Tag Archives: neanderthals

Discover How Neanderthals Hunted Turtles for Tools, Not Meals

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Recent research from Germany reveals that Neanderthals captured the European pond turtle (Emys orbicularis) approximately 125,000 years ago, likely valuing its shell as a tool more than its modest meat yield.

European pond turtle (Emys orbicularis) beside the leg of a straight-tusked elephant (Palaeoloxodon antiquus). Image credit: Nicole Viehofer / MONREPOS – LEIZA.

Professor Sabine Gaudzinski-Windhauser of MONREPOS and Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz stated, “Recent findings on Neanderthal prey selection reveal a fascinating overlap with their ecological adaptability—showing similarities with the subsistence activities of Homo sapiens in the Upper Paleolithic.”

“Their diet ranged beyond traditional medium-to-large mammals like horses, bovids, and deer to include numerous small mammals such as leopards, birds, and reptiles, even incorporating massive straight-tusked elephants (Palaeoloxodon antiquus), which could weigh up to 135 tons.”

“Additionally, evidence indicates that Neanderthals consumed freshwater and marine resources, including shellfish and crabs, throughout the Mediterranean Basin and southwestern Iberian Peninsula.”

The latest study investigated fragments of a 125,000-year-old turtle shell unearthed in Neumark-Nord, a renowned Paleolithic site in present-day Saxony-Anhalt, Germany.

Utilizing advanced 3D scanning technology, researchers discovered cut marks on the interior surfaces of many of the 92 shell fragments. This indicates that Neanderthals carefully slaughtered these turtles, severing their limbs, removing internal organs, and thoroughly cleaning the shells.

“Our findings provide the first evidence that Neanderthals hunted and processed turtles beyond the Mediterranean region and north of the Alps,” remarked Professor Gaudzinski-Windhauser.

Researchers believe that the turtle identified was a European pond turtle, which was not primarily utilized as a food source.

Professor Gaudzinski-Windhauser added, “Given that the site is rich in large, high-yielding animal remains, this possibility can be virtually dismissed.”

“It seems they had an ample surplus of calories.”

“The pond turtle weighs about 1 kilogram and offers relatively low nutritional value, yet they are fairly easy to catch. Children may have participated in hunting them, as their shells could have been crafted into tools.”

“Furthermore, they might have been pursued for their taste or potential medicinal properties, a notion supported by subsequent research on indigenous populations.”

“Our results illuminate Neanderthal ecological flexibility and intricate survival strategies that extend well beyond mere calorie maximization.”

The team’s results were published in today’s edition of Scientific Reports.

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S. Gaudzinski-Windhauser et al. 2026. Shell Play: Neanderthal Use of the European Pond Turtle (Emys orbicularis) in the Landscape of the Last Interglacial Period North of Neumark (Germany). Scientific Reports 16, 8628; doi: 10.1038/s41598-026-42113-x

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Neanderthals Used Birch Tar as a Natural Antibiotic: Discovering Ancient Medical Practices

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Recent research highlights that birch bark tar—historically recognized as a natural tool adhesive—can effectively inhibit harmful bacteria like: Staphylococcus aureus. This suggests that Neanderthals may have utilized it to treat wounds and manage infections during the Ice Age.

Neanderthals likely employed birch tar for various applications, including wound care. Siemsen et al. confirmed that birch tar possesses selective antibacterial properties and effectively inhibits Staphylococcus aureus.

Birch tar is frequently discovered at Neanderthal sites, where it is known to have served as an adhesive for crafting tools.

Recent inquiries suggest that Neanderthals may have had additional uses for this versatile substance.

For instance, indigenous communities in Northern Europe and Canada have utilized birch tar to treat injuries. Increasing evidence indicates that Neanderthals also engaged in various medicinal practices.

To explore the medicinal capabilities of birch tar, Dr. Tjaark Siemssen and his team from the Universities of Cologne and Oxford extracted tar from birch tree bark, particularly species identified at Neanderthal sites.

The researchers employed multiple extraction techniques, including distillation in clay pits and condensation on stone surfaces—methods that Neanderthals could also have accessed.

All tested tar samples showcased effectiveness in inhibiting bacterial growth against various strains, including the notorious Staphylococcus bacteria responsible for wound infections.

These findings not only reinforce the efficacy of indigenous medicinal practices but also lend credence to the possibility that Neanderthals used birch tar for therapeutic purposes.

The researchers note that birch tar, alongside other available plants, may serve additional roles, such as an insect repellent.

Further investigations into the diverse applications of these natural substances will enrich our understanding of Neanderthal culture.

“Our findings demonstrate that birch tar produced by Neanderthals and early humans possesses notable antibacterial properties,” the researchers stated.

“This discovery has significant implications for how Neanderthals managed disease burdens during the last Ice Age and contributes to the expanding knowledge of medicine among early human communities.”

“Integrating research in indigenous pharmacology and experimental archaeology enhances our understanding of the medical practices of our early ancestors and their closest relatives.”

“Moreover, this paleopharmacological research could assist in rediscovering antibiotic treatments as we confront a rising crisis of antimicrobial resistance.”

“The intricate processes involved in birch tar production are noteworthy.”

“Each stage of production was a sensory journey, and the challenge of cleaning tar from my hands after hours by the fire was a central experience every time.”

For more detailed insights, refer to the study published in the journal PLoS ONE.

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T. Ziemsen et al. 2026. Antibacterial properties of experimentally produced birch tar and its medicinal efficacy in the Pleistocene. PLoS One 21 (3): e0343618; doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0343618

Source: www.sci.news

Neanderthals Used Antibiotic Sticky Tar for Wound Treatment

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Birch Bark Tar: An Ancient Adhesive and Antiseptic.

Credit: Tjaark Siemssen, CC-BY 4.0

Neanderthals might have harnessed the antibacterial properties of tar made from tree bark for wound treatment. Contemporary studies of birch tar reveal its antibiotic qualities, indicating that our ancient relatives likely recognized its healing potential.

This finding contributes to the expanding evidence that Neanderthals utilized medicinal plants for treating injuries and ailments.

“Birch tar has been documented since the late Pleistocene, especially at Neanderthal sites throughout Europe,” states Chark Siemsen from Oxford University.

For instance, “it was evidently used as an adhesive” for attaching stone points to wooden spears, according to Siemsen. However, he suggests that its applications might extend beyond this. Recently, birch tar has served as a medicinal ointment for certain indigenous communities, such as the Mi’kmaq of eastern Canada, where it is known as mask wiomi and utilized as a broad-spectrum antibiotic.

To explore whether Neanderthal-produced birch tar possessed similar attributes, Siemsen and his team collected downy birch (Betula pubescens) and silver birch (Betula pendula) bark from public lands in Germany to experiment with three different birch tar production methods.

In the “elevated structure” method, a small hole was dug, and a container was placed at the bottom. Birch bark was stacked on top and wrapped in clay. After igniting a fire on this pile for two hours, birch tar was collected in the container.

The second method is simpler and likely the first approach used by Neanderthals. The researchers combusted a small quantity of birch bark under a firestone, allowing the tar to condense on the stone. This “condensation” method produced significantly smaller quantities.

Lastly, for reference, modern methods employed in Mi’kmaq communities were utilized, which involve heating birch bark in a sealed metal can with holes at the bottom to let the tar seep out.

All produced birch tars underwent antibacterial testing. Most demonstrated effectiveness against Staphylococcus aureus, a common skin infection bacterium. The strongest sample was derived from silver birch using the raised structure method, while only the downy birch tar made via the condensation method showed no effectiveness against the bacteria.

The research illustrated that birch tar consistently exhibited antibacterial properties, even with the low-tech methods available to Neanderthals, Siemsen affirmed. While Neanderthals primarily used it as glue, limiting its application to a single use would be misleading, he noted.

“We appreciate that the researchers highlighted birch bark’s medicinal properties,” says Karen Hardy from the University of Glasgow, UK. However, she emphasizes that various plants possess medicinal properties naturally. “Extracting birch bark pitch is complex and labor-intensive,” she points out, adding that to validate its intentional production for medicinal use, researchers would need to demonstrate its unique value.

Previous studies have also discovered additional evidence of Neanderthal medicinal plant usage. Neanderthals with dental abscesses likely consumed plants exhibiting analgesic and anti-inflammatory effects. Hardy and her team found that Neanderthals ingested yarrow and chamomile, both of which have medicinal value without nutritional benefits.

Discovery Tour: Archeology, Human Origins, and Paleontology

New Scientist frequently highlights remarkable sites worldwide that have revolutionized our understanding of species and early civilizations. Consider visiting one of these amazing places!

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Did Neanderthals Hunt Giant Elephants in Prehistoric Europe?

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Chemical Clues in Straight-Tusked Elephant Teeth (Paleoloxodon antiquus): The 125,000-year-old remnants at Germany’s Neumark Nord reveal that these massive creatures migrated hundreds of kilometers, suggesting intentional hunting by Neanderthals.

The straight-tusked elephant (Paleoloxodon antiquus) stands as the largest terrestrial mammal of the European Pleistocene. Image credit: Hodari Nundu, CC-BY-4.0.

According to Dr. Elena Almaroli, a postdoctoral researcher at the University of Modena-Reggio Emilia, “The straight-tusked elephant exemplifies the European Pleistocene interglacial ecosystem, sharing its habitat with Neanderthals during warmer periods.”

Archaeological findings indicate that Neanderthals utilized these elephants both as a food source and for tool-making materials across Europe.

Previously, the evidence that straight-tusked elephants were hunted and not merely scavenged was minimal and contentious.

In this groundbreaking study, researchers examined the molar teeth of four straight-tusked elephants found at the Neumark Nord site in northeastern Germany.

Strontium isotope analysis along the teeth’s growth axis indicated that these elephants roamed different regions of Europe throughout their lives.

Dr. Almaroli emphasized, “This isotope analysis allows us to track the elephants’ movements like a travel diary inscribed in their teeth for over 100,000 years.”

Dr. Federico Lugli, also from the University of Modena-Reggio Emilia, remarked, “Some of the elephants in our study demonstrated considerable mobility.”

“Their teeth reveal travel distances of up to 300 km to the region north of present-day Neumark,” he added, helping to reconstruct their geographical range and adaptation to the landscape.

Researchers identified the sex of the four elephants: three males and one female, with varying isotopic signatures indicating different habitats, suggesting that males had larger territories akin to modern elephant behavior.

“The concentration of remains and isotopic profiles indicate that Neanderthals targeted these elephants deliberately, not just opportunistically,” Dr. Almaroli stated.

“This implies organized hunting strategies where large prey could be systematically pursued.”

Dr. Lugli noted, “This study marks a significant methodological advancement as paleoproteomics has been employed to determine individual sex from proteins in tooth enamel for the first time in straight-tusked elephants.”

The findings were published in the magazine Scientific Progress on March 13th.

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Elena Almaroli et al. 2026. Life history of straight-tusked elephants from the last interglacial site of Neanderthals in Neumark Nord (~1.25 million years). Scientific Progress 12(11);doi: 10.1126/sciadv.adz0114

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Discovering the Final Habitats of Neanderthals: A Journey into Their Last Known Locations

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Neanderthals Shelter in Caves

Neanderthals: Sheltering in Caves

Grégoire Sirade/Science Photo Library

This excerpt is from *Our Human Story*, a monthly newsletter focused on revolutionary archaeology discoveries. Subscribe to receive insights directly in your inbox.

In early January, the chill in south-west England can be quite biting. Though my Canadian and Scandinavian friends might chuckle at my discomfort, it’s cold enough for me to feel it in my bones without proper attire.

This stark cold evokes thoughts of our long-extinct relatives, the Neanderthals. Common portrayals often cast them in freezing landscapes reminiscent of Siberia — with icy winds and woolly mammoths roaming the snow. They’re typically seen as hominins well-adapted to frigid conditions.

<p>Yet, if you’ve been following the *New Scientist*, you might recall hints suggesting otherwise. November brought an intriguing article titled "Neanderthals' Big Noses Weren't Adapted for Cold Climates."</p>
<p>Chris Sims discussed the first analysis of Altamura Man, a well-preserved Neanderthal from Italy. Despite prior beliefs, this specimen lacked specialized nasal structures previously thought essential for warming inhaled air, leading researcher Todd Ray to assert that the notion of Neanderthals thriving in icy climates is "absolute nonsense." He emphasized, "They likely suffered from the cold just like we do."</p>
<section></section>
<p>Similarly, in December, we uncovered evidence that ancient humans began mastering fire by striking flint against pyrite, dating back 400,000 years in southern England. This predates Neanderthals and hints at their probable innovation in fire-starting, particularly as their bodies were not tailored to endure Britain's chill.</p>
<p>If Neanderthals were not primarily adapted for cold climates, what environments did they actually inhabit? Emerging research published in the <em>Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports</em> unveils a fascinating narrative of Neanderthal existence.</p>
<h2>Southern Refuge: The Neanderthal's Habitat</h2>
<p>Among all extinct human species, Neanderthals are our closest relatives. They thrived across Europe and western Asia for countless millennia until their disappearance around 40,000 years ago, coinciding with the significant expansion of our species into Europe.</p>
<p>The long history endured by Neanderthals saw them through several ice ages, characterized by fluctuating climates and shifting ice sheets. They lived during periods when the Earth's magnetic field changes potentially increased their exposure to harmful UV radiation. Compelling evidence indicates that Neanderthals engaged in artistic expression and had cultural practices surrounding death, such as structured burials.</p>
<p>Over time, however, Neanderthal habitats diminished. Fascinatingly, they withdrew from Asia and northern Europe, ultimately being confined to southern Europe, especially the Iberian Peninsula (modern-day Spain and Portugal). Recent studies focus on this southern region, where Neanderthals exhibited remarkable longevity.</p>
<p>Let’s examine a significant study by Loic Lebreton and his team at the Catalan Institute of Human Paleoecology and Social Evolution in Spain. They analyzed small mammals (nicknamed "micromammals") as climate indicators. Warm, humid environments support a greater diversity of wildlife compared to cold, arid areas. Their research indicated that northeastern Spain maintained a stable, warm climate from 215,000 to 10,000 years ago, heavily influenced by the Mediterranean, unlike the more variable conditions in southern France and northern Italy, plausibly contributing to the prolonged survival of Neanderthals in Spain.</p>

<p>Research led by Sarah Barakat from the University of Aberdeen suggests that vast forested areas likely covered much of the Neanderthal habitat. At <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jasrep.2025.105456">Lazaretto Cave</a>, home to Neanderthals between 190,000 and 130,000 years ago, remains of aurochs, red deer, ibex, and gray wolves have been found. Examination of their teeth indicates herbivores primarily consumed woody plants, suggesting a richly forested environment with some grassland.</p>
<p>Coba del Geganto, a cave near Barcelona, offers additional insight into the Neanderthal ecosystem. Dating from 145,000 to 24,700 years ago, the site contains evidence of numerous bird species typical of woodlands and scrublands, alongside some that currently inhabit only northern regions, indicating migration patterns during colder periods.</p>
<p>Although direct evidence of Neanderthals hunting these birds is lacking, analysis of the bones found may point to their dietary habits. Research into animal remains would clarify whether Neanderthals utilized specific species within this cave ecosystem.</p>

<h2>The Final Days of Neanderthals</h2>
<p>As the Neanderthal epoch approached conclusion, they displayed remarkable adaptability. Rosa Albert and her colleagues studied the Liparo Los Curciuto site in southern Italy's Ginosa Valley, which recorded Neanderthal activity from 55,000 to 42,800 years ago. Geological formations reveal shifting conditions from forest coverage to more open grasslands, driving Neanderthal adaptations in foraging and fire use.</p>
<p>Even by 41,000 years ago, certain Neanderthal groups thrived, despite their relatives disappearing from large portions of Eurasia. Research at <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jasrep.2025.105149">Cova Eiros in northwestern Spain</a> documented diverse animal remains, including significant numbers of red deer and cave bears, shedding light on their dietary patterns.</p>
<p>Findings indicated that 5.5 percent of the bones exhibited Neanderthal marks, suggesting their consistent interaction with the environment, including instances of consuming cave bear remains.</p>
<p>Fellow researchers discovered similar patterns at <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jasrep.2025.105457">Covallejos</a>, another northern Spanish cave, indicating Neanderthals exploited a variety of food sources, including red deer and large herbivores.</p>
<p>What ultimately led to their extinction? Research by Liz Charton and team at France's Institute of Human Paleontology indicates various environmental stressors. Analyzing marine sediment core samples from the western Mediterranean, they traced dramatic climatic shifts between 41,000 and 34,000 years ago. The increase of grassland and semi-arid vegetation aligns with previous findings of substantially drier conditions.</p>
<p>This research mapping known hominin sites during this period shows a decline in Neanderthal tool usage as modern human artifacts became more prevalent. Although Neanderthals likely retreated to southern regions, they faced increased competition from modern humans.</p>

<p>This doesn’t imply that desiccation singularly led to their extinction; Neanderthals had previously navigated similar environmental challenges and survived. However, this factor, among others, likely contributed to their decline.</p>
<p>In investigating Neanderthal culture, Nohemi Sala and colleagues at Spain's National Center for Human Evolution Research analyzed burial practices at <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jasrep.2025.105316">46 sites on the Iberian Peninsula</a>. Evidence for deliberate burials can be found in various locations, yet none have been documented in Spain or Portugal.</p>
<p>This does not exclude the possibility that Iberian Neanderthals had unique mourning practices or ideas about honoring the deceased. At Sima de las Palomas, multiple Neanderthals were discovered within a vertical cave; one individual, lying in a specific position, suggests intentional placement. Such sites may have served as natural burial grounds.</p>
<p>Moreover, evidence indicates that Iberian Neanderthals might have engaged in ritualistic cannibalism, reflecting the varying cultural significance of death across societies.</p>
<p>Interestingly, Neanderthal funerary customs appear to have diversified over the last 10,000 years, potentially as a result of migrant waves introducing new practices.</p>
<p>While it’s disheartening that despite their innovation and adaptability, Neanderthals faced extinction, their genetic legacy persists in many of us today, highlighting a genetic and cultural exchange with modern humans.</p>

<section class="ArticleTopics" data-component-name="article-topics">
    <p class="ArticleTopics__Heading">Topics:</p>
    <ul class="ArticleTopics__List">
        <li class="ArticleTopics__ListItem">Neanderthal Man<span>/</span></li>
        <li class="ArticleTopics__ListItem">Ancient Humans</li>
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New Study Examines Paleolithic Shift: Transition from Neanderthals to Anatomically Modern Humans

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The transition from the Middle to Upper Paleolithic, occurring approximately 50,000 to 38,000 years ago, was a pivotal period characterized by the decline and extinction of Neanderthals alongside the emergence and expansion of anatomically modern humans, known as Homo sapiens. Paleoanthropologists at the University of Cologne have created a high-resolution model of population dynamics to reconstruct this significant transition on the Iberian Peninsula. Their ensemble simulations investigated Neanderthal survival, the arrival of modern humans, and the potential for interbreeding.

This image shows a Neanderthal and a human child. Image credit: Neanderthal Museum.

During this critical transition from the Middle Paleolithic to the Upper Paleolithic, Neanderthal populations experienced a steady decline across Europe, particularly in the Iberian Peninsula, leading to their eventual extinction.

Simultaneously, anatomically modern humans spread throughout Europe, marking a significant shift in human history.

This era was further defined by dramatic climate fluctuations, featuring alternating cold and warm periods. Rapid warming events occurred within centuries, contrasting with gradual cooling phases, known as the Dansgaard-Eschger phenomenon, which were punctuated by severe cooling caused by iceberg releases into the North Atlantic (Heinrich phenomenon).

The precise timing of Neanderthal extinction and the arrival of modern humans remains uncertain, leaving open the possibility of interactions between the two species.

Genetic analyses of archaeological bones compared to modern populations indicate admixture events in eastern Europe during the early phases of modern human migration.

Given the uncertainty of these dates, it remains possible that the two populations on the Iberian Peninsula may have intermixed at a later time, though this has yet to be substantiated.

In this innovative study, Professor Yaping Hsiao and his colleagues from the University of Cologne utilized numerical models to exploratory simulate potential encounters between Neanderthals and modern humans on the Iberian Peninsula.

These models considered ongoing climate changes while simulating the populations of both groups, along with their interactions and connectivity.

“By running the model multiple times with varying parameters, we can assess the plausibility of different scenarios, such as the early extinction of Neanderthals, small at-risk populations, or prolonged survival leading to admixture,” explained Professor Hsiao.

“However, for the majority of the simulations, the two groups did not converge.”

Across all scenarios, the populations exhibited high sensitivity to climate change.

Mixing between the two species was plausible if both populations could maintain stability over an extended period.

At a low probability (1%), a small fraction of the total population—approximately 2-6%—could possess genes from both groups by the end of the simulation.

This admixture likely occurred in the northwestern region of the Iberian Peninsula, where modern humans may have arrived early enough to interact with still-surviving Neanderthal populations.

“By integrating climate, demography, and cultural factors, our dynamic model provides a comprehensive framework that enhances our interpretation of the archaeological and genomic records,” stated Professor Gerd Christian Weniger from the University of Cologne.

For further details, refer to a paper that will be published in the online journal PLoS ONE.

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Y. Xiao et al. 2025. Pathways at the Crossroads of Iberia: Dynamic Modeling of the Middle to Upper Paleolithic Transition. PLoS ONE 20 (12): e0339184; doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0339184

Source: www.sci.news

Neanderthals’ Prominent Noses Were Unsuitable for Cold Environments.

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Reconstruction of a Neanderthal’s face

Credit: Ryhor Bruyeu/Alamy

The inaugural study of a well-preserved nasal cavity in human fossils uncovers that the large noses of Neanderthals were not primarily adaptations for cold environments, as previously assumed.

Neanderthals (Homo neanderthalensis) roamed the Earth from about 400,000 to 40,000 years ago. Certain specimens exhibit unique features in their nasal cavities. These structures are considered characteristic of the species, with some researchers proposing that living through multiple glacial periods prompted these developments. This adaptation was believed to help them warm the air they inhaled..

Nevertheless, the existing structures are largely damaged, leaving a gap in the fossil record that hampers a comprehensive understanding of the Neanderthal nose’s internal morphology.

Altamura skull: A Neanderthal fossil embedded in rock

KARST Pudding Project

Costantino Busi and his team at the University of Perugia in Italy gathered this evidence from a specimen known as Altamura man, which dates between 172,000 and 130,000 years old. This skeleton is encased in rock within the Lalunga cave, near Altamura, southern Italy, and features small calcite deposits called popcorn stones, resembling a coral reef.

“This may be the most comprehensive hominin fossil ever uncovered,” Busi stated. However, due to its fragile state, the specimen couldn’t be removed. Instead, Busi and his team brought their equipment into a tight section of the cave and utilized an endoscope to explore the interior of the skull, allowing them to digitally visualize the preserved internal nasal bones.

This is certainly the first instance of such structures being clearly observed in a hominin fossil,” Busi noted.

Unexpectedly, they found no evidence of the typical features believed to characterize Neanderthals’ nasal cavities, such as the vertical medial process (a bony protrusion), a ridge on the nasal cavity wall, or the absence of a bony roof over the lacrimal trough.

Nevertheless, according to Busi, the Altamura man is certainly a Neanderthal. Morphology, dating, genetics suggests this, indicating that the structures in question should no longer be classified as defining traits of Neanderthals. He posits that the prominent noses and protruding upper jaws were unlikely to represent the evolutionary adaptations of Neanderthals. “We can finally acknowledge that certain features once thought diagnostic are absent in Neanderthal skulls,” Busi added.

According to Busi, the large nasal cavities of Neanderthals were simply a reflection of their larger cranial features. However, the team discovered that the nasal turbinates (the scroll-like structures within the nasal cavities) were quite large, aiding in the warming of inhaled air.

“These findings suggest that the distinctive face shape of Neanderthals was shaped more by developmental factors and overall body size than by adaptations for breathing in cold conditions,” said Ludovic Slimak from the University of Toulouse, France. “This research challenges previously held notions regarding Neanderthal evolution and offers the first concrete evidence regarding the structure and function of their respiratory systems.”

This research also suggests that unique adaptations in the neck, driven by the selective pressures of the glacial environment, may have influenced the evolution of Neanderthal facial characteristics, including their protruding jaws.

“The common belief that Neanderthals were specially adapted to colder climates is completely unfounded,” stated Todd Rae from the University of Sussex, UK. “In fact, it’s likely they were more vulnerable to the cold, especially when compared to those in tropical regions. While they managed before, they were likely pushed to extinction by the last glacial maximum.”

Origins of Humanity: Ancient Caves in Northern Spain

Explore some of the planet’s oldest cave art in this picturesque area of northern Spain. Journey back 40,000 years and uncover how our ancestors lived, played, and labored. Each cave, rich with ancient Paleolithic artistry and spectacular geological formations, narrates a unique and timeless tale.

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Early Neanderthals Pursued Ibex on Steep Mountain Terrain

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Ibex can navigate gracefully across steep mountain terrains

Serge Goujon/Shutterstock

Nearly 300,000 years ago, Neanderthals had already devised strategies for hunting goats on vertical cliffs and managing them in well-structured camps.

Typically recognized for ambushing large animals in flat meadows and forests of Western Europe, Neanderthals seemed to adapt to the hilly landscapes of Eastern Europe by incorporating the lightweight ibex into their hunting practices. Early humans skinned these animals in nearby caves, but only after the bones had been covered and fractured. Stephen Milosevic from the University of Belgrade in Serbia.

“The approach to hunting ibex is entirely distinct since they inhabit robust, steep, and barren terrains,” he explains. “Now we observe primitive Neanderthals who barely distinguish themselves as a separate species, already utilizing an ecological niche previously unexploited by humans.”

Neanderthals evolved approximately 400,000 years ago, yet most of our knowledge stems from sites in Western Europe that are under 150,000 years old. According to Marie Helen Monsel, who was not involved in this research at the National Museum of Natural History in Paris, it’s crucial to uncover clues that can bridge the gaps in our understanding of Neanderthal timelines, habitats, and cultures.

In 2017, archaeologists uncovered evidence that Neanderthals inhabited the layers of Belikabaranica Cave in Serbia, which date back roughly 290,000 years, making it the oldest remains of Neanderthals found in Eastern Europe.

Since that discovery, Milosevic and his colleagues have excavated hundreds of stone tools and analyzed the bone fragments of approximately 30,000 animals within the cave. Almost three-quarters of these fragments are less than two centimeters long, with the majority traceable to ibex and red deer hunted in spring and summer, indicating that Neanderthals likely resided in the cave seasonally.

Some bones, particularly those from the legs of larger deer, exhibited burn marks and were cracked open. This suggests that these early Neanderthals may have liquefied the bones, leaving remnants scattered on the walls surrounded by the grease that fueled their fires. Others may have shown signs of tendon harvesting for use in ropes or nets.

The deer remains indicate the presence of older youths and adults, pointing to selective hunting practices that would promote herd survival, according to Milosevic. However, ibex were hunted at all life stages. Neanderthals seemed to be “novices” when it came to hunting goats, implying they likely relied on sharp sticks and rudimentary traps. “They must have experienced a significant number of failed attempts,” he notes.

Apart from these favored food sources, researchers have also found several remains from wild boars, cave bears, wolves, foxes, leopards, and even various birds.

The arrangement of the bones in various sections of the cave indicates a clear division of tasks. For instance, the hearth was located centrally, with discarded bones stacked behind it, while the entrance appeared to function as a tool workshop.

In summary, the findings suggest “notable cognitive flexibility,” states Jose Carrion from the University of Murcia in Spain. “This confirms that Neanderthals are creative problem-solvers who effectively navigate complex habitats with ingenuity and skill. Neanderthals were indeed human. They were intellectual, social, and highly adaptable.”

“The discoveries from Baranica provide a glimpse of Neanderthals who not only display resilience but are experimenting with strategies and social structures typically associated with later periods,” commented Antonio Rodriguez Hidalgo from the Archaeological Institute in Merida, Spain. “This reminds us that Neanderthal sophistication is not a gradual developement but rather a deep-rooted flame that ignited early in human history.”

Neanderthals, ancient humans, cave art: France

Join new scientist Kate Douglas on an enchanting journey through time as she explores significant Neanderthal and Upper Paleolithic sites across southern France, from Bordeaux to Montpellier.

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Neanderthals Likely Resembled Maggots Rather Than Hypercarnivores.

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The rotting meat maggot might have been vital to ancient diets

Chronicle/Alam

Neanderthals may not have been the exclusive meat-eaters we once presumed. Analysis of nitrogen isotope ratios in their bones suggests a diet predominantly consisting of meat. Yet, these ratios could also result from a more varied, omnivorous intake that involved significant consumption of maggots.

“Trout pieces are readily accessible, nutritious resources,” notes Melanie Beasley from Purdue University in Indiana.

Historical evidence indicates that maggots were eaten regularly across different societies, and she points out that some reindeer hunters today consider them a snack, intentionally cultivating specific maggot types. For instance, Casu Marzu, a cheese containing live maggots, is a Sardinian delicacy.

Nitrogen comprises two stable isotopes, nitrogen-14 and nitrogen-15. Lighter isotopes tend to be lost from organisms more readily than heavier ones, resulting in a higher nitrogen-15 to nitrogen-14 ratio as food progresses up the trophic levels.

By examining the isotopic ratios in collagen from fossilized bones, researchers gauge the dietary habits of carnivorous animals, which tend to exhibit higher ratios than herbivores. However, upon studying Neanderthal bones, researchers found unexpectedly high ratios, even surpassing those of lions and hyenas. “This led to the myth of Neanderthals as intense hunters of large game,” explains Beasley.

Nevertheless, many researchers challenge this theory. Notably, bones from early Homo sapiens exhibit similar nitrogen ratios. Moreover, these early humans could not survive on lean meat alone. “It’s physically impossible,” Beasley states. “You’d suffer from what early explorers termed ‘rabbit starvation.’”

The dilemma lies in the fact that an excessively protein-rich diet can overwhelm the body’s ability to eliminate harmful byproducts like ammonia.

Moreover, significant direct evidence from dental calculus studies confirms that Neanderthals also consumed plant matter. So why is their nitrogen-15 ratio so elevated?

In 2017, John Speth at the University of Michigan proposed that Neanderthals might have stored their meat and consumed it in a decomposed state. When meat rots, it releases gases such as ammonia, which should lead to an increased nitrogen-15 concentration.

At that time, Beasley sought to conduct research at the University of Tennessee’s Body Farm, where human decomposition studies help in forensic investigations. There, she observed maggots feeding on corpses.

With Speth and Julie Lesnik from Wayne State University in Michigan, Beasley discovered that while nitrogen isotopic ratios do rise as muscle tissue decays, the increase is more pronounced in various types of maggots feeding on decomposing bodies.

While these findings are preliminary, they suggest that a purely meat-centric diet may not fully account for the nitrogen isotopic ratios seen in Neanderthals and early Homo sapiens, claims Beasley. She theorizes that these ratios may result from a blend of factors, including meat storage, preparation, cooking, and maggot consumption.

“This is an exciting new study that could significantly enhance our understanding of the perplexing results that have arisen from isotopic studies of Neanderthals and other Stone Age hominins over the years,” asserts Herman Ponzer from Duke University in North Carolina.

“The evidence here is quite persuasive that the consumption of maggots and similar larvae could clarify the ‘hypercarnivore’ indicators noted in past fossil isotope investigations,” he affirms.

Furthermore, this research supports the notion that the so-called Paleolithic diet should encompass rotten meat and maggots, according to Beasley. “Anyone interested in historical accuracy should consider fermenting meat and accessing fly larvae.”

Neanderthals, Ancient Humans, Cave Art: France

Join new scientist Kate Douglas as she embarks on an intriguing journey through time, exploring significant Neanderthal and Upper Paleolithic sites across southern France, from Bordeaux to Montpellier.

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Source: www.newscientist.com

New Research Suggests Neanderthals Embraced Local Food Traditions

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The Caves of Amdo and Kebara in northern Israel date back to the central Paleolithic period, approximately 70,000-50,000 years ago. Both are situated in the Southern Levant’s Mediterranean region. The Neanderthals occupying these sites left behind a wealth of stone tools, evidence of fire usage, and a variety of animal and human fossils. A recent study from the Hebrew University of Jerusalem indicates that despite their proximity and the use of similar resources and tools, Neanderthals at these sites employed markedly different methods for processing their food.

Jaron et al. Despite comparable occupational strengths, similar stone tool techniques, and access to similar food resources, we propose a unique slaughter strategy among Neanderthal populations in the caves of Amdo and Kebara.

“The distinct variations in cut mark patterns between Amdo and Kebara might reflect local customs in animal processing,” stated Anal Jaron, a doctoral candidate at Hebrew University in Jerusalem.

“Though the Neanderthals at both sites experienced similar environments and challenges, they seem to have developed a distinct butchering strategy potentially passed on through cultural learning and social traditions.”

“These two sites present an extraordinary opportunity to investigate whether Neanderthal slaughter methods were standardized.”

“If butchering techniques differ between sites or over time, it could suggest that factors like cultural practices, dietary preferences, or social structures have influenced self-sufficiency activities, including slaughter.”

The Neanderthals resided in the caves of Amdo and Kebara during the winters between 70,000 and 50,000 years ago.

Both groups utilized the same flint tools and primarily preyed on gazelles and fallow deer.

However, it appears that the Kebara Neanderthals hunted larger game compared to their counterparts in Amdo and opted to perform the slaughter in caves rather than at the kill sites.

In Amdo, 40% of the animal bones show signs of burning, with most being fragmented, possibly resulting from intentional cooking or accidental damage afterward.

Conversely, in Kebara, only 9% of the bones are burned, suggesting they were cooked with less fragmentation.

Amdo’s bones seem less impacted by carnivores than those found in Kebara.

To compare food preparation techniques at Kebara and Amdo, researchers selected bone samples from corresponding layers at both sites.

These samples were analyzed macroscopically and microscopically to assess various cut mark characteristics. Similar patterns might suggest consistent slaughter practices, while differing patterns may highlight distinct cultural customs.

The cut marks were notably clear and intact, with minimal alteration from carnivorous activity or later damage from desiccated bones.

The profiles, angles, and widths of these cuts were akin across both groups and their toolkits.

Nonetheless, the cut marks at Amdo were found to be more densely packed than those at Kebara, and exhibited a less linear shape.

Scientists have proposed several potential reasons for this observation. It could be due to differing demands in processing various prey species and types of bones—most of the bones found in Amdo are short, yet similar distinctions appeared when examining small, straight bone fragments present in both sites.

Experimental archaeology indicates that this pattern cannot be solely attributed to the skills of butchers or heightened slaughtering efforts to maximize food yield.

Instead, the varying cut mark patterns likely reflect intentional butchering choices made by each group.

One hypothesis is that Neanderthals in Amdo treated meat differently prior to slaughter—perhaps opting to dry it or allow it to decay.

We posit that managing decomposing meat poses challenges, which may explain the strong cut marks and less linear characteristics observed.

The second possibility is that the organization of the groups (e.g., the number of butchers involved in a particular kill) contributed to the variance in practices between these two Neanderthal communities.

However, further research is needed to explore these theories.

“There are some limitations to consider,” Jaron noted.

“Bone fragments can be too small to provide a complete understanding of the butcher marks present on the remains.”

“We have made efforts to mitigate biases caused by fragmentation, but this may limit our ability to fully interpret the findings.”

“Future research involving more experimental work and comparative studies will be vital to address these uncertainties. Eventually, we might be able to reconstruct Neanderthal recipes.”

Survey results published in the journal Frontiers of Environmental Archaeology.

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Anal Jaron et al. 2025. Comparing Neanderthal Treatment of Faunal Resources in the Amdo and Kebara Caves (Israel) Through Cut Mark Analysis. Front. Environ. Archaeol 4; doi:10.3389/fearc.2025.1575572

Source: www.sci.news

Neanderthals Operated a “Fat Factory” for Bone and Grease Processing.

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Neanderthal cooking abilities were more advanced than previously believed.

Gregoire Cirade/Science Photo Library

Almost 100,000 years ago, Neanderthals processed animal bones to extract fat, a practice that was also seen in modern humans around 125,000 years ago.

This discovery stems from a remarkable lakeside site in Neumark Nod, eastern East Germany, where over 100,000 bone fragments from at least 172 individual animals were uncovered, including horses, dogs, deer, foxes, large cats, and extinct twin rhinoceroses.

The bones exhibited clear signs of having been crushed into small pieces and heated to release the fat contained within the spongy tissues. This fat could have served as a rich source of high-calorie nutrition for hunter-gatherer groups.

Will Roebroeks and his team at Leiden University in the Netherlands described the site as a “fat factory” suggesting it was intensively used for a short period. “The fragmentation of the bones is distinctly artificial and not a result of natural predation or geological forces,” he states.

While there is no direct evidence of butchery by Neanderthals, they were the primary known human species in Europe at that time, Roebroeks points out.

Previously, the earliest evidence for grease rendering was located in Portugal, dating back only 28,000 years.

The labor-intensive process of breaking down large mammal bones into such tiny fragments only makes sense if it serves a purpose, Roebroeks notes.

The team lacks direct evidence of boiling; however, it is evident that the bones were heated. “Given the clearly heated bones, heated flint tools, and the presence of stones, it indicates that fire was utilized at the site,” he explains.

Since the earliest known pottery dates back around 20,000 years, the Neanderthals likely used other types of containers to boil the bones. Recent experiments indicate that containers made from materials like deer hides and birch bark can be placed directly over the fire, allowing sufficient water to heat up for cooking, according to Roebroeks.

“This adds yet another layer to the complex cultural practices of our distant relatives, suggesting that these hunter-gatherers may have engaged in forms of food preservation,” he concludes.

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Source: www.newscientist.com

Revising the Timeline of Interbreeding Between Neanderthals and Ancient Humans

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overview

  • Many people carry small pieces of Neanderthal DNA, evidence of interbreeding between Neanderthals and ancient human ancestors.
  • Two new studies suggest that interbreeding occurred during the limited period when ancient humans left Africa.
  • Clarifying that timeline narrows the range of possible times for humans to spread to new continents.

The genetic code of many people hides mysteries that have long intrigued scientists. It’s a tiny piece of Neanderthal DNA that persists tens of thousands of years after the species disappears.

Most people outside Africa can attribute about 1% to 2% of their DNA to Neanderthal ancestry.

However, the details of its evolutionary history remain unclear. How often did ancient humans and Neanderthals interbreed? When exactly did it happen? Why did Neanderthals become extinct and why did modern humans survive? That Neanderthal DNA What is it bringing us now?

Two research groups independently analyzed collections of ancient genomes and reached the same conclusions about some of their core questions. published research Published in Nature magazine and thursday science Evidence suggests that ancient humans and Neanderthals interbred for a limited period of time as humans left Africa and migrated to new continents.

The results suggest that a wave of interbreeding occurred approximately 43,500 to 50,500 years ago. Then, over the next 100 generations, most, but not all, of the Neanderthal DNA was culled. The remaining DNA is now associated with traits such as skin pigmentation, immune response, and metabolism.

New findings suggest that this interbreeding event occurred more recently than previous estimates suggested, shifting and narrowing the window during which humans may have spread to places like modern-day China and Australia. That’s what it means.

The importance of fossilized human remains dating back more than 50,000 years, discovered in Europe and other parts of the world, has also been revealed. According to a new study, those populations became extinct and reached an evolutionary dead end.

“Human history is not just a success story. In fact, humans went extinct several times,” said Johannes Krause, author of the Nature paper and professor at Germany’s Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology. “There are multiple lineages that we’re identifying now that didn’t affect later people.”

The discovery also shows how adept anthropologists are at reconstructing ancient DNA and analyzing it to infer the course of human history.

Priya Muajani, author of the Science paper and assistant professor of molecular and cellular biology at the University of California, said: “We can look at past events and actually reconstruct what the path we are on will be. It’s a great thing to be able to do.” Berkeley. “Although 50,000 years ago is a long time ago, having genetic data available from these samples really helps paint a more detailed picture.

The two research groups took different approaches to the study.

Moorjani’s group cataloged genomic information from 59 ancient and 275 modern humans who lived between 2,000 and 45,000 years ago. The researchers then analyzed how the distribution and length of Neanderthal DNA in those genomes changed over time.

They determined that the influx of Neanderthal genes into humans occurred about 47,000 years ago and lasted less than 7,000 years. These findings are consistent with archaeological evidence suggesting that Neanderthals and humans overlapped geographically when humans left Africa. Many scientists suspect that the two species crossed paths in the Middle East, but this has not been confirmed.

After interbreeding, natural selection retained some Neanderthal traits and discarded many more.

…

Source: www.nbcnews.com

New study proposes Neanderthals were the original fossil collectors

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Approximately 46,000 years ago, a group of Neanderthals resided in caves in what is now Spain and gathered fossils, as reported by a researcher in a paper published in the magazine Quaternary period.

Marine fossils from the Prado Vargas Cave, Spain. Image credit: Lewis others., doi: 10.3390/quat7040049.

Collecting is a form of leisure, even a passion, involving the collection, preservation, and display of objects.

When tracing its origins in literature, we are reminded of the Assyrian king Ashurbanipal (7th century BC) known for collecting books, marking the emergence of writing and the dissemination of knowledge on clay tablets.

This innate curiosity and interest in collecting stones and fossils, known as manuports, dates back to the dawn of humanity.

Archaeologists have long known that Neanderthal dwellings contained objects devoid of practical value, indicating a cultural significance attached to these items.

In the case of the Prado Vargas Cave in Cornejo, Burgos, Spain, archaeologist Marta Navazo Ruiz and her team unearthed 15 marine fossils from the Late Cretaceous period in the cave’s Mousterian level.

The fossils, primarily mollusks and a few echinoderms, hinted at a deliberate collection rather than accidental gathering by the Neanderthals.

The presence of these fossils within the cave suggests intentional behavior, possibly for social or symbolic purposes.

The researchers proposed hypotheses ranging from aesthetic appreciation to cultural identity reinforcement through these fossil collections.

This discovery elevates the Prado Vargas Neanderthals as early fossil collectors, shedding light on their efforts towards understanding and preserving natural history.

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Marta Navazo Ruiz others. 2024. Were Neanderthals the first collectors? First evidence found in level 4 of the Prado Vargas cave in Cornejo, Burgos, Spain. Quaternary period 7(4):49;doi: 10.3390/quat7040049

Source: www.sci.news

Research shows that Homo sapiens and Neanderthals had 200,000 years of interaction

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A recent study indicates that multiple instances of gene flow occurring between 250,000 and 200,000 years ago impacted the genomes and biology of both modern humans and Neanderthals, who are believed to share 2.5 to 3.7 percent of human ancestry.

Li othersIt provides insight into the history of modern-human Neanderthal admixture, shows that gene flow has significantly influenced patterns of genomic variation in modern and Neanderthals, and suggests that taking into account human-derived sequences in Neanderthals allows for more precise inferences about admixture and its consequences in both Neanderthals and modern humans. Image courtesy of the Neanderthal Museum.

“For the first time, geneticists have identified multiple instances of interbreeding between modern humans and Neanderthals,” stated Professor Li Ming from Southeast University.

“It is now evident that throughout most of human history, there was interaction between modern humans and Neanderthals,” added Professor Joshua Akey from Princeton University.

“Our direct ancestors, hominins, diverged from the Neanderthal lineage approximately 600,000 years ago and acquired modern physical characteristics around 250,000 years ago.”

“Subsequently, modern humans continued to engage with Neanderthals for around 200,000 years until the extinction of Neanderthals.”

The researchers utilized the genomes of 2,000 modern humans, three Neanderthals, and one Denisovan to track gene flow between human populations over the past 250,000 years.

They employed a genetic tool called IBDmix, developed several years ago, which utilizes machine learning techniques for sequencing genomes.

Previously, scientists relied on comparing the human genome to reference populations of modern individuals with minimal or no Neanderthal or Denisovan DNA.

The study authors discovered traces of Neanderthal DNA even in populations residing thousands of miles south of Neanderthal caves, suggesting that the DNA might have been transmitted southward by travelers or their descendants.

Using IBDmix, they identified a first contact wave around 200,000-250,000 years ago, a second contact wave around 100,000-120,000 years ago, and a peak contact wave around 50,000-60,000 years ago, deviating from previous genetic data.

“Most genetic data indicates that modern humans originated in Africa 250,000 years ago, persisted there for another 200,000 years, and only around 50,000 years ago dispersed from Africa to populate other regions as humans,” said Prof Akey.

“Our model suggests that there wasn’t a prolonged period of stasis, but soon after the emergence of modern humans, we migrated out of Africa and eventually returned.”

“To me, the narrative revolves around dispersal, highlighting that modern humans have been more mobile than previously assumed, encountering Neanderthals and Denisovans,” added Prof Akey.

This portrayal of migrating humans aligns with archaeological and paleoanthropological evidence indicating cultural and tool exchanges among human populations.

A crucial insight was to search for modern human DNA in the Neanderthal genome, rather than vice versa.

“While much genetic research in the past decade focused on how interbreeding with Neanderthals influenced the evolution and phenotype of modern humans, these questions also hold importance and interest in the opposite direction,” noted Professor Akey.

They realized that the descendants of the initial interbreeding event between Neanderthals and modern humans likely stayed with the Neanderthals and thus left no genetic trace in modern humans.

“By incorporating Neanderthal elements into genetic studies, we can analyze these early migrations in a new light,” Prof Akey mentioned.

The final revelation was that the Neanderthal population was smaller than previously estimated.

Traditional genetic modeling used diversity as an indicator of population size: greater genetic diversity implied a larger population.

However, using IBDmix, the team showed that most diversity came from DNA sequences originating from a larger modern human population, leading to a reduction in the effective Neanderthal population from around 3,400 breeding individuals to approximately 2,400.

Collectively, these new findings provide insights into the disappearance of Neanderthals from the record roughly 30,000 years ago.

“I prefer not to use the term ‘extinction’ because I believe Neanderthals were mostly assimilated,” mentioned Prof Akey.

It is theorized that the Neanderthal population gradually dwindled, with the last survivors merging into modern human communities.

“The assimilation model was first proposed in 1989 by anthropologist Fred Smith from Illinois State University, and our results offer compelling genetic evidence supporting Fred’s hypothesis,” Prof Akey stated.

“Neanderthals likely faced prolonged near-extinction.”

“Our estimates suggest that even a slight decrease of 10 to 20 percent in the population size would have a significant impact on an already vulnerable population,” Prof Akey added.

“Modern humans can be likened to waves gradually eroding the shoreline, eventually overwhelming Neanderthals demographically and integrating them into the modern human population.”

Read the full research findings published in the journal Science.

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Li-Ming Lee others2024. Recurrent gene flow between Neanderthals and modern humans over the past 200,000 years. Science 385(6705); doi:10.1126/science.adi1768

Source: www.sci.news

New research reveals insights into childhood stress in Neanderthals and Paleolithic humans

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Neanderthal life has been portrayed as historically highly stressful, shaped by constant pressure to survive in harsh ecological conditions, which may have contributed to their extinction. In a new study, paleoanthropologists analyzed the frequency of dental enamel hypoplasia, an indicator of growth impairment due to early life stress, in the largest sample of Neanderthals and Upper Paleolithic humans. Their findings support similar overall stress levels in both groups, but show that there are species-specific patterns in the distribution of its occurrence. They found that the likelihood of growth impairment increased during the weaning process in Neanderthal children and culminated in intensity after weaning, whereas growth impairment in Upper Paleolithic children was limited to the time of weaning and significantly decreased after its expected completion. These results may reflect differences in parenting and other behavioral strategies between the two species, including some that may be advantageous for long-term survival in modern humans.

Neanderthal family. Image courtesy of the Field Museum.

“Neanderthals have traditionally been depicted as living highly stressful lives, including pressures to survive in the harsh and highly variable ecological conditions of Pleistocene Eurasia, which have been thought to have contributed to their extinction,” said Dr Laura Rimmer from the University of Tübingen and her colleagues.

“Modern Upper Paleolithic humans faced similar environmental conditions, but it is generally assumed that they were better equipped to buffer such pressures through their behavioral repertoire.”

“This includes strategies such as greater flexibility and efficiency in resource use and more complex social organisation and networks.”

“Their behavioral repertoire is thought to have given modern humans a competitive advantage over Neanderthals during the Upper Paleolithic, allowing them to survive while Neanderthals became extinct.”

“However, several recent studies have cast doubt on this view, arguing that Neanderthals and modern Upper Paleolithic humans lived similarly stressful lives.”

For the study, the researchers analyzed the enamel of 423 Neanderthal teeth and 444 Upper Paleolithic human teeth.

The researchers investigated early life stress in these individuals by identifying thin horizontal grooves in the enamel that previous studies have demonstrated are associated with early life stressors such as illness, infection, malnutrition, nutritional deficiencies and trauma.

The researchers found that the overall likelihood of enamel defects was similar in the teeth of Neanderthals and modern Upper Paleolithic humans.

“However, we observed that the distribution of dental enamel defects varied across developmental stages: in modern humans, enamel defects were more likely to occur around the time of weaning,” Dr Rimmer said.

In Upper Paleolithic humans, enamel defects were more likely to occur around the age when weaning was estimated to have occurred (between 1 and 3 years) than after the estimated weaning period.

In Neanderthals, enamel defects began to appear during weaning (around 1 year of age), peaked during late weaning (between 2 and 4 years of age), and then tended to decrease.

Scientists hypothesize that the stress experienced by Upper Paleolithic human children during weaning may have been due to increased energy demands that increased their risk of malnutrition.

They propose that Late Paleolithic humans may have helped to reduce developmental stress in their offspring after weaning through strategies such as encouraging long-term dependency on parents, using resources more efficiently and providing offspring with access to food.

They suggest that these strategies may not have been used by Neanderthals, which may have contributed to the long-term survival advantage of modern humans compared to Neanderthals.

“Modern humans may have gained an advantage over Neanderthals by providing better support for their young during these difficult times, such as by protecting them for longer or by providing a better food supply,” said Dr Shireen El-Zaatari, a researcher at the University of Tübingen.

“Neanderthals lived in a particularly cold and harsh climate, which is often said to have led to their extinction.”

“But because over a period of time Neanderthals and modern humans were exposed to the same climatic conditions, we are investigating other explanations.”

of study Published in a journal Scientific Reports.

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LS Rimmer others2024. Differences in childhood stress between Neanderthals and early modern humans reflected in impaired dental enamel growth. Scientific Reports 14, 11293; doi: 10.1038/s41598-024-61321-x

Source: www.sci.news

Neanderthals Used Ocher Glue to Make Stone Tools, According to Scientists

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Archaeologists have discovered traces of an ancient ocher-based multicomponent adhesive in 40,000-year-old stone tools unearthed in Le Moustiers, France.

Photographs, drawings and details of stone tools from Le Moustiers, France. Image credit: D. Greinert / Schmidt other., doi: 10.1126/sciadv.adl0822.

“These surprisingly well-preserved tools show technical solutions that are broadly similar to examples of tools made by early modern humans in Africa, but the exact recipes reflect a Neanderthal 'spin.' “This is the manufacture of hand tool grips,” he said. Radu Iovita, researcher at New York University's Center for Human Origins Research.

In the study, Dr. Iovita and colleagues examined stone tools with traces of red and yellow colorants excavated from the French ruins of Le Moustiers, discovered in the early 20th century.

These stone tools were made by Neanderthals during the Middle Paleolithic period, between 120,000 and 40,000 years ago.

They are kept in the collection of the Museum of Prehistory and Early History in Berlin, but have not been studied in detail until now.

“The products had been individually wrapped and left untouched since the 1960s. As a result, the remains of attached organic matter were very well preserved,” says Eva, a researcher at the Museum of Prehistory and Early History in Berlin. Dr. Dutkiewicz said.

Researchers found traces of ocher and asphalt mixtures on some Mousterian stone tools, such as scrapers, flakes, and blades.

Ocher is a naturally occurring earth pigment. Bitumen is a component of asphalt and can be produced from crude oil, but it also occurs naturally in soil.

“I was surprised to find that it contained more than 50% ocher. This is because air-dried asphalt can be used directly as an adhesive, but adding so much ocher would cause it to lose its adhesive properties. '' said Dr. Patrick Schmidt, a researcher at the University of Tübingen.

Scientists tested these materials in tensile tests and other measurements used to determine strength.

“The situation was different when we used liquid bitumen, which is not very suitable for bonding. When you add 55% ocher, a malleable mass forms,” ​​said Dr. Schmidt.

It was sticky enough to pierce stone tools, and did not stick to hands, making it ideal as a material for handles.

In fact, microscopic examination of the signs of wear from use on these stone tools revealed that the adhesive on Le Moustier's stone tools had been used in this way.

“The tool showed two types of micro-wear: one is the typical grinding of sharp edges, which is usually caused by machining other materials,” says Dr. Iovita.

“Secondly, there was a bright polish distributed all over what appeared to be the hand grip, but not anywhere else. We interpreted it to be the result of wear and tear.”

The use of adhesives containing several ingredients, including various sticky substances such as tree resins and ocher, was known from early Homo sapiens in Africa, but not since early Neanderthals in Europe. It wasn't known.

Overall, the development of adhesives and their use in tool manufacturing is considered to be some of the best physical evidence of early human cultural evolution and cognitive abilities.

“Composite glue is thought to be one of the first expressions of modern cognitive processes that are still active today,” said Dr. Schmidt.

In the Le Moustiers area, ocher and asphalt had to be collected from remote locations, which required a great deal of effort, planning and a targeted approach.

“Given the overall circumstances of the find, we believe that this sticky material was created by Neanderthals,” Dr. Dutkiewicz said.

“Our research shows that early homo sapiens “African Neanderthals and European Neanderthals had similar thought patterns,” Dr. Schmidt said.

“Their adhesion techniques have the same importance for understanding human evolution.”

Regarding this research, paper Published in today's magazine scientific progress.

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Patrick Schmidt other. 2024. Ocher-based composite adhesives used in Mousterian typesetting have recorded mixed recognition and significant investment. scientific progress 10(8); doi: 10.1126/sciadv.adl0822

Source: www.sci.news

Neanderthals May Have Been Early Risers, New Study Finds

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When the ancestors of modern Eurasians migrated from Africa and interbred with the archaic humans of Eurasia, namely Neanderthals and Denisovans, the DNA of the archaic ancestors became anatomically integrated into the genomes of modern humans. homo sapiens. This process could accelerate adaptation to Eurasian environmental factors, such as reduced UV radiation and increased seasonal variation. In a new study, scientists from Vanderbilt University, the University of Pennsylvania, and the University of California, San Francisco have discovered lineage-specific genetic differences in circadian genes and their regulatory elements between humans and Neanderthals. They found that the introgressed genetic variants were enriched with effects on circadian regulation and consistently increased morningness tendencies in Europeans. The results expand our understanding of how the genomes of humans and our closest relatives responded to environments with different light-dark cycles.

Velasquez Alsuley other. They found that genetic material from Neanderthal ancestors may contribute to the tendency of some people today to be early risers, the type of people who wake up early and go to bed more easily. Image credit: Holger Neumann / Neanderthal Museum.

All anatomically modern humans trace their origins to the African continent about 300,000 years ago, where environmental factors shaped many of their biological characteristics.

They arrived in Eurasia 70,000 years ago, but other humans, Neanderthals and Denisovans, lived there for more than 400,000 years.

These archaic humans diverged from anatomically modern humans about 700,000 years ago, and as a result, humans and archaic hominid ancestors evolved under different environmental conditions.

“Although there was considerable variation in the latitudinal range of each group, Eurasian hominids primarily lived at consistently high latitudes and were therefore exposed to larger amplitude seasonal fluctuations in photoperiod,” said the University of California. said the San Francisco school. Dr. John Capra and his colleagues.

“Given the influence of environmental cues on circadian biology, we hypothesized that these separate evolutionary histories produced differences in circadian traits adapted to different environments.”

Although previous studies have shown that many of the archaic ancestors of modern humans are not beneficial and have been removed by natural selection, some archaic hominin variants that remain in human populations has shown evidence of adaptation.

For example, archaic genetic variation is thought to be associated with differences in hemoglobin levels, immune resistance to new pathogens, levels of skin pigmentation, and fat composition among Tibetans at high altitudes.

Changes in patterns and levels of light exposure have biological and behavioral effects that lead to evolutionary adaptations.

Scientists have extensively studied the evolution of circadian adaptations in insects, plants, and fish, but humans have been less well studied.

The Eurasian environment where Neanderthals and Denisovans lived for hundreds of thousands of years is located at higher latitudes and has more variable daylight hours than where modern humans evolved before leaving Africa.

Dr. Capra and his co-authors therefore investigated whether there was genetic evidence for differences in circadian clocks between Neanderthals and modern humans.

Using a combination of literature searches and expert knowledge, they defined a set of 246 circadian genes.

They found hundreds of genetic variations unique to each strain that can affect genes involved in the circadian clock.

Using artificial intelligence techniques, they identified 28 circadian genes that contain mutations that could alter splicing in archaic humans and that may be differentially regulated between modern and archaic humans. identified 16 circadian genes.

This indicates that there may be functional differences between the circadian clocks of ancient and modern humans.

Eurasian modern humans and Neanderthal ancestors interbred, so some humans may have acquired circadian variation from Neanderthals.

To test this, researchers investigated whether introgressed genetic variants were associated with the body’s preferences for wakefulness and sleep in a large cohort of hundreds of thousands of people at UK Biobank. did.

They found a number of introgressed mutants that affected sleep preferences, and most surprisingly, they found that these mutants consistently increased morningness, or the tendency to rise early.

This suggests a directional influence on this trait and is consistent with adaptations to high latitudes observed in other animals.

Increased morning time in humans is associated with a shortened circadian clock period. This may be beneficial at high latitudes, as it has been shown that sleep and wakefulness can be coordinated more quickly with external timing cues.

Shortening of the circadian period is required to synchronize the long summer light period at high latitudes in Drosophila, and selection for a shorter circadian period results in a latitudinal shift with increasing latitude in natural Drosophila populations. There is a latitudinal gradient in which the period decreases.

Therefore, the bias toward morningness in introgressed mutants may indicate selection for shortened circadian periods in populations living at high latitudes.

The tendency to be a morning person may have been evolutionarily beneficial to our ancestors who lived in the high latitudes of Europe, and would have been a Neanderthal genetic trait worth preserving.

“By combining ancient DNA, extensive genetic studies in modern humans, and artificial intelligence, we discovered substantial genetic differences in the circadian systems of Neanderthals and modern humans,” Dr. Capra said. .

“And by analyzing fragments of Neanderthal DNA that remain in the genomes of modern humans, we discovered surprising trends, many of which influence the regulation of circadian genes in modern humans. These effects are primarily in the consistent direction of increasing Neanderthal tendencies.” Morning people. ”

“This change is consistent with the effects of living at high latitudes on animals’ circadian clocks, and changes in seasonal light patterns may allow them to adjust their circadian clocks more quickly. ”

“Our next steps include applying these analyzes to more diverse modern human populations and investigating the effects of the Neanderthal variants we identified on circadian clocks in model systems. and applying similar analyzes to other potentially adaptive traits.”

of the team paper It was published in the magazine Genome biology and evolution.

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Kayla Velasquez-Arsley other. 2023. Archaic genetic introgression shaped human circadian characteristics. Genome biology and evolution 15 (12): evad203; doi: 10.1093/gbe/evad203

Source: www.sci.news

Neanderthals were prolific in exploiting straight-tusked elephants, say archaeologists

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Archaeologists from MONREPOS, the Johannes Gutenberg University of Mainz, and the University of Leiden recently discovered that straight-tusked elephants were hunted some 125,000 years ago (Paleoloxodon Antique) was the largest land mammal of the Pleistocene and was part of the behavioral repertoire of Neanderthals for dozens of generations. This knowledge is based on data from only one of his locations, a northern European lakeside. In a new paper, the researchers present data from two other contemporary sites on the Nordic plains, where they demonstrate that elephant exploitation was a widespread phenomenon. The vast amounts of food produced by slaughter operations aimed at large-scale exploitation of carcasses suggest that Neanderthals were somehow preserving food or, at least temporarily, working in larger groups than is generally acknowledged. This suggests that it was active.

Reconstructed living appearance of a straight-tusked elephant (Paleoloxodon Antique) Side view (top) and front view (bottom) based on remains excavated from the Neumark Nord 1 site in Saxony-Anhalt, Germany. Image credit: Su Shuyu.

“125,000 years ago, Neanderthals hunted and slaughtered straight-tusked elephants, the largest land mammals of the Pleistocene, in the lake landscapes of the Nordic plains,” said lead author Sabine Gaudzinski-Windho. Professor Iser and colleagues said.

“The data from this site is so far unique in the archaeological record, with evidence highlighting adult males and their widespread use.”

“Given its relevance to our knowledge of the Neanderthal niche, we wonder if Neumark Nord subsistence practices were more than just a local phenomenon, and perhaps determined by local features. I investigated.”

In the new study, scientists analyzed the remains of straight-tusked elephants from two other archaeological sites on the Nordic plains, Grebern and Taubach.

They identified slaughter patterns in both populations similar to the Neumark Nord site.

“The results of the examination of the Greyburn and Taubach bones indicate that the hunting of these elephants by Neanderthals was not an isolated phenomenon and must have been a more regular activity,” Gaudzinski-Windho said. Professor Iser said.

Reconstruction of Lake Schöningen shore when humans discovered the carcass of a straight-legged elephant. Image credit: Benoit Clarys.

Straight-tusked elephants were the largest land mammals of the Pleistocene and lived in Europe and western Asia from 800,000 to 100,000 years ago.

These animals had very broad heads and very long tusks, making them approximately three times larger than modern Asian elephants, twice as large as African elephants, and much larger than woolly mammoths.

Maximum shoulder height is estimated to be 3–4.2 m (10–14 ft) for females and males, respectively, and weight between 4.5 and 13 tons.

“The meat and fat provided by the adult body are Paleoloxodon Antique “The bull would have been enough to meet the daily caloric intake of at least 2,500 adult Neanderthals,” said Professor Gaudzinski-Windhauser.

“This is an important number because it provides us with new insights into Neanderthal behavior.”

“For example, previous research generally assumed that Neanderthals lived in groups of 20 or fewer.”

“However, the information we currently have about the systematic exploitation of straight-breasted elephants suggests that Neanderthals may have gathered, at least temporarily, in larger groups, or that they had developed techniques that allowed them to preserve and store large amounts of food. This suggests that he must have done both.”

“Follow-up projects will explore how Neanderthals hunted these giant elephants and how their hunting activities affected these and other prey animals and their environments. I would like to learn more about this.”

of the team paper Published in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.

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Sabine Gaudzinski-Windhauser other. 2023. Extensive evidence of Neanderthal exploitation of elephants during the last interglacial period on the Nordic plains. PNAS 120 (50): e2309427120; doi: 10.1073/pnas.2309427120

Source: www.sci.news