitive landscape of the AI industry is ruthless, with development and governance largely dictated by corporations. The lesson from social media is clear: this does not create value for individuals.
I developed the World Wide Web on a single computer in a small room at CERN. This room was not mine; it belonged to CERN, an institution established in the wake of World War II by the United Nations and European governments, recognizing historical and scientific milestones that called for international collaboration. It’s challenging to envision a large tech company sharing the World Wide Web without the commercial perks that CERN secured. This highlights our need for nonprofits like CERN to propel international AI research.
We provided the World Wide Web freely because I believed its value lay in its accessibility for all. Today, I hold this belief more strongly than ever. While regulation and global governance are technically achievable, they depend on political will. If we can harness that will, we have the chance to reclaim the web as a medium for collaboration, creativity, and compassion across cultural barriers. Individuals can be reorganized, and we can reclaim the web. It is not too late.
For millennia, individuals have harnessed the transformative power of plants and fungi, using substances like ayahuasca, cannabis, psilocybin mushrooms, and tobacco in spiritual ceremonies to reshape their perceptions of reality.
Justiceia Pecteris
Jill Pflugheber and Steven F. White
Recently, a new book sheds light on these psychoactive and medicinal plants and fungi, revealing their intricacies through advanced microscopy techniques.
Virola theiodora
Jill Pflugheber and Steven F. White
Utilizing confocal microscopy, which employs laser scans at varying depths to produce sharply focused images of intricate specimens, this advanced technique is primarily used in academic research.
Neltuma pallida
Jill Pflugheber and Steven F. White
Jill Pfluber from the University of Kentucky applied confocal microscopy to explore 50 revered plants and fungi across the United States. Her findings contribute to Microcosm: Sacred Plants of the Americas, a publication co-authored with independent historian Stephen F. White.
Cannabis
Jill Pflugheber and Steven F. White
The outcome is a captivating exploration into the hidden complexities of some of the world’s most esteemed plant species, as explained by White. He emphasizes their goal of creating “plant art” that challenges and enriches people’s understandings of sacred plants. “We aspire for those who encounter Microcosm to develop a newfound respect for these plants,” he states.
Theobroma cacao
Jill Pflugheber and Steven F. White
From their primary photography, the images present some results of their exploration: Brugmansia Suaveolens; Justicia Pecteris; Virola theiodora; Neltuma pallida; Cannabis; and Theobroma cacao.
I have faith in a group of evangelical Christian influencers on social media. On Tuesday, September 23rd, or perhaps Wednesday, September 24th—consider the state of society. For the first time, joy blossoms on TikTok.
Followers are flocking to the app, revealing that they are ready for their impending destiny. I sold their car or asked for an “Eternal vacation” from their jobs and expressed their concerns. The family dog is also expected to join them in heaven. One woman advised her followers to remove password protection on their devices, making personal information accessible to anyone left behind. Another purchased Bibles from a myriad of Dollar Trees, intending to leave personalized notes in hopes of saving last-minute converts.
Evangelical Christians who believe in the rapture view it as a pivotal doctrine. The concept suggests that one day, true believers will ascend to heaven, marking an end to life as we know it, while the rest must endure seven years of suffering under the Antichrist.
The theory gained traction in the early 1800s through an English cleric named John Nelson Darby, who sparked numerous false alarms. In 1844, a farmer from New York named William Miller attracted a massive following with predictions that ultimately led to widespread disappointment. When Halley’s Comet appeared in 1910, con artists sold “anti-comet drugs” intended to save souls, and in 1997, the Hale-Bopp comet was linked to the tragic suicides of 39 members of the Heaven’s Gate cult.
This time, the message comes from South African preacher Joshua Murakera. He said on a podcast in June, “Spread the word—Rejoy is upon us, ready or not.” This theory quickly made its way to TikTok, where over 320,000 posts have been tagged with #Rapture.
Tyler Huckabee, the managing editor at Sojo.net, a progressive Christian publication, remarked that the “Joker of the Day” in the newsroom is that deadlines have become obsolete. “This isn’t my first rodeo dealing with a particular sect of Christian theology that ignites rumors about the world’s end,” Huckabee noted. “Facebook and Twitter had their moments, but this is TikTok’s inaugural end of the world.”
The Rapture narrative thrives during tumultuous times, according to Matthew Gabriele, a professor at Virginia Tech studying apocalyptic movements. “Christians don’t know when it will happen, but they look for signs,” Gabriele elaborated. “Typically, when conditions worsen, that’s when the electors are saved, which isn’t surprising given the current backdrop of political violence, economic worries, and illness.”
The phrase “end time” frequently circulates on social media to describe our fractured reality—one marked by a pandemic akin to a plague, natural disasters of biblical proportions, and widespread violence. Recently, followers linked the assassination of Charlie Kirk to Rapture Theory. Some TikToks have become platforms for Christian nationalist narratives, suggesting Kirk is embarking on a religious revival. Revival is in the air.
Content creator Jess Lauren on TikTok. Photo: Tiktok/@Jesslauuren
Jess Lauren, a 27-year-old content creator who also runs a clothing startup, was raised in a “deeply involved” Christian household where both her parents were pastors. While studying at the University of California, Davis, Lauren began to question her conservative beliefs and gravitated towards the “deconstruction” movement.
As a child, she was a firm believer. In particular, after reading “Left Behind,” the blockbuster apocalyptic book series co-written by the controversial minister Tim LaHaye, she bought into concepts like the Illuminati and supported views from Christian author Jerry B. Jenkins. (The series has been adapted into several films, including the 2014 version starring Nicolas Cage.) Growing up as the youngest of four, Lauren once roamed the streets checking if fewer cars were on the road, questioning if she had indeed been left behind.
Ibid. April Ajoy, a podcaster and author of the memoir “Star Spangled Jesus: Leave Christian Nationalism and Find True Faith,” recounted a traumatic moment from her childhood. “At 13, chatting on AOL Instant Messenger, I thought I had been left behind. I began to search for my family, who had simply gone for a walk.”
“It was incredibly traumatic,” Ajoy shared. She now prays that “God will turn off his phone” until she grows older, allowing her to graduate high school, marry, and experience intimacy for the first time. While simultaneously feeling excitement about the rapture, Ajoy acknowledged, “We were taught that it’s like a get-out-of-death-free card. You go straight to heaven, avoid dying, and bypass horrors on Earth.”
Rumors about the Rapture tend to spike in September, Ajoy mentioned, coinciding with Rosh Hashanah, a Jewish holiday referenced in the Bible. “People often turn to talk about the rapture when they feel particularly out of control and frightened,” she noted.
On TikTok, fear isn’t always overt. Many #RaptureTok clips adopt a lighthearted tone, aligning well with the platform’s algorithms. Sarah Raines, a doctoral student at the University of Pennsylvania who studies religion and social media, has observed moms giving practical advice for the final hour while preparing for those left behind.
“They adopt a self-help language, common on social media, and attach it to the discourse around the rapture,” she explained. “Some might not genuinely believe it’s the moment of the rapture, yet they feel an essential awakening call to pay attention. They’re hedging their bets.”
It’s not just devoted followers lighting up #RaptureTok. Outside religious contexts, social media users are pushing for a systematic approach to hoarding supplies. One amusing video suggests left-behind individuals stockpile VHS copies of Shrek, implying it’s the new currency. Moreover, one X user remarked that September 23rd is also the day dedicated to bisexual visibility, highlighting that Jesus’ “second coming” would coincide with the public’s opportunity to come out.
So, on Thursday morning, what had changed? Sojo.net’s Huckabee remarked that if previous false alarms are any indication, there’s not much to worry about. Those who predicted the rapture and were proven wrong rarely take it as a cue to reevaluate their beliefs.
“There’s a very human fear of admitting, ‘I was wrong,'” Huckabee said. “I’ve seen people resign from jobs, believing Jesus was returning.”
oThe most captivating trend in game design is NE’s approach of utilizing familiar mechanics and genres to delve into real power systems and challenge them. Future deck-building games are set to engage players interested in political activism. No compensation is guaranteed. Additionally, these games aim to educate players about Southeast Asian politics. Mythmatch, while appearing as a puzzle game rooted in ancient Greece, also offers a charming and accessible take on community-building and challenging capitalism.
You embody Artemis, the goddess of hunting, who must navigate the ingrained sexism of Mount Olympus, all while confronting a company encroached upon by the High Tech Brothers. In a rebellious spirit, she chooses to assist the people of Ithaca in constructing a new, more progressive world. You achieve this by traversing a compact environment and merging items with animals to forge new creatures and tools for aid. For instance, if you land on Earth, an accidental mishap could crush a tank belonging to the moon goddess Serene, prompting you to combine moon fragments to reconstruct the celestial vehicle. However, one shard may fall into a greenhouse, requiring you to solve a puzzle for access.
Ithaca…mythmatch. Photo: Team Artichoke
The game combines storytelling adventures, social simulation elements, and match-3 puzzles. “Ultimately, we’ve drawn more from automation games like Factorio, but here, automation happens through connections with NPCs rather than machinery construction,” explains Moo Yu, founder and creative director of Artichoke. “At Mount Olympus, we find inspiration in various arcade-style games, from money puzzle exchangers to Overcooked, and even Super Autopet.”
Featuring a diverse cast of characters and engaging scripts, the game emphasizes the importance of building friendships and creating supportive communities. “The theme of belonging really resonated with me,” Yu shares. “Having struggled with friendship and finding my community, I realized there weren’t many games addressing rejection and the quest for family, so I started with a concept that explored shifting goals and the perpetual rejection by the gods of Olympus.”
Team Artichoke, a small studio comprised of 10 staff members, most of whom are part-time, is led by Yu, a veteran previously with Media Molecule and Mind Candy, who co-developed bikes with Hit Adventure Knights. When asked about the key influences behind Mythmatch, he mentions three films: Kung Fu Panda, Amelie, and particularly Legally Blonde, the Reese Witherspoon comedy that, while visually styled as a rom-com, cleverly critiques the legal profession. “We aimed to build a caricature world that provides breathing space to tackle more serious topics,” he explains. “[On the surface, it’s cute, but there’s a gritty layer throughout.] So while the game may not literally resemble a Legally Blonde world, I aimed to encapsulate the atmosphere created by a vibrant color palette, ensuring there’s also a layer of complexity.”
Hence, Mythmatch employs a core gameplay loop found in casual genres like match-3 and merge games, but with a fundamental message around power and belonging. Yu views this blend as vital to the indie gaming landscape in 2025. “We aspire to develop a small game that melds fresh narratives and mechanics, showcasing how creative storytelling can thrive even with limited resources,” he states. “I hope funding constraints become less significant, yet I remain inspired by what creators can achieve with what they have at their disposal.”
hEre Admission: At 37 years old, I still haven’t learned to drive. In the summer of 2021, I attempted to learn, and during my second lesson, I asked the instructor if he played a lot of video games. When he replied, “Yes,” he remarked, “I thought so.” I don’t have free time. Sadly, countless hours spent dominating friends and family in Mario Kart and wreaking havoc in Grand Theft Auto didn’t translate into actual driving skills. I enjoy racing games precisely because of their unrealism.
Without a license, I cycle everywhere on my gigantic orange bike, which can fit both my kids in the back. It looks absolutely ridiculous. Picture me next to a middle-aged man clad in Lycra, zooming past on his sleek carbon fiber bike. That’s not a ride I would take to rural areas or down mountain trails. Thus, I often find solace in video games.
Surprisingly, there aren’t many bike-themed games, but my long-standing affection for them mirrors my passion for virtual golf. One of my favorites is the Solitary Mountains. Downhill presents a stunningly realistic trajectory down increasingly perilous mountains, paired with minimalist nature sounds and the clattering of my bike on rocks. Another delightful cycling adventure is Knights and Bikes, which has an 80s summer vacation vibe, following kids exploring an island on two wheels.
Pedals to metal (not)… the world of wheels. Photo: Messhof/Steam
Recently, I’ve been enjoying Wheel World, a creation of California developer Messhof (also known for the classic 1-on-1 fencing game Nidhog). In this game, I navigate islands on a handlebar racing bike, keeping an eye out for hidden paths and ramps while competing against local riders. It feels like a low-octane, cartoon-colored version of Forza Horizon on two wheels, encapsulating both the freedom and peace of cycling without the stress of controlling a car. Instead, I simply ride.
I’ve been dealing with a troublesome injury for most of the year (hence my absence from the newsletter). Wheel World soothes my nerves. Players must first be chosen by an ancient bike spirit to race the island’s fastest champion and reclaim mystical bike parts. While it’s not particularly challenging—I’ve won most races—it still manages to capture the essence of cycling through towns that share the road with tractors and semi-rural farmland. You can take your time without worrying about sticking strictly to paved paths.
Although I’ve experienced other racing games like Wheel World, none have felt quite like it. The game’s design reassures me completely. It’s a realm devoted entirely to the celebration of biking, free from complications or distractions. Customizing my ride is a joy (especially with vibrant color options), and while new parts subtly alter the pedaling experience, the energetic soundtrack heightens the atmosphere during races, yet mellows out for peaceful exploration. Five hours in, I found myself overqualified for the final race but opted to continue exploring the delightful terrain designed for two-wheel enthusiasts.
At times, in moments of physical or emotional recovery, a captivating game to lose yourself in is essential. Other times, a brief, uplifting experience is what you need. Wheel World helped me miss my real bike a little less.
What to Play
Top Gear…Metal Gear Solid Delta: Snake Eater. Photo: Konami
Longtime readers know I’ve been critical of Hideo Kojima’s games, but critic Tom Regan is excited for the impending release of Metal Gear Solid 3, rebranded as Metal Gear Solid Delta: Snake Eater. “Snake Eater is an apocalyptic Metal Gear, a Cold War escapade, heading towards a James Bond-esque apocalypse,” he describes. “Kojima’s admiration for Hollywood is evident, and while his work often turns into sprawling epics, this game remains his most cinematic creation.”
Available on: PC, PS5, Xbox Estimated Playtime: Approximately 20 hours
What to Read
Snail’s Pace… Hollow Knight: Silkson has been in development for seven years. Photo: Team Cherry
According to Bloomberg (£), the long-awaited Hollow Knight: Silkson took seven years to develop because the team enjoyed the process too much to stop. “We might have continued indefinitely,” William Peren from Team Cherry said.
An incredible quote from Sony PlayStation chief, Harmen Halst, from a Financial Times Interview (£), after last year’s Concord incident: “For us, when we fail, we want to fail early and cheaply.”
Last week, Gamescom broke attendance records with 357,000 visitors in Cologne. According to the organizers, this proves that face-to-face gaming events are finally returning to stability post-pandemic.
A long-lost tale… the story of a vagrant. Photo: Square Enix
Leader Tom presents this week’s question:
“With all these remakes emerging, what games do you wish to see (me included)? “
We all have that one game, right? We know that if someone gave it the green light, modern technology would enhance it positively. Although Vagrant Story isn’t entirely forgotten, Square Enix has been preserving its catalog, especially with a grand remake following in the footsteps of Final Fantasy VII. Naoshima Yoshida from Final Fantasy XIV has claimed it as one of his favorites, so there’s at least a 50% chance for a re-release. I held onto hope that it might surprise fans at one of the major annual showcases.
We’ve revisited highly sought-after remakes over the years, so why not ask again: Are you still waiting for someone to revive it? And if you have another question for the question block, or feedback on the newsletter:Please email pushbuttons@theguardian.com.
Artwork in Geneva, Switzerland. Recently, a lecture on the Global Plastics Convention was conducted.
Fabrice Coffrini/AFP via Getty Images
On August 14, a weary UN representative walked into the main venue after long discussions and little sleep, witnessing the fading hopes for a global treaty on plastic pollution.
The two-week conference in Geneva, Switzerland, marked his second attempt to create international regulations to tackle this pressing issue.
However, just before a resolution, disagreements emerged over whether the treaty should contain provisions for boosting recycling rates, as well as targets to decrease plastic production at its source.
Oil Production Status – As demand for gasoline and diesel diminishes, the reliance on the plastics industry for revenue complicates efforts to reduce production.
The treaty required unanimous consent to be enacted, but some states stood firm on their “red lines,” leading to a breakdown in talks.
Does this scenario ring a bell? The Environmental Summit often experiences the collapse of protracted negotiations, lengthy discussions, and debates. Even when agreements are reached, consultations typically yield minimal concrete outcomes, a pattern seen during the 2023 COP28 Summit in Dubai.
A significant challenge lies in the longstanding expectation of unanimous agreement, as noted by Robert Faulkner from the London School of Economics. He explains that the United Nations has initiated discussions related to climate change and biodiversity, which requires consensus from hundreds of countries with diverse economic and political contexts.
“The consensus approach in international environmental negotiations has consistently been the Achilles’ heel of the United Nations’ environmental efforts,” states Faulkner. “This often results in compromises that reflect the lowest common denominator.”
Activists and strategists are growing weary from a series of stagnant climate summits, with slowed progress in efforts to halt biodiversity loss. In light of the recent crisis in Geneva, there’s increasing skepticism regarding the environmental diplomatic process.
“Why do we believe that environmental challenges can only be addressed through multilateralism and consensus among over 190 countries? That approach seems ineffective,” says Simon Sharp, a former British diplomat and author of Five Times Faster: Rethinking the Science, Economics, and Diplomacy of Climate Change.
More activists and strategists are seeking alternative strategies. Sharp, who played a role in organizing the COP26 Climate Summit in Glasgow, UK, emphasizes the need to prioritize action over targets and to rally influential countries to expedite decarbonization by sector. “If you want meaningful change, you must take action,” he asserts.
Eirik Lindebjerg, from the WWF Campaign Group, echoes a similar sentiment in Norway. “If 100 countries agree to implement measures to phase out fossil fuel vehicles, even without participation from other nations, it can still yield significant climate benefits,” he argues. “To me, there is a compelling case to move beyond the consensus mindset.”
This approach draws inspiration from positive “turning points” aimed at steering the world toward rapid decarbonization in various sectors, such as transportation and electricity.
Tim Renton, an author and academic at the University of Exeter, UK, argues in his upcoming book Positive Turning Points: How to Fix the Climate Crisis that collaboration among smaller groups of countries could prove more effective than relying solely on consensus-based negotiations.
“The essence of a tipping point is that a minority can ultimately sway the majority,” he explains. “Thus, it is illogical to restrict progress by demanding universal agreement before any actions are taken.”
Of course, this strategy hinges on engaging the most influential countries (those with economies capable of pushing these turning points). Given the unpredictability of US leadership under Donald Trump, this remains uncertain.
Yet, there are indications that this way of thinking is gaining traction within diplomatic circles. For instance, the Brazilian hosts of the forthcoming COP30 Climate Summit are contemplating a reorganization of frameworks that could enable the new UN Council for Climate Change to enact majority votes and facilitate direct, sector-specific collaboration among nations. Simultaneously, many observers are viewing China’s increasing engagement in climate matters as an opportunity for them to take a leadership role on specific issues like renewable energy and electric vehicles.
When progress in environmental policy is predominantly driven by small groups of nations, one must question the relevance of large agreements like climate summits. Events of this nature can aid in “norm-setting,” remarks Sharp, facilitating recognition of ongoing transitions, such as the global shift away from coal reliance. However, they shouldn’t be expected to lead the charge for change, he cautions.
There is no denying that decades-long efforts have been instrumental in fostering international consensus on environmental strategies. Nevertheless, consensus-driven negotiations can move at the pace of the slowest participants in the dialogue. As the world confronts a multifaceted crisis involving climate change, biodiversity, and pollution, it may be time to reconsider such an approach.
(Oxford University Press, by Albert Folch, now available)
What do rainbows, inkjet printers, human skin, pregnancy tests, and fish gills have in common?
To explore this, you must delve into what Albert Folch, a bioengineering professor at the University of Washington, terms the “liliptian fluid world.” Here, we encounter the fascinating realm of microfluidics, which manages liquids at a miniature scale—from tiny veins in the human body to microchannels etched into lab chips.
Folch’s new book, How the World Flows: Microfluids from Raindrops to COVID Tests, is an astonishing journey through the numerous ways microfluidics influence our world. He credits his neurobiologist wife in the acknowledgments for encouraging him to write about not just microfluidic chips, which have become crucial in chemistry, biology, and medical research, but also about the “device” of microfluidics found in nature.
This allows the book to paint broader pictures, examining both current technologies and historical examples, from handheld DNA sequencing devices to how the tallest trees draw nutrients from the soil. Folch also explains phenomena like capillarity in paper—enabling writing—and discusses the fundamental mechanics of a candle and the workings of an automobile engine.
Each of the 18 chapters is brief and introductory, starting with a personal story about a historical figure, such as inventors, athletes, and chefs, making the material more relatable.
Physics concepts in How the World Flows, like viscosity, surface tension, and gravity, are presented without complex equations but instead through straightforward explanations rooted in real-world contexts.
At times, I’ve yearned for deeper detail regarding the devices and processes Folch discusses. Additionally, the coverage of recent innovations, including chip-sized devices that replicate entire organs, feels somewhat limited compared to the wealth of historical context.
Nevertheless, as I read, I felt I was absorbing a wealth of knowledge about everyday phenomena. Microfluids have become essential in understanding our bipedalism due to sweat, why lakes don’t drain into the Earth, and how all vertebrates can perceive each other’s calls. There’s even a section on the complex engineering found in a mosquito’s proboscis!
Folch’s writing exudes enthusiasm and warmth, though he occasionally slips into the realm of popular science writing that can obscure the overall tone of the book. For instance, many scientific contributions are intertwined with childhood anecdotes, which can shift from relatable to hagiography.
I also found it remarkable that a book could make microfluidics accessible to those without rigorous educational backgrounds.
Despite this, the strength of How the World Flows lies in its diverse cast of characters and its emphasis on the significance of microfluidics in shaping our world.
Above all, this book has the potential to inspire young readers to consider a future in engineering. It also serves as a reminder of the intricate complexity and wonder of any object under a microscope, fueling our curiosity.
In 2013, the World Health Organization (WHO) established an ambitious goal: to reduce global physical inactivity by 10% compared to 2010 levels by 2025. Now, the deadline has arrived, and despite initiatives aimed at leveraging the excitement of multiple Olympic Games, activity levels have not increased.
The latest data indicates that as of 2022, 31% of adults worldwide fail to meet physical activity guidelines, marking a rise from 26% in 2010. The situation is even graver among teens, with an alarming 81% not engaging in sufficient physical activity. We’re falling short of our targets.
What went wrong? Various factors, from public health policies to urban design, can be scrutinized regarding current strategies. Nevertheless, some experts are advocating for a more fundamental reassessment. Have we been misrepresenting the promotion of physical activity all along?
For years, public health campaigns have heavily relied on the narrative that “exercise is medicine” to encourage physical activity. This notion is familiar: engage in physical activity to combat illnesses like diabetes or cardiovascular diseases. This message is underpinned by strong scientific evidence, leading to the belief that health incentives are the most compelling motivation.
Yet, Benjamin Rigby, a public health researcher from Newcastle University, and his colleagues recently argued in an opinion piece that framing physical activity solely as a health preventive measure oversimplifies the myriad reasons individuals choose to be active. “The reality is people engage in movement for many reasons unrelated to avoiding illness,” Rigby states. “We play, laugh, explore, dance, and feel proud of ourselves. Ultimately, it’s about enjoyment and well-being.” Eliminating these positive motivators from health messaging may contribute to the lack of engagement.
Elsewhere, research continues to support the concept of shifting focus away from health-centric narratives. A study by University of Edinburgh researchers analyzed 123 public messages about physical activity, concluding that health concerns are not always effective motivators for prompting people to get active. The most impactful messages highlight the short-term rewards of proactive engagement rather than threats of future illness.
What if campaign messaging centered on the immediate benefits of physical activity? Some researchers recommend phrasing such as “small movements to enhance your mood,” focusing on mental health, or promoting “physical activity as an opportunity to connect with others.” Motivation matters.
Strong evidence shows individuals are more likely to maintain activity when it is enjoyable. Fun is associated with young people who regularly participate in sports. Remember Pokemon GO? That trend inspired avid users to walk an additional 1,473 steps daily on average, fueled by the excitement of “catching them all.” Given this evidence, why do public health messages overlook fun-focused motivations?
Sticking to health-oriented narratives appeals strongly to institutions. Their effects can be quantified, aligning neatly with the formal tone expected from such messages. However, with the 2030 target of reducing physical inactivity by 15% from 2010 levels approaching, now is the time for transformative change. It’s crucial to cease prescribing physical activity as a daunting chore and start presenting it as an opportunity for enjoyment, exploration, and connection.
Dawn Teh is a freelance health writer based in Australia.
Fibroblast cells that play a role in forming connective tissue and are also involved in scarring
Dr. Torsten Wittmann/Science Photography Library
Recent discoveries about how mouth injuries heal without bruising could lead to treatment methods that prevent permanent scars and improve skin appearance.
“Millions of individuals experience injuries, surgeries, burns, and various other traumas,” states Ophir Klein from Cedars-Sinai Medical Center in Los Angeles, California. “This represents a significant issue not only in cosmetic terms but also functional terms,” he adds. For instance, he mentions that a major wound can restrict leg movement due to skin tightening.
To explore this, Klein and his team took advantage of the fact that mouth wounds heal without scarring. “Injuries inside the mouth heal more quickly and with fewer scars compared to skin injuries,” he explains.
Upon investigation, the researchers created 2.5mm wide wounds both in the mouth and on the face of mice. They collected tissue samples as these wounds healed over the course of a week.
The team analyzed cells known as fibroblasts that are associated with scarring and discovered that fibroblasts in the mouth exhibited higher activity levels for genes encoding proteins such as Gas6 and Axl than those in the skin. These proteins are known to promote cell growth, migration, and survival.
The Gas6-Axl pathway seemed to inhibit the levels of a protein called FAK, which is involved in depositing proteins on wounds, leading to scar formation. “We were aware of this pathway’s existence, but its role in non-scarring wound healing was unknown,” Klein notes.
The next step for the researchers was to assess whether enhancing the Gas6-Axl pathway could minimize skin scarring. They administered a solution containing Gas6 to freshly created facial scars on mice. After two weeks, these treated wounds exhibited reduced FAK levels and fewer scars compared to those in untreated mice. “They have successfully shown that stimulating this pathway can diminish scarring,” says Jason Wong at the University of Manchester, UK.
“This is certainly a significant step towards what could be a scar-free future,” states Ines Sequeira from Queen Mary University in London. However, he cautions that further research is needed with larger animals like pigs, which have skin more similar to humans, before moving towards human trials.
A As a teen in South Australia during the late 1980s, I developed a fascination with Australian New Wave Cinema, partly due to the Mad Max trilogy. One day in class, my high school English teacher rolled in a TV trolley and presented us with a screening of Nicholas Roeg’s classic. We were spellbound. Fast forward 40 years, and I’m now immersed in Death Stranding 2, Hideo Kojima’s expansive apocalyptic saga. Occasionally, it feels like I’m reliving that classroom experience. The game unfolds in a devastated Australia, where cities have vanished, and the landscapes are as stunning and prophetic as those in Roeg’s films.
After 45 hours of gameplay, I’ve made minimal progress in the storyline. Instead, I’ve explored the wilderness and delivered packages to remote outposts. Set in a world ravaged by catastrophic events, the game showcases a supernatural explosion that transforms the landscape. As you traverse the expansive ochre desert towards the coast, you witness sunsets behind shimmering mountain ranges, and tides reflecting the sky. Unlike typical open-world games, where environments remain static save for day/night cycles, Australia in Death Stranding 2 feels magical and ever-changing. Earthquakes might send boulders tumbling down mountains or trigger a massive dust storm, while snowy avalanches can engulf you. Along your journey, you can construct roads, power generators, and jump pads, all of which other players can discover and utilize. Each visit to a location feels novel.
Kojima cites George Miller as his inspiration, and the influence of the Mad Max films — with their chaotic, desolate energy — permeates the game. It examines the interplay between technology and isolation, portraying feudal tribes and scarce resources amidst an adrenaline-fueled atmosphere. Yes, he’s influenced by Roeg as well; while there are hints of mythic resonance from Walkabout, the game may lack the profound undertones of colonial guilt. On the remote fringes of the game map, a rocky outcrop evokes memories of Peter Weir’s Picnic at Hanging Rock.
The hallucinatory strangeness of the sun attacked… a picnic at Hanging Rock.
I’ve spent countless hours driving along the highways of this game, picking up parcels and delivering them to remote locations. Why? Sitting in front of the screen until 2am, I felt compelled to ensure that a shelter received its fluffy pajamas. The magic lies in creating a timeless Australian landscape that is subject to moments of extreme change — echoing the transcendental techniques employed by Weir. This world is both enchanting and menacing, which is utterly captivating.
A few years back, Weir expressed this about Picnic at Hanging Rock: “What I aimed to achieve was an oppressive atmosphere of unresolved tension. To evoke claustrophobia within both place and relationships. We labored intensely to construct a hallucinatory, mesmerizing rhythm that made you lose track of reality.”
In essence, that’s my experience with Death Stranding 2. It’s a game filled with hallucinations and engaging rhythms. You drive and drive, eventually returning to the same locale hours later—only now there’s a road or a marker left by another player who perished during the night. This creative interpretation of Australian landscape captures what Grand Theft Auto has aspired to achieve in American cities. It’s about interpreting and distilling a sense of place from an outsider’s lens. So, when I finally unlocked a new area for exploration, the sense of wonder mirrored my first viewing of Walkabout on a rainy afternoon in Manchester. I’m certain it will take me months to uncover it all.
What to Play
A philosophical comedy… a Quantum Witch. Photo: Nikki J.
A few months ago, I interviewed the creator of Quantum Witch, a unique pixel art adventure about a shepherdess who lost her flock and was caught in a metaphysical conflict between clashing gods. Nikki Jay, raised in a religious cult, escaped to forge her own path, and her experiences deeply inspire the game.
Developed with minimal assistance from Paul Rose, the inventor of the iconic Teletext Gaming Gin digitizer for Channel 4, it blends point-and-click mechanics with a postmodern deconstruction of the genre, punctuated with eccentric undertones. If you enjoy irreverent humor, you’ve come to the right place, or you’re simply looking for something delightful and quirky.
Available at: PC Estimated playtime: Five hours or more
What to Read
Bad news? …Mindseye. Photo: IO Interactive
In more troubling news for game industry employees—Mind-Annoyed Developers have begun to Make a Rocket Boy. Following a disastrous launch, the studio has seen significant layoffs. Games plagued by bugs and AI glitches have received negative reviews from both players and critics, with IGN reporting that up to 100 staff members have been let go. What a disaster.
Eurogamer features an amazing interview with voice actor Ashley Burch, discussing whether video games can positively impact mental health. Burch shares her own experiences with obsessive-compulsive disorder and how Harvest Moon 64 aided her coping mechanisms.
We love in-depth explorations of classic video games, and Gamespot has produced an amazing piece about how a designer crafted the best level in Deus Ex—the Aeon Storm, a legendary role-playing adventure from Dallas Studios, filled with intriguing details about the alternative rendition of Hong Kong.
A peculiar narrative, a short play… The Rest of Edith Finch. Photo: Annapurna Interactive
This comes from Adam:
“I’ve been enjoying Be Brave, Barb, from the developers behind the fun Daddish series. I appreciate its straightforward, bite-sized gameplay, reminiscent of my experiences with the Game Boy Kirby titles.”What’s your favorite snack-sized game?
After my initial experience with the eerie short horror title Thin, I’m now obsessed with curious mini horror games, adding titles like Mouse Washing, Murder Case, and PT to my list. I’m also fond of classic PlayStation minigames like BISHIBASI Special and Point Blank. From the rest of the team, Keza is into WarioWare, The Lonely Mountain, and Pokémon Trading Card Game (“yes, still,” she says). Tom Regan enjoys Edith Finch’s Remains, Florence, and Inside; Christian Dongran mentions short-burst games like Loop Hero, Tetris Effect, and Sifu, while also noting, “Guardian Quick Cryptic is my favorite ten minutes of the week.” Sarah Maria Griffin loves Short Hike, and of course, the delightful Untitled Goose Game is a perfect little gem.
If you have questions or feedback regarding the newsletter, don’t hesitate to reply or email us at butingbuttons@theguardian.com.
Upon receiving a diagnosis of non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma in 2023, particle physicist and Oxford University professor emeritus Frank Close underwent three weeks of radiation therapy, which provided him with a new understanding of radiation’s capabilities.
His 10-year-old grandson shared a detailed account of Emperor Bomba, a 50-megaton nuclear device tested by the Soviet Union in 1961, marking the most powerful human-made explosion. This prompted Close to elucidate the complexities of nuclear energy, highlighting its dual nature as both a power source and a peril.
A three-time winner of the British Science Writers Association Award, Close is well-versed in the intricacies of subatomic physics. His latest work, Destroyers of the World: Deep History of the Nuclear Age 1895-1965, starts with the Trinity Test Blast in July 1945, signifying the moment chemical explosions transitioned to nuclear ones. He takes readers on a historical journey beginning with 1896, when the first atomic traces sparked interest in the nuclear age.
The narrative features 19th-century scientist William Crookes, who delved into spiritualism after his brother’s death, observing “bright green clouds” in a gas-filled, charged vacuum tube. He believed he had synthesized external organisms and discovered phantoms. Theoretical physicist George Gamow is also mentioned, demonstrating that uranium can release charged alpha particles without contradicting energy conservation principles.
Close’s primary focus, however, revolves around the often-overlooked contributions of female physicists in the nuclear arena. He discusses Lise Meitner, who, despite holding a PhD, was banned from a male-only room at the University of Vienna. This didn’t thwart her efforts alongside Otto Hahn to provide X-rays for World War I injuries or her 1917 discovery of protactinium, element 91. In 1925, she was awarded the Lieven Prize, which marked a significant academic achievement.
He also highlights Elaine Joliot-Curie, the daughter of Marie Curie and Pierre Curie, who possessed her parents’ scientific prowess. In a notable scandal in 1910, Marie faced exclusion from the French Academy of Sciences due to her relationship with a married physicist. Elaine sought to defend her family’s legacy, underscoring work she conducted with her husband, Frédéric Joliot. The 1932 announcement of the neutron by James Chadwick shifted the course of nuclear physics.
Furthermore, Close examines the contributions of chemist Aida Noddack, who argued that uranium nuclei could be split into lighter isotopes but faced backlash from a male-dominated field. Noddack’s position as an industrial chemist challenged the established norms of elite nuclear physics.
In Destroyers of the World, Close also addresses the enigma surrounding Ettore Majorana, a theoretical physicist revered by Enrico Fermi, who mysteriously vanished in 1938. Speculation about Majorana’s fate has ranged from suicide to escaping fascism in Italy, but as with many similar cases, certainty eludes us.
As we navigate through the radioactive haze, one fact remains evident: many extraordinary individuals played pivotal roles in unleashing the Nuclear Demon from its confines.
George Bass is a writer based in Kent, UK.
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The #MeToo movement against women’s sexual abuse gained traction in 2017, leading to what I term the #Anatomytoo moment, during which the derogatory anatomical label attached to female genitals was challenged and deemed unacceptable.
The long-used term for the vulva, referring to the external genitalia of women, was “Pudendum,” a word that historically reflected a biased view within the male-dominated medical field. Interestingly, “Pudendum” traces back to the Latin word Pudere, meaning “to be ashamed,” casting the female anatomy in a negative light as something shameful.
What’s even more unfortunate is that for centuries, “Pudendum” was applied equally to both men’s and women’s external genitals. Over time, men shed the associated stigma, leaving women to bear the burden of this label alone.
Consequently, it’s not surprising that many women feel discomfort regarding their genitals. A UK study revealed that 65% of young women struggle to use terms like “vulva” or “vagina.” This part of their own body often remains unnamed.
Names carry significant weight, as reflected in the evolution of the term “Pudendum.” As a result, it was removed from official anatomical terminology in 2019.
But “Pudendum” is just the surface issue in the broader context of male dominance in anatomy. Female anatomy features a considerable number of anatomical eponyms, which are body parts named after individuals, predominantly male.
A review of 700 anatomical terms identified that 424 were named after male doctors. Among the few exceptions, there was only one woman and several mythological figures and historical leaders, highlighting the gender imbalance.
This systemic patriarchy is unsurprising, given that in 1847, when many of these terms were coined, women were seldom represented in the study of internal anatomy, particularly regarding female reproductive organs.
For example, Gabriele Falloppio is commemorated in the namesake tube connecting the uterus to the ovaries, while Skene’s Glands, named after Alexander Skene, contribute to female ejaculation. The “G” in G-spot honors Ernst Gräfenberg, whereas Bartholin’s gland is named for Caspar Bartholin the younger, linked to sexual lubrication near the vaginal entrance.
The prevalence of masculine terminology is one reason why medical professionals increasingly favor more precise terms. For instance, Bartholin’s glands are referred to as the larger vestibular glands, and Skene’s glands are called paraglandular glands, while the fallopian tube is termed the uterine tube.
Despite this push for change, anatomical eponyms remain widely used in both medical practice and everyday language. Terms like “Fallopian Tube” have yet to be fully supplanted by more contemporary terminology. Moreover, even when linguistic adjustments are made, vestiges of the original terminology often stick around.
While “Pudendum” is eliminated, the equally charged term “Pudendal” survives, referring to female nerves, arteries, veins, and canals, perpetuating remnants of male-centric anatomical language. Most people remain unfamiliar with these terms.
Unlike “vagina,” which is derived from the Latin word for “sheath,” suggesting an alternative name of “vagina,” rebranding this term isn’t on the agenda. However, many still overlook the fact that other female reproductive parts also deserve recognition.
For pudendal nerves and arteries, only one term in the anatomical lexicon encapsulates their enduring stigma: it remains an embarrassment.
Knoxville, Tennessee – From exhilarating goals to devastating defeats, the FIFA World Cup captivates its audience.
Next year, the 2026 FIFA World Cup will commence, co-hosted by the US, Canada, and Mexico, marking a historic event.
This tournament may feature superstars like Lionel Messi and Cristiano Ronaldo, and is the first occasion where three nations co-host in 16 cities, making it the most complex World Cup ever, as per FIFA.
“No matter if they’re in Seattle or playing in Guadalajara, I need these pitches to perform consistently. I want the same bounce and the same player-to-grass interaction,” said an expert.
“Safety is paramount and must be my top priority,” Ferguson stated during an interview at the University of Tennessee facility in Knoxville, where researchers collaborate with Michigan State to help FIFA evaluate each venue’s pitch preparations for the tournament.
“Players need to feel confident as they make quick directional changes; the ground must be stable,” he added.
Managing over 12 venues for NFL games and concerts full of monster trucks is no small feat.
The U.S. venues could face increased scrutiny after last summer’s Copa America Tournament raised concerns, notably from players like Argentine goalkeeper Emiliano Martinez, who referred to conditions at Atlanta’s Mercedes-Benz Stadium as a “disaster.”
“There’s no doubt that last year’s tournament raised the stakes,” Ferguson remarked, referencing the tournament that featured the best 16 teams from North, Central, and South America, as well as the Caribbean.
“Research was in progress, but Copa highlighted more traditional hesitations regarding international football pitches. Venue schedules are packed with events transitioning from one to another continuously.”
U.S. stadiums have long been central to the debate on natural versus artificial turf in terms of safety. Next summer, all venues will adopt artificial stitch blends of natural grass, focusing on both the underlying structure and the grass itself.
In April, NBC News had exclusive access to the Knoxville facility, where researchers led by Professor John Solochan are tackling these challenges.
The team is investigating artificial stitches and layering techniques beneath the grass to improve root growth and ensure light use, contributing to consistent pitch quality indoors and outdoors.
Solochan, who specializes in turfgrass science and management, mentioned that the mix for warm-season venues includes Bermudagrass, while cool-season venues use a blend of perennial rye and Kentucky bluegrass. Indoor venues also benefit from recommended drainage layers, contributing to a firmer pitch.
“Many of these trials here were unsuccessful,” Solochan explained as he showcased a grid filled with grass plots labeled with different variables. Some experiments involved sewing fibers together to fortify the play surface, while others examined the upper layers typical in World Cup venues featuring flooring for concerts and artificial turf.
The facility includes setups that simulate indoor stadium growth conditions, along with a flex machine that tests the impact on players’ ankles by pressing soccer shoes into the grass. The initial data shows promising insights.
“You can track the speed of the ball as it moves. By analyzing the footage, we can determine its recovery speed, angle, and exit coefficients,” Solochan noted while standing next to a machine resembling one used for NFL punt returns.
Ferguson concluded, “It’s the science that underpins the game. That’s what elevates the sport.”
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