Tag Archives: understand

Study: Bumblebees Can Be Trained to Understand Basic Morse Code

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Bufftail Bumblebee (Western bumblebee): A recent study reveals that humans can determine foraging locations by analyzing variations in the length of visual cues.

The ability to process temporal information is essential for animal behaviors like foraging, mating, and avoiding predators. Although circadian rhythms are well-studied, there’s limited knowledge on how insects perceive durations in the second to subsecond range. Davidson and colleagues sought to assess the buff-tailed bumblebee’s (Western bumblebee) ability to distinguish between light flash durations in free-foraging tasks. Image credit: Miriam.

In Morse code, a brief flash or “dot” signifies the letter “E,” while a prolonged flash or “dash” indicates the letter “T.”

Previously, the capability to differentiate between “dots” and “dashes” was recognized solely in humans and certain vertebrates like macaques and pigeons.

Alex Davidson, a PhD student at Queen Mary University of London, and his team examined this ability in the Western bumblebee.

They designed a specialized maze to train the bumblebees to identify a sugar reward among two flashing circles, marked by long and short flashing intervals.

For instance, if a short flash, or “dot,” was linked with sugar, a long flash, or “dash,” would be associated with a bitter substance that bumblebees typically avoid.

Within each section of the maze, the locations of the “dot” and “dash” stimuli were altered, preventing the bumblebees from relying on spatial cues for their choices.

After mastering the task of approaching the flashing circles paired with sugar, the bumblebees were tested with flashing lights devoid of sugar, to determine if their selections were driven by visual cues instead of olfactory ones associated with sugar.

The results indicated that the bumblebees effectively learned to distinguish between light durations, as the majority headed straight to the “correct” blinking light duration that had been previously linked to sugar, irrespective of its spatial location.

“We aimed to investigate if bumblebees could distinguish among these various durations, and it was thrilling to observe them succeed,” Davidson noted.

“It’s astonishing that they excelled in this task, given that bumblebees encounter no blinking stimuli in their natural habitats.”

“The ability to track the duration of visual stimuli might imply enhanced temporal processing capabilities that have evolved for various functions, including spatial movement tracking or communication.”

“Alternatively, this impressive skill for encoding and processing time could be a fundamental feature of the nervous system, reflective of neuronal properties. Only further research can clarify this.”

The neural mechanisms that facilitate the tracking of these durations are still largely unclear. Current mechanisms known to align with solar cycles and seasonal changes are too slow to account for the distinction between dashes and dots of varying durations.

Numerous theories suggest the existence of either a singular or multiple biological clocks.

The revelation of insects’ capacity to differentiate between light flash durations will enable researchers to test various models using these “miniature brains” that measure less than a cubic millimeter.

“Numerous complex animal behaviors, including navigation and communication, rely on temporal processing capabilities,” comments researcher Elisabetta Versace from Queen Mary University of London.

“To explore the evolution of such abilities, adopting a comprehensive comparative approach across a range of species, including insects, is crucial.”

“Insect processing times highlight their utilization of minimal neural resources to accomplish complex tasks.”

“This insight holds implications for characteristics such as complex cognition in artificial neural networks, which should take cues from biological intelligence while striving for efficiency and scalability.”

This result was published in the Journal on November 12, 2025 in Biology Letters.

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Alexander Davidson et al. 2025. Bumblebee duration identification in the Western bumblebee. Biol. Let 21(11):20250440; doi: 10.1098/rsbl.2025.0440

Source: www.sci.news

Your Brain Monitors Your Sleep Debt—And We Might Finally Understand How

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How does the brain encourage us to make up for our sleep loss?

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Researchers have identified mouse neurons that assist the brain in managing and recovering from sleep debt. Similar pathways exist in humans and could enhance treatments for conditions associated with sleep disorders, including Alzheimer’s disease.

Everyone knows the struggle of sleep debt — the difference between the sleep one needs and what one gets. However, the mechanisms through which the brain tracks sleep loss have remained largely unclear.

Mark Woo from Johns Hopkins University and his team investigated the brain pathways of mice associated with sleep by injecting tracers into 11 brain regions known to promote sleep. The tracers revealed connections to 22 regions linked to four sleep-promoting areas.

Previous studies concentrated on a limited number of unidentified regions. A method known as chemogenetics was utilized, administering specialized drugs to the mice that activated particular areas of the brain. The mice were divided into 11 groups of 3-4 and different regions were stimulated in each group.

Interestingly, an area called the thalamic nuclear reuniens proved to be significant. Stimulation of neurons in this region resulted in a substantial increase in REM sleep for the mice — about twice as much as non-stimulated counterparts. However, it took a few hours for the stimulated mice to fall asleep, during which they exhibited signs of readiness to rest.

“When you go to sleep, you likely engage in routines like brushing your teeth, washing your face, or fluffing your pillow. Mice do something similar; they groom themselves and prepare their nests,” says Wu. This suggests that these neurons are not simple on/off switches for sleep but rather promote drowsiness.

Support for this theory came from another experiment where deactivating thalamic nuclear cells in six sleep-deprived mice resulted in decreased drowsiness. These mice were more active and nested less than the control group, averaging 10% less non-REM sleep.

Additional tests have indicated that these neurons activate during sleep deprivation and become silent when sleep begins.

Collectively, these findings indicate that this brain region not only triggers sleepiness but also facilitates recovery sleep following sleep loss, according to Wu. Targeting these neurons could lead to new therapies for sleep disorders characterized by excessive drowsiness after rest, as well as conditions like Alzheimer’s disease, where individuals struggle with sleep.

However, it’s uncertain if equivalent brain circuits exist in humans. William Gialdino from Stanford University expresses caution, stating that while the immediate effects of sleep deprivation are being studied, the long-term consequences may differ significantly from those observed in humans experiencing chronic sleep loss.

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Source: www.newscientist.com

We Might Finally Understand What Happened to Mars’ Missing Water

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Mars once boasted a sprawling ocean across its surface. Over time, the magnetic field diminished, the atmosphere thinned, and the water vanished. Yet, the total isn’t accounted for. This water must have disappeared somewhere as the red planet transitioned from a watery haven to the dusty landscape we recognize today. So, what happened to it?

A recent study published in National Science Review by researchers from China, Australia, and Italy has uncovered potential vast reservoirs of water located deep beneath the planet’s surface, providing answers about its fate. Unlike the icy reservoirs found elsewhere on Mars, this water is believed to remain in liquid form, making it a promising candidate in the search for extraterrestrial life.

Around 4 billion years ago, liquid water covered much of Mars’s surface. If evenly distributed, this water would have created a global ocean approximately 1,500 meters (4,920 feet) deep, comparable to the volume of the Indian Ocean on Earth today.

While exact figures are still under debate, this estimation highlights a significant discrepancy.

“Estimated losses of liquid water due to atmospheric escape and crust hydration are predicted to be between 10-200 meters (33-656 feet) and 550 meters (1,800 feet) respectively,” stated Waijia Sun, a geophysics professor at the Chinese Academy of Sciences and lead author of the study, as reported by BBC Science Focus.

“Current estimates suggest a total of 20-40 meters (66-131 feet) of water exists in Mars’s atmosphere and as ice in polar or subsurface deposits.”

The “missing water” on Mars, estimated at a range between 710 and 920 meters (2,330 and 3,020 feet), remains unaccounted for, according to Sun and colleagues.

Marsquakes and Meteorites

With NASA’s InSight lander landing on Mars on November 26, 2018, a new perspective of the planet’s interior became available. Equipped with a dome housing a seismometer, it measures seismic activity similar to how earthquakes are monitored on Earth, dubbed “pulsing” by NASA.

The research team utilized measurements from two meteor impacts and seismic waves generated by a “Marsquake.” BBC Science Focus co-author Professor Hrvoje Tkalčić compared this technique to medical ultrasound, allowing glimpses into the Martian interior.

“In essence, earthquake waves generated from distant events travel through the Earth’s crust beneath the seismometer,” explained Tkalčić. “By analyzing their reverberations, we can deduce the thickness of these layers and the depth of boundaries.”

Scientists set up solar arrays for NASA’s InSight Lander in 2015 – Photo Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/Lockheed Martin

Seismic waves travel faster through rock that contains water. By measuring the velocity of waves resulting from impacts or quakes, scientists can investigate the presence of deep underground water without the need for excavation.

This innovative method, known as the “receiver function,” enabled the team to identify layers approximately 5.4-8 km (3.4-5 miles) below the Martian surface where seismic waves slow down, indicating water’s presence.

At these depths, temperatures are sufficient for liquid water to exist. Researchers estimate that the water present ranges between 520-780 meters (1,700-2,560 feet) beneath the surface.

Could There Be Life on Mars?

If substantial aquifers lie below the Martian surface, it could be an ideal location to search for alien life. Water is a crucial element for life on Earth, sustaining even deep subterranean microorganisms like bacteria and archaea, which constitute around 15% of Earth’s total biomass.

While finding complex life forms is unlikely at such depths on Mars, microbial life remains a distinct possibility.

“The availability of liquid water is viewed as a key factor in our search for life, as it is essential for existence,” noted Tkalčić. “Consequently, pinpointing locations with liquid water on Mars is vital for identifying potential life.”

Additionally, if humanity establishes a presence on Mars, water becomes a critical resource. Excavating kilometers below the surface presents significant engineering challenges, but such obstacles are to be expected in pioneering a human settlement on another planet.

However, before rushing to buy tickets to Mars, Sun and Tkalčić caution that the aquifer’s existence is not yet confirmed. They emphasize the necessity for additional data before reaching any conclusions.

Liquid water is the most plausible explanation supported by current data, but other viable explanations for the observed seismic waves, such as layers of sediment, exist.

Professor Hrvoje Tkalčić oversees seismology and mathematics in geophysics and heads the Warramunga Seismic & Infrasound Facility at the Australian National University – Photo credit: Jamie Kidston/ANU

On Earth, seismic measurements are taken from numerous seismometers worldwide that cross-validate data points. The situation is different on Mars.

“We must remember that we are limited to data from a single seismometer on a faraway planet. It’s a challenging observational environment, and we are maximizing the quality and quantity of our data,” Tkalčić added.

Researchers aspire that upcoming Mars missions equipped with more seismometers will facilitate more comprehensive studies across the planet. Eventually, we may even analyze the crust for direct chemical evidence of water, and potentially signs of life.

For now, this research offers a hopeful glimpse into what future missions may reveal. Sun remarked: “These findings shed light on the evolution of Mars’s water cycle and its potential habitability, laying a solid groundwork for future inquiries into Martian life and the planet’s climatic history.”

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About Our Experts

Weijia Sun is a professor of geophysics at the Chinese Academy of Sciences, recognized for his work in Earth and Planetary Physics. His research has appeared in prominent journals such as Nature, Geophysical Research Letters, and Journal of Geophysical Research.

Hrvoje Tkalčić heads the Geophysics Department and directs the Warramunga Seismic & Infrasound Facility at the Australian National University. His research focuses on observational seismology, particularly the Earth’s deep structure and dynamics, appearing in journals like Science, Geophysical Research Letters, and Journal of Geophysical Research.

Source: www.sciencefocus.com

Do You Really Understand Your Dog? This Study Reveals the Truth – and Offers a Better Approach

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Humans and puppies share a special bond that inspires viral videos, artwork, and adoration. Despite this strong connection, it turns out that humans may not be as good at understanding dogs as they think.

Recent research from Arizona State University (ASU) has revealed that people often misinterpret dog emotions more frequently than previously believed. The study suggests that humans may not accurately perceive what their dogs are feeling.

According to researchers like animal welfare scientists Holly Molinaro and ASU Professor of Psychology Clive Wynne, people tend to focus on external cues rather than the actual emotions of dogs. This can lead to misunderstandings and misinterpretations of dog behavior.

Through experiments involving positive and negative scenarios, researchers found that participants often misinterpreted dog emotions based on external factors rather than the dogs’ actual behavior. Context played a significant role in how people perceived dog emotions.

Despite these findings, many participants projected their own emotions onto the dogs, further complicating their ability to accurately assess dog behavior. Even dog owners were not immune to these biases, as personal experience showed that they too could misinterpret dog emotions.

To improve understanding of dog emotions, researchers recommend humility and careful observation of a dog’s individual behavior cues. Each dog is unique, and it is essential to pay close attention to their subtle cues to truly understand their emotions.

Our dogs may be happy when we play with them, but we judge this more about the situation and our own feelings than what our puppies do. – Credit: westend61 via Getty

Learning to interpret a dog’s emotions accurately takes time and practice. By paying attention to subtle behavioral cues and staying open-minded, dog owners can build a stronger bond with their furry companions.

About our experts:

Holly Molinaro is a doctoral student, former professor, and animal welfare scientist at Arizona State University’s Department of Psychology.

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Source: www.sciencefocus.com

7 Dinosaurs We All Need to Understand Better

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Dinosaurs were once thought to be big and fearsome creatures, but our understanding of them has changed over time. As we learn more about them, we realize how incorrect our early assumptions were.

Here are seven significant ways our understanding of dinosaurs has evolved…

1. Tyrannosaurus Rex

In 1902, paleontologist Barnum Brown discovered a massive pile of bones in Hell Creek, Montana. These bones belonged to a muscular animal that walked on its hind legs and stood several meters tall. Its skull and jaws portrayed a formidable predator.

The discovery was exhibited at the American Museum of Natural History in 1905, astounding the audience. This monster was called Tyrannosaurus Rex, known as one of the largest and most powerful carnivorous animals to have ever lived on Earth.

Further studies have revealed that T. rex had a large brain, keen senses, and likely had some feathers on its body.

Cast of a Tyrannosaurus Rex skeleton on display in the main gallery of the Oxford University Museum of Natural History in Oxford, UK – Image credit: Alamy

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2. Iguanodon

In 1822, Gideon Mantell presented fossilized teeth found in Sussex to the Royal Society. These teeth were later recognized as belonging to a dinosaur called Iguanodon. This dinosaur roamed the earth with its spiked hands for self-defense.

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3. Dryptosaurus

Dryptosaurus as imagined in 1869 – Image courtesy of Alamy

Discovered in the late 1800s in New Jersey, Dryptosaurus was the first well-preserved carnivorous dinosaur skeleton known in North America. It was originally named “Laelaps” but later renamed Dryptosaurus, showcasing its speed, ferocity, and tenacity.

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4. Elasmosaurus

Early studies of Elasmosaurus fossils led some to imagine it was a giant sea snake-turtle hybrid – Image credit: Alamy

Elasmosaurus, named in the 1860s, had the longest neck of any animal that ever lived. Its skeleton baffled paleontologists for years until a more complete understanding was reached.

5. Stegosaurus

When Stegosaurus bones were first found in the 1870s, they were thought to belong to a strange aquatic creature due to the large vertical plates on its back. Later discoveries revealed a different picture, with some suggesting the plates were for display or thermoregulation.

Previous depictions of Stegosaurus were unclear on the plate – Image credit: Alamy

6. Ichthyosaur

Mary Anning’s discovery of Ichthyosaur fossils in 1811 led to the recognition of these creatures as extinct aquatic reptiles. This marked an important milestone in paleontological understanding.

Painting “Duria Antiquior” by Henri de la Beche – Image courtesy of Alamy

7. Pterosaur

In 1784, the first Pterosaur fossil was discovered, leading to the recognition of these creatures as flying reptiles. They were not dinosaurs but were closely related and the first bony animals to evolve powered flight.

Early visualizations of pterosaurs made them look almost rodent-like – Image credit: Alamy

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Source: www.sciencefocus.com