Mars’ geological features reveal that the planet once hosted rivers and extensive coastlines, indicating it may have had vast oceans in its history. This discovery offers the most substantial evidence yet of Mars’ once vibrant blue landscape.
According to Ezzat Heidari, a geochemist at Jackson State University in Mississippi (who was not part of the study), “The existence of liquid water on Mars encompasses a wide array of topics including rain, rivers, lakes, and oceans.” In his view, this research highlights a significant factor: the ocean.
The research team, featuring planetary geologists like Ignatius Indy and geoscientists such as Fritz Schlunegger from the University of Bern, made groundbreaking discoveries using data from numerous spacecraft. This includes NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter and the European Space Agency’s Mars Express and ExoMars Trace Gas Orbiter. The ExoMars spacecraft, equipped with a specialized Bernese Mars camera, has been instrumental in capturing high-resolution color images, which were crucial for this research.
“These sophisticated images help us identify subtle variations in surface materials that are invisible in black and white images,” Indy explains. Combined with topographical data from other orbiters, these tools transform into a “geological time machine,” providing a clearer glimpse of Mars’ geological evolution.
To explore Mars’ potential ancient water sources, the researchers scrutinized Valles Marineris, an extensive canyon system over 4,000 kilometers long that runs along the planet’s equator. Their focus particularly emphasized the southeast area, Koprates Chasma, with its features dating back around 3.3 billion years.
By merging the new images with geomorphological analyses, the researchers identified structures indicative of river flow into oceans and the formation of alpine lakes at mountain bases—similar to Earth’s geography.
“The Nile Delta serves as a classic illustration,” Schlunegger notes. “If you were to drain the Mediterranean just past the end of the Nile, you’d observe features remarkably akin to those found on Mars,” he states.
Silty Deposits Left by Ancient Water on Mars
Algadestia et al. 2026, CaSSIS
The new data allowed scientists to trace the ancient coastline of Mars’ former ocean, estimating its size to be comparable to Earth’s Arctic Ocean. This could represent the largest ocean that ever existed on Mars.
“Our research indicates that approximately 3 billion years ago, Mars may have sustained significant bodies of surface water within Valles Marineris, the largest canyon in our solar system,” Indy remarked. “What’s even more intriguing is that these water bodies might have been linked to a much larger ocean that once spanned parts of Mars’ northern lowlands.”
While past research suggested the presence of water on Mars, much of the evidence was indirect. A notable study revealed Martian minerals that may have interacted with water long ago. Additional investigations have indicated that an ancient asteroid impact could have triggered a massive tsunami on the planet. Yet, acquiring conclusive data has remained a challenge.
The notion that Mars once harbored a vast ocean remains debated; as Michael Manga, a geoscientist from the University of California, Berkeley (who wasn’t involved in this study), points out, “Even if the ocean did exist, the geological record is far too ancient to be clear.”
This discovery raises fascinating possibilities for the search for extraterrestrial life and serves as a cautionary reminder that Earth’s crucial resources may also one day diminish.
“This paper addresses a question that is paramount to those researching Mars’ evolution,” Heidari said. “Martian oceans would have operated similarly to Earth’s oceans, playing a vital role in the planet’s health.”
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Ancient Humans Hunting Elephants—Evidence of Slaughtering Animals 1.8 Million Years Ago
Natural History Museum/Scientific Photography Library
Hunting an elephant is a formidable challenge, necessitating advanced tools and teamwork, offering an abundant source of protein.
A research team led by Manuel Dominguez-Rodrigo from Rice University in Texas suggests that ancient humans may have accomplished this feat approximately 1.78 million years ago in Tanzania’s Olduvai Gorge.
“Around 2 million years ago, our ancestors consistently consumed smaller game like gazelles and waterbucks but did not target larger prey,” says Dominguez-Rodrigo.
Later findings from Olduvai Gorge indicate a significant shift. This valley, abundant with both animal and human fossils formed over the past 2 million to 17,000 years, shows a marked increase in elephant and hippopotamus remains around 1.8 million years ago. However, establishing conclusive evidence of human involvement in hunting remains elusive.
In June 2022, Dominguez-Rodrigo and his team discovered what may be an ancient elephant slaughterhouse at Olduvai.
The site, dubbed the EAK site, revealed partial remains of an extinct elephant species, Elephas reki, surrounded by an array of stone tools that were much larger and sturdier than those utilized by hominins 2 million years ago. Dominguez-Rodrigo posits these tools were likely crafted by the ancient hominin Homo erectus.
“These include Pleistocene knives, known for their sharpness even today,” he notes, emphasizing their potential for butchering tasks.
Dominguez-Rodrigo and his colleagues believe these stone tools facilitated elephant slaughter. Some limb bones appear to have fractured shortly after the elephant’s demise, indicating the bones were still fresh or “green.” Unlike scavengers like hyenas that can strip meat, they can’t shatter the dense bone shafts of mature elephants.
“We discovered numerous bones in the field with fresh fractures, pointing to human use of hammer stones for processing,” he states. “These ‘green’ fractured bones are widespread in the 1.7-million-year-old landscape and bear distinct impact marks.”
However, there is a scarcity of cut marks on bones, which typically indicate butchering practices to extract meat.
It remains uncertain whether humans actively hunted the elephants or merely scavenged existing carcasses.
“What we can confirm is that they disassembled the bones—or portions of them—leaving behind tools and bones as evidence,” affirms Dominguez-Rodrigo.
He adds that the transition to hunting elephants wasn’t merely due to advancements in stone tools, but also hinted at an increase in social structure and cultural development among hominin groups.
However, Michael Pante, a researcher at Colorado State University, remains skeptical of the findings.
Pante contends that the evidence for human exploitation of this individual elephant is weak. The interpretation relies heavily on the proximity of stone tools and elephant remains, as well as the inferred fractures created by human attempts to access bone marrow.
Pante asserts that the earliest definitive evidence of hippo, giraffe, and elephant hunting in Olduvai dates back to around 80,000 years ago, as shown in the research of the 1.7-million-year-old HWK EE site.
“In contrast to the EAK site, the bones at HWK EE exhibit cut marks and are associated with thousands of other bones and artifacts within an archaeological context,” he explains.
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In a newly published paper in this month’s iScience, researchers from the University of Tübingen and their collaborators present an interdisciplinary study of ancient stone and bone projectile points associated with Homo sapiens from the Lower Paleolithic era (40,000 to 35,000 years ago). This comprehensive research uses a blend of experimental ballistics, detailed measurements, and use-wear analysis, revealing that some of these prehistoric artifacts correspond not just to hand-thrown spears and javelin darts but also potentially to bow-propelled arrows.
Evidence suggests early humans may have used bows, arrows, and spear throwers in the Upper Paleolithic period. Image credit: sjs.org / CC BY-SA 3.0.
For decades, it was commonly believed that weapon technology evolved linearly, transitioning from hand-held spears to spear-throwing and eventually to bows and arrows.
However, lead researcher Keiko Kitagawa and her team at the University of Tübingen challenge this notion, arguing for a more complex evolution of weapon technology.
“Direct evidence of hunting weapons is rarely identified in the archaeological record,” they noted.
“Prehistoric hunting weapons encompassed a range from hand-held thrusting spears ideal for close-range hunting, to javelins and bow-headed arrows suitable for medium to long-range engagements.”
“The earliest known instances of such tools include wooden spears and throwing sticks, dating back 337,000 to 300,000 years in Europe.”
“Spear-throwing hooks first appeared during the Upper Solutrean period (around 24,500 to 21,000 years ago), gaining prominence in the Magdalenian culture of southwestern France (approximately 21,000 years ago), with nearly 100 specimens documented.”
Bows and arrows, however, have only surfaced from well-preserved sites like Mannheim-Vogelstang and Stermol in Germany, dated to about 12,000 years, and Lilla Roschulz-Mosse in Sweden, approximately 8,500 years, indicating they are significantly younger than other projectile technology.
Comparison of archaeological specimens from the Aurignac site with experimental examples from Vogelherd, Istritz, and Manot. Image credit: Kitagawa et al., doi: 10.1016/j.isci.2025.114270.
The authors propose that early modern humans may have concurrently experimented with various projectile technologies, adapting to diverse ecosystems and prey types.
The analysis reveals that the damage patterns on these ancient projectile points corresponded with what is expected from arrows shot from bows, as well as from spears and darts.
“We emphasize Upper Paleolithic bony projectiles, including split bases and megabases made from antler and bone, predominantly discovered in Aurignacian environments in Europe and the Levant, between 40,000 and 33,000 years ago,” the researchers explained.
“Our goal is to determine if the wear patterns and morphometry can identify the types of weapons associated with Aurignacian bone projectile tips.”
This discovery aligns with previous archaeological findings indicating that bows and arrows were utilized in Africa as far back as 54,000 years ago, predating earlier estimates and some of Europe’s archaeological record.
Importantly, the researchers do not assert that Homo sapiens invented the bow simultaneously across all regions, nor do they claim the bow was the only weapon used.
Instead, their findings suggest a rich technological diversity during the initial phases of human migration into new territories.
“Our study highlights the intricate nature of reconstructing launch technologies, which are often made from perishable materials,” the researchers stated.
“While it is impossible to account for all variables affecting the properties of the armature and resulting wear, we aspire to implement future experimental programs aimed at deepening our understanding of the projectiles that form a crucial component of hunter-gatherer economies.”
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Keiko Kitagawa et al. suggest that Homo sapiens may have utilized bows and arrows for hunting as early as the Upper Paleolithic period in Eurasia. iScience published online on December 18, 2025. doi: 10.1016/j.isci.2025.114270
A recent study conducted by researchers from the University of Cambridge and La Trobe University questions the classification of the Littlefoot fossil, Australopithecus prometheus.
Littlefoot fossil from Sterkfontein Cave, central South Africa. Image credit: Purdue University.
The Littlefoot fossils were found in 1994 within a cave in Sterkfontein, central South Africa.
This specimen, referred to as StW 573, drew its name from the four small leg bones discovered in a box containing animal fossils, leading to the uncovering of the skeleton.
In the 2010s, paleoanthropologist Ronald Clark proposed that Littlefoot belonged to a hominin species known as Australopithecus prometheus.
Others argued that it was Australopithecus africanus, a hominid species first identified by Australian anatomist Raymond Dart in 1925 and already well-known in the region and across South Africa.
However, a new investigation by Dr. Jesse Martin and his team at La Trobe University has determined that Littlefoot does not exhibit a distinct set of traits linked to either species, suggesting it may be a completely new species.
“This fossil represents one of the most significant discoveries in human history, and its identity is crucial for understanding our evolutionary background,” stated Martin.
“We believe it’s evident that it does not belong to Australopithecus prometheus or Australopithecus africanus. This is likely a previously unidentified ancestor of humans.”
“Dr. Clark deserves recognition for discovering Littlefoot and for being among the few to suggest the presence of two hominin species in Sterkfontein.”
“Littlefoot indicates that this is likely true; there are indeed two species.”
Another forensic facial reconstruction of Australopithecus species – afarensis. Image credit: Cicero Moraes / CC BY-SA 3.0.
The researchers now intend to determine which species Littlefoot represents and how it fits within the human evolutionary tree.
Professor Andy Herries, a researcher at La Trobe University and the University of Johannesburg, remarked: “Littlefoot is one of the most complete and significant fossils ever discovered, providing valuable insights into early human diversity and how our ancestors adapted to various environments in southern Africa.”
“It is distinctly different from the designated specimen of Australopithecus prometheus, a classification based on the notion that early humans mastered fire, which we now understand was not the case.”
“Its unique significance compared to other contemporary fossils clearly indicates the necessity of defining it as a distinct species.”
Regarding this research, a paper was published in the December 2025 issue of the American Journal of Biological Anthropology.
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Jesse M. Martin et al. 2025. StW 573 Littlefoot fossil is Australopithecus prometheus. American Journal of Biological Anthropology 188 (4): e70177; doi: 10.1002/ajpa.70177
In a new study published in the journal Chemical Systems Chemistry, Professor Tony Jia and his team at Hiroshima University have proposed a “prebiotic gel-first” framework. This framework explores how the origins of life might arise within gels adhering to surfaces. The authors also consider the potential existence of “xenophiles,” meaning alien biofilm-like structures that may be extraterrestrial or consist of various terrestrial components. They emphasize the importance of agnostic life detection strategies in the quest for both known and unknown forms of life.
An artist’s impression of a prebiotic gel on the surface of early Earth. Image credit: Nirmell Satthiyasilan.
“The question of how life began has intrigued humanity for ages,” remarked Professor Jia and his co-authors.
“While no one can journey back in time to witness the inception of life, scientists are continually piecing together plausible narratives from chemistry, physics, and geology.”
“Contrary to many theories that concentrate solely on the role of biomolecules and biopolymers, our theory incorporates the significance of gels in the origin of life.”
Within this newly proposed prebiotic gel-first framework, the researchers hypothesize that life could have emerged within gel matrices affixed to surfaces—adhesive, semi-solid substances that possess traits reminiscent of today’s microbial biofilms, which are thin layers of bacteria thriving on rocks, pond surfaces, and even human-made structures.
By integrating insights from soft matter chemistry and contemporary biology, they suggest that such primitive gels may have provided essential structure and functionality for increasingly sophisticated early chemical systems, long before the advent of the first cells.
Prebiotic gels may have addressed crucial hurdles in pre-living chemistry by trapping and organizing molecules, enabling concentration, selective retention, and environmental buffering.
Within these gels, primitive chemical systems may have developed early metabolism and self-replicating behaviors, paving the way for biological evolution.
“This is merely one theory among numerous others within the extensive field of origin-of-life research,” stated Dr. Kuhan Chandru from the Space Science Center at the National University of Malaysia.
“Yet, the significance of gels has been largely overlooked; thus, we aimed to synthesize fragmented research into a cohesive narrative that places primitive gels at the center of discourse.”
Scientists have extended this concept into astrobiology, proposing that similar gel-like systems could exist on other planets.
These possible “xeno-membranes” may serve as non-terrestrial analogues of biofilms and consist of unique chemical components specific to each region.
This viewpoint suggests that the structures themselves, rather than specific chemicals, could be the next focus for life-detection missions, expanding the methods by which astrobiologists can search for life beyond Earth.
The authors now plan to validate their model experimentally by investigating how simple chemical gels formed under early Earth conditions and what properties they imparted to emerging chemical systems.
Dr. Ramona Khanum, also from the Space Science Center at the National University of Malaysia, expressed: “We hope our research will inspire others in the field to investigate this and other unresolved theories concerning the origin of life.”
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Ramona Khanum et al. Prebiotic gel as the cradle of life. Chemical Systems Chemistry, published online on November 19, 2025. doi: 10.1002/syst.202500038
Adolf Hitler’s death is recorded as April 30, 1945. At least, that’s the official narrative. However, some historians contest this, suggesting he escaped war-torn Berlin and lived in secrecy. Today, this alternate theory is largely viewed as a conspiracy, yet no rational historian can deny that, regardless of the available evidence, the “facts in question” existed. Hitler was either deceased that day or he was not. It’s nonsensical to suggest that he was both alive and dead on May 2, 1945. But if we replace Adolf Hitler with Schrödinger’s renowned cat, the historical “facts” become quite muddled.
Schrödinger is recognized as a foundational figure in quantum mechanics, the most successful scientific framework to date. It serves as the backbone for many fields, including chemistry, particle physics, materials science, molecular biology, and astronomy, yielding remarkable technological advancements, from lasers to smartphones. Yet, despite its successes, the essence of quantum mechanics appears perplexing at its core.
In our daily lives, we operate under the assumption that an “external” real world exists where objects like tables and chairs possess clearly defined traits, such as position and orientation, independent of observation. In the macroscopic realm, our observations merely uncover a pre-existing reality. Conversely, quantum mechanics governs the microscopic domain of atoms and subatomic particles, where certainty and clarity dissolve into ambiguity.
Quantum uncertainty implies that the future is not entirely dictated by the present. For example, if an electron is directed toward a thin barrier with a known speed, it can either bounce back or tunnel through, emerging on the opposite side. Similarly, if an atom becomes excited, it might remain excited or decay and emit a photon a few microseconds later. In both scenarios, predicting outcomes with certainty is impossible—only probabilistic estimates can be offered.
Most individuals are comfortable with the idea that the future holds uncertainties. However, quantum indeterminacy similarly applies to the past. The process is not yet complete. When scrutinized at a minute scale, history transmutes into a blend of alternate possibilities, a state known as superposition.
The hazy picture of the quantum microcosm sharpens during measurements. For instance, localizing an electron may show it at a specific location; however, quantum mechanics asserts that this doesn’t imply the electron previously existed in that state. It is already there. Observations merely disclose the specific location prior to measurement. Rather, measurement transforms the electron from a state without a defined location into one with a defined position.
So, how should we conceptualize electrons prior to observation? Picture an abundance of semi-real “ghost electrons” dispersed in space, each denoting a distinct potential. The reality dwells in an indeterminate state. This notion is sometimes explained by stating that an electron occupies multiple locations simultaneously. Moreover, measurements serve to convert a certain “ghost” into tangible reality while eliminating its counterparts.
Does the experimenter have control over the outcome? Not if they opt for the prevailing ghost. The process hinges on randomness. Yet, a layer of choice is present, which is vital for grasping quantum reality. If, instead of measuring position, the experimenter decides to assess the electron’s speed, the fuzzy initial state resolves into a distinct result. This time, instead of locating electrons, measurements yield electrons with velocity. Interestingly, it appears that electrons with speed exhibit wave-like properties, distinct from their particle nature. Thus, electrons embody both wave and particle characteristics, contingent on the measurement approach.
In summary: the behavior of electrons—as waves or particles—is dictated by the type of measurement the experimenter chooses. While this may seem bizarre, the situation grows even stranger. What has transpired to atoms before measurement relies on the experimenter’s selections. In essence, the properties of electrons—wave or particle—are contingent upon one’s choices, suggesting that something may have retroactively influenced the “external” world prior to measurement.
Is this time travel? Retroactive causality? Telepathy? These terms are often overused in popular quantum physics discussions, but the clearest explanation comes from John Wheeler, who coined the term black hole: “The past exists solely as recorded in the present,” he asserted.
While Mr. Wheeler’s assertion is thought-provoking, is there an actual experiment that validates it? Over breakfast at the Hilton Hotel in Baltimore in 1980, Wheeler mentioned a curious inquiry: “How do you suppress the ghosts of photons?” Recognizing my bewilderment, he proceeded to elaborate on a unique twist he devised for a classical quantum experiment, applicable to light, electrons, or even entire atoms.
This experiment traces back to the British polymath Thomas Young, who in 1801 aimed to demonstrate the wave properties of light. Young established a screen with two closely placed slits and illuminated it with a pinprick of light. What transpired? Instead of the anticipated two blurred light bands, Young observed a series of bright and dark stripes known as interference fringes. This phenomenon arises because light waves passing through each slit disperse, where they amplify and create brighter sections through constructive interference while canceling out in others, resulting in dark patches through destructive interference.
Light passing through two slits in a screen during a double-slit experiment
Russell Kightley/Science Photo Library
The conversation surrounding quantum mechanics began with scientists debating whether light consists of waves or particles called photons. The resolution is that it is both. Thanks to modern advancements, we can conduct Young’s experiment one photon at a time. Each photon produces a minuscule dot on the second screen, and over time, multiple dots accumulate, forming the characteristic striped pattern unearthed by Young. This situation raises questions: if a photon is a minuscule particle, it should clearly pass through either slit or the other. Yet, both slits are necessary to create the interference pattern.
What occurs if an astute experimenter wants to determine the slit a particular photon travels through? A detector can be placed near a slit to achieve this. Once that occurs, the interference pattern vanishes. The act of detecting effectively causes the photons to assume a particle-like behavior, obscuring their wave characteristics. The same principle applies to electrons; one can either pinpoint which slit the electrons traverse, resulting in the absence of interference stripes, or obscure their pathways and observe stripes manifest after numerous electrons have produced the pattern. Thus, experimenters can dictate whether photons, or electrons for that matter, act like waves or particles when they hit the detection screen.
Now, let’s discuss Wheeler’s twist. The decision to observe or not doesn’t need to be premeditated. Photons (or electrons) can pass through a slit system and remain until reaching an imaging screen. The experimenter can even opt to glance back in time to see which slit a photon originated from. Known as a delayed choice experiment, this setup has been executed and yielded anticipated outcomes. When the experimenter decides to observe, the photons fail to coalesce into a striped pattern. The essence of the phenomenon is that the reality that It was—whether the light behaves like a wave traversing both slits or a particle going through one—is contingent on the later choice of the experimenter. For clarity, in real studies, the “selections” are automated and randomized to prevent biases, occurring more swiftly than human response times.
In delayed choice experiments, the past remains unchanged. Instead, without experimentation, multiple pasts exist, intertwining distinct realities. Your measurement choice narrows down this history. While a unique past remains elusive, the number of possibilities can be reduced. Thus, this experiment is frequently referred to as the quantum eraser experiment.
Although the time used in actual experiments is merely nanoseconds, in principle, it could reach back to the dawn of the universe. This is what lay behind Wheeler’s intriguing query regarding retaining the ghost of a photon. He envisaged a distant cosmic light source being gravitationally lensed from our view by an intervening black hole, with two light paths bending around opposite sides of the black hole before converging on Earth. This scenario resembles a two-slit experiment on a cosmic scale, where a photon’s ghost may arrive via one path while another, possibly longer, route carries a different one. To execute such a cosmic interference experiment, like Young’s original experiment, the first ghost must be preserved, or “held,” allowing the waves to overlap simultaneously, awaiting the arrival of the second ghost before they merge.
Einstein claimed that past, present, and future are mere illusions. In this case, he erred in specifying “the”. A While the past is recorded in today’s history, it comprises myriad interwoven “ghost pasts,” collectively creating unique narratives on a macroscopic level. Nevertheless, at a quantum level, it transforms into a mosaic of blurred partial realities that exceed human comprehension.
Paul Davies is a theoretical physicist, cosmologist, astrobiologist, and bestselling author. His book, Quantum 2.0, will be published by Penguin in November 2025.
Among them is a new paper published in Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B. Researchers Gianmarco Maldarelli and Onur Güntürkün from Ruhr University Bochum emphasize three key areas where birds exhibit significant parallels with mammalian conscious experience: sensory consciousness, the neurobiological foundation, and the nature of self-consciousness.
Maldarelli and Güntürkün demonstrate that there is increasing evidence that (i) birds possess sentience and self-awareness, and (ii) they also have the necessary neural structures for these traits. Image credit: Kutte.
First, research on sensory consciousness reveals that birds do not just automatically respond to stimuli; they also experience them subjectively.
Similar to humans, pigeons can alternate between different interpretations of ambiguous visual signals.
Moreover, crows exhibit neural responses that reflect their subjective perception rather than just the physical presence of a stimulus.
At times, crows consciously recognize a stimulus, while at other times, they do not; certain neurons activate specifically in correspondence to this internal experience.
Second, bird brains possess functional components that satisfy theoretical requirements for conscious processing, despite their differing structures.
“The caudolateral nidopallium (NCL), which is akin to the prefrontal cortex in birds, features extensive connectivity that allows for flexible integration and processing of information,” noted Güntürkün.
“The avian forebrain connectome, illustrating the complete flow of information among brain regions, shows numerous similarities to those of mammals.”
“As such, birds fulfill criteria outlined in many established theories of consciousness, including the global neuronal workspace theory.”
Third, more recent studies indicate that birds may exhibit various forms of self-awareness.
While certain corvid species have successfully passed the traditional mirror test, alternative ecologically relevant versions of the test have unveiled additional self-awareness types in other bird species.
“Research has demonstrated that pigeons and chickens can differentiate their reflections in mirrors from real-life counterparts and respond accordingly,” explained Güntürkün.
“This indicates a fundamental sense of situational self-awareness.”
The results imply that consciousness is an older and more prevalent evolutionary trait than previously believed.
Birds illustrate that conscious processing can occur without a cerebral cortex, achieving similar functional solutions through different brain architectures.
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Gianmarco Maldarelli and Onur Gunturkun. 2025. Conscious birds. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B 380 (1939): 20240308; doi: 10.1098/rstb.2024.0308
The ecological shifts experienced on Easter Island (Rapanui) represent one of the most illustrative yet contentious examples in environmental archaeology. This discussion centers around the Polynesian rat (brown rat) amid the island’s deforestation, an event that wiped out an estimated 15 million to 19.7 million palm trees, specifically the palm tree (pashalococcos disperta) between approximately 1200 and 1650 AD.
Easter Island, known as Rapa Nui to its early inhabitants, is one of the least populated islands in the world. It is located approximately 3,512 km from the west coast of Chile and about 2,075 km west of the nearest inhabited island, Pitcairn Island. For reasons still unclear, the early Rapa Nui people began carving giant statues from volcanic rock. These monumental statues, known as moai, are among the most remarkable ancient artifacts discovered. Image credit: Bjørn Christian Tørrissen / CC BY-SA 3.0.
These majestic trees can survive for up to 500 years, but are slow-growing, taking around 70 years to mature and bear fruit.
By the time Europeans arrived in 1722, very few palm trees remained. When European interest in the island’s ecosystem peaked, these trees had largely disappeared.
“European accounts often describe islands devoid of trees, yet they also mention palm trees and their fronds,” notes Carl Lipo, a professor at Binghamton University.
“It’s uncertain whether they used this term to denote other types of trees.”
When exploring new islands, Polynesians transported various subsistence items such as taro, sweet potatoes, bananas, yams, dogs, chickens, and pigs, along with the omnipresent Polynesian rat.
In contrast to the Norway rat (brown rat), which was introduced post-European contact and favors the tree canopy, this smaller arboreal species provides a wealth of information for researchers.
“Their genetics showcase unique haplotypes due to the ‘founder effect’,” explains Professor Lipo.
“The genetic diversity of rats as they traverse the Pacific allows us to trace human migrations and the frequency of these settlements.”
The methods by which these rats entered Polynesian outrigger canoes is debated. Were they stowaways or intentionally included as a backup food source? Ethnographic evidence leans toward the latter.
“After European arrival, a naturalist collecting specimens for the British Museum witnessed a man walking with a mouse, who informed him it was for lunch.”
Additionally, rat bones have been uncovered in midden deposits, or ancient refuse piles, on various Pacific islands.
Upon their arrival at Rapa Nui around 1200 AD, the rats discovered a predator-free paradise filled with their preferred foods.
Their population surged into the millions within a few years, as they can breed multiple times annually.
“The palm fruit was like candy to the rats. They turned into a significant food source,” Professor Lipo commented.
Rapa Nui’s palm trees had coevolved with birds and did not develop the boom-and-bust production cycle that would have enabled some nuts to withstand rodent exploitation.
As a result, rats consumed the palm fruit, preventing the next generation of trees from establishing.
Simultaneously, humans cleared land for sweet potato fields. This dual pressure led to the deforestation now characteristic of the island.
Alongside plants and animals, Polynesians also incorporated practices such as slash-and-burn agriculture to enhance soil fertility.
Old volcanic islands like Rapa Nui possess poor soil, and rainfall depletes nutrients.
Clearing or burning parts of the forest temporarily rejuvenates soil quality.
Once nutrients are exhausted, farmers relocate, the land recuperates, and trees regrow.
“This pattern is also observable in New Guinea and other regions across the Pacific,” Professor Lipo mentions.
“However, in Rapa Nui, the slow growth of trees and the rats consuming coconuts inhibited regrowth.”
Eventually, the islanders shifted to a farming technique that utilized stone mulch to enrich their crops.
While the reduction of palm forests marked a significant ecological transformation, it was not a disaster solely orchestrated by humans.
The islanders’ survival did not hinge on the palm trees; rather, it depended on the availability of cleared land for agriculture.
Moreover, palms are not hardwoods; they belong to the grass family and do not provide material for canoes, homes, or fuel.
“The loss of palm forests is unfortunate, yet it wasn’t catastrophic for the people,” states Professor Lipo.
“They didn’t rely on them for survival.”
Though some palms may have persisted into European colonization, the introduction of sheep farming in the 19th century likely sealed their extinction, as any remaining seedlings would be consumed by sheep.
Ironically, the Polynesian mouse suffered a similar fate to the palm trees, being outcompeted by Norway rats or predated by non-native species like hawks on most islands.
Despite changes in species, islanders still discuss the rodents’ cyclical population booms and severe declines.
The narrative of Rapa Nui exemplifies unintended consequences as well as resilience and adaptability in one of the most remote inhabited islands, with its closest neighbor situated 1,931 km (1,200 miles) away.
“A more nuanced perspective on environmental change is essential,” says Professor Lipo.
“We are integral to the natural world and often modify it for our benefit; however, this does not necessarily imply we are creating an unsustainable environment.”
Findings from this study will be published in the archeology journal.
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Terry L. Hunt and Carl P. Lipo. 2025. Re-evaluating the role of Polynesian rats (brown rat) in the deforestation of Rapa Nui (Easter Island): Faunal evidence and ecological modeling. archeology journal 184: 106388; doi: 10.1016/j.jas.2025.106388
Research indicates that men may need to engage in exercise for twice as long as women to obtain equivalent health benefits, according to a significant new study involving 85,000 participants.
Findings revealed that women performing approximately four hours of moderate to vigorous exercise weekly, such as brisk jogging, swimming, or dancing, could lower their risk of coronary heart disease by 30 percent. In contrast, men required nearly nine hours of physical activity per week to achieve the same risk reduction.
“In comparison to men, women allocate half the time to exercise for similar health outcomes,” the researchers noted in their publication. Nature cardiovascular research.
While the research team did not explore the reasons for this notable difference, they proposed several physiological explanations.
Women possess higher estrogen levels, a hormone linked to bone and muscle health along with fat metabolism rates.
Additionally, men and women have different types of skeletal muscles, which may make women more adept at endurance training.
“Heart disease is the primary cause of premature death in both genders, though men typically develop heart disease earlier, and women tend to ‘catch up’ later in life after menopause,” stated Professor Riyaz Patel, a cardiologist at University College London, who was not part of the study. BBC Science Focus.
“The takeaway is that everyone can benefit from exercise. Increased physical activity is advantageous for all.”
Anything that gets your heart pumping, like jogging, dancing, or swimming, can help improve your heart health – Credit: Getty
The study, led by Jiajin Chen from Xiamen University in China, monitored participants aged 37 to 73 using wrist-worn fitness trackers over an eight-year period.
For individuals with pre-existing cardiovascular conditions, women required just 51 minutes of exercise weekly to reduce their risk of death by 30 percent, compared to 85 minutes for men.
Heart disease remains the leading cause of early death globally. In the United States alone, about 100 out of every 100,000 women are anticipated to die from cardiovascular disease in 2023, while the figure for men is 60% higher.
The World Health Organization, along with the American Heart Association and NHS, advises individuals aged 16 to 64, regardless of gender, to engage in 150 minutes of moderate to vigorous physical activity per week.
Small, isolated groups of the Common hippopotamus (Hippopotamus amphibius) were present in the upper reaches of the Rhine River in southwestern Germany during the Middle Ages. New research indicates their presence during the Weichselian period, which spanned from approximately 47,000 to 31,000 years ago.
Radiocarbon dating indicates that the common hippopotamus was present in the middle Weichselian (Hippopotamus amphibius) in the upper reaches of the Rhine River, Germany. Image credit: Gemini AI.
Hippos likely made their way into Europe from Africa through multiple waves, involving various species within the Hippopotamus genus, including the common hippo, which currently inhabits only sub-Saharan Africa.
At their peak distribution in Europe, hippos were found from the British Isles in the northwest to the Iberian and Italian peninsulas in the south.
Their fossil record generally suggests they thrived in temperate climates, characterized by denser vegetation and abundant freshwater bodies.
Nevertheless, their origins and relation to today’s African hippos, as well as the precise timing of their extinction in central Europe, remain ambiguous.
“Previously, it was thought that the common hippopotamus extirpated from central Europe around 115,000 years ago with the conclusion of the last interglacial period,” stated co-senior author Professor Wilfried Rosendahl, general director of the Ries-Engelhorn Mannheim Museum.
“Our findings reveal that hippos inhabited the Upper Rhine Valley in southwestern Germany from about 47,000 to 31,000 years ago.”
For this study, Professor Rosendahl and his team analyzed 19 hippo specimens collected from a fossil site located in the rift valley upstream of the Rhine River.
“The Upper Rhine Rift Valley serves as a significant continental climate archive,” noted study co-author Dr. Ronnie Friedrich, a researcher at the Kurt Engelhorn Zentrum Archaeological Institute.
“Animal bones preserved for millennia in gravel and sand deposits provide invaluable data for scientific inquiry.”
“It’s astonishing how well-preserved the bones are,” he added.
“In many human remains, we’ve successfully obtained samples suitable for analysis, but such conditions are not to be expected after such extended periods.”
By analyzing ancient DNA, researchers discovered that Ice Age hippos in Europe share a close relationship with modern African hippos, being part of the same species.
Radiocarbon dating confirmed their existence during the mid-Weichselian temperate climatic phase.
Furthermore, extensive genome-wide analyses indicated very low genetic diversity, suggesting a small, isolated population in the upper Rhine region.
These results, in conjunction with additional fossil evidence, imply that the heat-loving hippos coexisted with cold-adapted species such as mammoths and woolly rhinos.
“This finding indicates that hippos did not vanish from central Europe at the end of the last interglacial period, as was previously thought,” stated study lead author Dr. Patrick Arnold, a researcher at the University of Potsdam.
“Thus, there’s a necessity to reevaluate other continental European hippo fossils typically considered to belong to the last interglacial period.”
“This study provides significant new insights that compellingly demonstrate that the Ice Age was not uniform everywhere but rather that regional specificities contributed to a complex picture,” remarked Professor Rosendahl.
“It would be intriguing and valuable to further examine other heat-loving animal species that have so far been linked to the last interglacial.”
This result was published in the journal on October 8, 2025, in Current Biology.
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Patrick Arnold et al. Ancient DNA and dating evidence show hippos dispersed into central Europe during the last ice age. Current Biology published online October 8, 2025. doi: 10.1016/j.cub.2025.09.035
Engraved face from the French Amien Lannancourt 1 site
Stephen Lancelot/In-Rap
Miniature sculptures estimated to be 27,000 years old from northern France may offer insights into how ancient hunter-gatherers styled their hair.
The figurine was unearthed in 2021 from a site known as Amien Lannancoeur 1, located roughly 140 kilometers north of Paris, and has recently been analyzed by researchers.
Notably, the long hair appears to be braided in a grid pattern, possibly representing hair nets or distinct hairstyles. This contrasts with figures found in Central and Eastern Europe, where hairdos are typically short and cover the majority of the head, according to Olivier Touse from the University of Liège, Belgium, who did not participate in the study.
The statuette’s distinctive hairstyles may indicate the period and local fashion trends. “This might represent a cultural uniqueness that would not have been highlighted without these scarce human representations,” states team member Clement Paris from the National Institute of Preventive Archaeology in France.
Radiocarbon dating of the rock layers at Amiens-Renancourt 1 indicates that the sculpted figure dates back to approximately 27,000 years ago and belongs to the Greybettian period, which spanned from 33,000 to 26,000 years ago across Europe. Following this era, the hunter-gatherer population vacated Northwest Europe for nearly 10,000 years due to the severe cold and arid conditions of the last Ice Age’s peak, notes Touzé.
“The intricate decoration and well-defined hairstyles underline the attention devoted to the craftsmanship of this statue,” remarks Gregory Abrams at the University of Ghent, Belgium, who was not involved in the study.
Other excavations at the site have uncovered several small fragments and over a dozen additional figurines, including Venus figurines that depict women. “This site has historical significance regarding sculptural production,” states Touse.
Yet, questions linger about what these figurines reveal about their creators. “Prehistoric thoughts and myths leave minimal evidence,” comments Paris. “And even when these statues provide insight, their significance remains obscure.”
New research suggests that artificial sweeteners may have unexpected risks for brain health.
In a study published in Neurology, researchers analyzed the diets of over 12,700 adults in Brazil, revealing that individuals who consumed higher amounts of calorie-free sweeteners experienced a more rapid decline in memory and cognitive abilities over an eight-year period.
This decline was especially notable among diabetic patients and those under the age of 60.
The study examined seven sweeteners commonly found in diet sodas, flavored waters, yogurt, and low-calorie desserts: aspartame, saccharin, acesulfame-K, erythritol, xylitol, sorbitol, and tagatose.
All except tagatose were linked to cognitive decline, particularly affecting memory and verbal fluency.
Participants were categorized into three intake groups. Those with the highest consumption—approximately 191 milligrams daily, similar to a single can of diet soda for aspartame—demonstrated cognitive aging equivalent to 1.6 additional years, at least 62% faster than those with lower consumption.
“Low and no-calorie sweeteners are often regarded as healthier alternatives to sugar, but our findings indicate that certain sweeteners may negatively impact brain health over time,” stated Professor Claudia Kimmy Sumoto from the University of Sao Paulo.
“Prior research linked artificial sweeteners to conditions such as diabetes, cancer, cardiovascular disease, and depression, but the effects on cognition were previously unexplored.”
Consumption of artificial sweeteners similar to daily cans of diet soda was associated with accelerated cognitive decline, akin to 1.6 years of brain aging – Credit: Getty
Interestingly, the link was primarily observed in adults under 60 years old.
“We anticipated that the association would be more pronounced in older adults due to their increased risk of dementia and cognitive decline,” Sumoto noted. “Conversely, our findings suggest that exposure to sweeteners during middle age could be particularly detrimental, which is crucial as this period is vital for establishing long-term brain health.”
The findings do not conclusively prove that sweeteners are the direct cause of cognitive decline, with limitations including reliance on self-reported dietary habits and the absence of control over sweetener usage in the research.
Nevertheless, Sumoto emphasized the need for further investigation, including brain imaging and studies examining gut health and inflammation.
Her team is already conducting neuroimaging studies to better understand these associations, although results are not yet available.
“More research is essential to validate our findings and to explore whether alternative sweeteners like those from the apple family, honey, maple syrup, and coconut sugar provide effective options,” Sumoto concluded.
About our experts
Claudia Sumoto is an assistant professor at the University of Sao Paulo, Brazil. She is a trained physician with research published in journals such as The Lancet, Nature Neuroscience, and Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease.
Nasal sprays available over-the-counter, historically noted for their safety and efficacy in treating seasonal allergies, could be perceived in a new light following clinical trial results released on Tuesday.
The antihistamine azelastine has been observed to have antiviral properties against various respiratory infections, including Influenza, RSV, and viruses responsible for COVID, according to a growing body of research.
Researchers from Saarland University Hospital in Germany conducted a study involving 450 adults, predominantly in their early 30s. One group of 227 participants used a nasal spray three times daily, while the other 223 received a placebo spray under the same regimen.
Throughout nearly two months, all participants underwent COVID rapid testing twice weekly. The results indicated that the incidence of symptomatic infections was 2.2% in the azelastine group, markedly lower than the 6.7% infection rate in the placebo group.
Furthermore, azelastine seemed to diminish the incidence of other symptomatic respiratory infections, as highlighted in a study published in JAMA Internal Medicine.
While researchers remain uncertain about the exact mechanism by which azelastine limits infections, they hypothesize that it may bind to the virus in the nasal mucosa.
Another possibility is that azelastine interacts with the ACE2 receptor, the primary entry point for COVID viruses into human cells, thereby preventing their attachment.
“Our findings imply that azelastine could serve as a scalable and commercially viable preventive measure against COVID, especially in high-risk scenarios such as crowded indoor events and travel,” the researchers noted.
However, the study had limitations, including that all participants were relatively young and healthy, according to the researchers.
Valz emphasized that azelastine should not replace vaccination and further research is essential before considering it as a standard precautionary measure for the public, particularly for vulnerable groups.
Dr. William Messer, associate professor at Oregon Health & Science University, found the results “rationally convincing” in terms of risk reduction, but pointed out the intensive regimen of daily sprays in the trial.
He questioned whether wearing a mask might be a simpler approach to preventing COVID infection.
“Masks can be inconvenient and bothersome, yet may be easier to adhere to than remembering to use three nasal sprays daily,” Messer remarked.
Nevertheless, he added, “I do not discourage anyone who wishes to try it.”
Other researchers are seeking more data to ascertain the effectiveness of nasal sprays in high-risk populations, such as the elderly and immunocompromised individuals who require additional preventive measures.
Dr. Peter Chin-Hong, a professor at UCSF Health specializing in Infectious Diseases, speculated that azelastine could serve as an additional COVID-blocking tool for individuals already using nasal sprays for seasonal allergies, although he believes the evidence is insufficient for broader recommendations.
“While the potential is promising, I believe now is not the appropriate time to recommend it as a COVID preventative,” he stated in an email. “For those over 65, I continue to advocate for vaccination as the primary defense against COVID.”
Nonetheless, Chin-Hong highlighted that the trial results underscore the importance of targeting the nasal mucosa in developing future vaccines against COVID and other respiratory viruses as a more effective means of infection prevention.
“Current COVID vaccines have not proven to be highly effective in preventing infection,” he remarked. “There is a need for more mucosal vaccines for respiratory viruses. While flu vaccines are widely used, ongoing efforts are being made to create mucosal vaccines for coronaviruses, necessitating continued advocacy for federal support and prioritization for these initiatives.”
A Key Review involving over 62,500 adults indicates that adhering to a specific diet may lower the risk of cognitive decline in older age by 40%.
Researchers from Shandong University in China examined 15 studies involving individuals aged over 60 and discovered that those who followed a Mediterranean or mind-focused diet were notably less likely to experience memory and cognitive issues compared to those without a healthy diet.
The Mediterranean diet and the Mind diet share many similarities, both emphasizing vegetables, fruits, legumes, nuts, seeds, whole grains, and moderate amounts of fish, chicken, and dairy products. Conversely, they limit processed foods, lean meats, and sugar.
However, while the Mediterranean diet draws inspiration from specific regions, the Mind diet is designed explicitly to safeguard the brain against age-related decline.
The Mediterranean diet highlights certain culturally significant ingredients, such as olive oil, while the Mind diet focuses on nutrient-rich foods like berries and leafy greens.
Researchers have long speculated about the impact of diet on brain aging, although evidence has been mixed. To clarify this issue, the Shandong University team aggregated data from 15 studies to gain a better understanding of the correlation between diet and aging in the brain, as well as extended risks of related diseases like dementia.
The studies included presented varied results. However, their combined findings indicated that elderly individuals who maintained healthy eating habits were significantly less likely (by 40%) to experience cognitive decline compared to those following unhealthy diets.
Consequently, researchers concluded that older adults should be encouraged to incorporate vegetables, fruits, fish, and legumes into their meals.
The Mediterranean diet emphasizes plant-based foods like vegetables, fruits, grains, legumes, nuts, seeds, and healthy fats, while limiting processed foods and sugars.
Experts not involved in the study cautioned in BBC Science Focus that the interplay between diet and cognitive health is complex and the findings should be interpreted cautiously.
Professor Keith Frain, Professor Emeritus of Human Metabolism at Oxford University, remarked, “This study convincingly demonstrates that healthier diets correlate with enhanced cognitive function in older adults.”
However, Frain cautioned that the study does not imply that a better diet causes improved brain health. He explained that the studies involved in this analysis were observational, which means other factors like wealth, privilege, or non-dietary healthy habits could contribute to the observed link.
“While striving for a healthy diet as we age for various reasons is important, it is misleading to suggest that diet alone can alter our cognitive function,” Frain added.
Meanwhile, Dr. Oliver Shannon, a Lecturer in Nutrition and Aging at Newcastle University, noted in BBC Science Focus that the findings of this study, consistent with previous research and recent clinical trials, suggest that consuming healthier diets in later life could positively influence the brain. Thus, there might be a causal relationship present.
“Making small dietary adjustments towards healthier options, such as increasing the intake of vegetables, legumes, whole grains, and fish, can help older individuals maintain their memory and cognitive skills as they age,” he stated.
Read more:
About Our Experts
Professor Keith Frain is a professor of human metabolism at Oxford University in the UK and an honorary fellow at Green Templeton College in Oxford. His research focuses on metabolism and nutrition, and he has authored numerous books, including the textbook Human Metabolism: A Regulatory Perspective.
Dr. Oliver Shannon is a lecturer in nutrition and aging at the Center for Human Nutrition Research at Newcastle University, UK. His research primarily investigates the impacts of nutrition, including dietary patterns like the Mediterranean diet, on cognitive and cardiovascular aging. Shannon has published over 80 peer-reviewed articles in leading nutrition journals.
The prohibition of ozone-depleting substances like CFCs has facilitated the recovery of the ozone layer. However, when paired with rising air pollution levels, the heating effects of ozone are now expected to warm the planet by an additional 40% more than previously estimated.
Antarctica’s ozone hole in 2020. Image credit: ESA.
“CFCs and HCFCs are greenhouse gases contributing to global warming,” stated Professor Bill Collins of Reading University and his colleagues.
“Countries have banned these substances to protect the ozone layer, with hopes it will also mitigate climate change.”
“However, as the ozone layer continues to heal, the resulting warming could offset much of the climate benefits we expect from eliminating CFCs and HCFCs.”
“Efforts to reduce air pollution will limit ground-level ozone.”
“Still, the ozone layer will take decades to fully recover, irrespective of air quality policies, leading to unavoidable warming.”
“Safeguarding the ozone layer is vital for human health and skin cancer prevention.”
“It shields the Earth from harmful UV radiation that can affect humans, animals, and plants.”
“Yet, this study indicates that climate policies must be revised to consider the enhanced warming effects of ozone.”
The researchers utilized computer models to project atmospheric changes by the mid-century.
The models continued under a scenario of low pollution, where CFCs and HCFCs have been eliminated as per the Montreal Protocol (1987).
The results indicate that stopping the production of CFCs and HCFCs—primarily to defend the ozone layer—offers fewer climate advantages than previously thought.
Between 2015 and 2050, ozone is predicted to cause an excess warming of 0.27 watts per square meter (WM-2).
This value denotes the additional energy trapped per square meter of the Earth’s surface—carbon dioxide (which contributes 1.75 WM-2) will rank as the second-largest influence on future warming by 2050.
“Countries are making the right choice by continuing to ban CFCs and HCFCs that endanger the ozone layer globally,” stated Professor Collins.
“While this contributes to the restoration of the ozone layer, we’ve discovered that this recovery results in greater planetary warming than initially anticipated.”
“Ground-level ozone generated from vehicle emissions, industrial activities, and power plants also poses health risks and exacerbates global warming.”
The results were published in the journal Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics.
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WJ Collins et al. 2025. Climate forcing due to future ozone changes: Intercomparison of metrics and methods. Atmos. Chemistry. Phys 25, 9031-9060; doi: 10.5194/ACP-25-9031-2025
In a recent study, Professor Jonathan Tan, an astrophysicist from the University of Virginia and Chalmers Institute of Technology, suggests that the population III.1 supermassive star is the precursor to the ultra-high-massive black holes observed in the early universe. The intense high-energy photons emitted by the star ionized the surrounding hydrogen gas, creating a natural intergalactic medium that extended over millions of light-years. This process led to the formation of ultra-high massive black holes that caused a flash ionization, effectively ending the “dark age” of the universe.
An artist’s impression of the star field from population III that would have been visible hundreds of millions of years post-Big Bang. Image credits: noirlab/nsf/aura/J. da silva/SpaceEngine.
These black holes, residing at the centers of most large galaxies, including our Milky Way, typically possess masses millions or even billions of times greater than that of the Sun.
Their formation has sparked considerable debate, particularly with the NASA/ESA/CSA James Webb Space Telescope uncovering numerous such black holes located far away that date back to the universe’s early days.
Professor Tan’s theory, referred to as “Pop III.1,” posits that all supermassive black holes originate from the first stars, termed debris Population III.1 stars, which grow to enormous sizes due to energy from a dark matter annihilation process. This theory aligns with many of Webb’s latest discoveries.
In his publication, Tan presents another prediction that may illuminate our understanding of the universe’s origins.
“Our model indicates that the ultra-large star progenitors of black holes ionize the surrounding hydrogen gas extremely quickly, signaling their emergence with a bright flash that permeates all space,” stated Professor Tan.
“Notably, this additional stage of ionization occurs at a significantly faster rate than seen in typical galaxies, potentially addressing recent challenges and discrepancies in cosmology.”
“This was an unexpected connection we identified during the development of the POP III.1 model, but it could have substantial significance.”
“Professor Tan has crafted a sophisticated model that elucidates the two-stage process of star formation and ionization in the early universe,” commented Professor Richard Ellis, a distinguished observational cosmologist from the University of London.
“The initial star, created from a brief, brilliant flash of light, may have since vanished. Thus, what we observed with Webb could represent a subsequent phase. The universe continues to amaze us with its surprises.”
Researchers from the University of Tübingen and Würzburg have found that components of our everyday diet, including caffeine, can influence bacterial resistance to antibiotics. They observed that E. coli bacteria adjust complex modulation cascades to respond to chemical signals from their immediate environment, potentially impacting the effectiveness of antibiotics.
This diagram illustrates a 3D computer-generated image of a group of E. coli. Image credits: James Archer, CDC.
In a systematic screening, Professor Ana Rita Brochado and her team examined the effects of 94 different substances, including antibiotics, prescription medications, and dietary components, on the expression of critical gene regulators and transport proteins in E. coli bacteria.
Transport proteins function as pores and pumps within bacterial membranes, regulating the movement of substances in and out of cells.
A precisely adjusted balance of these mechanisms is crucial for bacterial survival.
“Our data reveals that certain substances can exert subtle yet systematic influences on gene regulation in bacteria,” explained doctoral student Christoph Vincefeld.
“These findings indicate that even everyday substances, which lack direct antibacterial properties, like caffeinated beverages, can impact specific gene regulators that modulate transport proteins, thereby modifying bacterial import and composition.”
“Caffeine initiates a cascade of events starting with the lob gene regulator, resulting in alterations in several transport proteins in E. coli. This effect reduces the uptake of antibiotics such as ciprofloxacin,” Professor Rita Brochado added.
“Consequently, this diminishes the antibiotic’s effectiveness.”
The researchers characterize this effect as an “antagonistic interaction.”
The diminishing efficacy of certain antibiotics also applies to salmonella enterica, a close relative of E. coli.
This suggests that even similar bacterial species can react differently to identical environmental cues, likely due to variations in transport pathways and how they contribute to antibiotic absorption.
“This foundational study on the effects of commonly consumed substances highlights the significant role of science in addressing and resolving real-world challenges,” stated Professor (Doshisha) Karla Pollmann.
“This research contributes meaningfully to the understanding of what is termed ‘low-level’ antibiotic resistance, which does not result from classical resistance genes but rather through regulation and environmental adaptation.”
“These insights could influence future treatment strategies involving drug or dietary component modifications.”
The results will be published online in PLOS Biology.
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C. Vincefeld et al. 2025. Systematic screens reveal regulatory contributions to chemical cues in E. coli. Plos Biol 23(7): E3003260; doi: 10.1371/journal.pbio.3003260
Textbooks frequently depict primates as having evolved and dispersed exclusively in warm tropical forests, largely based on fossil evidence found in tropical regions. However, a recent study conducted by researchers at the University of Reading indicates that the earliest primates may have thrived in North America’s cold climate, experiencing hot summers and frozen winters.
Primates have transitioned to historically diverse climates: (a) For all primates, transition between the main climates of temperate (top), arid (left), tropical (bottom), and cold (right). The size of the arrows represents the percentage of phylogenetic branches with each transition. (b) Climate transition of early primates living between 650,780,000 years ago. (c) Climate transition of species that lived between 47.8 and 2303 million years ago. (d) Climate transition of species that have lived from 2,303 million years ago to the present. Image credit: Avaria-llautureo et al. , doi: 10.1073/pnas.2423833122.
In this research, Jorge Avalia Lautulo from the University of Reading and his team harnessed statistical modeling alongside fossil data to reconstruct ancient environments and trace where the common ancestors of modern primates existed.
“For decades, the prevailing belief was that primates evolved within warm tropical forests,” stated Dr. Abaria Lautzleo.
“Our findings dramatically overturn this narrative. We discovered that primates did not originate in the lush jungles but in the cold, seasonal environments of the Northern Hemisphere.”
“Understanding how ancient primates adapted to climate change offers insights into how current species might respond to modern shifts in climate and environment.”
Primates, capable of relocating swiftly in response to rapid weather changes, excelled at reproducing, ensuring that offspring survived to establish new species.
As they migrated, primates moved towards entirely different, more stable climates. On average, those remaining in similarly unstable regions were about 561 km apart.
Early primates might have hibernated through the frozen winters, much like today’s bears, sleeping through the coldest months to slow their heart rates and conserve energy.
Some small primates continue this behavior today; for instance, the dwarf lemur in Madagascar digs underground, sleeping for several months during colder periods, shielded from freezing temperatures by layers of roots and leaves.
It wasn’t until millions of years later that primates reached tropical forests.
They began in cold habitats, gradually migrating through temperate zones, arid desert-like areas, and ultimately arriving at today’s hot, humid jungles.
As local temperatures and precipitation fluctuated drastically, primates were compelled to seek new habitats, which facilitated the development of new species.
“Our research indicates that non-tropical, changing environments exerted strong selective pressures on primates with greater dispersal capabilities, encouraging primate diversification and the eventual colonization of tropical climates millions of years post-origination,” the authors concluded.
Their paper was published on August 5th in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.
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Jorge Avalia Rautreo et al. 2025. Radiation and geographical expansion of primates due to diverse climates. PNAS 122 (32): E2423833122; doi: 10.1073/pnas.2423833122
The crossbreeding of South American tomato plants with potato-like species approximately 8 million years ago resulted in the development of modern potatoes (Sun Chronology). A collaborative team of biologists from China, Canada, Germany, the US, and the UK indicates that this ancient evolutionary milestone led to the emergence of tubers, an expanded underground structure used for storing nutrients in plants like potatoes, yams, and taros.
Interspecies hybridization can drive species radiation by generating various allelic combinations and traits. While all 107 wild relatives of cultivated potatoes and petota lineage share characteristics of subterranean tubers, the exact mechanisms of nodulation and extensive species diversification remain unclear. An analysis of 128 genomes, including 88 haplotype-degraded genomes, indicates that Zhang et al believe Petota is of ancient hybrid origin, revealing stable mixed genome ancestors derived from ethoberosam and tomato strains approximately 8 to 9 million years ago. Image credit: Zhang et al., doi: 10.1016/j.cell.2025.06.034.
Cultivated potatoes rank as the third most crucial staple crop globally, alongside wheat, rice, and corn, contributing to 80% of human calorie consumption.
In terms of appearance, modern potato plants are similar to three potato-like species found in Chile, known as Etuverosam. However, they do not produce tubers.
Phylogenetic analysis reveals that potato plants are more closely related to tomatoes.
To clarify this discrepancy, Dr. Sanwen Huang, PhD, from the Institute for Agricultural Genomics at Shenzhen, China, along with colleagues, analyzed 450 genomes of cultivated and 56 wild potatoes.
“Our research shows how interspecies hybridization can instigate the emergence of new traits and lead to the formation of more species,” explained Dr. Huang.
“We have finally unraveled the mystery of potato origins.”
“Collecting samples of wild potatoes has been extremely challenging, making this dataset the most comprehensive collection of wild potato genomic data analyzed to date,” noted Dr. Zhiyang Zhang, a researcher at the Institute of Agricultural Genomics at Shenzhen, China Academy of Agricultural Sciences.
The researchers discovered that all potato species contained a stable mix of genetic material from both exo root and tomato plants, indicating that potatoes originated from ancient hybridization between the two.
Although Etuberosam and tomatoes are distinct species, they share a common ancestor from around 14 million years ago.
Even after diverging for about 5 million years, they still managed to interbreed, resulting in the earliest potato plants exhibiting tubers approximately 8-9 million years ago.
The team also traced the origins of key tuber-forming genes in potatoes, which comprise genetic contributions from both parent species.
They identified the gene SP6A, functioning as a master switch indicating when plants should begin tuber formation, originating from the tomato lineage.
Another crucial gene, it1, derived from the Echuberosum lineage, assists in regulating the growth of underground stems that develop into tubers.
Hybrid offspring require both components to produce tubers.
This evolutionary advancement coincided with the rapid uplift of the Andes, a period when new ecological environments emerged.
The ability to store nutrients in tubers enabled early potatoes to adapt quickly to changing conditions and withstand the harsh mountain climate.
Moreover, tubers facilitate a mode of propagation without seeds or pollination, allowing new plants to grow from tuber buds.
This adaptability enabled them to expand swiftly from temperate grasslands to cold alpine pastures across Central and South America, filling various ecological niches.
“The evolution of tubers has provided potatoes with significant advantages in challenging environments, fostering the emergence of new species and contributing to the incredible diversity of potatoes we now depend on,” Dr. Huang concluded.
The study was published in the journal Cell on July 31, 2025.
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Zhiyang Zhang et al. Ancient hybridization underpins the diversification and radiation of potato lines. Cell Published online on July 31, 2025. doi: 10.1016/j.cell.2025.06.034
Paleontologists have examined the fossilized characteristics of the brain and central nervous system of Mollisonia symmetrica, an extinct organism that existed during the mid-Cambrian period approximately 508 million years ago. Their findings indicate that the nervous system of Mollisonia symmetrica aligns with that of modern spiders and scorpions (arachnids). This revelation contests the long-standing theory that arachnid diversification occurred only after their common ancestors adapted to terrestrial life.
Mollisonia symmetrica is characterized by an unsegmented brain with short nerves extending into pincer-like appendages, resembling the fangs of spiders. Image credit: Strausfeld et al., doi: 10.1016/j.cub.2025.06.063.
Previously, Mollisonia symmetrica was thought to represent an ancestor of a specific group of arthropods known as Chelicerata, which thrived during the Cambrian period and included the forebears of today’s horseshoe crabs.
Surprisingly, Professor Nicholas Strausfeld and his team at the University of Arizona found that the organization of the nerve structure in the fossilized brain does not resemble that of horseshoe crabs but is instead more akin to that of contemporary spiders and scorpions.
“A lively debate continues regarding the origin of arachnids, the type of progenitor they emerged from, and whether these progenitors were horseshoe crabs,” Professor Strausfeld noted.
Mollisonia symmetrica shares physical features with other early chelicerates from the lower and middle Cambrian periods, possessing a body divided into two main segments.
Some researchers have highlighted the anterior shell followed by a segmented trunk reminiscent of scorpions.
However, no one has claimed that Mollisonia symmetrica was more closely related to horseshoe crabs than to more basal arthropods.
What Professor Strausfeld and his co-authors found is that Mollisonia symmetrica, identified as an arachnid, exhibits a fossilized brain and nervous system.
Similar to spiders and other modern arachnids, the anterior portion of Mollisonia symmetrica (known as the prosoma) features a pattern of segmental ganglia that governs the movement of five pairs of appendages.
In addition to these arachnid-like traits, Mollisonia symmetrica also possessed an unsegmented brain with short nerves extending into pincher-like structures, reminiscent of spider fangs.
Critically, the unique feature defining arachnids is the specific arrangement of the brain, which contrasts with the structure found in current crustaceans, insects, centipedes, and even horseshoe crabs like Limulus.
“It’s comparable to the Limulus type brains in Cambrian fossils, or the ancestral brains of modern crustaceans and insects, which are similar to those of contemporary spiders,” Professor Strausfeld remarked.
“These findings may signify a crucial evolutionary advancement, as studies of modern spider brains indicate this arrangement allows for quicker neural control pathways.
This configuration may enhance efficiency in hunting, quick pursuits, and stealth in arachnids.
“This is a significant evolutionary milestone, seemingly exclusive to arachnids.”
“In Mollisonia symmetrica, we identified brain regions corresponding to extant species, which could reveal the underlying genetic framework common to all arthropods.”
“The arachnid brain implies that, unlike other brains on Earth, its tissues are linked to rapid calculation and motor action control,” Professor Strausfeld explained.
“The earliest terrestrial creatures were likely arthropods that resembled insects, possibly ancestral to crustaceans.”
“We can envision Mollisonia symmetrica—like arachnids—adapting to land, which may have given rise to early insects and their feeding strategies.”
“The first land-dwelling spiders could have played a vital role in developing essential defensive traits, such as insect wings, leading to flight and evasion.”
“The ability to fly provides significant advantages when being pursued by spiders.”
“Nonetheless, despite the agility conferred by flight, insects remain ensnared in the intricate silk webs spun by spiders.”
The results will appear in the journal Current Biology.
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Nicholas J. Strausfeld et al. Cambrian origin of the spider brain. Current Biology Published online on July 22, 2025. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2025.06.063
The Caves of Amdo and Kebara in northern Israel date back to the central Paleolithic period, approximately 70,000-50,000 years ago. Both are situated in the Southern Levant’s Mediterranean region. The Neanderthals occupying these sites left behind a wealth of stone tools, evidence of fire usage, and a variety of animal and human fossils. A recent study from the Hebrew University of Jerusalem indicates that despite their proximity and the use of similar resources and tools, Neanderthals at these sites employed markedly different methods for processing their food.
Jaron et al. Despite comparable occupational strengths, similar stone tool techniques, and access to similar food resources, we propose a unique slaughter strategy among Neanderthal populations in the caves of Amdo and Kebara.
“The distinct variations in cut mark patterns between Amdo and Kebara might reflect local customs in animal processing,” stated Anal Jaron, a doctoral candidate at Hebrew University in Jerusalem.
“Though the Neanderthals at both sites experienced similar environments and challenges, they seem to have developed a distinct butchering strategy potentially passed on through cultural learning and social traditions.”
“These two sites present an extraordinary opportunity to investigate whether Neanderthal slaughter methods were standardized.”
“If butchering techniques differ between sites or over time, it could suggest that factors like cultural practices, dietary preferences, or social structures have influenced self-sufficiency activities, including slaughter.”
The Neanderthals resided in the caves of Amdo and Kebara during the winters between 70,000 and 50,000 years ago.
Both groups utilized the same flint tools and primarily preyed on gazelles and fallow deer.
However, it appears that the Kebara Neanderthals hunted larger game compared to their counterparts in Amdo and opted to perform the slaughter in caves rather than at the kill sites.
In Amdo, 40% of the animal bones show signs of burning, with most being fragmented, possibly resulting from intentional cooking or accidental damage afterward.
Conversely, in Kebara, only 9% of the bones are burned, suggesting they were cooked with less fragmentation.
Amdo’s bones seem less impacted by carnivores than those found in Kebara.
To compare food preparation techniques at Kebara and Amdo, researchers selected bone samples from corresponding layers at both sites.
These samples were analyzed macroscopically and microscopically to assess various cut mark characteristics. Similar patterns might suggest consistent slaughter practices, while differing patterns may highlight distinct cultural customs.
The cut marks were notably clear and intact, with minimal alteration from carnivorous activity or later damage from desiccated bones.
The profiles, angles, and widths of these cuts were akin across both groups and their toolkits.
Nonetheless, the cut marks at Amdo were found to be more densely packed than those at Kebara, and exhibited a less linear shape.
Scientists have proposed several potential reasons for this observation. It could be due to differing demands in processing various prey species and types of bones—most of the bones found in Amdo are short, yet similar distinctions appeared when examining small, straight bone fragments present in both sites.
Experimental archaeology indicates that this pattern cannot be solely attributed to the skills of butchers or heightened slaughtering efforts to maximize food yield.
Instead, the varying cut mark patterns likely reflect intentional butchering choices made by each group.
One hypothesis is that Neanderthals in Amdo treated meat differently prior to slaughter—perhaps opting to dry it or allow it to decay.
We posit that managing decomposing meat poses challenges, which may explain the strong cut marks and less linear characteristics observed.
The second possibility is that the organization of the groups (e.g., the number of butchers involved in a particular kill) contributed to the variance in practices between these two Neanderthal communities.
However, further research is needed to explore these theories.
“There are some limitations to consider,” Jaron noted.
“Bone fragments can be too small to provide a complete understanding of the butcher marks present on the remains.”
“We have made efforts to mitigate biases caused by fragmentation, but this may limit our ability to fully interpret the findings.”
“Future research involving more experimental work and comparative studies will be vital to address these uncertainties. Eventually, we might be able to reconstruct Neanderthal recipes.”
Survey results published in the journal Frontiers of Environmental Archaeology.
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Anal Jaron et al. 2025. Comparing Neanderthal Treatment of Faunal Resources in the Amdo and Kebara Caves (Israel) Through Cut Mark Analysis. Front. Environ. Archaeol 4; doi:10.3389/fearc.2025.1575572
Generates brain cells from the hippocampus that proliferate in culture
Arthur Chien/Science Photo Library
The ongoing debate about whether adults can produce new brain cells takes a new turn, as evidence increasingly supports that they indeed can. This revelation addresses one of neuroscience’s most disputed questions and raises hopes that this knowledge could be used in treating conditions like depression and Alzheimer’s disease.
Neurons are produced via a process known as neurogenesis, which occurs in both children and adults, as shown in research on mice and macaques. This involves stem cells generating progenitor cells, which multiply and eventually develop into immature neurons that mature over time.
Earlier studies have indicated the presence of stem cells and immature neurons in the hippocampus of adult humans. This brain area, crucial for learning and memory, is a primary site for neurogenesis in younger humans and some adult animals. However, progenitor cells have not yet been detected in adult human brains. “This link was overlooked. It forms a central argument for the emergence of new neurons in the adult human brain,” states Evgenia Salta from the Netherlands Institute of Neuroscience, who was not involved in the latest research.
To establish this link, Jonas Frisen and his team at the Karolinska Institute in Sweden developed a machine learning model capable of accurately identifying progenitor cells. They used hippocampal samples from six young children, donated by their parents for research post-mortem.
The researchers trained an AI model to recognize progenitor cells based on the activity of about 10,000 genes. “In childhood, these cells’ behavior closely resembles that of precursor cells in mice, facilitating their identification,” explains Frisen. “[The idea is] to use molecular fingerprints of childhood progenitor cells to find equivalents in adults.”
To validate the model, the team identified progenitor cells in hippocampal samples from young mice. The model correctly identified 83% of the progenitor cells and misclassified other cell types as progenitor cells in less than 1% of cases. In a further test, the model accurately predicted that progenitor cells were nearly absent in adult human cortical samples, a brain area devoid of evidence supporting neurogenesis in humans.
“They validated their models effectively by transitioning from data on human children to mice and then to adult humans,” says Sandrine Thuret from King’s College London.
With this validation in hand, the researchers can check for neurogenesis in human adults by identifying 14 hippocampal progenitor cells from individuals aged 20 to 78 at the time of their passing.
Crucially, the researchers first introduced a method to enhance the likelihood of detecting progenitor cells. Previous studies have indicated that these cells are extremely rare in adults. The team utilized antibodies to select brain cells that were actively dividing at the time of death, including non-neuronal cells such as immune cells and progenitor cells. This helped filter out common cell types that do not divide, like mature neurons, making rare progenitor cells easier to identify.
Subsequently, they organized the genetic activity data related to these dividing cells into models. “They were enriched due to the selected cells,” remarks Kaoru Song at the University of Pennsylvania. Previous research lacked this approach, he adds.
The team successfully identified progenitor cells in nine donors. “It is well established that environmental and genetic factors in rodents affect how neurogenesis occurs, so I suspect variations in humans may also be attributed to these factors,” Frisen notes.
The findings strongly indicate the presence of adult neurogenesis, according to Thuret, Song, and Salta. “We are adding this missing piece, which significantly advances the field,” Salta states.
“Neurons originate from cell division occurring in adulthood, and that is what this study definitively establishes,” Thuret comments.
Thuret suggests the possibility of examining variations in neurogenesis among adults with brain-affecting conditions such as depression or Alzheimer’s disease. She speculates that medications promoting this process could alleviate symptoms.
However, John Arellano from Yale University cautions that even if adults produce new brain cells, they may be too few in number to be therapeutically beneficial. Thuret, however, believes this is unlikely to create issues. “In mice, a small number of new neurons can significantly impact learning and memory,” she asserts.
What is the ekpyrotic universe theory? Ekpyrotic Cosmology serves as an alternative to the conventional Lambda-CDM or λCDM model.
The λCDM model relies on a significant flatness of the universe, necessitating a phase of rapid “inflation” to smooth out initial density and temperature fluctuations.
Despite the lack of direct evidence or identifiable causes for this inflation, it provides a solid explanation for many complex aspects of our observable universe, aligning well with current data.
In contrast, ekpyrotic theory posits no beginning of time, substituting the big bang with a “bounce” between two “branes” within a 3D world of 5-dimensional space-time.
The structure of the contemporary universe is established before this bounce, thereby negating the need for inflation.
Additionally, this theory circumvents the problematic “singularities” present in traditional Big Bang cosmology. However, it has its drawbacks, such as the emergence of negative energy particles that could potentially annihilate the universe.
There are also notable divergences in the predictions of ekpyrotic and λCDM theories, including the gravitational wave background’s shape (the random ripples in potential space-time caused by Big Bang forces) and the existence of so-called “ghost particles.”
Nevertheless, there is currently no observational evidence backing Ecpyrus theory in comparison to λCDM cosmology.
Thus, while the theory is a compelling alternative, the standard Big Bang model remains the most widely accepted framework among physicists.
This article addresses the question: “What is the Ekpyrotic Universe Theory?”
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A novel theory proposed by Gunther Kettetschka, a researcher at Fairbanks University in Alaska, suggests that we exist in three dimensions rather than the single dimension we perceive continuously, with space serving as a secondary byproduct.
Time, not space and time, can be a single fundamental property in which all physical phenomena occur. Image credit: M. Weiss/Harvard – Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics.
“These three dimensions of time constitute the fundamental layers, akin to the canvas of a painting,” Dr. Kettetschka stated.
“While space exists in three dimensions, it is not the canvas itself; rather, it resembles the paint on the canvas.”
“These concepts starkly contrast established physics, which maintains that our reality comprises a single time dimension alongside three spatial dimensions.”
“This is referred to as space-time, a notion developed over a century ago that regards time and space as a single entity.”
Dr. Kettetschka’s mathematical model, which integrates time and space, seeks to provide a unified explanation of the universe.
Understanding time’s dimensions beyond our daily experience is challenging. Theoretical physicists have explored numerous variations.
This latest research contributes to a long-term body of work among theoretical physicists exploring ideas beyond mainstream physics.
“Prior three-dimensional time proposals largely consisted of mathematical constructs lacking concrete experimental connections,” Dr. Kettetschka noted.
“My research transforms intriguing mathematical concepts into physically testable theories through various independent validation methods.”
“This theory has the potential to predict unknown particle properties and aid in uncovering the origin of mass, ultimately addressing one of physics’ greatest enigmas.”
The concept of three-dimensional time includes multiple independent trajectories, similar to time and space. It can be visualized as three axes of temporal motion, akin to the spatial X, Y, and Z axes.
Imagine walking straight ahead, perceiving time as we typically do. Now envision another path intersecting the first, allowing lateral movement.
If you could traverse sideways while remaining in the same moment of ‘normal’ time, you’d recognize that scenarios may slightly differ, potentially representing alternate versions of the same day.
Following this vertical path lets you explore various outcomes of the day without advancing forward as we understand it.
The existence of these alternative outcomes represents the second dimension of time, while the third dimension pertains to the transition from one outcome to another.
“This theory addresses issues confronted by earlier three-dimensional time theories based on traditional physics,” Dr. Kettetschka highlighted.
“For instance, previous theories often presented ambiguous cause-and-effect relationships when discussing multiple time dimensions.”
“The new theory utilizes more complex mathematical frameworks to ensure clear precedence of effects caused, even in the context of multiple time dimensions.”
According to the 3D time perspective, the second and third dimensions are particularly conceptualized by theoretical physicist Yitzhakuber at the University of Southern California, likely manifesting at extreme energy levels, such as those present in the early universe and high-energy particle collisions.
This innovative approach might help confront significant challenges within the realm of unresolved physics: unifying quantum mechanics—the behavior of particles at the most minute scale—with gravity, towards an overarching quantum gravity theory.
The theory of quantum gravity has the potential to evolve into a grand theory encompassing the universe and all related theories.
A central goal of this elusive unified theory is to integrate the four fundamental forces of nature: electromagnetic, strong nuclear, weak nuclear, and gravity.
The standard model of particle physics unifies the first three forces, while gravity is addressed through Albert Einstein’s theory of general relativity.
Since the two frameworks are incompatible, physicists are striving for a theoretical synthesis. Pinpointing the origin of particle mass is crucial to this endeavor.
Dr. Kettetschka is optimistic that the three-dimensional time theory can be beneficial.
This framework effectively replicates the masses of known particles like electrons, moons, and quarks, providing insights into why these particles possess their specific masses.
“Achieving unity may necessitate a fundamental reassessment of the very nature of physical reality,” Dr. Kettetschka remarked.
“This theory demonstrates how perceiving time as three-dimensional can elegantly resolve multiple physics puzzles within a cohesive mathematical framework.”
His paper was published in the journal Report on Advances in Physical Science.
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Gunther Kletetschka. 2025. 3D Time: Mathematical Framework for Fundamental Physics. Report on Advances in Physical Science 9:2550004; doi:10.1142/s2424942425500045
For centuries, humanity has been intrigued by the possibility of encountering advanced civilizations beyond our planet. But what if such a society existed on Earth long before humans evolved?
In 2018, physicist Professor Adam Frank and climate modeler Dr. Gavin Schmidt published a paper exploring whether modern science might uncover traces of an extinct industrial civilization from millions of years ago. The paper is available here.
Dubbed “Silur’s Hypothesis,” after the advanced reptilian species from the long-running BBC science fiction series Doctor Who, the researchers concluded that, while unlikely, evidence of such a civilization may be elusive.
The study focuses on the timeframe between 400 million and 4 million years ago, investigating what remnants this hypothetical society might have left behind.
Over just a few centuries, our industries have significantly altered global climate and ecosystems. If humanity were to vanish over millions of years, however, any direct evidence of our society would likely fade away.
Our largest cities could vanish within a geological instant due to erosion and tectonic activity.
Consequently, scientists searching for an ancient civilization should look for geological signatures of their existence.
Advanced civilizations, much like modern humans, would demand substantial energy and food production. As a result, we might anticipate similar indicators in Earth’s geologic layers, such as evidence of extensive carbon emissions, climate change, and rising sea levels.
Should pyramids reminiscent of alien architecture have been constructed by lost ancient civilizations millions of years ago, Silur’s Hypothesis suggests that discovering them would be quite unlikely.
The challenge lies in distinguishing climate change caused by fossil fuel-dependent civilizations from that induced by natural processes in the geological record.
Interestingly, there is a striking resemblance between current climate change and historical events on Earth referred to as “hyperthermal” events. One such instance occurred around 55 million years ago, where global temperatures surged by up to 8°C (14.4°F) and were accompanied by intense geological upheavals.
Another consideration is that the longer a sophisticated civilization endures, the more evidence it generates. However, for a civilization to have longevity, it must be sustainable, leading to reduced geological traces.
For instance, a civilization relying on wind and solar energy would leave less physical evidence compared to one powered by fossil fuels. This paradox explains why the traces of such civilizations, if they indeed existed, would be infrequent.
Silur’s Hypothesis encourages us to reflect on the imprints humanity leaves behind. Addressing these inquiries may enhance our search for advanced civilizations on other planets.
This article answers the question posed by Exeter’s Joshua Stucky: “If advanced civilizations lived on Earth millions of years ago, could we recognize their existence?”
For your inquiries, please reach out to usat Question @sciencefocus.com or MessageFacebook,Twitter, orInstagram(please include your name and location).
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The electric vehicle (EV) revolution is new research published in Cell Reports Sustainability.
The accelerating demand for lithium, an essential element of EV batteries, is expected to outstrip domestic supply in major markets by the decade’s end.
This analysis highlights China, the US, and Europe, which collectively represent 80% of current EV sales. Researchers caution that without significant changes, these regions may not fulfill their lithium requirements from local sources by 2030, leading to an increased reliance on imports and a heightened risk of global shortages.
“Many previous studies have examined the lithium necessary for low-carbon transitions,” said Dr. Andre Manberger, a co-author of the new study, in an interview with BBC Science Focus.
“The issue is that often we compare projected lithium demand with current mining rates and existing reserves. However, there’s a gap in the existing literature concerning mining feasibility.”
Globally, EV sales surpassed 17 million in 2024, marking a 25% increase from the previous year.
The International Energy Agency forecasts that electric vehicles could represent 40% of all car sales by 2030. However, this expansion hinges on a stable supply of lithium carbonate equivalents (LCE).
The study indicates that by 2030, annual LCE demand will reach 1.3 million tonnes in China, 792,000 metric tonnes in Europe, and 692,000 in the US. Yet, even if all current and planned mining projects are considered, domestic supply remains inadequate: China could produce up to 1.1 million tonnes, the US 610,000, and Europe only 325,000.
This shortfall could intensify global competition for lithium, primarily sourced from Australia, Chile, and Argentina. In 2023, these three countries accounted for nearly 80% of the world’s lithium.
Almost 50% of the world’s lithium was mined in Australia in 2023.
China currently dominates the global lithium market, and an increase in its imports could negatively impact other buyers. Researchers found that should China’s imports rise by 77%, the US and European imports could drop by 84% and 78%, respectively.
“Commodity trading tends to have a lot of continuity and path dependence,” Månberger explains.
“This is due to the established supply chain, contracts, and overall inertia in the market.”
Nonetheless, there are reasons for optimism. Increasing lithium prices may drive investments in new mining initiatives and motivate manufacturers to create more efficient battery technologies. Alternatives like sodium-ion batteries could also contribute to a more diverse market.
In the long term, recycling could assume a more substantial role. As first-generation EVs reach the end of their lifespans in the 2030s, materials extracted from older batteries could mitigate the need for new lithium extraction.
“I’m very optimistic,” says Månberger. “Historically, while it’s often straightforward to forecast potential bottlenecks and supply risks, innovations tend to emerge unpredictably when these challenges arise.”
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About our experts
Andre Manberger is a senior lecturer in Environmental and Energy Systems Studies at Lund University, Sweden. He leads the Misttra Mineral Governance Research Program, initiated in 2024, focusing on the rising demand for critical raw materials and addressing conflicts of interest in the low-carbon transition.
Characterized by pale greening, a timeline of ancient handwritten manuscripts—like the scroll of death—is vital for reconstructing the progression of ideas. However, there is an almost complete absence of manuscripts with dates. To address this challenge, an international team of researchers developed an AI-driven date prediction model named Enoch, inspired by biblical figures.
Dead Sea Scroll 4Q7, fragment Genesis Wadi Qumran Cave4. ImageCredit: Ketefhinnomfan.
While some ancient manuscripts include dates, facilitating precise dating by archaeologists, many do not provide this information.
Researchers can estimate the age of certain undated manuscripts by analyzing the evolution of handwriting styles, but this requires a sufficient number of manuscripts with known dates for creating an accurate timeline.
In the recent study, the University of Groningen and Dr. Mladen Popović assessed the historical periods of manuscripts from various locations in contemporary Israel and the West Bank through radiocarbon dating and utilized machine learning to explore the handwriting styles of each document.
By merging these two datasets, they developed the Enoch program, which objectively estimates the approximate age range by comparing handwriting styles from other manuscripts in the area.
To validate the program, ancient handwriting specialists reviewed age estimates for 135 Ennochs from the Dead Sea Scrolls.
Experts concluded that around 79% of the AI-generated estimates were credible, while the remaining 21% were considered too old, too young, or uncertain.
Enoch has already aided researchers in uncovering new insights about these ancient manuscripts.
For instance, both Enoch and radiocarbon dating techniques estimated an older age for more Dead Sea scrolls compared to traditional handwriting analyses.
“While additional data and further investigation could enhance our understanding of the timeline, our findings offer novel perspectives on the creation periods of these documents,” the researchers stated.
“The Enoch tool serves as a gateway to an ancient world, akin to a time machine, permitting the exploration of biblical handwritten texts.
“It is thrilling to establish significant steps in developing new tools that can tackle the dating challenges of the Dead Sea Scrolls and examine other partially dated manuscript collections from history.”
“This achievement would not have been feasible without collaboration across diverse scientific fields and genuine teamwork.”
A paper detailing this study was published in the journal PLOS 1.
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M. Popovich et al. 2025. Dating ancient manuscripts using radiocarbon and AI-based writing style analysis. PLOS 1 20 (6): E0323185; doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0323185
Recent studies indicate that humpback whales often collide with objects due to their surprisingly limited vision.
This gentle giant struggles to discern fine details until it is quite close, which may explain the unfortunate incidents of these animals becoming entangled in fishing nets or crashing into small vessels.
To gain insights into how humpback whales perceive their surroundings, a group of marine biologists examined the left eye of a deceased whale after it had been stranded.
In the study, the researchers found that the rear part of the whale’s eye was considerably thicker than anticipated. This suggests that the distance from the retina to the lens (the eye’s focal length) is much shorter than expected.
A shorter focal length implies that the whale’s capability to resolve finer details is significantly lower than previously believed.
This theory was further supported by the team’s count of the neurons responsible for transmitting visual information to the brain, which revealed a stark contrast.
While a typical human eye has around 40,000 retinal ganglion cells per square millimeter, humpback whales possess only about 180.
Humpback whales are known to collide with small boats as they fail to detect them – Credits: Getty Images/Marnie Griffith
This level of poor vision typically doesn’t hinder whales, but Professor Lori Schweikert from the University of North Carolina Wilmington noted in BBC Science Focus.
“Apart from prey, humans, and some bird species, many animals possess relatively low vision,” says Schweikert.
“However, their visual capabilities are often adequate for their survival needs in their natural habitats. For humpback whales, they may primarily need to recognize large shapes, such as a big school of prey or other swimming whales.”
Humpbacks can identify large objects from a distance, but finer details come into focus only when they are about 45-60 meters away, or within 3-4 lengths of their bodies.
This means whales may struggle to see thin strands of fishing nets.
“At close range, they should be able to identify such structures,” Schweikert adds.
About our experts
Professor Lori Schweicart serves as an assistant professor of biology and marine biology at the University of North Carolina Wilmington. Her research centers on the physiological mechanisms involved in light reception within marine settings.
Slope stripes are prominent dark markings on Martian slopes that naturally form and can fade over decades. Some planetary scientists interpreted these features as evidence of liquid flows, raising the possibility of a currently habitable environment on Mars. However, recent research by Brown and Bern Universities offers alternative explanations, focusing on drying processes associated with wind and dust activities.
This image captures the impact crater in the Sirenum Fossa region of Mars, taken by NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter on March 30, 2015. The crater is about 3,300 feet (1 km) wide, displaying sharp rims and well-preserved features, indicating a relatively recent origin. The steep inner slope is carved into the gully and exhibits a recurring slope system on equator-facing slopes. Image credits: NASA/JPL/University of Arizona/Alfred McEwen.
“A significant focus of contemporary Mars research is understanding active processes on the planet, including the potential presence of liquid water on its surface,” states Dr. Admos Valantinus, a postdoctoral researcher at Brown University.
“In our study, we examined these features but found no evidence of water. Our model supports the idea of a dry formation process.”
The unusual stripes were first identified from images sent back by NASA’s Viking mission in the 1970s.
These stripes typically appear darker than the surrounding terrain, stretching across sloped regions that can extend several hundred meters.
While some stripes endure for years or decades, others appear and disappear more rapidly.
The phenomenon known as recurring slope features (RSLs) tends to manifest in the same locations during Mars’ warmest periods.
The origins of these stripes have fueled much debate among planetary scientists.
Seeking new insights, Dr. Valantinus and his colleague Dr. Valentin Bickel employed machine learning algorithms to catalog as many slope streaks as possible.
After training the algorithm on confirmed sightings of slope streaks, it was used to analyze over 86,000 high-resolution satellite images.
The outcome was the first comprehensive global map of slope streaks on Mars, featuring over 500,000 individual streaks.
“With this global map, we can compare it against a database of various factors such as temperature, wind speed, moisture, and rock slide activity,” said Dr. Bickel.
“This enables us to search for correlations across a vast number of cases to better comprehend the conditions under which these features form.”
This extensive analysis indicated that slope stripes and RSLs are generally not linked to conditions that would suggest the presence of liquid or frost, such as specific gradient directions, significant surface temperature fluctuations, or high humidity levels.
Instead, the authors posited that both features are likely to form in areas with moderate wind speeds and dust deposition, consistent with arid origins.
Researchers concluded that these stripes likely arise when fine layers of dust suddenly slide down steep slopes.
Variability in triggering factors was noted. Slope stripes are observed more frequently near recent impact craters where shock waves can disturb loose surface dust, while RSLs tend to be more prevalent in areas affected by dust devils and rockfalls.
Collectively, these findings raise new questions about the viability of slope stripes and RSLs as indicators of habitable environments.
This research holds significant implications for future Mars exploration efforts.
While a habitable environment may seem like an appealing exploration target, NASA aims to be cautious in this regard.
Earthly microorganisms potentially present on spacecraft could contaminate Mars’ habitable zones, complicating the search for extraterrestrial life.
This study suggests that the risk of contamination at slope streak locations is relatively low.
“This demonstrates the advantage of a big data approach,” noted Dr. Valantinas.
“It helps eliminate certain hypotheses from consideration before launching a spacecraft for exploration.”
The results were published on May 19, 2025, in Nature Communications.
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VT Bickel & A. Valantinas. 2025. The streaks on the slopes of Mars are dry. Nature Communications 16, 4315; doi:10.1038/s41467-025-59395-w
All living beings, including you, emit subtle, etheric, semi-visible light that continues until death. Recent research supports this idea.
This mysterious luminescence might lead one to believe it is an indication of an aura or something similar.
However, Dr. Daniel Oblak, a physicist from the University of Calgary and the study’s lead author, explained to BBC Science Focus that while the concept of an aura is metaphysical and unscientific, the emitted light is not. Known as Ultraweak Photon Emission (UPE), it is a natural byproduct of metabolism.
“I would like to emphasize that UPE usually results from biochemical processes and is thus akin to what occurs with glow sticks.”
“UPE is so faint that it is imperceptible to the human eye and can be completely obscured by other light sources unless in total darkness.”
Don’t think that you can observe your own sparkle simply by closing the curtains and turning off the lights; this light is 1,000 to 1,000,000 times dimmer than what the human eye can detect.
These four mice emitted significantly more ultrweak photon emissions (UPEs) while alive (top) compared to after death (bottom). – Credits: Salari et al, The Journal of Physical Chemistry Letters, 2025
UPE arises when a chemical within a cell creates an unstable molecule, known as a reactive oxygen species (ROS), which is essentially a byproduct of metabolic activity.
As ROS levels increase, other molecules become “excited,” meaning they carry excess energy, and it is this energy that emits light.
The primary factor driving this phenomenon is oxidative stress, a kind of cellular damage caused by aging and disease. The greater the oxidative stress experienced by the body, the more ROS—and consequently, more light—is produced.
“When an organism ceases to live, it halts metabolism, thereby stopping the emission of ultrawave photons,” he remarked.
To investigate UPE, scientists in Calgary measured the UPE generated by immobilized and deceased mice and damaged leaves.
Using specialized cameras, they found that living mice emitted significantly more light than their deceased counterparts. Conversely, the leaves released more light in areas that were damaged compared to intact regions.
This is due to increased oxidative stress in the scratched areas. However, the dead mice did not emit light as their bodies no longer underwent metabolic processes.
The leaves of St. Stwhere were illuminated by scratches and chemical damage. – Credits: Salari et al, The Journal of Physical Chemistry Letters, 2025
Dr. Oblak highlighted that the significance of UPE lies in its ability to provide a non-invasive method to assess the health of living organisms.
“This technology could be utilized to monitor tissue status, such as in transplants, or to gauge crop and forest health, especially regarding the stress levels in organisms,” he explained.
Nonetheless, this field remains rife with uncertainties. For instance, Oblak pondered: “Perhaps UPE is not merely a byproduct of metabolic processes; it may also serve a purpose,” although scientists have yet to reach a consensus.
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About our experts
Dr. Daniel Oblak is an associate professor in the Faculty of Physics and Astronomy at the University of Calgary. He earned his PhD in Quantum Optics from the University of Copenhagen in 2010, having previously completed his Bachelor of Science and Master’s degrees at Aarhus University. Currently, his research interests encompass quantum information science, long-range encryption, quantum networks, and quantum light interfaces.
Vegetarians have a similar reaction to meat as they do to eating feces or human flesh, according to recent research from Oxford University.
A study involving 252 vegetarians and 57 meat eaters examined whether this aversion was influenced by the source of the food being plant or animal-based.
Initially, participants were shown a range of vegetables commonly disliked, including raw onions, green olives, sprouts, beetroot, and overripe fruit, and were asked to envision eating them. Both groups expressed “disgust” towards these vegetables. Essentially, the flavors and textures were perceived negatively.
Next, participants looked at pre-cooked chicken, bacon, and steak. Here, the vegetarians reacted quite differently. They experienced feelings of nausea, voiced ideological objections, and stated they found anything that had been in contact with meat unappealing.
All the meat is clean and cooked.
The reactions of aversion were similar to those elicited when participants were asked to imagine consuming human feces or the flesh of humans or dogs (the meat was actually just plain meat labeled accordingly—no harm came to any dogs, although a few humans faced bad treatment).
“Disgust is an ancient evolutionary mechanism observed in various species and acts as a straightforward response to ‘bad’ preferences, primarily linked to bitter and sour tastes,” stated Elisa Becker, the lead researcher from Oxford University, in an interview with BBC Science Focus.
“Aversion, in contrast, is likely a uniquely human response stemming from more complex thoughts about food and its meanings.”
The distinction between these reactions may lie in evolutionary history. Aversion enabled early humans to avoid toxic plants with unpleasant flavors, while disgust developed as a more sophisticated reaction to the unseen risks associated with meat, which can harbor pathogens and parasites.
“Disgust does not arise solely from taste but is triggered by animal products, including meat and our own bodily substances. These are prime carriers for pathogens,” Becker explained. “The purpose of disgust is to protect us from toxins and diseases.”
This insight may assist initiatives aimed at promoting sustainable diets by altering perceptions of certain foods.
“It could be beneficial for people seeking to reduce their meat consumption or increase vegetable intake,” Becker remarked. “Novel, more sustainable protein sources (like insects or lab-grown meat) can often invoke disgust. Understanding this instinct can help us overcome it.”
About our experts
Elisa Becker is a postdoctoral researcher at the Faculty of Primary Care Health Sciences at Oxford University. She investigates behavioral change interventions that assist individuals in reducing meat consumption, focusing on the emotional processing of meat and the effectiveness of various strategies.
Under President Trump’s proposed budget, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration aims to become the nation’s focal point for lunar and Martian exploration, sending astronauts to these celestial bodies.
The Trump administration has suggested an $18.8 billion budget for NASA, a reduction of 24% from the current fiscal year’s funding of $24.8 billion. This plan is part of Trump’s commitment to “plant the flag” on Mars, a promise made during his Congress address last March.
This budget shift aligns with the vision of Elon Musk, who founded SpaceX two decades ago with aspirations to transport settlers to Mars someday.
However, the proposal does not outline how the $1 billion allocation will be utilized or the timeline for sending astronauts to Mars. Musk has indicated that SpaceX intends to launch a new, large spacecraft toward Mars by the latter half of 2026, though it’s still under development.
Janet Petro, NASA administrator, stated, “The proposal includes investments focused on crucial scientific and technological research while advancing exploration of the Moon and Mars.”
The budget cuts will mainly affect NASA’s Robotics and Space Science Mission, including the proposed cancellation of a mission to retrieve Martian rock samples and a climate observation satellite. The Orion crew capsules are set to return astronauts to the Moon post-Artemis III, the first mission to land near the Moon’s South Pole. Additionally, the Gateway, a planned orbital space station around the Moon, will be scrapped.
Casey Drier, director of space policy at the Planetary Association, noted, “The exploration of space is a nonprofit advocating for space exploration. This budget reflects America’s standing as a leader in space, yet we are becoming more introspective.”
The budget plan also suggests an increase in operations at the International Space Station, while proposing the elimination of NASA’s educational initiatives, labeling them as “awakening.” Previous attempts by both President Trump and President Obama to terminate NASA’s educational funding were countered by Congress reinstating the funds.
In aviation, the proposed budget cuts research aimed at minimizing greenhouse gas emissions from aircraft.
The budget further suggests reducing “mission support” by over $1 billion, aiming to save costs through employee workforce cuts, maintenance reduction, construction decreases, and “environmental compliance activities.”
woman Bonobos New research is discovering that they team up to find strength in numbers and combine them to dodge wild men.
With ChimpanzeesBonobo is one of the closest relatives of humans. Scientists have been wondering why bonobos live in general Women dominate Men are physically bigger and stronger, so they are social.
30 Years of Observation in the Congo – The only place where endangered bonobos are seen in the wild is to support the idea of sisters who unite to assert their powers.
These groups of girls found women who ousted male bonobos out of the trees, secured food for themselves, and ranked them higher on the community’s social ladders, researchers found.
“It’s very clear not to step on as a male bonobo,” said Martin Sarbeck, Harvard research author.
The findings were published in the Journal Communications Biology on Thursday.
The combined number of female bonobos appears to change the tide to male fitness, Sarbeck said. This type of strategy allows women to get women to top the top in the Animal Kingdom. Find power in the group as well.
Female bonobos linked, even if they had no close relationships, supported each other against men, and solidified their social status. The observations show how female bonobos work together to protect themselves from male violence, bioanthropologist Laura Lewis said at the University of California, Berkeley.
The findings “support the idea that humans and our ancestors use coalitions to maintain and maintain power over millions of years,” Lewis, who was not involved in the study, said in an email.
New research led by astronomers at the University of Hawaii suggests that our universe could spin.
In the formation of the universe, gravity links galaxies with clusters of galaxies to construct vast co-nes-like structures that link hundreds of millions of light years along an invisible bridge. This is known as Cosmic Web. Image credit: Springel et al. / Max Planck Institute for Astrophysics.
“To paraphrase the Greek philosopher Heracritus of Ephesus, he famously said Pantarei – he thought everything would change, perhaps Panta Kaicurtai – he thought everything would change.”
According to current models, the universe expands evenly in all directions with no signs of rotation. This idea fits most of what astronomers observe.
But that doesn’t explain the so-called Hubble tension. It is a long-standing discrepancy between two ways of measuring how quickly the universe is expanding.
One method examines distant exploding stars or supernovas to measure distances to galaxies, providing the magnification of the universe over the past billions of years.
Another method uses artefact radiation from the Big Bang, providing a very early universe expansion rate, about 13 billion years ago. Each gives a different value for the expansion rate.
Dr. Szapudi and his colleagues developed a mathematical model of the universe.
First, the model followed standard rules. They then added a small amount of rotation. Those small changes made a huge difference.
“To my surprise, we found that our model solves paradoxes without conflicting with current astronomical measurements,” Dr. Szapudi said.
“What’s even better is that it’s compatible with other models that assume rotation.”
“So perhaps everything really changes.
The team’s models suggest that the universe could turn once every 500 billion years.
“This idea does not break known laws of physics,” the astronomer said.
“And maybe it explains why measurements of space growth are completely disagreeable.”
“The next step is to turn the theory into a complete computer model and find ways to find signs of this slow, universe spin.”
Survey results It will be displayed in Monthly Notices from the Royal Astronomical Society.
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Balázs Endre Szigeti et al. 2025. Can rotation solve the Hubble puzzle? mnras 538(4): 3038-3041; doi: 10.1093/mnras/staf446
A bowl of warm pasta, a fluffy white bread roll, or a bag of generously salted chips – these starchy delights are like dreams. No wonder many of us couldn’t imagine giving up carbs forever.
But according to Research by the University of Surrey, spending just one day without carbohydrates has a similar effect on the body as intermittent fasting.
Intermittent fasting, also known as time-limited feeding, involves alternating normal feeding periods with significantly reduced calorie intake periods. These fasting windows can be scheduled at specific times each day or throughout the week.
While this approach has various health benefits, consuming less than 800 calories a day, as recommended on the popular 5:2 diet, can be challenging for some individuals.
However, this new study suggests that reducing calories significantly on fasting days may not be necessary. Simply cutting out carbohydrates can provide similar fat-burning benefits.
“What we’re interested in is not necessarily weight loss, but the metabolic effect of this dietary intervention,” said Dr. Adam Collins, the study co-author and an associate professor of nutrition at the University of Surrey, in an interview with BBC Science Focus.
The study, which aimed to investigate the effects of carbohydrates on metabolic health, involved 12 overweight or obese adults aged 20 to 65.
Participants followed three different meal plans with five-day breaks between each diet day for 36 hours (one day and two nights of sleep). The meal plans included a normal meal, a low-carb diet with the same calorie intake as a regular diet, and a low-carb diet with reduced calories.
Results showed that consuming a low-carb diet, regardless of calorie intake, encouraged the body to burn fat for energy similar to a fasting diet.
Carbohydrates include starches such as potatoes and pasta, grains such as rice and oats, baked goods such as bread and pastries, fiber foods such as vegetables and fruits, and sugar confectionery such as sweets and chocolate.
Dr. Collins explained that the body is designed to use carbohydrates for energy after meals and fats between meals and overnight. Consuming carbs too frequently can lead to poor management of metabolism.
Intermittent fasting or reducing carbohydrate intake helps the body reset and start burning fat for energy. Dr. Collins also emphasized that while restricting carbs long-term may hinder glucose processing, alternating low-carb days with regular meal days can be a sustainable and beneficial approach for metabolic health.
He concluded by saying, “Food is not a sin. Carbs aren’t bad. Fats aren’t bad. It’s all about moderation.”
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About our experts:
Dr. Adam Collins: An associate professor of nutrition at the University of Surrey’s School of Biological Sciences. With over 20 years of experience as a qualified nutritionist, he leads BSC and MSC nutrition programs at Sally. His current research focuses on exercise intensity, energy balance, intermittent fasting, dietary timing and composition, and carbohydrate manipulation for metabolic health.
At 3 months’ age (born October 1, 2024), the miserable wolves of giant biological sciences, Romulus and Remus. Image credit: Colossal Biosciences.
The miserable wolves were like big cans, and were among the most common extinct carnivorous animals of the late Late Pleistocene megafauna in America.
These animals first appeared in the late Pliocene period 3.5 million to 2.5 million years ago, as a result of the mixing between two ancient Canid strains.
The miserable wolf was 25% heavier than the grey wolf, with a slightly wider head, with light thick fur and strong jaws.
As hypercarnivores, their diet consisted mainly of at least 70% meat from horses and bison.
They were extinct at the end of the recent ice age about 13,000 years ago.
The main hypothesis explaining their extinction is that their body size is larger than gray wolves and coyotes, making them more specialized in hunting large prey and unable to survive the extinction of giant prey.
“Our team collected DNA from 13,000-year-old teeth and 72,000-year-old skulls to create healthy, miserable puppies,” said Ben Lamm, CEO of Colossal Biosciences.
“It was once said that “a sufficiently advanced technology cannot be distinguished from magic.” “
“Today, our team will be unveiling some of the magic they are working on, revealing the broader impact on conservation.”
Three liters of the wicked wolves of giant biological science include two adolescent men (Romulus and Remus) and one female puppy (Khaleesi).
They thrive in more than 2,000 acres of safe ecological reserves, including specialized engagement zones and habit types.
They are continuously monitored through live cameras, security personnel and drone tracking on-site to ensure safety and welfare.
“The disastrous wolves’ disappearance is more than a biological revival,” said Mark Fox, chairman of MHA Nation Tribal.
“Its birth symbolizes awakening. The ancient spirit has returned to the world.”
“The miserable wolves have the echoes of our ancestors, their wisdom, and connections to the wild.”
“Its existence reminds us of our responsibility as custodians of the Earth to protect the delicate balance of not only wolves but life itself.”
“The work of our team…Red wolf (Canis Rufus) From three different genetic founder lines.
These liters include the adolescent female Red Wolf (hope) and three male Red Wolf puppies (flame, cinders, ashes).
“We’ve seen a lot of trouble with the stakes,” said Dr. George Church, a geneticist at Harvard University and co-founder of Colossal Biosciences.
“Another source of ecosystems comes from genes lost after being deelectrically removed from new technologies, such as deep ancient DNA sequencing, polyphyllatic characterization, multiplexed germ cell editing, and cloning.”
“The disastrous wolves are an early example of this, so far, including the maximum number of accurate genome editing in healthy vertebrates: their exponentially growing ability.”
The origin of life on Earth required the supply of phosphorus for the synthesis of universal biomolecules. The closed lake may have accumulated high concentrations of this element on the early Earth. However, it is not clear whether prebiotic sink in such settings was sustainable. New research by scientists from Eth Zurich, Cambridge University and the University of Science and Technology in China shows that high concentrations of phosphorus can be combined in steady states in large closed basin lakes.
Aerial view of Lake Mono. Image credit: Dick Lyon / CC by 4.0.
Phosphorus is an important component of all known forms of biochemistry and plays an important role in such polymers that encode metabolism, cell structure, and information.
However, the environmental conditions that provided sufficient phosphorus available in aqueous solutions to promote the chemical origin of life are uncertain.
“Large soda lakes with no natural runoff can maintain phosphorus concentrations for a long enough long, even if life begins to exist at some point, and could continually consume phosphorus.”
“Such lakes lose water only by evaporation. This means that phosphorus is left in the water, not washed away through rivers or streams.”
“As a result, very high concentrations of phosphorus can accumulate in these soda lakes.”
Not all soda lakes are suitable. Researchers rule out small ones.
“As soon as life develops within them, the supply of phosphorus will deplete faster than it is replenished. This will snag both chemical reactions and developing life,” Dr. Walton said.
“On the other hand, in large soda lakes, phosphorus concentrations are high enough to maintain both basic chemical reactions and life over the long term.”
“These high concentrations are achieved by the large amounts of influential river water, including phosphorus, but the water only leaves the lake by evaporation.”
“Phosphorus doesn’t evaporate easily, so it accumulates in the lake and accumulates.”
In their study, Dr. Walton and colleagues focus on Lake Mono in California, with high phosphorus concentrations at steady state despite extremely high biological productivity.
“This is important because in small lakes, phosphorus is exhausted before new quantities form,” they said.
They consider the large soda lake, which had a constant high phosphorus supply in the early history of the Earth, to be an ideal environment for the origin of life.
They assume that life is more likely to have been born in such a larger body of water than in a small pool, as Charles Darwin suspected.
Therefore, the origin of life may be closely related to the special environment of large soda lakes, which provide ideal conditions for prebiotic chemistry due to the balance of geological environment and phosphorus.
“This new theory will help us solve another part of the puzzle of the origins of life on Earth,” Dr. Walton said.
a paper A description of the findings was published in the journal Advances in science.
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Craig R. Walton et al. 2025. Large, closed basin lakes provided sustained phosphates during the origin of life. Advances in science 11(8); doi:10.1126/sciadv.adq0027
According to a new report, Australian government agencies could potentially be customers of military-grade spyware from Israeli company Paragon Solutions.
Earlier this year, Meta disclosed that over 90 individuals, including journalists, were targeted on WhatsApp using this software, although it remains uncertain if Australians were among the targets.
In reports released by Citizen Lab on Wednesday, two Australian IP addresses were identified as potential users of Paragon’s spyware tools. Citizen Lab managed to map out Paragon’s server infrastructure based on tips they received.
The spyware allows access to messaging apps on users’ devices and is exclusively sold to governments worldwide, not to private entities.
The Australian domains mentioned in the report do not have a history of previous ownership according to WHOIS domain searches. These domains could potentially be utilized by federal or state agencies, although sources indicate that Paragon Solutions is not linked to the Ministry of Interior or Australia’s Signals Bureau.
When questioned about Australian customers or the targeting of Australians, Paragon did not provide direct answers to these queries.
John Fleming, the executive chairman of the company, stated, “Paragon’s ultimate goal is to aid national security and law enforcement in combating serious crimes and terrorism within the boundaries of the law, while also considering privacy implications. They ensure that customers operate within legal frameworks and enforce strict rules against misuse.”
A recent report from Citizen Lab followed Meta’s announcement in January that journalists and civil society members were targeted on WhatsApp using spyware owned by Paragon Solutions.
Meta sent a cease and desist letter to Paragon and explored legal actions against them after the incident.
Meta declined to comment further when asked if Australians were among the targets.
Italian investigative journalist Francesco Cancerato uncovered a young fascist within the far-right party of Italian Prime Minister Giogia Meloni after receiving alerts from WhatsApp regarding the attack.
Following this revelation, Paragon Solutions terminated its contract with Italy. Meloni’s office denied any involvement by the national intelligence agency or government in alleged violations against journalists and activists.
Citizen Lab, headquartered at the University of Toronto, specializes in research on cyber and surveillance technologies.
Over the past 20 years, a general view of human evolutionary genetics is Homo sapiens It first appeared in Africa about 200,000 to 300,000 years ago, and descended from a single lineage. However, a new study from the University of Cambridge shows that modern humans are the result of two groups (potentially HOMO HEIDELBERGENSIS and Homo Erectus) It branched out 1.5 million years ago and gathered at a mixed event 300,000 years ago at an 80:20% ratio.
a HOMO HEIDELBERGENSISNeanderthals and Cromagnone. Image credit: Sinc/José Antonio Peñas.
“The question of where we came from has been something that has captivated people for centuries,” said Dr. Trevor Cousins of Cambridge University.
“For a long time, it has been assumed that we evolved from a single, consecutive ancestor lineage, but the exact details of our origins are uncertain.”
“Our research shows clear indications of the origins of our evolutionary being more complex, including various groups that have developed individually over a million years, and have since returned to form modern human species,” added Richard Durbin, a professor at Cambridge University.
Previous studies have already shown that Neanderthals and Denisovans are mated, but Homo sapiens About 50,000 years ago, new research suggests that a much more important genetic mixing occurred long before these interactions were about 300,000 years ago.
Unlike Neanderthal DNA, which makes up about 2% of the genome of non-African modern humans, this ancient mixed event contributes ten times its amount and is found in all modern humans.
The team's methods rely on analysis of modern human DNA rather than extracting genetic material from ancient bones, allowing us to infer the existence of ancestral populations that otherwise left no physical traces.
The authors developed a computational algorithm called Cobraa, which models the methods that ancient populations fell apart and later integrated.
They tested the algorithm using simulated data and applied it to real human genetic data from the 1000 Genomes project, a global initiative that sequences DNA from populations in Africa, Asia, Europe and America.
Researchers were able to identify these two ancestral populations, but also identified some impressive changes that occurred after the two populations were initially decomposed.
“At the moment the two ancestral populations split, we see a serious bottleneck in one of them, suggesting that it had been reduced to a very small size before slowly growing over a million years,” said Professor Aylwyn of Cambridge University.
“This group later contributed to about 80% of modern human genetic material and also appeared to be a population of ancestors that diverged the Neanderthals and Denisovans.”
“However, some of the population genes that contributed to our small numbers of genetic material, especially those associated with brain function and neural processing, may play an important role in human evolution,” Dr. Cousins said.
This is a reconstruction of the artist Homo Erectus. Image credit: Yale University.
Scientists also found that genes inherited from the second population are often separated from the genome regions associated with gene function, suggesting that they may be less compatible with numerous genetic backgrounds.
This suggests a process known as the cleansing of selection, in which natural selection removes harmful mutations over time.
So who was our mystical human ancestors? Fossil evidence suggests species such as Homo Erectus and HOMO HEIDELBERGENSIS Although he lived in both Africa and other regions during this period, becoming a potential candidate for these ancestral populations, more research (probably more evidence) is needed to identify which genetic ancestors correspond to which fossil groups.
The authors hope to refine the model to explain more progressive genetic exchanges between populations rather than sharp divisions or reunions.
They also plan to explore how their findings relate to other anthropology discoveries, such as fossil evidence from Africa, suggesting that early humans may have been much more diverse than previously thought.
“It's amazing to see today's DNA and reconstruct events that were hundreds of thousands or millions of years ago,” Professor Scally said.
“And we can tell you that our history is much richer and more complicated than we imagined.”
study It was published in the journal today Natural Genetics.
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T. Cousins et al. The structured coalescence model reveals the deep ancestral structure shared by all modern humans. Nat GenetPublished online on March 18th, 2025. doi:10.1038/s41588-025-02117-1
Parkinson’s disease is rapidly becoming one of the most prevalent neurodegenerative conditions globally, impacting over 10 million individuals worldwide. It ranks as the second most common neurodegenerative ailment following Alzheimer’s disease. As of now, there is no known cure. However, recent advancements have raised hopes for the development of new treatments in the near future.
The disease is closely associated with a protein known as Pink1, which carries a mutation in the Park6 gene responsible for encoding this protein.
Malfunctions in Pink1’s functioning are directly linked to Parkinson’s disease, especially in individuals with early onset, affecting 1.2% of Parkinson’s patients in the UK.
Recent scientific progress has shed light on the interaction between Pink1 and mitochondria. Mitochondria, known as the powerhouse of cells, produce energy within the cells of all organisms.
From left, Professor David Commander, Dr. Nicholas Kirk, Dr. Sylvie Karegari and Dr. Alisa Grukova stand before the discovery of Pink 1. – Wehe
The link between Pink1 and Parkinson’s disease has long been recognized, but its potential as a cure for Parkinson’s disease has only recently been explored.
When mitochondria are damaged, Pink1 signals the need for their removal. However, in Parkinson’s patients, mitochondrial defects accumulate unnoticed, releasing toxins that eventually lead to cell death.
Currently, researchers at the Parkinson’s Center for Research in Walter and Eliza Hall (WEHI) in Australia have elucidated the structure and activation process of Pink1. Their findings on how Pink1 interacts with dysfunctional mitochondria are published in Science today.
“This is a significant milestone in Parkinson’s disease research,” stated corresponding author Professor David Commander, head of WEHI’s ubiquitin signaling division. “Understanding Pink1’s binding to mitochondria is truly groundbreaking.”
Lead author and Senior Researcher at WEHI, Sylvie Callegari, explained that Pink1 functions in four distinct steps, with the first two being newly discovered in this study.
Furthermore, Pink1’s role in detecting mitochondrial damage and initiating the process of mitophagy, the recycling of damaged mitochondria, is crucial for addressing Parkinson’s disease.
Parkinson’s disease is associated with physical tremors, as well as other symptoms like language and vision impairments – Credit: Witthaya Prasongsin
In conclusion, understanding the Pink1-mitochondrial relationship is crucial for developing therapies for Parkinson’s disease, a condition characterized by the decline of brain cells.
Given the increasing prevalence of Parkinson’s disease over the past 25 years, the need for effective treatments is more urgent than ever. The researchers behind this study aim to accelerate drug development and halt the progression of Parkinson’s disease.
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