Neanderthal dentistry may have been remarkably advanced, according to a recent study led by scientists from the Russian Academy of Sciences in St. Petersburg.
This study examined a 59,000-year-old molar tooth discovered in Chagyrskaya Cave, Russia, featuring a deep central hole.
Archaeologists believe that the tooth was intentionally punctured with a sharp tool to treat an infection and alleviate pain.
This represents the oldest known dental evidence, dating back over 40,000 years and surpassing previous findings from about 14,000 years ago in Italy, which were previously considered the first examples of dental treatment by Homo sapiens.
“What surprised me was that the owner of this tooth understood exactly what was causing the pain and intuitively knew it could be alleviated,” remarked the first author, Dr. Aliza Zubova from the Peter the Great Museum of Anthropology and Ethnology, Russian Academy of Sciences.
“Neither Neanderthals nor even later modern humans have encountered anything like this before.”
To investigate the treatment of this tooth, archaeologists utilized a method known as microtomography to capture highly detailed X-rays. This analysis revealed microscopic grooves on the tooth’s surface.
Researchers performed experiments on modern human teeth, attempting to replicate similar holes and markings using techniques accessible to Neanderthals.
Neanderthal tooth labeled Chagyrskaya 64, photographed from five angles – Image credit: Zubova et al., 2026, PLOS One, CC-BY 4.0
Senior author Dr. Kseniya Korobova from the Siberian branch of the Russian Academy stated that these experiments showcased the technical proficiency of the procedures, involving the removal of carious tissue via deep holes in the tooth.
“It’s important to remember that we couldn’t fully replicate the real-life conditions,” she noted. “The inflammation and swelling in the oral cavity would have introduced additional challenges during the procedure.”
She emphasized that the mouth is a “complex area to work,” necessitating “manual dexterity, patience, and a caregiver to keep the head still.”
Remarkably, all of this was achieved without anesthesia. Thus, while the patient likely experienced pain, archaeologists believe the method effectively alleviated tooth discomfort.
Second author Dr. Lydia Zotkina remarked, “What astonishes me is the incredible willpower this Neanderthal must have possessed.”
“This finding is a striking illustration of how archaeological evidence allows us to gain insights into past lives, revealing the strength and resilience of these individuals. Every visit to the dentist now reminds me of that Neanderthal.”
For Zubova, this research contributes to a growing body of evidence indicating that Neanderthals provided care for one another regularly.
“Historically, Neanderthals have been viewed as more primitive than modern humans, making their care for Middle Paleolithic community members an exception,” she explains.
“As evidence accumulates, it increasingly suggests that Neanderthals cared for the sick and infirm just like modern humans.”
Subscribe to Our Human Story, a newsletter exploring the revolutionary findings in archaeology, delivered to your inbox monthly.
In the iconic opening of 2001: A Space Odyssey, the first tool is presented as a club, used not only for hunting prey but also in the dramatic leap through time. This perspective suggests that the earliest tools served primarily as weapons.
This interpretation also extends to early stone tools. Round stones were employed for striking, while sharper stones were utilized for cutting and penetrating. We envision these primitive implements used for breaking, hunting, and lethal purposes.
Yet, early humans likely employed various tools crafted from other materials, particularly plant-based materials like wood, which, unfortunately, are less likely to be preserved. The Stone Age may well have also been the Vegetative Age (refer to Sophie Verdugo’s insightful 2024 article).
This opens up intriguing possibilities, particularly regarding the concept of containers. Imagine if the first tool was an object capable of carrying or storing valuable items.
As paleoanthropologist Mark Kissel from Appalachian State University notes, “Containers resolve a multitude of challenges,” emphasizing their critical role in early human existence. His team has developed an extensive database of prehistoric containers, encompassing hundreds of examples spanning over 100,000 years, though this likely represents only a small fraction of what once existed. “Containers were essential for humanity’s success,” Kissel asserts.
Exploring Prehistoric Containers
Compiling a comprehensive database of ancient containers is a daunting task. Kissel and his colleagues dedicated over a year to scouring scientific literature for examples, using a broad range of terminology to identify various types of containers, faced with the realization that they had to cease their efforts and recently published their findings in a study in the Journal of Human Archaeology on April 8th.
Determining what qualifies as a container posed another challenge. They opted for a wide definition: “Any object that functions as a container (holding contents and acting as a barrier) and can be transported by humans.”
This broader definition includes items not conventionally viewed as containers, such as spoons, which can also transport materials. Notably, examples of early lamps comprise small rock slabs with hollows to hold and burn animal fat. A renowned specimen from the Lascaux Caves in France is carved from red sandstone and features a handle.
Other containers might include hollow bones; for instance, tubes crafted from swan wing bones may have been utilized for needle transport. Similarly, robust ostrich eggs were likely employed in Africa for carrying water on lengthy journeys. Rock art raises further possibilities, depicting vessels and net-like objects found in Gennersdorf, Germany.
Fragment of Engraved Ostrich Eggshell Container from South Africa
Texier et al. 2013
The research team ultimately cataloged 793 mobile containers, exploring examples from the Pleistocene epoch, which spans 2.58 million years to 11,700 years ago; however, all findings seem to date back no further than 500,000 years.
Conventionally, archaeologists believed containers emerged in the last 10,000 years, closely tied to the agricultural revolution and the advent of pottery, attributed to the rise of agrarian societies that needed to store surplus food. Hunter-gatherer societies were thought to lack such surplus and mobility would render pots easily breakable.
However, Kissel argues this notion has largely been overturned, suggesting a more gradual and fragmented transition from prehistory to the Neolithic era. Evidence indicates that some indigenous Australian groups crafted pottery over 2,000 years ago; simultaneously, early gatherers in the Amazon, dating back 10,000 years, left pottery shards behind, with signs of ceramic production in China as early as 18,000 years ago.
This evolution implies a gradual development of containers over time. Kissel maintains, “It’s beneficial to observe containers along a spectrum.”
While container origins reach deep into our past, it’s worth noting that non-human primates like great apes do not utilize them; instead, they might use leaves as sponges to draw water. Kissel suggests this fundamental difference speaks volumes about human evolution.
The oldest container identified in their database is a bark tray or dish, unearthed at Kalambo Falls in Zambia, estimated to be between 400,000 to 500,000 years old. Kalambo Falls has showcased remarkably preserved wooden artifacts, including a structure potentially dating back 476,000 years. However, dating for the bark tray remains inconclusive.
This reveals a significant challenge Kissel’s team faced: numerous artifacts were excavated long ago, resulting in vital information obscured in outdated texts, often inaccessible online. The Kalambo Falls tray was excavated in the 1950s by archaeologist John Desmond Clarke, with minimal records available today.
Despite observable trends within the dataset, Kissel emphasizes they primarily reflect the archaeological record’s limitations rather than definitive prehistoric facts. Astonishingly, 87.8 percent of the identified containers were discovered in Europe, a statistic Kissel attributes to the extensive archaeological endeavors in that region rather than implying that Europe was the cradle for container innovation. Interestingly, the dataset’s oldest containers hail from Africa.
Furthermore, only two vessels in their records exceed 100,000 years old; nevertheless, Kissel posits that hominins likely employed containers far earlier than documented. Such artifacts may be undiscovered or have undergone degradation.
As Kissel puts it, a clearer understanding of how integral containers have been to human existence is emerging. In Europe, where archaeological research is robust, many examples persist despite conservation issues, indicating their necessity for human survival.
The Role of Containers in Human Evolution
One of Humanity’s Oldest Tools Remains in Use
Ron Giling/Alamy
Kissel theorizes that one of the initial applications of containers might have been for carrying infants in slings. Many anthropologists—especially women—have championed this concept for decades.
Great apes like chimpanzees typically carry their infants clinging to their bodies. However, as humans evolved with less body hair and an increased reliance on bipedal locomotion, baby carriers would have become essential for carrying helpless newborns. Millions of years ago, Australopithecus likely utilized slings, implying that even Lucy, a representative of Australopithecus afarensis, may have carried an infant snugly.
While these concepts are not groundbreaking, their prominence is gradually increasing, largely due to their early association with feminist interpretations of prehistory, which faced skepticism.
In 1976, anthropologists Nancy Tanner and Adrian Zillman posited that the earliest tools may have been baskets, utilized primarily by women for carrying food. Their work challenged the misconception of prehistoric male dominance, introducing a more nuanced portrait that included women’s contributions.
Mystery writer Ursula Le Guin influenced the narrative surrounding containers with her Carrier-Bag Theory of Fiction, emphasizing that without a vessel, food remains unattainable, and even the simplest container allows for preservation during adverse conditions.
Le Guin advocated for a reassessment of historical narratives, advocating narratives of community, nurturing, and environmental stewardship alongside tales of conflict. She asserted the necessity of fostering alternate narratives to enrich our understanding of humanity’s journey.
As this exploration unfolds, it’s important to track the data. There’s increasing evidence that humanity’s distinctiveness lies not only in intelligence, creativity, or aggression but in our capabilities for empathy and social connection. When isolated from one another, human beings face a notably higher risk of extinction due to the lack of cooperative networks.
Our survival as a species hinges on collaboration and sharing, as exemplified by the way one might offer a piece of their food stores to a friend in need using a homemade container.
A clandestine society of mathematicians has been operating under pseudonyms for nearly a century
Shutterstock/Stephen Ray Chapman
One of the most influential figures in modern mathematics, Nicolas Bourbaki, has reportedly been researching for almost a century, producing numerous books and publications that guide the entire field. Interestingly, Bourbaki is a pseudonymous figure who does not exist as an actual individual.
Bourbaki represents a secretive collective of mathematicians, initially formed in France in 1934. Their primary objective was to modernize mathematics textbooks, transforming them to meet contemporary reader needs. However, this endeavor culminated in the creation of an innovative approach to mathematical writing, impacting the field for decades.
The group initially anticipated that their study would comprise about 1,000 pages and be completed in six months. By 1935, Bourbaki had expanded its vision to include six interconnected volumes, aiming to “provide a comprehensive foundation for modern mathematics,” as expressed in an explanatory preface. While they were correct about the length, they were notably mistaken regarding the timeline.
Though these volumes (which eventually comprised several physical books) were intended to be read sequentially, Bourbaki’s first published text in 1939 turned out to be the concluding chapter of the first book on set theory. The group later published different sections intermittently before returning to finish set theory in 1954, finally completing the entire project in 1970. Collectively labeled as elements of mathematics, this singular title underscores the cohesion of the mathematicians’ work. The completion of this monumental collection extended into the 1980s, reaching nearly 4,000 pages. Even after that, Bourbaki continued to release new works as the original scope broadened.
This unorthodox publishing approach stemmed from Bourbaki’s distinctive methodology. The original group comprised six young mathematics professors, including Andre Weil, a prominent figure in number theory and algebraic geometry. Most members were former students of the École Normale Supérieure in Paris, and the group’s name emerged from a prank revolving around the notoriously obscure Bourbaki theorem.
This playful spirit fostered a strong sense of camaraderie. Meetings were lively, often involving shouting matches and humorous banter. One member crafted the proposed text and presented it line by line for critique and discussion, leading to a revised draft before reaching consensus. Given that chapters took an average of ten years to produce, the protracted timeline is understandable. This mathematical endeavor spanned generations, as Bourbaki members were required to retire at 50, making way for new recruits.
Eternal Challenges in Mathematics
Founding members of the Bourbaki Group gathered in France in 1935
Charmet/Bridgeman Image Archive
So, what was Bourbaki’s actual contribution? Despite its unorthodox methods, the group’s work was notably serious and thoroughly detailed. The cornerstone of their research, set theory, aimed to tackle the perennial challenge in mathematics: the idea that mathematical objects are fundamentally independent of human language and symbols.
To illustrate this, consider the word “addition” or the symbol “+”. These terms have an arbitrary connection to the underlying mathematical concepts. As long as there’s an agreement on the meaning of “addition,” any string of symbols could be utilized to indicate it. Conversely, addition has a definitive relationship with subtraction; one operation is the inverse of the other, independent of their nomenclature.
In practical terms, labeling mathematical concepts does not present a significant challenge, as mathematicians adhere to standardized mappings between ideas and symbols. However, in principle, contradictions and inconsistencies may emerge.
Bourbaki was not the inaugural attempt at formalization (as mentioned in my previous writings), but his approach was perhaps the most meticulous. For instance, he took care to define the number 1 in a footnote on page 158 of set theory. Bourbaki clarified that “the symbol ‘1’ should not be confused with the common language interpretation ‘one'”; instead, it should be understood through a rigorous definition:
τZ ((∃u)(∃U)(u = (U, {∅}, Z) and U ⊂ {∅} × Z and (∀x)((x ∈ {∅}) ⇒ (∃y)((x, y) ∈ U)) and (∀x)(∀y)(∀y’)(((x, y) ∈ U and (x, y’) ∈ U) ⇒ (y = y’)) and (∀y)((y ∈ Z) ⇒ (∃x)((x, y) ∈ U))))
Don’t worry if this seems daunting; a simplified explanation is that ∅ represents a set devoid of elements, referred to as the “empty set.” Consequently, 1 is defined as {∅}, indicating a set containing only one item (which, in this case, is the empty set). More details on this concept can be found in a previous column.
Astonishingly, embedded within this sea of symbols is a broader and more complex formal definition. Each symbol is elaborately defined based on earlier texts using only designated symbols. Bourbaki never elaborated these entirely; the footnote mentions that completing this definition would require tens of thousands of symbols — an estimation soon revealed to be vastly understated. Later mathematicians calculated that articulating the full formula for the number 1 would necessitate over 4.5 billion symbols, or more precisely, 2,409,875,496,393,137,472,149,767,527,877,436,912,979,508,338,752,092,897 symbols, depending on your definition of precision.
Clearly, mathematicians would need to occasionally abandon such stringent formalism if they wished to accomplish their objectives. Bourbaki acknowledges this necessity, while maintaining that utilizing shorthand terms like “1” is an “abuse of language.” By establishing foundational rules, Bourbaki granted mathematicians the flexibility to deviate as needed.
Emerging Mathematical Challenges
So, what achievements stemmed from all this labor? One significant outcome was Bourbaki’s aspiration to unite mathematics as a cohesive discipline. In theory, if terms and concepts from various mathematical domains could be expressed using a common set of symbols, it would yield a rigorous framework for transitions between fields. Although few actually practice this, it positions mathematics on a more solid philosophical foundation.
In the decades that followed, Bourbaki’s influence has proven unexpectedly significant, particularly as mathematicians increasingly explore computer-assisted formalization to verify proofs generated by artificial intelligence. The collective also introduced numerous concepts and symbols, many of which remain integral to contemporary mathematics (for instance, ∅ representing the empty set). On a broader scale, the Bourbakian writing style continues to shape modern mathematical textbooks.
However, Bourbaki was not without critique. Following the publication of elements of mathematics, some mathematicians expressed discontent with the group’s claims of excessive rigor. Oddly enough, Bourbaki inadvertently incited a misguided initiative to reform mathematics education in schools. Emerging in France during the late 1950s, this movement, dubbed New Mathematics, sought to replace traditional educational methods with rigorous set-theoretic approaches based on Bourbaki’s teachings. The intention was to grasp the general principle of multiplication rather than memorizing specific multipliers, such as 3 × 4 = 12.
The “New Math” movement faced extensive criticism and was largely deemed a failure. Parents and teachers alike struggled to understand the curriculum. Bestselling critiques like Why Can’t Johnny Add? emerged, and by the late 1970s, the initiative had largely dissipated. Additionally, this decade brought challenges for Bourbaki, including legal disputes with publishers over copyright and royalties.
Despite these hurdles, Bourbaki remains relevant today. New chapters will be released this year alone. However, the identity of the author remains a well-guarded secret. This anonymity allows mathematicians to regard Bourbaki as a quirky, eccentric relative: appreciated for essential contributions, yet sparing themselves from the discomfort of personal association.
In the realm of Star Wars, alien heroes confront villains wielding planet-destroying superweapons “a long time ago in a galaxy far, far away.” But what do scientists truly understand about alien planets in galaxies far beyond our own? These fascinating worlds are known as extragalactic exoplanets. Assuming the Milky Way galaxy is akin to other galaxies, it is predicted to harbor similar worlds. Yet, many galaxies remain distant, rendering modern exoplanet observation techniques inadequate for their detection.
Recently, astronomers studied a stream of over 700,000 stars potentially absorbed by the Milky Way from the Sagittarius Dwarf Galaxy. Given their remoteness, the team investigated if any of these stars hosted large exoplanets orbiting close to Earth, specifically hot Jupiters, which are generally easier to identify.
The researchers established three criteria for narrowing down their star selection. First, each star must be sufficiently bright as observed by a transiting exoplanet probe like TESS to ensure high accuracy in their data processing software. Second, each star should possess at least a 50% likelihood of originating from the Sagittarius Dwarf Galaxy, based on motion and position measurements from the Gaia mission. Finally, the radius of each star needed to be less than twice that of the Sun to simplify the search for planets around smaller stars. These criteria helped refine the list to approximately 20,000 candidate stars.
Subsequently, the team utilized a software package to analyze public TESS catalog data, specifically the Eleanor TESS-Gaia light curve, also known as TGLC. Using these tools, they plotted the brightness of each star over time on a graph termed the light curve. The astronomers searched for periodic brightness dips, indicating an exoplanet passing in front of the star. This process eliminated several thousand stars affected by optical interference, refining their sample size to just over 15,000 stars.
To detect hot Jupiters, the team looked for brightness dips occurring at intervals of 14 hours to 10 days, the typical orbital periods for these planets. They employed geometric calculations to derive the radius of each exoplanet based on the proportion of starlight obscured. Candidates with dips corresponding to objects with radii more than twice that of Jupiter were excluded, as these dips likely resulted from orbiting companion stars rather than true exoplanets.
Among the examined stars, the most promising candidate for a hot Jupiter was identified as TIC 92223525. The researchers estimated that it could host an exoplanet with a radius 1.76 times that of Jupiter and an orbital period of 7.2 days. However, closer inspection of the star’s light curve indicated contamination from a neighboring star, TIC 92223526. The periodic brightness variations from this companion star mimicked those of an exoplanet, leading to a false positive in the initial screening. Consequently, the research team had to dismiss this candidate, leaving no confirmed exoplanets from their study.
The researchers drew significant conclusions from their inability to identify hot Jupiters within the Sagittarius Dwarf star sample. They estimated that if more than 1% of these stars hosted hot Jupiters, detecting at least one in a sample of over 15,000 stars would have been very probable. This limits the occurrence rate of hot Jupiters to around 1%. If accurate, future exoplanet-hunting endeavors may necessitate exploring over 11,000 stars to discover one, with reasonable scientific uncertainty suggesting at least 80,000 stars may need to be examined.
While this survey of the Sagittarius Dwarf yielded no conclusive results, the research team encourages subsequent researchers to continue their exploration of the Sagittarius Dwarf and other star streams from different galaxies. Scientists have identified over 20 such streams within the Milky Way. Investigations into these stellar streams may lead to the discovery of the first extragalactic planets or offer insights into whether other galaxies produce fewer hot Jupiters than our own. Let’s hope none of them stumble upon an extragalactic Death Star!
Credit: Erich Karkoschka, NASA and the University of Arizona
While the rings of Uranus may appear similar visually, their compositions reveal surprising differences. Understanding these rings is critical for uncovering the mysteries of Uranus’s unique and dynamic system.
The outer rings of Uranus, known as the Mu and New rings, are notably dark and challenging to observe given their vast distance. Researchers, including Imke de Pater from the University of California, Berkeley, utilized nearly 20 years of data from the Keck Telescope, Hubble Space Telescope, and James Webb Space Telescope to conduct a thorough analysis.
The team discovered that the outermost ring, Mulling, appears blue, suggesting it consists of minute ice grains. Conversely, the New ring takes on a reddish hue, rich in dust and complex organic molecules known as thorin.
The ice particles within Mulling likely originate from Uranus’s small moon, Mab, implying that Mab is composed of ice rather than rock, unlike other neighboring moons. However, the mechanism by which these tiny ice fragments escaped Mab to form the ring remains uncertain.
This scenario shares similarities with Saturn’s E ring, which is sustained by the icy moon Enceladus, known for its substantial water plumes. In contrast, Mab, which measures approximately 12 kilometers in diameter, is not expected to produce similar plumes.
“We don’t anticipate plumes on small moons like Mab, though the comparisons are intriguing,” says Tracy Becker, a researcher at the Southwest Research Institute in Texas who was not involved in the study. Instead, it is probable that micrometeorites have collided with Mab’s surface, propelling ice grains into space.
It is not surprising that the New ring is laden with dust, yet the rocky bodies responsible for this dust have yet to be identified, suggesting they are relatively small. The researchers also noted that the brightness of the New ring fluctuated over time—its brightness was halved between 2003 and 2006. This may indicate a significant collision event prior to 2003, causing a temporary increase in brightness.
The key question is not just why the two rings differ so significantly but why the objects that contribute to them exhibit such variance, despite orbiting similar regions around Uranus. “All rocky bodies might originate from a moon that fragmented, but Mab stands apart,” De Pater remarked. “This points back to the origins of the entire system and historical events.” Mab might be debris from a larger moon of Uranus, yet the factors that led to this process remain unclear.
“We are able to add two or three critical pieces to the puzzle that enrich our understanding of the Uranus system,” Becker emphasized. “This suggests that the puzzle is far more complex than we previously believed and that additional pieces are necessary for a complete understanding of the system.”
Graphene sheets are 2D, but some thin materials may not fit neatly into that category.
Alfred Pasieka/Science Photo Library
Researchers have identified a groundbreaking quantum state of matter that operates beyond traditional two- or three-dimensional characteristics, unveiling novel mechanics in electron movement.
Physicists categorize matter states by analyzing electron mobility within various materials, driven by factors like atomic structure and arrangement.
In a magnetic field, thin materials experience a distinct electron behavior; electrons trace a small circular path, funneling currents toward the material—a phenomenon known as the Hall effect. In magnetic substances, electron trajectories are more intricate, leading to diverse manifestations of this effect.
Wang Lei and his research team at Nanjing University have made an unexpected finding: they’ve discovered a new variant, termed the Transdimensional Anomalous Hall Effect (TDAHE).
While examining electrons in a thin material structured from carbon atoms arranged in a diamond-like pattern to create highly efficient electrical currents, they observed unusual electron behaviors upon magnetization.
“The TDAHE discovery was astonishing; it’s a phenomenon not previously documented in other materials nor predicted by existing theories,” Wang states. Measuring the raw data took nearly a year, indicating the complexity of this new effect.
The unexpected finding was that their material exhibited Hall effect characteristics under two mutually perpendicular magnetic fields. This discovery was significant because it demonstrated electrons performing loop motions both horizontally and vertically, despite the material’s minimal thickness.
Initially, Wang’s team suspected experimental errors, yet repeated tests verified their measurements. Additional samples yielded consistent results, leading to a groundbreaking conclusion: in carbon materials only 2 to 5 nanometers thick, the electrons were exhibiting unprecedented behaviors.
Due to the material’s ambiguous dimensionality, the researchers coined the term “hyperdimensional” to describe the new electronic states that do not adhere to the traditional 2D or 3D frameworks. “We aim to express that this finding introduces a novel regime beyond the well-explored dimensions,” explains Wang.
Andrea Young from the University of California, Santa Barbara, notes that this new state is distinctive because its mathematical portrayal of electron states lacks symmetry in three different aspects, setting it apart from analogous states. He emphasizes that the material’s thickness is secondary to its unique characteristics.
Young likens the newly identified state to a “quarter metal,” indicating that its asymmetry constrains electron behavior compared to conventional metals.
Wang’s team is now eager to delve further into hyperdimensional physics across various materials, utilizing advanced tools, including diamond-based magnetic field sensors, to explore this unprecedented state.
Stars primarily consist of two elements: hydrogen and helium. These elements, along with lithium, were the only ones present during the Big Bang approximately 14 billion years ago. When the first stars exploded, they released their primordial elements along with heavier elements produced through nuclear fusion.
In astronomy, all elements heavier than hydrogen and helium are referred to as metals.
Chemists, however, use different terminology. Subsequent generations of stars, including our Sun, formed in clouds of gas and dust enriched with metals like carbon, oxygen, magnesium, and silicon. Scientists estimate that modern stars contain between 1% and 5% metals by mass.
While astronomers have found no solid evidence suggesting that stars significantly differ in metal content, some stars display unique chemical signatures. The light emitted by stars can be analyzed through their spectrum,
revealing the presence of various elements. Each element emits a distinct light pattern, allowing astronomers to ascertain the abundance of each element, especially in a star’s outer layers. The prevailing theory suggests that chemically unique stars might not contain more metals than the average star; instead, the metals in their interiors are thought to be more distributed throughout their outer layers.
A research team from the American Association of Variable Star Observers
at Masaryk University in the Czech Republic recently studied 85 chemically unique stars to better understand their behaviors and classifications. Their research relied on the CP Star General Catalog published in 2009, focusing on categorizing these stars into four classes: CP1, CP2, CP3, and CP4.
CP1 stars exhibit strong spectral patterns of iron and other heavy elements, while CP2 stars show strong patterns of silicon, chromium, strontium, and europium. CP3 stars reveal patterns of mercury and manganese, and CP4 stars have either unusually weak or strong helium patterns.
The team compiled a list of 85 stars for observation, utilizing the BRIght Target Explorer ( BRITE
), a constellation that monitors brightness variations. The BRITE constellation consists of five satellites equipped with telescopes and cameras sensitive to red or blue light. Over several days, the team monitored each star.
Out of the observed stars, 74 exhibited variations in brightness, potentially due to fluctuating surface metal content creating dark spots that appeared and disappeared from our viewpoint as the stars rotated. Interestingly, six of these stars demonstrated brightness changes across multiple time periods—an unexpected result since rotation alone would typically not cause such variability. Comparisons with data from the Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite TESS revealed that all six stars had been misclassified as chemically unusual.
The remaining 11 chemically unique stars displayed no apparent periodic brightness changes, suggesting they may be stationary. While the research team noted that some CP1 and CP3 stars do not rotate, they also found instances where CP2 and CP4 stars, which are expected to rotate, appeared stationary. They proposed two possible explanations for this phenomenon:
one is the potential misclassification of these stars, requiring a deeper analysis of their spectra, and the other is a slower rotation speed, exceeding 50 days, making them hard to differentiate from stationary stars.
The research team emphasized the need for astronomers to reconsider historical star classifications, particularly as technology advances and more space telescopes become available. This approach will enable future researchers to extract improved data from existing research archives and catalogs. Furthermore, they advocated combining long-term monitoring by small satellites with TESS data to refine classifications, unveil misclassified objects, and delve deeper into the structural and behavioral mechanisms of chemically unusual stars.
Recent observations by the James Webb Space Telescope reveal startling climate details of two exoplanets, TRAPPIST-1b and TRAPPIST-1c, showcasing extreme daily temperatures and freezing nights, which may hinder their prospects for habitability.
An artist’s view of an exoplanet within the TRAPPIST-1 system, which is located 38.8 light-years from Earth. These planets, similar in size and temperature to Venus and Earth, showcase unique orbital dynamics. Image credit: M. Kornmesser / ESO.
Red dwarfs, which are smaller and cooler than our Sun, account for over 75% of the stars in the Milky Way galaxy.
Research indicates that Earth-sized planets are particularly abundant around these faint stars, raising intriguing questions about the potential for life on such distinctly different worlds.
TRAPPIST-1 is one such star system currently under scrutiny.
Discovered back in 2017, this fascinating system resides 38.8 light-years away in the constellation Aquarius.
It features seven transiting planets: TRAPPIST-1b, c, d, e, f, g, and h.
These planetary bodies are either comparable to or slightly smaller than Earth and Venus, and all possess notably short orbital periods.
“The TRAPPIST-1 system is a remarkable discovery: seven planets with Earth-like masses orbiting a single star,” stated Emmeline Bolmont, an astronomer at UNIGE.
“At least three of these planets lie within the star’s habitable zone, allowing for the presence of liquid water on their surfaces.”
“This system serves as an ideal environment for comparative planetology, helping us unravel the mysteries of planetary habitability and life development around red dwarfs.”
Dr. Bolmont and her research team utilized the NASA/ESA/CSA James Webb Space Telescope to study the two inner planets, TRAPPIST-1b and TRAPPIST-1c.
“Although red dwarfs and their planetary systems are commonplace, their environments don’t guarantee the potential for life,” the team noted.
“These stars emit intense ultraviolet radiation and high-energy particles that can erode planetary atmospheres, jeopardizing any existing life forms.”
“Furthermore, planets within a red dwarf’s habitable zone orbit very closely to the star, leading to a tidal lock effect that results in one side experiencing perpetual daylight while the other is in constant darkness.”
This illustration depicts the TRAPPIST-1 star and its planets reflected on its surface. Image credit: NASA / R. Hurt / T. Pyle.
By analyzing the light emitted from the star and the two planets, astronomers accurately determined the surface temperatures on both the day and night sides of TRAPPIST-1b and TRAPPIST-1c.
Daytime temperatures exceed 200 degrees Celsius for TRAPPIST-1b and nearly 100 degrees Celsius for TRAPPIST-1c, while at night, temperatures plummet below -200 degrees Celsius.
This extreme temperature disparity implies minimal energy transfer between the planet’s sides, indicating an absence of a significant atmosphere.
Even if these planets formed with atmospheres, harsh stellar conditions would likely have stripped them away entirely.
The team concluded that the lack of dense atmospheres on TRAPPIST-1b and c supports the theory that intense stellar radiation is crucial in shaping planetary evolution in such systems.
“TRAPPIST-1 acts as a vital reference point,” Dr. Bolmont mentioned. “Our theoretical models suggest that the outer planets may retain atmospheres, unlike the inner planets, similar to Mercury’s situation near our Sun.”
“We are eager to advance our exploration of the TRAPPIST-1 system in future studies.”
The findings were published on April 3rd in Nature Astronomy.
_____
M. Gillon et al. “No thick atmosphere around TRAPPIST-1 b and c from JWST thermal phase curve.” Nat Astron 3 April 2026. doi: 10.1038/s41550-026-02806-9
Discoveries of Radiolarian Fossils in a Rock Sample
Provided by Jonathan Aitchison
A minuscule pellet of ancient rock, measuring only half the size of a rice grain, has unveiled 20 microscopic fossils from eight distinct species, including several previously unknown types. This significant discovery enhances our knowledge of the second-largest mass extinction known to science, while demonstrating how innovative analytical techniques can uncover neglected segments of the fossil record.
Jonathan Aitchison, a professor at the University of Queensland in Australia, was pivotal in extracting these pellets from rocks gathered in late 2018 from the Sichuan Basin in China, located approximately 300 kilometers south of Xi’an. These rocks date back 445 million years, situating them just prior to the late Ordovician mass extinction, ranked as the second most severe extinction event in the last half billion years.
The pellets contained eight species of radiolarians—single-celled plankton characterized by silica shells that continue to inhabit oceans today.
The discovered fossils encompass five genera, four families, and three orders, including a newly identified species named Haplotaniatum woufengensis.
The fossils are remarkably well-preserved, with both external and internal structures perfectly encased in asphalt, creating flawless impressions.
Patrick Smith, from the New South Wales Geological Survey in Sydney, Australia, remarked that the fossils were formed before the extinction event escalated.
“The quantity and diversity of fossils indicate that marine ecosystems, especially microscopic plankton communities, thrived just prior to the extinction,” Smith stated. “Ordovician oceans were significantly more biologically diverse than previously understood, especially on a microscopic scale. These fossils showcase a vibrant plankton community during a pivotal moment of environmental upheaval in Earth’s oceans.”
Traditionally, researchers have studied small fossils by using acid to dissolve surrounding rock, a process Aitchison notes is highly destructive.
In contrast, the study employed advanced X-ray technology (from the Australian Nuclear Science and Technology Organization’s synchrotron in Melbourne) to scan the rock pellets, yielding high-resolution 3D images of the contained fossils within seconds.
“Growing up, I was fascinated by ads for X-ray glasses that could see through objects,” Aitchison commented. “Now, I can ‘see’ these radiolarian plankton directly within the rocks without needing to remove them.”
“This represents the most significant technological advancement in my career,” he added.
Professor Aitchison concluded that the extensive life forms discovered in such a limited sample size imply that the marine biodiversity found in other Late Ordovician rocks might be “significantly underestimated.”
Smith emphasizes that a key takeaway from this study is that numerous fossils remain to be explored worldwide, “not due to a lack of specimens, but because our traditional methods are insufficient for detection and recovery.”
Recent computational simulations indicate that icy giant planets like Uranus and Neptune may contain quasi-one-dimensional superionic carbon hydrides. This groundbreaking discovery could change how scientists perceive planetary interiors.
Diagram depicting hexagonal hydrocarbon compounds anticipated under conditions similar to those in Neptune. In this framework, carbon forms the outer helical chain (yellow), while hydrogen forms the inner helical chain (blue), aligning with the quasi-one-dimensional superionic behavior suggested by simulations. Image credit: Cong Liu.
Density measurements of Uranus and Neptune reveal that these colossal planets possess an unusual, hot, icy interlayer situated beneath an atmospheric envelope of hydrogen and helium, and above a rocky core.
While these layers are believed to comprise water, methane, and ammonia, extreme internal conditions likely result in exotic phases.
The physics associated with these high-pressure, high-temperature regions can lead to unconventional states of matter, prompting theorists and experimentalists to predict and recreate the phenomena they might encounter.
Dr. Cong Liu and colleagues at the Carnegie Institution for Science employed advanced computing and machine learning to conduct quantum physics simulations of hydrogenated carbon at pressures ranging from about 5 million to 30 million times atmospheric pressure (5-3,000 gigapascals) and temperatures of 4,000-6,000 K.
These simulations indicated the development of an ordered hexagonal framework where hydrogen atoms traverse helical paths, resulting in a quasi-one-dimensional superionic state.
Superionic materials are remarkable as they exist in a unique state between solids and liquids. Atoms of one type maintain their crystal arrangement, while atoms of another type gain mobility.
“This newly predicted carbon-hydrogen phase is particularly noteworthy because the movement of atoms isn’t entirely three-dimensional,” explained Dr. Ronald Cohen, also from the Carnegie Institution for Science.
“Rather, hydrogen preferentially migrates along distinct helical paths contained within the organized carbon structure.”
The direction of this atomic motion significantly influences heat and electrical transport within the planet’s interior.
This behavior has implications for understanding internal energy redistribution, electrical conductivity, and potentially the generation of magnetic fields in ice giants.
Additionally, this discovery broadens our comprehension of how simple compounds behave under extreme conditions and suggests that even basic systems can remarkably organize into complex phases.
“Carbon and hydrogen are prevalent in planetary materials, yet their combined behavior under giant planetary conditions remains poorly understood,” Dr. Liu remarked.
These findings are published in a study in Nature Communications dated March 16th.
_____
C. Liu et al. “Prediction of thermally driven quasi-one-dimensional superionic state of hydrogenated carbon under giant planetary conditions.” Nat Commun, published online on March 16, 2026. doi: 10.1038/s41467-026-70603-z
Discovering the Most Complete Ichthyosaur Skeleton in Cuba
An ophthalmosaurid ichthyosaur. Image credit: Dmitri Bogdanov / CC BY 3.0.
Paleontologists recently unearthed the most complete **ichthyosaur skeleton** ever found in western Cuba, deep within a **limestone cave**. This significant discovery was made in 2023 at the river cave known as **El Cuajani**, part of the Viñales Geopark and National Park.
The exposed skeletal remains feature a **U-curved vertebral column**, multiple associated ribs, isolated vertebrae, and a hindlimb.
“The specimen is preserved in rock slabs that form the ceiling of the river cave, specifically known as **Cueva del Ictiosario**, located approximately 60 meters from the entrance,” shared Dr. Manuel Iturralde Vinent from the Cuban Academy of Sciences, collaborating with experts from Cuba, Argentina, Poland, and the US.
This remarkable fossil dates back to the **Tithonian period** of the late Jurassic era, roughly **145 million years ago**. Previously, most records of Cuban ichthyosaurs were limited to older Oxford deposits.
“This fossil stands out as the most complete ichthyosaur retrieved from Cuba,” the paleontologists remarked. “It significantly extends the temporal record of **island ichthyosaurs**, which previously only included the Oxford specimen.”
Partial skeleton of El Cuajani ichthyosaur. Image credit: Iturralde-Vinent et al., doi: 10.1080/02724634.2025.2609717.
The **El Cuajani ichthyosaur**, as researchers have informally dubbed it, has yet to be classified into a specific species, but its anatomical features suggest connections to the **Ophthalmosauridae** family.
“The morphology of the hind limbs resembles that of Tithonian **platypterigin ophthalmosaurids**, such as Caprisaurus bonapartei and Aegylosaurus leptospondylus,” they explained.
Scientists believe this ancient creature thrived in **deep ocean** environments. The **Caribbean Seaway** served as a vital oceanic corridor, linking distant regions of the Jurassic world.
“The Caribbean Seaway played a crucial role in promoting the dispersal of marine species between Europe, the Gulf of Mexico, and the Pacific Ocean from the Late Jurassic,” the researchers stated.
“This corridor has a Triassic to early Jurassic heritage, rooted in the intercontinental rifts of Pangea, which should not be confused with the early Caribbean basin.”
“The El Cuajani ichthyosaur adds to the growing body of Tithonian ichthyosaur discoveries in this area, potentially enriching our understanding of the biogeographic history of this group,” the researchers concluded.
For further reading, refer to their research paper published in the February 6th issue of the Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology.
_____
Manuel Iturralde-Vinent et al.. A partial skeleton of an ichthyosaur (Ophthalmosauridae) excavated from the Tithonian (late Jurassic period) in western Cuba. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology published online on February 6, 2026. doi: 10.1080/02724634.2025.2609717
Recent archival data from ESA’s Cassini mission reveals that Saturn’s magnetic bubble is asymmetrically shaped, influenced not only by the solar wind but also by Saturn’s rapid rotation and the material emitted by its moons.
A diagram illustrating Saturn’s magnetosphere configuration affected by solar wind and rapid rotation. Image credit: Xu et al., doi: 10.1038/s41467-026-69666-9.
Saturn’s magnetosphere serves as a shield, protecting the planet from highly charged particles in the solar wind.
Its magnetic footprint is vast, spanning over 10 times the width of Saturn.
A study led by Professor Andrew Coates from University College London analyzed six years of Cassini data to precisely locate Saturn’s cusp, the point where magnetic fields bend towards the planet’s poles and charged particles descend into its atmosphere.
The researchers discovered that this cusp is displaced to the right from the sun’s perspective, typically found between 1 PM and 3 PM (akin to a clock face), compared to the 12 PM position seen on Earth.
This asymmetry is attributed to Saturn’s rapid rotation, which completes a cycle in just 10.7 hours, along with the dense plasma environment resulting from its moons, especially Enceladus.
These factors contribute to pulling the magnetic field lines to the right, though further simulations are needed for validation.
Enceladus, known for its icy plumes erupting from subsurface oceans, holds potential for extraterrestrial life. Saturn’s diverse environment is particularly intriguing as it is slated to be the focus of a significant ESA mission launching in the 2040s.
“The cusp allows the solar wind direct access into the magnetosphere,” states Professor Coates.
“Understanding the location of Saturn’s cusp is crucial for mapping its entire magnetic bubble.”
“Gaining deeper insights into Saturn’s environment is increasingly important as we prepare for missions returning to Saturn and its moon Enceladus.”
“These findings invigorate our enthusiasm for future explorations.”
“This time, we will search for signs of habitability and potential life.”
“The study supports the long-held theory that the rapid rotation of gas giants like Saturn, coupled with their active moons, displaces the solar wind, shaping their magnetospheres differently than Earth’s.”
“This suggests that gas giants like Saturn have unique magnetospheric behaviors compared to Earth.”
“Enceladus is a significant contributor to this dynamic, emitting substantial water vapor that ionizes and infuses the magnetosphere with heavy plasma, further influenced by Saturn’s rotation.”
“The contrasts between Saturn’s and Earth’s magnetic structures imply a fundamental process governing solar wind interactions among different planets,” explains Professor Zhonghua Yao from the University of Hong Kong.
“Comprehensive observations of Earth elucidate its mechanisms, while comparative studies across planets unveil fundamental laws applicable to understanding other celestial environments, including exoplanets.”
“By integrating Cassini’s observations with simulations, we illustrate how Saturn’s rapid rotation and Enceladus’s plasma emissions contribute to the asymmetric global distribution of cusps,” says researcher Dr. Yang Xu from Southern University of Science and Technology.
“We aim for this research to serve as a crucial reference for future explorations of Jupiter and Saturn’s environments.”
Astronomers utilizing the Immersion Grating Infrared Spectrometer (IGRINS) at the International Gemini Observatory’s Gemini South Telescope have made groundbreaking discoveries regarding WASP-189b’s atmospheric composition. Their findings indicate that the planet’s elemental composition closely aligns with that of its host star, offering compelling evidence that the planet inherits its chemical makeup from the protoplanetary disk from which it formed.
Artist’s impression of super-hot Jupiter. Image credit: Sci.News.
WASP-189, classified as a 730-million-year-old A-type star, is located 322 light-years away in the constellation Libra.
Also known as HD 133112, this star is significantly larger than our Sun and boasts a temperature exceeding 2,000 degrees Celsius.
First discovered in 2018, WASP-189b is a gas giant that orbits its star at a distance roughly 1.6 times that of Jupiter.
This exotic planet lies about 20 times closer to its star than Earth is to the Sun, completing an orbit in a mere 2.7 days.
According to Arizona State University graduate student Jorge Antonio Sanchez and colleagues, “Superhot Jupiter has temperatures sufficient to vaporize rock-forming elements, such as magnesium, silicon, and iron. This presents a unique opportunity to observe these elements through spectroscopy, a technique that identifies chemicals by analyzing light spectra.”
The astronomers harnessed the IGRINS instrument to capture high-resolution thermal emission spectra of WASP-189b.
They successfully identified neutral iron, magnesium, silicon, water, carbon monoxide, and hydroxyl groups within the exoplanet’s atmosphere.
“The IGRINS data reveals that WASP-189b exhibits a magnesium to silicon ratio identical to that of its host star,” they noted.
This pivotal finding offers the first observational evidence supporting a commonly held hypothesis regarding planetary formation, paving the way for deeper insights into exoplanet creation and evolution.
Gas giants like WASP-189b are believed to possess outer gas layers whose chemical makeup is heavily influenced by the protoplanetary disk from which they originated.
Researchers suspect that the ratio of rock-forming elements in the protoplanetary disk mirrors that of the host star, as they formed from the same primordial matter cloud.
This inferred chemical connection between a star and its surrounding planets is frequently utilized to model the composition of rocky exoplanets.
Previously observed only within our solar system, this link has now been directly documented on distant planets.
“WASP-189b represents a critical observational milestone in understanding terrestrial planet formation, as it allows for measurable quantities to confirm the similarities in stellar composition and the proportion of rocky materials that form alongside planets,” Sanchez stated.
Dr. Michael Rhine, an astronomer at Arizona State University, added, “Our study showcases the capabilities of ground-based, high-resolution spectrometers to analyze key species like magnesium and silicon, two essential elements in rocky planet formation. This advancement opens a new frontier in exoplanet atmospheric studies.”
The findings of this research were published in a paper in the journal Nature Communications on February 18, 2026.
_____
JA Sanchez et al. 2026. The magnesium to silicon ratio in the exoplanet’s atmosphere. Nat Commune 17, 2902; doi: 10.1038/s41467-026-69610-x
The Shroud of Turin is inscribed with an image of a man believed to resemble Jesus Christ.
Public Domain/Art Collection 2/Alamy
Recent DNA analysis has revealed a wide array of animal, plant, and human contaminants on the Shroud of Turin, complicating the narrative surrounding this enigmatic relic that is claimed to be the burial cloth of Jesus Christ from over 2,000 years ago.
Spanning 4.4 meters in length and 1.1 meters in width, the Shroud stands as one of the most infamous and controversial Christian artifacts globally. It was first documented in France in 1354, and has since resided at the Basilica of St. John the Baptist in Turin, Italy, for nearly 5 centuries.
In 1988, scientists utilized radiocarbon dating and accelerator mass spectrometry to conclude that the Shroud was created between 1260 and 1390, thereby raising questions about its association with Jesus. Nonetheless, this late medieval dating remains a point of contention among some Christian scholars.
In 2015, Gianni Barcaccia and a team at the University of Padova in Italy analyzed samples taken from the Shroud in 1978 and proposed that the cloth might have originated from India.
Currently, Mr. Barcaccia, who opted not to be interviewed, leads a renewed study re-examining the 1978 samples. His team has uncovered diverse DNA from both medieval and modern sources preserved within the Shroud.
The genetic material includes DNA from domesticated animals like cats, dogs, chickens, cows, goats, sheep, pigs, and horses, as well as wild species such as deer and rabbits.
The researchers also identified several fish species, including mullet and Atlantic cod, along with marine crustaceans and insects like flies and skin mites.
Common plant DNA found in the Shroud consists of carrots, various wheat types, peppers, tomatoes, and potatoes—likely introduced to Europe post-exploration of Asia and the Americas.
However, pinpointing the timeline of these contamination events remains elusive.
Human DNA samples were traced back to many individuals who handled the Shroud, including the 1978 sampling team. The researchers noted, “The Shroud’s contact with multiple individuals complicates the possibility of identifying its original DNA.”
Almost 40% of the human DNA is of Indian origin, which may stem from historical trade routes or Romans importing linen from areas near the Indus Valley, Barcaccia and his team noted.
“The DNA evidence on the Shroud of Turin indicates that it may have been significantly exposed in the Mediterranean region, and the fabric may indeed have been produced in India,” they concluded.
Anders Goeterström from Stockholm University noted that while early studies date the Shroud to the 13th century, this timeframe is widely accepted in the scientific community. “Although there’s ongoing debate regarding the 1988 radiocarbon date, most researchers consider it robust,” he stated.
Goeterström remains skeptical about the cloth’s Indian origins, asserting, “There’s currently no evidence to suggest that the Shroud is anything other than a French artifact from the 13th or 14th century.”
“As a significant relic, the Shroud has its own history, which may be more fascinating than the unsupported legendary narratives,” he concluded.
Ancient Evidence of Dog Care in Punarbashi, Turkey, dating back 15,800 years.
Credit: Kathryn Killackey
A groundbreaking discovery at a 15,800-year-old archaeological site in Turkey has revealed the oldest known evidence of dog domestication. Genetic studies indicate that our canine companions were already widespread across Europe 14,300 years ago, during a time when humans were primarily hunter-gatherers and agriculture had yet to develop.
Determining the precise timeline for dog domestication is complex, especially due to the genetic similarities shared between Canis lupus familiaris (domestic dogs) and Canis lupus (gray wolves). Initially, it was believed that the earliest dogs dated back to around 10,900 years ago. However, earlier fossils resembling dogs have been found, as far back as 33,000 years ago, indicating the presence of ancestral dogs that were not fully domesticated.
To further examine the history of dogs, Dr. Lachie Scarsbrook and his team at the University of Oxford analyzed genetic material from various early dog-like remains unearthed at different archaeological sites in Europe.
The oldest confirmed dog remains were discovered at the Pinarbaş Ruins in central Anatolia, Turkey, dating back to the Upper Paleolithic period (15,800 years ago). These findings are currently the earliest direct evidence of dog existence, with more substantial evidence emerging around 5,000 years ago.
“By at least 15,800 years ago, dogs possessed physical and genetic traits akin to modern breeds,” noted Scarsbrook.
Researchers genetically verified that remains from Gough’s Cave, located in Somerset, England, belonged to a dog that lived approximately 14,300 years ago. The genetic cohesiveness between these two ancient dogs suggests a shared ancestor, a phenomenon that sparked intrigue among researchers, given the geographical distance between the cultures associated with these dogs.
The genome analysis indicates that these two Paleolithic dogs originated from a population that traversed across Europe between 18,500 and 14,000 years ago.
Despite their impressive range, Scarsbrook notes, “It’s unlikely dogs traveled across Europe independently.” Instead, the researchers propose that the Epigravettian culture played a role in their introduction, as evidenced by past archaeological findings indicating ancient human interactions.
14,300-Year-Old Dog Jawbone from Gough’s Cave, England
Credit: Natural History Museum
During significant periods, these ancient peoples migrated from the Italian peninsula into Western Europe and southeast into Turkey, fostering interactions that likely resulted in cultural and technological exchanges.
Dogs provided hunter-gatherers with enhanced hunting capabilities, protection from predators, and warmth during chilly nights, according to Scarsbrook.
Research at Gough’s Cave and the Pinarbaş ruins indicates the nature of ancient human-dog relationships. “These findings highlight the foundations of modern human-dog interactions,” states team member William Marsh from the Natural History Museum in London.
Isotope analysis has revealed that the Pinarbash community not only fed their dogs fish but also consumed it, indicating a profound bond between humans and canines. Dogs were buried similarly to humans, pointing to symbolic treatment of these animals about 15,000 years ago, notes Marsh.
At Gough’s Cave, the mixed diet of humans and dogs suggests a connection rich in symbolism. Instead of typical burial practices, some cultures there appear to have practiced ritual cannibalism, with evidence of bones showing mutilation marks and carvings.
Interestingly, similar markings were discovered on a dog jawbone from Gough’s Cave, suggesting parallels in treatment between humans and dogs, positing emotional ties as well, per Marsh. “They undoubtedly felt bonded to these animals, but the complexity of these expressions remains hard to interpret,” he reflects.
Scarsbrook hypothesizes that the domestication of dogs began during the Last Glacial Maximum, roughly 26,000 to 20,000 years ago. “Circumstances were dire for both wolves and humans in northern Eurasia during this period, pushing them southward and compelling interactions that may have initiated a unique companionship,” he states.
Exploring the Origins of Humanity Through Prehistoric Times in South-West England
Join a gentle walking tour that delves deep into the Neolithic, Bronze Age, and Iron Age, allowing you to immerse yourself in the rich heritage of early humans.
Recent research highlights that birch bark tar—historically recognized as a natural tool adhesive—can effectively inhibit harmful bacteria like: Staphylococcus aureus. This suggests that Neanderthals may have utilized it to treat wounds and manage infections during the Ice Age.
Neanderthals likely employed birch tar for various applications, including wound care. Siemsen et al. confirmed that birch tar possesses selective antibacterial properties and effectively inhibits Staphylococcus aureus.
Birch tar is frequently discovered at Neanderthal sites, where it is known to have served as an adhesive for crafting tools.
Recent inquiries suggest that Neanderthals may have had additional uses for this versatile substance.
For instance, indigenous communities in Northern Europe and Canada have utilized birch tar to treat injuries. Increasing evidence indicates that Neanderthals also engaged in various medicinal practices.
To explore the medicinal capabilities of birch tar, Dr. Tjaark Siemssen and his team from the Universities of Cologne and Oxford extracted tar from birch tree bark, particularly species identified at Neanderthal sites.
The researchers employed multiple extraction techniques, including distillation in clay pits and condensation on stone surfaces—methods that Neanderthals could also have accessed.
All tested tar samples showcased effectiveness in inhibiting bacterial growth against various strains, including the notorious Staphylococcus bacteria responsible for wound infections.
These findings not only reinforce the efficacy of indigenous medicinal practices but also lend credence to the possibility that Neanderthals used birch tar for therapeutic purposes.
The researchers note that birch tar, alongside other available plants, may serve additional roles, such as an insect repellent.
Further investigations into the diverse applications of these natural substances will enrich our understanding of Neanderthal culture.
“Our findings demonstrate that birch tar produced by Neanderthals and early humans possesses notable antibacterial properties,” the researchers stated.
“This discovery has significant implications for how Neanderthals managed disease burdens during the last Ice Age and contributes to the expanding knowledge of medicine among early human communities.”
“Integrating research in indigenous pharmacology and experimental archaeology enhances our understanding of the medical practices of our early ancestors and their closest relatives.”
“Moreover, this paleopharmacological research could assist in rediscovering antibiotic treatments as we confront a rising crisis of antimicrobial resistance.”
“The intricate processes involved in birch tar production are noteworthy.”
“Each stage of production was a sensory journey, and the challenge of cleaning tar from my hands after hours by the fire was a central experience every time.”
For more detailed insights, refer to the study published in the journal PLoS ONE.
_____
T. Ziemsen et al. 2026. Antibacterial properties of experimentally produced birch tar and its medicinal efficacy in the Pleistocene. PLoS One 21 (3): e0343618; doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0343618
Recent findings on L 98-59d, part of the five-planet system L 98-59, indicate that this intriguing exoplanet may host an extensive global magma ocean, effectively trapping sulfur deep within its interior. This discovery introduces a previously unidentified category of extraterrestrial worlds.
Artist’s impression of planetary system L 98-59. Image credit: Mark A. Garlick / markgarlick.com.
The distant L 98-59 system lies approximately 34.5 light-years away in the southern constellation Bootes.
Known as TOI-175 or TIC 307210830, this bright M dwarf star has a mass roughly one-third that of the Sun.
This intriguing planetary system features at least three transiting planets and two non-transiting planets: L 98-59b, L 98-59c, L 98-59d, L 98-59e, and L 98-59f.
L 98-59d completes an orbit around its parent star every 7.5 days and is about 1.6 times larger than Earth, receiving approximately four times the radiant energy of our planet.
A recent study led by astronomer Harrison Nichols from the University of Oxford aimed to reconstruct the planetary history of this super-Earth, tracing its evolution from its formation nearly 5 billion years ago.
By correlating telescope observations with comprehensive physical models of the planet’s interior and atmosphere, the research team gained insights into the planet’s deep geological processes.
The findings suggest that L 98-59d possesses a mantle of molten silicate similar to Earth’s lava, underpinned by a vast global magma ocean that extends for thousands of kilometers.
This massive molten reservoir enables L 98-59d to store significant amounts of sulfur within its interior over geological timescales.
Moreover, the magma ocean assists in retaining a hydrogen-rich atmosphere laden with sulfur compounds like hydrogen sulfide, which is typically lost to space due to X-ray radiation emitted by the host star.
Over billions of years, the interplay between its molten interior and atmosphere has sculpted L 98-59d into the striking world observed today.
Researchers propose that L 98-59d may represent the inaugural example of a newly identified category of gas-rich sulfur exoplanets that sustain long-lived magma oceans. If validated, this could greatly expand our understanding of planetary diversity in the galaxy.
“This discovery highlights that the current classifications of small planets may be overly simplistic,” remarked Dr. Nichols.
“While this molten world is unlikely to support life, it showcases the vast array of planets beyond our solar system. What other types of celestial bodies remain undiscovered?”
For more details, refer to the study published in today’s edition of Nature Astronomy.
_____
H. Nichols et al. Evolution of a volatile-rich molten super-Earth L 98-59d. Nat Astron, published online March 16, 2026. doi: 10.1038/s41550-026-02815-8
Representation of Electrons in a Half Möbius Molecule
IBM Research and the University of Manchester
Recent discoveries by chemists reveal an intriguing new molecular structure, which exceeds the complexity of a traditional Möbius strip.
A Möbius strip is a twisted shape that requires an object, like an ant, to traverse it twice to return to its original side.
Igor Roncevic and his team at the University of Manchester have uncovered a more complex half-Möbius molecular structure. This breakthrough could revolutionize the manipulation of molecular shapes and topologies for various applications.
“This molecule is entirely novel and unexpected. Not only is it captivating that we have synthesized a molecule with unconventional topology, but we have also verified that such a structure is feasible, which was previously unconsidered,” he states.
To synthesize the molecule, the researchers combined 13 carbon atoms and two chlorine atoms into a ring on a gold substrate at ultra-low temperatures. Utilizing advanced atomic force and scanning tunneling microscopes, they precisely controlled individual atoms and analyzed the electron properties. Here, electrons do not remain rigidly attached but are diffused in a localized region, resembling tiny waves of matter.
The interactions among these electrons induced unprecedented twists within the molecule. A hypothetical quantum particle would need to revolve around the structure four times to return to its starting point.
Researchers demonstrated the ability to toggle the molecular state from left-handed to right-handed or to untwist it through small electromagnetic pulses. This innovation allows chemists to engineer molecular topology on demand.
To comprehend the newly discovered molecule and its potential existence, the researchers employed simulations on classical computers and an IBM quantum computer. Electron interactions are essential for introducing twists in molecules, which are challenging to simulate accurately on traditional platforms. However, quantum computers, built upon interacting quantum entities, can perform these simulations with greater precision, Roncevic notes.
According to team members, this research illustrates how quantum computing can tackle real-world chemistry challenges. Ivano Tavernelli from IBM emphasizes this point.
“This groundbreaking experiment integrates multiple facets of organic chemistry, surface science, nanoscience, and quantum chemistry,” asserts Gemma Solomon from the University of Copenhagen.
“This is an exciting endeavor that effectively translates abstract topological ideas into the field of molecular chemistry,” adds Kenichiro Itami from RIKEN, Japan, noting the technical significance of the research.
Kim Dong Ho, a professor at Yonsei University in South Korea, highlights the potential applications of shape-switchable molecules in sensor technology, indicating that they could toggle states in response to magnetic fields.
Scientists from the United States, Europe, and China utilized the Ultraviolet Spectrometer (UVS) on NASA’s Juno spacecraft to meticulously map the auroral patch structure on Ganymede, Jupiter’s moon, revealing similarities to Earth’s auroras. Their groundbreaking research indicates that interactions between magnetic fields and charged particles could be the universal driver of auroras, enhancing our understanding of magnetospheres across the solar system.
Artist’s concept of the aurora borealis on Jupiter’s moon Ganymede. Image credits: NASA/ESA/G. Bacon, STScI/J. Saur, University of Cologne.
Ganymede stands out as the only known moon to possess its intrinsic magnetic field, creating a miniature magnetosphere nested within the vast magnetosphere of Jupiter.
The auroral emissions primarily stem from oxygen at wavelengths of 130.4 nm and 135.6 nm, triggered by precipitating electrons.
In a recent groundbreaking study, researcher Philippe Gusbin from the University of Liège and his team examined ultraviolet observations of Ganymede conducted on June 7, 2021, by the Juno spacecraft.
They identified multiple auroral spots in Ganymede’s leading downstream hemisphere.
These patches typically measure about 50 km in size, with brightness levels soaring to around 200 Rayleigh.
“Auroras on Ganymede are driven by the precipitation of electrons into its thin oxygen atmosphere,” explained Gusbin.
“Previous observations of Ganymede’s auroras were limited in detail due to the spatial constraints of ground-based methods, which couldn’t resolve the fine structures commonly observed in planetary auroras.”
The morphology and scale of Ganymede’s auroras closely resemble the auroral ‘beads’ found on Earth prior to magnetospheric substorms and in Jupiter during ‘dawn storms.’
The lack of a similar patch in the southern hemisphere could stem from observational geometry, but it may also reflect an asymmetry tied to Ganymede’s location in Jupiter’s plasma disk.
“Auroral ‘beads’ are also present in the auroras of Earth and Jupiter, where they correlate with substorms and dawn storms—major magnetospheric reorganizations that release significant energy and induce intense auroral activity,” noted Dr. Alessandro Moirano, a postdoctoral researcher at the University of Liège and the National Institute of Astrophysics in Rome.
This discovery implies that similar physical processes may govern magnetospheres, despite variations in scale and environmental conditions.
“Juno’s close flyby of Ganymede lasted under 15 minutes, and it will not revisit Ganymede, leaving us unsure about the frequency of these patches or how they may evolve,” remarked Dr. Bertrand Bonfont, an astrophysicist at the University of Liège.
“Fortunately, ESA’s JUICE mission is currently en route to Jupiter and is set to arrive in 2031. This mission will conduct detailed observations of Ganymede.”
“Equipped with a similar ultraviolet spectrometer to that of Juno, this spacecraft will facilitate long-term observations that could reveal more about the evolution of Ganymede’s aurora and potentially uncover new mysteries.”
For further reading, refer to a paper published in Astronomy and Astrophysics.
_____
A. Moirano et al. 2026. High spatial resolution ultraviolet observations of Ganymede’s aurora patches by Juno. Constraints on the magnetospheric source region. A&A 706, L16; doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/202558379
Recent findings from museum collections in Australia and the United States showcase the incredible diversity of the Western Australian trematosaurid temnospondyl, underscoring how early marine amphibians proliferated across the continent shortly after the end-Permian mass extinction.
Ancient marine amphibians Erythrobatrachus (foreground) and Aphanelamma (background) traversed the northern coast of modern-day Western Australia 250 million years ago. Image credit: Pollyanna von Knorring, Swedish Museum of Natural History.
“The catastrophic end-Permian mass extinction and severe global warming gave rise to modern marine ecosystems at the dawn of the Mesozoic Era, around 252 million years ago,” stated Dr. Benjamin Kjaer from the Swedish Museum of Natural History and his colleagues.
“This significant evolutionary milestone marked the early emergence of sea-going tetrapods (limbed vertebrates), including amphibians and reptiles that quickly established themselves as dominant aquatic apex predators.”
“To date, the earliest sea monster fossils have primarily been documented in the Northern Hemisphere.”
“In contrast, the fossil record from the Southern Hemisphere remains geographically sparse and inadequately understood.”
Paleontologists recently analyzed marine amphibian fossils from the renowned Kimberley region of Western Australia’s far north.
“These fossils were uncovered during scientific expeditions in the early 1960s and 1970s,” the researchers noted.
“The specimens were subsequently distributed to various museum collections across Australia and the United States.”
“The results of this research were initially published in 1972, identifying a single species of marine amphibian, Erythrobatrachus nooncambahensis, named after skull fragments discovered at Noonkumba Farm, east of Derby in the Kimberley region.”
“Unfortunately, the original fossil of Erythrobatrachus has since been lost over the past 50 years.”
“This prompted a survey of international museum collections, leading to the rediscovery and reanalysis of these ancient marine amphibian remains in 2024.”
According to scientists, Erythrobatrachus is classified within the trematosaurid family of temnospondyls.
“Trematosaurids bore a superficial resemblance to crocodiles and were related to modern salamanders and frogs, reaching lengths of up to 2 meters (6.6 feet),” the researchers explained.
“These fossils hold significant importance as they were found in rocks deposited as coastal sediments less than a million years after the end-Permian mass extinction.”
“Thus, they represent the oldest currently recognized groups of Mesozoic marine tetrapods in geological terms.”
However, detailed investigations revealed that the skull fragments of Erythrobatrachus were not unified but belonged to at least two distinct types of trematosaurids: Erythrobatrachus and another species from the well-known genus Aphanelamma.
“Examination of Erythrobatrachus using advanced 3D imaging indicated the skull measured approximately 40 centimeters (16 inches) when intact, suggesting it was a robust, broad-headed apex predator,” the authors stated.
“Conversely, Aphanelamma were similar in size but featured elongated snouts adapted for catching smaller fish.”
“Both types of trematosaurids occupied the water column yet targeted different prey within the same habitat.”
“Furthermore, the fossils of Erythrobatrachus are uniquely found in Australia, while Aphanelamma has been discovered in similarly aged deposits across regions like the Scandinavian Arctic, Svalbard, the Far East, Pakistan, and Madagascar.”
“The Australian trematosaurid fossils provide evidence that these early Mesozoic marine tetrapods not only radiated swiftly into various ecological niches but also dispersed globally along the coastal margins of interconnected supercontinents during the initial two million years of the dinosaur epoch.”
The team’s study was recently published in the Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology.
_____
Benjamin P. Care and colleagues. Revision of Trematosauridae Erythrobatrachus nooncambahensis: A mysterious marine vertebrate assemblage from the Lower Triassic of Western Australia. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology, published online on February 22, 2026. doi: 10.1080/02724634.2025.2601224
A groundbreaking study by paleontologists at Yunnan University reveals that two Myrodonidae fish species, which thrived in what is now China approximately 518 million years ago during the Cambrian period, possessed a unique vision system featuring two large lateral eyes alongside two smaller central eyes.
An artist’s reconstruction of the four-eyed Myllokunmingiid that navigated the ancient world. Image credit: Xiangtong Lei and Sihang Zhang.
This primitive jawless fish, known as Myllokunmingiid, existed during the Cambrian period, a time marked by rapid evolutionary advancements in body structures and sensory systems as a response to increased predation.
Considered the oldest known vertebrates, these fascinating creatures challenge our understanding of early vision.
In a recent study, Professor Peiyun Cong and colleagues investigated a newly discovered fossil of Myrocunminidae, expertly preserved at the renowned Sumjiang Fossil Bed in southern China.
“These fossils maintain remarkable detail in their eye structures,” stated Professor Cong.
“Initially, we focused on the large eye to outline its anatomy and were astonished to discover two fully functional small eyes nestled between them. The excitement of this finding was immense.”
Modern vertebrates primarily rely on two eyes for vision.
The pineal gland, a brain structure, plays a crucial role in sleep regulation by producing melatonin in response to light exposure.
Interestingly, some fish, amphibians, and reptiles retain the ability to detect light through what is commonly referred to as a “third eye.”
The discovery of two Myrocunminidae provides evidence that early vertebrates possessed a well-developed pair of image-forming eyes, rather than a simple light sensor.
“Our findings suggest that the pineal gland originated as an imaging eye,” remarked Professor Cong.
“Over time, these structures diminished in size, lost their vision capabilities, and assumed their modern function in sleep regulation.”
Using a high-powered microscope, researchers identified melanosomes—pigment-containing organelles crucial for vision—across all four Myrocunminidae orders.
Chemical analyses confirmed the presence of melanin, the same pigment utilized in contemporary vertebrate vision.
Circular formations resembling lenses indicate that these eyes had the capacity to detect light and form images, offering direct evidence of an advanced visual system in early vertebrates.
Professor Sarah Gabot from the University of Leicester emphasized, “Fossilized eyes are extremely rare. It’s remarkable that delicate structures like eyes can survive hundreds of millions of years.”
“However, under optimal conditions, such preservation is achievable, unveiling crucial insights into how extinct species perceived their environment.”
“We speculated that these Chinese fossil eyes might be remarkably preserved, demonstrating light-absorbing pigments in their retinas and lenses, revealing the visual acuity of our early ancestors.”
The Cambrian seas presented perilous conditions, with emerging large predators threatening the small, vulnerable early vertebrates.
Dr. Jacob Binther, a paleontologist at the University of Bristol, noted, “In such an environment, having four eyes may have provided these organisms with a broader field of vision essential for evading predators.”
This discovery elucidates long-held questions about the origin of the pineal gland, offering the oldest known evidence of a camera-like eye in the fossil record.
“This finding reshapes our understanding of vertebrate evolutionary history,” stated Dr. Binther.
“It turns out our ancestors were visually sophisticated beings capable of surviving in a hazardous world.”
The study also prompts a reevaluation of the established notion of the vertebrate “third eye.”
“These early vertebrates possessed not only a third eye, but intriguingly, a fourth eye as well,” concluded Dr. Binther.
This discovery is detailed in a paper published in the journal Nature on January 21, 2026.
_____
X Ray others. 2026. Four camera-shaped eyes found in the earliest Cambrian vertebrates. Nature 650, 150-155; doi: 10.1038/s41586-025-09966-0
Ancient Inuit Circular Tents Found on Isbjørne Island
Credit: Matthew Walls, Marie Christ, Pauline Knudsen
4,500 years ago, early humans embarked on a historic journey to a remote island off Greenland’s northwest coast. This daring expedition entailed crossing over 50 kilometers of open sea, marking one of the longest maritime voyages by Arctic indigenous peoples.
Archaeologists assert that these intrepid sailors were the first to reach these isolated islands. Notably, John Derwent from the University of California, Davis, contributed insights but was not involved in this study.
In 2019, Matthew Walls and a team from the University of Calgary, Canada, explored the Kittisut Islands, also known as the Carey Islands, located northwest of Greenland. These islands lie within the Pikiarasorsuaq polynya—an open ocean region surrounded by sea ice, which has been present for approximately 4,500 years.
The research focused on three main islands: Isbjörne, Mellem, and Nordvest, revealing five sites with a total of 297 archaeological features. The most significant findings were at Isbjörne beach terraces, where they uncovered the remnants of 15 circular tents, each with a central hearth and divided by stones. These distinctive “bilobed” structures are emblematic of the Paleo-Inuit—the first settlers of northern Canada and Greenland.
Radiocarbon dating of a long-billed murre’s wing bones found within one of the tent rings indicated they are between 4,400 and 3,938 years old. This confirms that humans occupied the Kittisut Islands shortly after the formation of the polynya.
“We have nesting colonies of long-billed murres,” Walls noted. The early settlers likely harvested their eggs and hunted them for food, and they likely pursued seals as well.
The Old Inuit had already reached Greenland at this time and likely journeyed to Kittisut from the west, covering a minimum distance of about 52.7 kilometers. However, due to prevailing winds and currents, they most likely set sail from a more northerly location, resulting in a longer, safer journey. To the west of Kittisut lies Ellesmere Island, which is further but presents challenging navigational conditions.
The only comparable journey known in Arctic prehistory was the 82-kilometer crossing of the Bering Strait from Siberia to Alaska, likely first accomplished over 20,000 years ago, with the Diomede Islands serving as a midway stopping point.
“Crossing that expanse required advanced watercraft,” Derwent emphasizes. The population on Kittisut likely necessitated larger vessels rather than single-person kayaks. “You can’t transport children and the elderly safely in a kayak,” he explained. The Old Inuit likely used larger boats capable of carrying nine or ten individuals.
Despite extensive studies, no boat wrecks have yet been uncovered on Kittisut Island, and few such finds exist in the Arctic region. “Their vessels would have been skin-on-frame designs similar to those utilized by later Inuit communities,” noted Walls.
The initial Paleo-Inuit settlers likely played a vital role in shaping the Kittisut ecosystem. By transporting marine nutrients onto land, they fertilized the barren soil, fostering plant growth on the islands. “There’s initially a diverse plant life there, reliant on human involvement in nutrient cycling between marine and terrestrial systems.”
Arctic Cruise with Dr. Russell Arnott: Svalbard, Norway
Join marine biologist Russell Arnott for an unforgettable ocean expedition to the North Pole.
This image combines views from the Hubble and Keck II telescopes. The diagonal galaxy in the foreground serves as a gravitational lens, causing a distorted image of the background galaxy H1429-0028.
Credit: NASA/ESA/ESO/WM Keck Observatory
Astronomers have identified an unprecedented microwave beam, akin to a laser, emitted from two colliding galaxies. This discovery, the brightest and most distant recorded, marks a significant milestone in our understanding of cosmic phenomena.
The generation of laser light involves stimulating atoms into a high-energy state. When photons interact with these excited atoms, they induce the release of additional photons, leading to a chain reaction. The result is a coherent light beam with uniform frequency.
Similarly, during galactic collisions, compressed gas triggers star formation and enhanced luminosity. As light travels through dust clouds, it can excite hydroxyl ions composed of hydrogen and oxygen into a high-energy state. When these ions are stimulated by radio waves, potentially from a supermassive black hole, they can release concentrated beams of microwave radiation known as masers.
Recently, Roger Dean and researchers from the University of Pretoria discovered the brightest and most distant maser in galaxy H1429-0028, approximately 8 billion light-years from Earth. Gravitational lensing, caused by a massive galaxy, distorts the light from H1429-0028, acting like a cosmic magnifying glass.
Using the MeerKAT telescope—a network of 64 radio telescopes working collaboratively—Dean and his team searched for galaxies abundant in hydrogen molecules emitting distinctive frequencies. When they focused on H1429-0028, they detected an unusually strong radiation signal, indicating the presence of powerful masers.
“Upon checking the frequency of 1667 megahertz, we immediately recognized a significant signal. What was once a mere observation transformed into a record-breaking discovery,” Dean recalls.
These extraordinary light emissions could be classified as gigamasers, far exceeding the brightness of typical megamasers found closer to the Milky Way, with an intensity approximately 100,000 times that of an ordinary star, tightly concentrated in a minuscule region of space.
Future enhancements, including the development of the South African Square Kilometer Array, will be capable of detecting even more distant masers, poised to revolutionize our understanding of cosmic history. As Matt Jarvis from Oxford University notes, these masers may offer insights into the merger processes of some of the universe’s earliest galaxies.
“To acquire accurate data about these ancient galactic mergers, we require continuous radio and infrared emissions, primarily sourced from heated dust enveloping forming stars,” Jarvis explains. “The intricate physical conditions needed to produce masers originate from these galactic collisions.”
Explore Astronomy in Chile
Discover Chile’s astronomical wonders. Experience the world’s most advanced observatories while stargazing under unparalleled skies.
Recent findings highlight the emergence of early mining and hunting tools.
Raul Martin/MSF/Science Photo Library
Subscribe to Our Human Story, a monthly newsletter exploring revolutionary archaeology. Sign up today!
In headlines about human evolution, terms like “oldest,” “earliest,” and “first” dominate. I’ve authored numerous articles featuring these phrases.
This isn’t just an attention-grabbing tactic; it serves a purpose. When researchers identify evidence suggesting a species or behavior predates previous estimates, it elucidates our understanding of timelines and causations.
For instance, it was once believed that all rock art originated no earlier than 40,000 years ago, attributed solely to Homo sapiens, as Neanderthals were thought to have vanished by then. New evidence suggests that some prehistoric art predates this threshold, indicating Neanderthal artistic expression.
The past month has unveiled a flurry of “earliest” discoveries, prompting reflections on the reliability of such timelines. How can we ascertain the true age of early technologies?
Let the Exploration Begin!
During excavations in southern Greece, archaeologists unearthed two wooden tools estimated to be about 430,000 years old—possibly the oldest known wooden tools. One is believed to be a drilling rod, while the function of the other remains uncertain.
These tools are closely dated to the previous record holders, including the Clacton spear from Britain, approximated at 400,000 years old, and wooden spears found in Schöningen, now reassessed to nearly 300,000 years old.
Bone tools also emerged in Europe during this epoch. For instance, in Boxgrove, England, remnants from an elephant-like creature, possibly a steppe mammoth, were fashioned into hammers. These elephant bones date back 480,000 years, marking the oldest known utilization of elephant bone in Europe. However, in East Africa, ancient humans were crafting tools from elephant bones over 1.5 million years ago—perhaps much earlier.
Shifting our chronological lens, a recent discovery in Xigou, central China, reported a collection of 2,601 stone artifacts dating between 160,000 and 72,000 years ago, featuring composite tools attached to wooden handles—possibly the earliest evidence of such technologies in East Asia.
Moreover, an archaeological revelation in South Africa indicated that 60,000 years ago, early humans employed poisoned arrows for hunting, as evidenced by five arrowheads lined with toxic plant fluids.
Each of these findings carries deeper implications.
Examining the Past
Traces of plant toxins discovered on arrow points
Marlize Lombard
The oldest verified wooden tools we have may not represent the absolute earliest. Preservation issues plague prehistoric wooden artifacts; they tend to decay, leading to gaps in the historical record.
According to Katerina Harbati, who directs the wooden tools excavation, people likely used such tools well before 400,000 years ago, but prior examples remain undiscovered.
Woodworking is simpler than stone crafting, and since chimpanzees can fashion rudimentary wooden tools, it is plausible that wooden tools represent humanity’s earliest technological forms. An unexpected finding of a million-year-old wooden tool, though astonishing, would not be entirely improbable.
Consequently, significant narratives on human technological advancements shouldn’t solely pivot on the age of the earliest wood tools. Confidence in tool usage timelines necessitates rigorous investigation into various age groups.
As for poisoned arrows, these are recognized as the earliest validated forms of poisoned arrowheads. Nonetheless, designs akin to contemporary poisoned arrows have been identified from tens of thousands of years ago. Like wood, poison’s organic nature leads to rapid decay.
We should be cautiously assured. Poison arrows exemplify composite technological advancements and emerged later in the evolutionary timeline, possibly not even tracing back to early hominids such as Ardipithecus or Australopithecus.
Turning to prehistoric art, we find a wealth of complexity.
Exploring Prehistoric Graffiti
Hand stencils from a cave in Indonesia
Ahdi Agus Oktaviana
While cave paintings are iconic, other forms like carvings and engravings offer their own challenges in dating. If a sculpture is buried in sediment, its age can usually be determined based on sediment analysis. However, dating cave art proves trickier. Charcoal-based works that are less than 50,000 years old offer more reliable carbon dating, whereas those beyond this window yield inconclusive results.
Recently, hand-painted stencils found in caves on Sulawesi island were dated to at least 67,800 years, competing with a similar stencil in Spain attributed to Neanderthals, arguably the oldest rock art known.
Notably, the phrase “at least” matters significantly in this context. Dating relies on surface rock layers created through mineral deposits, which are only minimally informative. The artworks beneath could be much older.
The goal here isn’t to assert that we lack all knowledge, but rather, we possess a wealth of understanding, much of it newly uncovered in the last two decades. We must strive for a coherent timeline in human evolution and cultural development while acknowledging uncertainties.
In paleontology, having numerous specimens enhances reliability. Instead of studying charismatic prehistoric animals like dinosaurs, paleontologists often focus on smaller organisms that leave abundant fossil records, enabling deeper insights into their evolutionary progress.
However, in human evolution, the fossil record is uneven. Individual hominid species may number in the dozens, yet the early specimens remain scarce, hindering our understanding of their longevity and geographical spread. The relationship between evolved species also eludes clarity amidst possible complicated derivations.
Conversely, stone tool records are extensive, dating back to the 3.3 million-year-old Lomekwean stone tools in Kenya. We might encounter even older tools. Early humans like Ororin (6-4.5 million years ago) and Ardipithecus (5.8-4.4 million years ago) likely spent most time in trees, making their tool-making unlikely.
Wooden tools present their own challenges. Our knowledge remains limited and fragmented, largely due to preservation issues. A reliable timeline for the evolution of wooden tools seems elusive.
When it comes to ancient art, the challenges are primarily technical. Preserved artworks are available, yet accurate dating techniques are limited. Creating a chronology for artistic development poses immense challenges, although advancements in technology may facilitate progress over time. With any luck, by retirement, I hope to have a clearer understanding of the evolution of ancient human artistic practices.
In essence, all narratives about human evolution are, to some degree, provisional. This holds true across paleontological studies, especially for narratives with more uncertainty. The timeline of non-avian dinosaur extinction is quite clear-cut; however, human evolution allows for more variability. Further excavations and improved dating methods should refine our understanding, but some uncertainties may remain.
Neanderthals, the Origins of Humanity, and Cave Art: France
From Bordeaux to Montpellier, embark on a fascinating journey through time as you explore southern France’s significant Neanderthal and Upper Paleolithic sites.
A groundbreaking study conducted by researchers at McGill University indicates that human sleep patterns, or chronotypes, exist on a broader biological spectrum. Each subtype is linked to distinct health and behavioral traits, challenging the conventional ‘early riser vs. night owl’ classification.
Zhou et al. The study identifies five distinct biological subtypes, each related to various behavioral patterns and health conditions. Image credit: Wok & Apix.
Chronotype refers to the specific time during the 24-hour cycle when an individual naturally feels the most alert or is prepared for sleep.
Previous research has often associated late-onset chronotypes with health issues, yet the findings have frequently been inconsistent.
“Instead of asking if night owls face greater risks, it may be more insightful to explore which specific night owls are at risk and why,” explains Dr. Yue Zhou, a researcher at McGill University.
Utilizing AI technology, Zhou and colleagues analyzed brain scans, questionnaires, and medical records from over 27,000 adults in the UK Biobank.
Their findings uncovered three night owl subtypes and two early riser groups.
One early riser subtype exhibited the fewest health issues, while the other was more closely linked to depression.
Night owls performed better on cognitive assessments but faced difficulties in emotional regulation.
One night owl group was prone to risk-taking behaviors and cardiovascular challenges, while another group showed higher tendencies for depression, smoking, and heart disease.
“These subtypes are not merely characterized by their sleep times,” stated Dr. Danilo Buzdok from McGill University.
“They represent a complex interaction of genetic, environmental, and lifestyle factors.”
Instead of categorizing sleep types as good or bad, the researchers emphasize how risks and strengths are distributed differently among the five profiles.
A nuanced comprehension of sleep profiles can clarify why identical sleep schedules impact individuals differently, promoting research and sleep support that transcends a one-size-fits-all methodology.
“In today’s digital age and post-pandemic world, sleep patterns are more diverse than ever,” remarks Zhou.
“Recognizing this biological diversity may ultimately lead to more personalized strategies for sleep, work schedules, and mental health support.”
For further details, refer to the published findings in the Journal on December 22, 2025, Nature Communications.
_____
L. Joe et al. (2025). Potential brain subtypes of chronotypes reveal unique behavioral and health profiles across population cohorts. Nat Commune 16, 11550; doi: 10.1038/s41467-025-66784-8
Exploring Bella Junior’s Supernova, also referred to as RX J0852.0-4622 or G266.2-1.2, scientists have revealed the mysteries surrounding its explosive past. This ancient nebula, once a brilliant supernova, has perplexed researchers regarding its distance and the magnitude of its explosion. Recently, however, groundbreaking discoveries linked a newly formed star, Ve 7-27, with the remnants of Bella Junior. By utilizing the Multi-Unit Spectroscopic Explorer (MUSE) on the ESO’s Very Large Telescope, astronomers have captured unprecedented detailed images of Ve 7-27.
VLT/MUSE image of Ve 7-27. Image credit: ESO / Suherli et al.
“This is the first evidence ever connecting a newborn star to the remnants of a supernova,” stated Dr. Samar Safi Harb, an astrophysicist from the University of Manitoba.
“This discovery resolves a decades-long debate, enabling us to calculate the distance of Bella Junior, its size, and the true power of the explosion.”
By examining the gas emissions from Ve 7-27, Dr. Safi Harb and his team confirmed that it shares the same chemical signature as materials from the Vela Junior supernova.
This correlation established a physical connection between the two celestial bodies, allowing astronomers to accurately determine Bella Junior’s distance.
Both Ve 7-27 and Vela Junior are approximately 4,500 light-years away.
“The gas present in this young star mirrors the chemical composition of stars that exploded in the past,” remarked Dr. Safi Harb.
“Isn’t it poetic? Those same elements eventually contributed to Earth and now play a role in forming new stars.”
Recent findings indicate that Bella Junior is larger, more energetic, and expanding at a rate quicker than previously thought, marking it as one of the most potent supernova remnants in our galaxy.
“Stars are constructed in layers, much like onions,” Dr. Safi Harb explained. “When they explode, these layers are propelled into space.”
“Our research indicates that these layers are now becoming visible in the jets of nearby young stars.”
“This study not only solves an enduring astronomical enigma but also sheds light on stellar evolution, the enrichment of galaxies with elements, and how extreme cosmic events continue to shape our universe.”
This research was published today in a study featured in the Astrophysics Journal Letters.
Credit: Dr. Gavin Leroy/Professor Richard Massey/COSMOS-Webb Collaboration
In a groundbreaking study, scientists leveraged subtle distortions in the shapes of over 250,000 galaxies to construct the most detailed dark matter map to date, paving the way for insights into some of the universe’s greatest enigmas.
Dark matter, elusive by nature, does not emit any detectable light. Its existence can only be inferred through its gravitational interactions with normal matter. Researchers, including Jacqueline McCreary from Northeastern University, utilized the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) to map a region of the sky larger than the full moon.
“This high-resolution image depicts the scaffold of a small segment of the universe,” noted McCreary. The new map boasts double the resolution of previous ones created by the Hubble Space Telescope, encompassing structures much farther away.
The researchers studied approximately 250,000 galaxies, noting that their shapes, while interesting, serve primarily as a backdrop for understanding gravitational distortions. As Liliya Williams from the University of Minnesota explained, “These galaxies merely act as the universe’s wallpaper.” The critical component is the way dark matter’s gravitational pull warps the light from these distant galaxies—a phenomenon known as gravitational lensing. The more distorted the shape of these galaxies is from a perfect circle, the greater the amount of dark matter situated between us and them.
By analyzing these optical distortions, the team was able to derive a map illustrating massive galaxy clusters and the cosmic web filaments linking them. Many of these newly identified structures deviate from prior observations of luminous matter, suggesting they are predominantly composed of dark matter. “Gravitational lensing is one of the few and most effective techniques for detecting these structures across vast regions,” Williams stated.
This research is significant, considering that dark matter constitutes about 85% of the universe’s total matter, crucial for the formation and evolution of galaxies and clusters. Understanding its distribution could shed light on its behavior and composition, according to Williams.
“This achievement is not just observational but also paves the way for various analyses, including constraints on cosmological parameters, the relationship between galaxies and their dark matter halos, and their growth and evolution over time,” McCreary highlighted. These parameters include the strength of dark energy, the enigmatic force driving the universe’s accelerating expansion.
While initial findings from the JWST map align with the Lambda CDM model of the universe, McCreary emphasizes that a thorough analysis of the data is still required to unearth new insights. “At first glance, it appears consistent with Lambda CDM, but I remain cautious. A final assessment will depend on complete results.”
For over 165 years, the enigmatic prototaxite has stood as one of the earliest giants to rise from Earth’s barren landscapes, defying simple classification. These towering, columnar organisms dominated the terrestrial environment over 400 million years ago, reaching impressive heights of 8 meters (26 ft), long before the advent of trees. A recent study conducted by paleontologists from the University of Edinburgh and the National Museums of Scotland posits that this mysterious entity was not merely a giant fungus, as often presumed, but rather belonged to an entirely extinct lineage of complex life.
Prototaxites dominated terrestrial ecosystems 410 million years ago as the largest living organisms. Image credit: Matt Humpage.
The prototaxite marks the first giant life form on Earth’s surface, emerging during the late Silurian to late Devonian periods, approximately 420 to 370 million years ago.
Recognized for their pillar-like fossils that can reach up to 8 meters, they played a crucial role in early terrestrial ecosystems well before the emergence of trees.
These organisms were widely distributed across ancient terrestrial environments and were likely consumed by arthropods, marking a pivotal stage in land colonization and holding significant ecological importance.
Despite over 165 years of inquiry, the biological identity of prototaxite remains a topic of heated debate among paleontologists, who contest whether it is a fungus or belonged to a distinct, entirely extinct lineage of complex eukaryotes.
In a groundbreaking study, Dr. Corentin Rollon and colleagues examined Prototaxites Taichi, found preserved in remarkable three-dimensional detail within the 407-million-year-old Rhynie Chert in Aberdeenshire, Scotland.
“The Rhynie Chert is a remarkable treasure trove,” noted Dr. Rollon, the lead author of the study published in this week’s edition of Scientific Progress.
“This site represents one of the oldest fossilized terrestrial ecosystems, and its well-preserved biodiversity enables innovative approaches like machine learning applied to fossil molecular data.”
“Numerous other specimens from the Rhynie Chert are preserved in museum collections, contributing vital context to our findings.”
The research team investigated new specimens of Prototaxites Taichi, identifying the largest known example of this species at the site, facilitating detailed anatomical and molecular comparisons with fossil fungi found in the same deposits.
Microscopic imaging revealed a complex internal structure that diverges significantly from any known fungi.
The fossil comprises three distinct types of tubes, including large, thick-walled tubes featuring annular stripes and dense spherical regions known as medullary points.
These intriguing features form a complex 3D network of interconnected tubes, suggesting a branching pattern unheard of in fungal biology.
Researchers employed infrared spectroscopy and machine learning techniques to classify molecular fingerprints from prototaxite alongside those of fossil fungi, arthropods, plants, and bacteria found in Rhynie Chert.
Fossilized fungi from this location maintain characteristic chemical signatures linked to chitin-rich cell walls, which were intriguingly absent in ancient prototaxite.
The team also searched for perylene, a biomarker associated with pigment compounds produced by specific fungi, previously detected in other Rhynie Chert fossils. However, no such compounds were found in the prototaxite sample.
Collectively, the structural, chemical, and biomarker findings imply that prototaxite does not align with any known fungal group, including the earliest forms of modern fungi.
“This research marks a significant advancement in a 165-year-long discussion,” stated Dr. Sandy Hetherington, the senior author of the paper.
“These organisms represent life forms distinct from those we currently recognize, displaying different anatomical and chemical characteristics from fungi and plants, thereby belonging to a unique, now-extinct lineage of complex life.”
“Our study combines chemical analysis and anatomical insights into prototaxite, revealing that it cannot be classified within any known fungal group,” explained co-author Laura Cooper.
“As earlier researchers have discounted classifications to other large and complex life forms, we conclude that prototaxite belonged to an entirely distinct lineage of extinct complex life.”
“Thus, prototaxite symbolizes independent evolutionary experiments in constructing large and complex organisms, known to us only through exceptionally preserved fossils.”
_____
Corentin C. Rollon et al. 2026. Prototaxites fossils are structurally and chemically distinct from both extinct and extant fungi. Scientific Progress 12(4); doi: 10.1126/sciadv.aec6277
Illustration of Paranthropus: Early Hominins from 2.7 to 1.4 Million Years Ago
Credit: John Bavaro Fine Art/Science Photo Library
For the first time, remains of ancient humans, specifically Paranthropus, have been discovered in the Afar region of Ethiopia. This groundbreaking discovery indicates that Paranthropus lived across diverse ecosystems.
The remains of Paranthropus, dated between 2.7 and 1.4 million years ago, suggest a close relation to Homo, the genus that includes modern humans and Neanderthals. They are believed to have evolved from the early hominin known as Australopithecus.
Zeresenai Alemseged, a prominent researcher from the University of Chicago, has been excavating the Mille Logya site in the Afar Depression since 2012. This area is rich in human fossils, including remains of Homo and Australopithecus. Alemseged states, “Paranthropus was thought not to have reached this far north.”
On January 19, 2019, Alemseged’s local assistant discovered a piece of a toothless lower jawbone. “The size was the first feature that caught my attention,” Alemseged recalls. On the same day, the research team also found the crown of a lower left molar.
CT scans revealed distinctive Paranthropus characteristics, including the jawbone’s dimensions and the intricate structure of the tooth roots within. While the team couldn’t definitively classify the species, it is likely to be Paranthropusethiopicus or Paranthropusboisei based on the location of the find.
Dating analyses indicate the jawbone to be approximately 2.6 million years old, making it one of the oldest known specimens of Paranthropus.
“There is no doubt that it belongs to Paranthropus,” asserts Carrie Mongul from Stony Brook University, who was not involved in the research. “The dating is unquestionable.”
Assembled Fragment of Paranthropus Mandible
Credit: Alemseged Research Group/University of Chicago
Previously, the northernmost Paranthropus specimen was a skull excavated from Konso in southern Ethiopia. This new specimen extends the range over 1,000 kilometers northward.
Paranthropus,” states Mongul.
Alemseged believes this specimen also illustrates the species’ adaptability. The large jaws and teeth of Paranthropus have been interpreted as indicators of a tough diet. Although the specifics of Mille Logya’s environment are unclear, it appears that Paranthropus thrived in more open habitats compared to the wooded areas frequented by earlier specimens.
“While they were specialized, we may have overemphasized their dietary limits,” concurs Alemseged. “Different Paranthropus populations appear to have adapted to various habitats, much like Homo and Australopithecus.”
Mongul noted existing evidence that Paranthropus thrived in its new environment by adapting to the expansion of grasslands across East Africa and even selecting gramineous food. The new Mille Logya specimen reinforces this observation of versatility.
Recent findings suggest that Paranthropus may have utilized and even crafted simple stone tools. In 2023, stone tools were found in Kenya, associated with Paranthropus ancestors. By 2025, newfound dexterity in the hands of Paranthropus was documented.
Alemseged concludes that since Australopithecus was capable of creating and using tools, and given the timeline, Paranthropus must have shared this capability stemming from their common ancestry with early chimpanzees.
Discovery Tour: Archeology and Paleontology
New Scientist frequently covers remarkable archaeological sites globally that reshape our understanding of species and the origins of civilization. Why not explore them too?
This excerpt is from *Our Human Story*, a monthly newsletter focused on revolutionary archaeology discoveries. Subscribe to receive insights directly in your inbox.
In early January, the chill in south-west England can be quite biting. Though my Canadian and Scandinavian friends might chuckle at my discomfort, it’s cold enough for me to feel it in my bones without proper attire.
This stark cold evokes thoughts of our long-extinct relatives, the Neanderthals. Common portrayals often cast them in freezing landscapes reminiscent of Siberia — with icy winds and woolly mammoths roaming the snow. They’re typically seen as hominins well-adapted to frigid conditions.
<p>Yet, if you’ve been following the *New Scientist*, you might recall hints suggesting otherwise. November brought an intriguing article titled "Neanderthals' Big Noses Weren't Adapted for Cold Climates."</p>
<p>Chris Sims discussed the first analysis of Altamura Man, a well-preserved Neanderthal from Italy. Despite prior beliefs, this specimen lacked specialized nasal structures previously thought essential for warming inhaled air, leading researcher Todd Ray to assert that the notion of Neanderthals thriving in icy climates is "absolute nonsense." He emphasized, "They likely suffered from the cold just like we do."</p>
<section></section>
<p>Similarly, in December, we uncovered evidence that ancient humans began mastering fire by striking flint against pyrite, dating back 400,000 years in southern England. This predates Neanderthals and hints at their probable innovation in fire-starting, particularly as their bodies were not tailored to endure Britain's chill.</p>
<p>If Neanderthals were not primarily adapted for cold climates, what environments did they actually inhabit? Emerging research published in the <em>Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports</em> unveils a fascinating narrative of Neanderthal existence.</p>
<h2>Southern Refuge: The Neanderthal's Habitat</h2>
<p>Among all extinct human species, Neanderthals are our closest relatives. They thrived across Europe and western Asia for countless millennia until their disappearance around 40,000 years ago, coinciding with the significant expansion of our species into Europe.</p>
<p>The long history endured by Neanderthals saw them through several ice ages, characterized by fluctuating climates and shifting ice sheets. They lived during periods when the Earth's magnetic field changes potentially increased their exposure to harmful UV radiation. Compelling evidence indicates that Neanderthals engaged in artistic expression and had cultural practices surrounding death, such as structured burials.</p>
<p>Over time, however, Neanderthal habitats diminished. Fascinatingly, they withdrew from Asia and northern Europe, ultimately being confined to southern Europe, especially the Iberian Peninsula (modern-day Spain and Portugal). Recent studies focus on this southern region, where Neanderthals exhibited remarkable longevity.</p>
<p>Let’s examine a significant study by Loic Lebreton and his team at the Catalan Institute of Human Paleoecology and Social Evolution in Spain. They analyzed small mammals (nicknamed "micromammals") as climate indicators. Warm, humid environments support a greater diversity of wildlife compared to cold, arid areas. Their research indicated that northeastern Spain maintained a stable, warm climate from 215,000 to 10,000 years ago, heavily influenced by the Mediterranean, unlike the more variable conditions in southern France and northern Italy, plausibly contributing to the prolonged survival of Neanderthals in Spain.</p>
<p>Research led by Sarah Barakat from the University of Aberdeen suggests that vast forested areas likely covered much of the Neanderthal habitat. At <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jasrep.2025.105456">Lazaretto Cave</a>, home to Neanderthals between 190,000 and 130,000 years ago, remains of aurochs, red deer, ibex, and gray wolves have been found. Examination of their teeth indicates herbivores primarily consumed woody plants, suggesting a richly forested environment with some grassland.</p>
<p>Coba del Geganto, a cave near Barcelona, offers additional insight into the Neanderthal ecosystem. Dating from 145,000 to 24,700 years ago, the site contains evidence of numerous bird species typical of woodlands and scrublands, alongside some that currently inhabit only northern regions, indicating migration patterns during colder periods.</p>
<p>Although direct evidence of Neanderthals hunting these birds is lacking, analysis of the bones found may point to their dietary habits. Research into animal remains would clarify whether Neanderthals utilized specific species within this cave ecosystem.</p>
<h2>The Final Days of Neanderthals</h2>
<p>As the Neanderthal epoch approached conclusion, they displayed remarkable adaptability. Rosa Albert and her colleagues studied the Liparo Los Curciuto site in southern Italy's Ginosa Valley, which recorded Neanderthal activity from 55,000 to 42,800 years ago. Geological formations reveal shifting conditions from forest coverage to more open grasslands, driving Neanderthal adaptations in foraging and fire use.</p>
<p>Even by 41,000 years ago, certain Neanderthal groups thrived, despite their relatives disappearing from large portions of Eurasia. Research at <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jasrep.2025.105149">Cova Eiros in northwestern Spain</a> documented diverse animal remains, including significant numbers of red deer and cave bears, shedding light on their dietary patterns.</p>
<p>Findings indicated that 5.5 percent of the bones exhibited Neanderthal marks, suggesting their consistent interaction with the environment, including instances of consuming cave bear remains.</p>
<p>Fellow researchers discovered similar patterns at <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jasrep.2025.105457">Covallejos</a>, another northern Spanish cave, indicating Neanderthals exploited a variety of food sources, including red deer and large herbivores.</p>
<p>What ultimately led to their extinction? Research by Liz Charton and team at France's Institute of Human Paleontology indicates various environmental stressors. Analyzing marine sediment core samples from the western Mediterranean, they traced dramatic climatic shifts between 41,000 and 34,000 years ago. The increase of grassland and semi-arid vegetation aligns with previous findings of substantially drier conditions.</p>
<p>This research mapping known hominin sites during this period shows a decline in Neanderthal tool usage as modern human artifacts became more prevalent. Although Neanderthals likely retreated to southern regions, they faced increased competition from modern humans.</p>
<p>This doesn’t imply that desiccation singularly led to their extinction; Neanderthals had previously navigated similar environmental challenges and survived. However, this factor, among others, likely contributed to their decline.</p>
<p>In investigating Neanderthal culture, Nohemi Sala and colleagues at Spain's National Center for Human Evolution Research analyzed burial practices at <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jasrep.2025.105316">46 sites on the Iberian Peninsula</a>. Evidence for deliberate burials can be found in various locations, yet none have been documented in Spain or Portugal.</p>
<p>This does not exclude the possibility that Iberian Neanderthals had unique mourning practices or ideas about honoring the deceased. At Sima de las Palomas, multiple Neanderthals were discovered within a vertical cave; one individual, lying in a specific position, suggests intentional placement. Such sites may have served as natural burial grounds.</p>
<p>Moreover, evidence indicates that Iberian Neanderthals might have engaged in ritualistic cannibalism, reflecting the varying cultural significance of death across societies.</p>
<p>Interestingly, Neanderthal funerary customs appear to have diversified over the last 10,000 years, potentially as a result of migrant waves introducing new practices.</p>
<p>While it’s disheartening that despite their innovation and adaptability, Neanderthals faced extinction, their genetic legacy persists in many of us today, highlighting a genetic and cultural exchange with modern humans.</p>
<section class="ArticleTopics" data-component-name="article-topics">
<p class="ArticleTopics__Heading">Topics:</p>
<ul class="ArticleTopics__List">
<li class="ArticleTopics__ListItem">Neanderthal Man<span>/</span></li>
<li class="ArticleTopics__ListItem">Ancient Humans</li>
</ul>
</section>
This revision retains the original HTML structure while incorporating SEO-optimized keywords and restructuring phrases for clarity and engagement.
Using high-resolution images, NIRCam, a near-infrared camera aboard the NASA/ESA/CSA James Webb Space Telescope, has led astronomers to discover COSMOS-74706, one of the earliest known barred spiral galaxies. This discovery is pivotal in shaping our understanding of cosmic evolution.
COSMOS-74706: Unsharp mask overlaid on F200W, F277W, and F356W filter configurations. The white lines represent logarithmic spirals along the galaxy’s arm structure while the lines indicate the north-south bar structure. Image credit: Daniel Ivanov.
The barred spiral galaxy COSMOS-74706 existed approximately 11.5 billion years ago.
“This galaxy developed its bar just two billion years after the universe’s inception,” stated Daniel Ivanov, a graduate student at the University of Pittsburgh.
“Stellar bars are linear features found at the centers of galaxies, confirming their namesakes.”
COSMOS-74706’s bar comprises a dense collection of stars and gas, appearing as a bright line bisecting the galaxy when viewed perpendicularly to its plane.
Stellar bars significantly influence a galaxy’s evolution, funneling gas from the outskirts into the center, which feeds the supermassive black hole and can inhibit star formation within the galactic disk.
While previous reports identified barred spiral galaxies, their analyses were inconclusive due to the less reliable optical redshift methods compared to the spectroscopy used for COSMOS-74706 verification.
In some instances, a galaxy’s light was distorted by a massive object, leading to a phenomenon known as gravitational lensing.
“Essentially, COSMOS-74706 is the most redshifted spectroscopically confirmed lensless barred spiral galaxy,” Ivanov noted.
“We were not surprised to find barred spiral galaxies so early in the universe’s timeline.”
“In fact, some simulations suggest the bar formed at redshift 5, or roughly 12.5 billion years ago.”
“However, I believe we shouldn’t expect to find many of these galaxies just yet.”
This discovery helps refine the timeline for bar formation, making it a significant finding.
Newly discovered planets orbiting V1298 Tau are unusually lightweight, possessing a density comparable to polystyrene. This discovery may bridge critical gaps in our understanding of planetary system formation.
Unlike most planets in our Milky Way galaxy, which are often larger than Earth and smaller than Neptune, this solar system showcases an uncommon configuration. Astronomers have cataloged numerous planetary systems that formed billions of years ago, complicating our understanding of their genesis.
The research team, led by John Livingstone from the Astrobiology Center in Tokyo and Eric Pettigura from UCLA, has identified four dense planets that likely formed recently around a young star, V1298 Tau, which is around 20 million years old.
“We are examining younger models of the types of planetary systems commonly found across our galaxy,” Pettigura remarked.
Initially discovered in 2017, V1298 Tau and its accompanying planets remained largely unstudied until now. Over five years, researchers utilized both terrestrial and space telescopes to observe tiny variances in orbital durations, revealing intricate gravitational interactions among the four planets. These measurements enable more precise calculations of each planet’s radius and mass.
To effectively employ this observational method, researchers required initial estimates of each planet’s orbital duration without gravitational interference. Lacking that data for the outermost planet, they relied on educated conjectures, risking inaccuracies in their calculations.
“I initially had my doubts,” Petitgras admitted. “There were numerous potential pitfalls… When we first acquired data from the outermost planet, it felt as exhilarating as making a hole-in-one in golf.”
By accurately measuring the orbital durations and subsequently estimating the radii and masses, the team determined the densities of the planets. They discovered these are the lowest-density exoplanets known, with radii spanning five to ten times that of Earth, yet only a few times its mass.
“These planets exhibit a density akin to Styrofoam, which is remarkably low,” Pettigura explained.
This low density can be attributed to the planets’ ongoing gravitational contraction, potentially classifying them as super-Earths or sub-Neptunes—types of planets typically formed during the evolutionary stages.
The planets of V1298 Tau operate in a so-called orbital resonance, indicating their orbital periods are harmonically related. This observation aligns with astronomers’ theories on the formation of most planetary systems, including our own solar system, which initially have tightly packed configurations that eventually evolve into less stable arrangements, according to Sean Raymond from the University of Bordeaux in France.
“This newly identified system of close, low-mass planets revolving around a relatively young star could provide insights into typical sub-Neptunian systems,” Raymond pointed out. “This discovery is remarkable due to the inherent challenges in characterizing such youthful systems.”
Astronomers utilizing the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope have verified the presence of a starless, hydrogen-rich object primarily composed of dark matter. These intriguing entities, referred to as reionization-limited HI clouds (RELHICs), are remnants of the early Universe. They pose challenges to traditional theories of galaxy formation and may indicate undiscovered populations of similar cosmic structures.
This image illustrates the location of RELHIC object Cloud-9. Image credits: NASA / ESA / VLA / Gagandeep Anand, STScI / Alejandro Benitez-Llambay, University of Milan-Bicocca / Joseph DePasquale, STScI.
The RELHIC object, known as Cloud-9, was detected using the 500-meter Aperture Spherical Telescope (FAST) and its existence was independently verified by the Very Large Array (VLA) and the Green Bank Telescope (GBT).
“This is the narrative of a failed galaxy,” states astronomer Alejandro Benítez Lambay from the University of Milano-Bicocca.
“Scientific advancements often arise from failures rather than successes. In this case, the absence of stars confirms our theoretical framework,” he adds.
“This discovery reveals primordial components of galaxies yet to form within our local universe.”
The core of Cloud-9 consists of neutral hydrogen and spans approximately 4,900 light-years in diameter.
This object is positioned in proximity to the spiral galaxy Messier 94, shares its recession velocity, and is approximately 14.3 million light-years away from Earth.
“Cloud-9 represents a crucial glimpse into the enigmatic dark universe,” remarked Dr. Andrew Fox, an astronomer at ESA’s Association of Universities for Astronomical Research/Space Telescope Science Institute (AURA/STScI).
“Theoretical models suggest that a majority of the universe’s mass is composed of dark matter, which does not emit light, thus making it challenging to detect.”
“Cloud-9 offers a rare opportunity to study clouds dominated by dark matter.”
The findings discount the presence of dwarf galaxies with detectable stellar masses.
“The lack of observable stars reinforces the interpretation of this system as a RELHIC—a starless dark matter halo filled with hydrostatic gas in thermal equilibrium with the cosmic ultraviolet background,” stated the researchers.
Cloud-9 stands as a prime candidate for a compact HI cloud and offers robust empirical support for the ΛCDM (lambda cold dark matter) model, a leading cosmological framework.
This model predicts the existence of a starless dark matter halo filled with gas on subgalactic mass scales that have yet to form stars.
“The discovery of Cloud-9 also refines the current thresholds for halo mass required for galaxy formation, bringing us closer to understanding why some dark matter halos host galaxies while others remain barren,” concluded the researchers.
For detailed findings, look for the upcoming publication in the Astrophysics Journal Letter.
_____
Gagandeep S. Anand et al. 2025. The first RELHIC? Cloud-9 is a starless gas cloud. APJL 993, L55; doi: 10.3847/2041-8213/ae1584
Is Psychopathy Inherited or Acquired? This question is more complex than it seems. For years, psychopathy was deemed a mysterious condition, and to some extent, it continues to mystify.
Many mental, neurological, and personality disorders instill fear in people. This fear often stems from ignorance and misconceptions.
While only about 1% of the general population shows signs of psychopathy, this figure jumps to 25% within the prison community.
What exactly triggers psychopathy? Are individuals born psychopaths, or are they shaped by adverse experiences? This touches on the age-old debate of nature versus nurture.
Despite advancements in science, the concept of personality remains challenging to define, making discussions around individual differences equally complex.
This complexity extends to psychopathy, as illustrated in Jon Ronson’s book The Psychopath Test, which highlights the challenges in reliably diagnosing psychopathy.
Despite these challenges, most would agree that psychopathy is a genuine psychological condition, albeit difficult to identify accurately. Recent research has shed light on this intricate issue.
Utilizing brain imaging methods like fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging), scientists have discovered that psychopathy correlates with distinct brain structure differences.
If psychopathy is innate, it raises profound questions about the evolutionary purpose of such traits. – Image credit: Getty
These brain regions have diverse functions, but their specific combination significantly impacts emotional processing. The structural differences may impair the brain’s ability to recognize, encode, and interpret emotional information.
As emotions play a crucial role in human cognition, a deficiency in emotional understanding might contribute to hallmark traits of psychopathy, including a pronounced lack of empathy and an overreliance on rational thought.
Determining why certain individuals possess specific brain features remains a challenge. Genetic factors appear to be involved, as indicated by research studies.
While a person’s environment and experiences may exacerbate psychopathic traits, it is uncertain if such factors can consistently alter both brain structure and genetics.
Overall, evidence leans toward the idea that psychopathy is more likely innate than acquired.
However, whether such a mental disorder manifests is a different question altogether.
This article answers the query by Elliott Owens of St. Albans: “Is psychopathy innate or acquired?”
For inquiries, please reach out via:questions@sciencefocus.com or message us onFacebook,Twitter, or Instagram(please include your name and location).
Explore our ultimatefun facts and discover more amazing science content!
A rare triple-merger galaxy, known as J121/1219+1035, hosts three actively feeding radio-bright supermassive black holes, as revealed by a team of American astronomers.
Artist’s impression of J121/1219+1035, a rare trio of merging galaxies, featuring three radioactively bright supermassive black holes actively feeding, with jets illuminating the surrounding gas. Image credit: NSF/AUI/NRAO/P. Vosteen.
The J1218/1219+1035 system is located approximately 1.2 billion light-years from Earth.
This unique galaxy system contains three interacting galaxies, each harboring supermassive black holes at their centers that are actively accreting material and shining brightly in radio frequencies.
Dr. Emma Schwartzman, a research scientist at the US Naval Research Laboratory, states: “Triple active galaxies like J1218/1219+1035 are incredibly rare, and observing them during a merger allows us a front-row seat to the growth of supermassive galaxies and their black holes.”
“Our observations confirmed that all three black holes in J1218/1219+1035 are emitting bright radiation and actively firing jets. This supports the theory of active galactic nuclei (AGN) and provides insight into the life cycle of supermassive black holes.”
Schwartzman and colleagues utilized NSF’s Very Large Array (VLA) and Very Long Baseline Array (VLBA) to study J1218/1219+1035.
The findings confirmed that each galaxy hosts a compact synchrotron-emitting radio core, indicating that all three harbor AGNs powered by growing black holes.
This discovery makes J1218/1219+1035 the first confirmed triple radio AGN and only the third known triple AGN system in nearby space.
“The three galaxies within J1218/1219+1035, located about 22,000 to 97,000 light-years apart, are in the process of merging, resulting in a dynamically connected group with tidal signatures indicative of their interactions,” the astronomers noted.
“Such triple systems are crucial in the context of hierarchical galactic evolution, wherein large galaxies like the Milky Way grow through successive collisions and mergers with smaller galaxies, yet they are seldom observed.”
“By capturing three actively feeding black holes within the same merging group, our new observations create an excellent laboratory for testing how galactic encounters funnel gas into centers and stimulate black hole growth.”
J1218/1219+1035 was initially flagged as an anomalous system through mid-infrared data from NASA’s Wide-Field Infrared Surveyor (WISE), which suggested the presence of at least two obscured AGNs within the interacting galaxies.
Optical spectroscopy confirmed one AGN in a core while revealing complex signatures in another, although the nature of the third galaxy remained uncertain due to the possibility of emissions from star formation.
“Only through new ultra-sharp radio imaging with VLA at frequencies of 3, 10, and 15 GHz did we uncover compact radio cores aligned with all three optical galaxies, confirming that each hosts an AGN bright in radio emissions and likely fueling small-scale jets and outflows,” the researchers explained.
“The radio spectra of the three cores exhibited traits consistent with non-thermal synchrotron radiation from the AGNs, featuring two sources with typical steep spectra and a third with an even steeper spectrum potentially indicative of unresolved jet activity.”
For numerous young individuals in schools and universities, a solid understanding of digital skills is essential for future learning and employment prospects. Nonetheless, teachers face a considerable challenge in ensuring these skills are utilized effectively.
As reported by The Hacking Games, an organization focused on helping youth with hacking skills secure jobs in the cybersecurity sector, criminal groups are increasingly targeting talented teenagers within popular online gaming spaces.
This is a route that educators hope to steer their students away from, which is why Co-op, a sponsor of the Co-op Academies Trust, has collaborated with The Hacking Games. The Co-op Academies Trust serves over 20,000 students across 38 primary, secondary, and special needs schools, as well as one college in Northern England. The partnership aims to direct students with coding skills toward careers in ‘ethical hacking.’
Joe Sykes, Careers Director at the Co-op Academies Trust, comments: “In recent years, there has been a growing interest among students in technology, particularly gaming, and they are investigating how this passion might lead to future careers.
“Through our engagement with The Hacking Games, we discovered the transferable skills that exist between gaming and ethical hacking, particularly within cybersecurity. Our students found this link to be both exciting and motivating.”
“Students will find it engaging to learn about the transferable skills between gaming and ethical hacking in the technology sector, especially in cybersecurity.”
Adam Woodley, Head of Curriculum at Connell Cope College, agrees, noting that many young individuals view careers in the digital sector as a “very popular option.”
“Students have acquired highly sought-after skills through hobbies such as gaming, and they naturally desire to apply these skills in exciting career paths,” he states.
“Thus, it is crucial that they have the chance to explore the stimulating realm of ethical hacking and cybersecurity and utilize those skills to benefit society.”
Rob Elsey, Chief Digital Information Officer at Co-op, concurs. “There are numerous unfilled positions in cybersecurity,” he points out. “The more we can transform the bright, skilled young individuals we have in the UK into defenders instead of attackers, and educate them about the available opportunities, the better. This will help us confront ongoing threats as a nation.”
Driving apprenticeships and internships
Fergus Hay, co-founder of The Hacking Games, emphasizes, “It takes a community to motivate, appreciate, and empower this generation to choose the right path.” The Hacking Games’ framework assesses young people’s digital aptitudes and skills against specific criteria to identify suitable careers for them in the tech industry.
The Hacking Games is actively working on creating formal pathways (apprenticeships and internships) to digital jobs within the government or private sectors in the future. Many experts believe this route is also accessible for neurodiverse youth. However, for both neurodivergent and neurotypical individuals, gaming serves as a common training ground for hacking, remarks John Madelin, a cybersecurity veteran and Chief Product Officer at The Hacking Games.
“Many hackers I’ve encountered are gamers,” he states, adding that most young gamers do not harbor criminal intentions, “but the distinction is significant.” For many young gamers, hacking revolves around discovering new and hidden aspects of gameplay, while for some, it involves creating and selling cheat codes to other players.
Hacking Games’ assessment framework aligns a student’s aptitudes with appropriate technical jobs. Composite: Getty Images/Guardian Design
These advanced technological skills are precisely what criminal organizations seek to exploit, particularly among students less focused on academic achievement. However, Madeline asserts she can guide young hackers toward more positive paths. “It’s essential to continuously challenge and engage them,” he states. “Instead of allowing them to remain inactive, we should utilize their talents.”
The Co-op Academies Trust has already identified careers in the digital sector as crucial components of its post-primary career program. Mr. Sykes believes it is vital for all children to discern their strengths as early as possible. “Our duty as educators is to optimize outcomes in these areas.
“Individuals with strong digital skills often possess a natural inclination to think logically and solve problems creatively,” she adds.
“Blessed with a talent for technology and gaming.”
The collaboration between Co-op and The Hacking Games comes after Co-op became the target of a cyberattack earlier this year. Focused on creating social value, Co-op (an organization owned by its members rather than shareholders) sought to address the underlying causes of hacking.
“We recognize that children possess talents in technology and gaming, and that these skills can lead to hacking,” Sykes states. “Initiatives like this allow us to discuss the ramifications and legalities surrounding hacking and help students recognize the opportunities these skills can present through their ethical application.”
Potential roles in cybersecurity for major firms and organizations may involve identifying weaknesses that malicious hackers could exploit. There are also opportunities within government departments working against hacking attempts directed at critical national infrastructure.
This is one of the primary reasons The Hacking Games recently launched its HAPTAI platform. The platform aids in developing hacking aptitude profiles for young individuals by analyzing their performances in popular games and matching them with corresponding psychometric profiles. Subsequently, candidates are paired with roles and teams suited to their strengths.
Our collaboration with The Hacking Games aims to encourage children to actively harness their abilities. Composite: Getty Images/Guardian Design
Protection today, career path tomorrow
“Children can be particularly susceptible to online dangers, thus we ensure they are educated about these risks, including the legal boundaries surrounding online safety and hacking,” Sykes explains. “I believe all schools need to stay updated with current issues. This presents a real opportunity for professionals to enhance their understanding of the risks and communicate them effectively to parents.”
In the future, she envisions a national computer science curriculum that incorporates lessons on ethical hacking and PSHE (Personal, Social, Health and Economic), helping all students recognize the potential harm at all levels of the economy.
Until that vision is realized, the partnership between Co-op and The Hacking Games will persist. The Co-op Academy Walkden will be piloted in the upcoming months to raise awareness of the issue and identify talented young individuals who can contribute to the solution before scaling it into a nationwide program.
“There are vast career opportunities in the digital arena,” states Sykes. “This ultimately aids students in understanding all the positive pathways available to them and how they can significantly contribute to creating a safer world.”
The belly button, often overlooked, is both well-researched and under-researched. A recent study may have uncovered the reason most individuals have “innie” belly buttons, potentially linked to a previously unknown structure that pulls the belly button inward.
Researchers made this discovery while investigating optimal techniques for abdominal and hernia repair surgery.
The team’s goal was to minimize occurrences of what is known as an “uncised hernia of the umbilical,” a condition where muscle weakness from prior surgeries allows abdominal tissue to push outward, causing bulging around the belly button.
Satori Muro from the Japanese Institute of Science mentions that this issue often arises, despite the fact that the anatomical details of the umbilical area have not been extensively reported. The researchers conducted a meticulous microscopic analysis of the ventral buttons from five donated human bodies and subsequently created a 3D model of the structure.
The belly button is essentially the remnant of the fetal umbilical cord, which connects to the placenta until birth. Approximately 90% of people show a concave depression where the umbilical scar has healed. However, Muro’s team identified a “fibrous tunnel-like structure” just beneath the skin of the umbilical tissue, seamlessly extending into the deeper layers of tissue. This underlying tissue, known as the abdominal fascia, plays a critical role in stabilizing the abdomen and securing the organs.
This structure is composed of densely packed collagen fibers oriented circumferentially, resembling the umbilical cord. “This sheath seems to anchor the inward curl of the belly button to the deep fascia in multiple directions,” Muro explains, helping to maintain the unique inward shape of the belly button.
However, the team was unable to include individuals with “outie” belly buttons in their study, indicating that further research is necessary to explore the variations in umbilical cord structures among individuals.
“Differences in umbilical cord development or strength may contribute to whether someone’s belly button protrudes outward,” Muro adds.
Kat Sanders from the University of Sydney emphasizes that belly buttons are indeed vital anatomical features, but more extensive research is needed, as five subjects cannot provide a comprehensive understanding for all variations of belly buttons.
“This study reveals aspects of anatomy that are infrequently examined. Given that this area is frequently accessed during laparoscopic procedures, there’s substantial surgical interest,” Sanders states.
Michelle Moscova from the University of New South Wales believes this research will enhance understanding of the structural integrity of the abdomen.
“Umbilical hernias are a common complication after abdominal surgery, where contents such as intestines protrude through a weaker area in the abdomen, leading to inflating around the belly button,” Moscova notes.
We may finally understand what caused the inner core of the Earth to freeze.
The inner core is a sphere of iron approximately 2,400 km (1,500 miles) in diameter, enveloped by a molten outer core. Its growth is responsible for generating the Earth’s magnetic field, which shields the planet from harmful solar radiation. However, the precise process by which the core first crystallized has remained unclear.
Recent research published in Nature Communications suggests a mechanism that hinges on deep Earth chemistry. By utilizing advanced computer simulations, scientists examined how various factors influence the freezing of iron under extreme pressure and temperature at the planet’s center.
They found that incorporating carbon allows iron to solidify under realistic conditions, positioning it as a key component in understanding the ingredients that contributed to the formation of the inner core billions of years ago.
“By investigating how Earth’s inner core formed, we gain insights not only into the planet’s history,” said Dr. Alfred Wilson from the University of Leeds, who led the study.
“We get rare insights into the chemistry of a region that we can never physically reach, and we can only speculate on how it might change in the future.”
The inner core lies deep within the planet, beneath layers of rock and magma – Credit: Getty Images/EPS Vector
At the extreme pressures found 5,000 km beneath our feet, iron doesn’t simply freeze when it drops below its melting point; it requires “super-cooling” of the crystals before they form. Pure iron must be cooled to as low as 1,000°C (1832°F), resulting in a significantly larger core than the one we see today.
New computer modeling indicates that the presence of carbon alters this equation. With less than 4% carbon in the mix, iron can crystallize at much lower temperatures, producing a core that aligns with seismic observations.
Scientists believe that the Earth’s center likely continues to host a mixture of elements. However, this research firmly highlights the critical role of carbon in one of geology’s greatest mysteries.
Gravitational waves result from colliding black holes
Victor de Schwanberg/Science Photography Library
Researching the universe can be enhanced by AI created by Google DeepMind. With an algorithm capable of diminishing unwanted noise by as much as 100 times, the Gravitational Wave Observatory (LIGO), equipped with laser interferometers, can identify specific black hole types that are affecting our separation.
LIGO aims to detect gravitational waves generated when entities like black holes spiral and collide. These waves traverse the universe at light speed, yet the spacetime fluctuations are minimal—10,000 times smaller than an atomic nucleus. Since its initial detection a decade ago, LIGO has recorded signals from nearly 100 black hole collisions.
The experiment comprises two U.S. observatories, each with two perpendicular arms measuring 4 km. A laser is directed down each arm and bounced off precise mirrors, where an interferometer compares the beams. As gravitational waves pass through, the lengths of the arms fluctuate slightly, and these changes are meticulously documented to help visualize the signals’ origins.
However, achieving such precision is challenging, as even distant ocean waves or clouds can interfere with measurements. This noise can overwhelm the signal, rendering some observations unfeasible. To counterbalance this noise and accurately adjust the mirrors and other equipment, numerous critical tweaks are essential.
Lana Adhikari from the California Institute of Technology in Pasadena stated that his team has collaborated with DeepMind to innovate new AI methods. He mentions that even automating these adjustments can sometimes introduce noise. “That control noise has puzzled us for decades. All aspects in this space are hindered,” Adhikari explains. “How can you stabilize a mirror without creating noise? If left uncontrolled, the mirror tends to oscillate unpredictably.”
Laura Nuttall from the University of Portsmouth, UK, was involved in manually executing these adjustments at LIGO. “Changing one element causes a cascading effect; one change leads to another,” she points out. “It feels like an endless cycle of fine-tuning.”
DeepMind’s new AI, known as Deep Loop Shaping, aims to minimize noise by making up to 100 adjustments to LIGO’s mirrors. The AI is trained via simulations before being implemented in real-world scenarios, focusing on achieving two main objectives: limiting the number of adjustments it performs. “Over time, as it repeatedly operates, it’s like conducting hundreds or thousands of trials in a simulation. The controller learns what strategies work and identifies the best approach,” says Jonas Buchli from DeepMind.
Alberto Vecchio from the University of Birmingham, UK, expressed enthusiasm for the AI’s role in LIGO but mentioned that many challenges remain. The AI currently operates effectively for only an hour under real conditions, necessitating longer-term validation. Additionally, it’s only been applied to one control aspect, while many hundreds, if not thousands, of factors could assist in stabilizing the mirrors.
“This is clearly an initial step, but it’s certainly a fascinating one. There’s considerable scope for significant advancement,” Vecchio remarked.
If similar enhancements could be replicated elsewhere, it’s possible to detect medium-sized black holes—those around 1,000 times the mass of our sun—a category that has yet to see confirmed observations. Improvements are typically seen with the low-frequency gravitational waves generated by large bodies, where noise can obscure the signals.
“We’ve observed black holes up to 100 solar masses and more than a million solar masses in galaxies. What’s out there in between?” Vecchio pondered. “There’s a perception that black holes exist across a spectrum of masses, yet clear experimental evidence remains elusive.”
Nuttall commented that this new methodology could enhance identification of known black hole types. “This appears quite promising,” she stated. “I’m thrilled about this development.”
“In 2050, the first 100m diameter telescope took shape in a crater on the moon.”
Vladimir Vasyansky/NASA
The Allsea eyes, operational since the 2070s, were the largest and most powerful optical systems ever constructed. Comprising eight telescopes dispersed across the lunar expanse, each equipped with a 100-meter mirror, the collective aperture of this composite telescope spanned the entire lunar surface, enabling exceptional imaging capabilities.
This marked the first occasion we could observe the “first light,” indicating the birth of the universe’s first star. We also captured details of distant exoplanet surfaces across great expanses of time.
In 2020, numerous proposals emerged for these ambitious, next-generation telescopes; however, the technological feasibility for large-scale space projects was limited at that time. By the 2050s, lunar transport became routine and economically viable, paving the way for lunar construction.
An earlier proposal from 2020 focused on what was termed Finally, a large telescope (ULT), with a mirror measuring 100 meters, came to fruition.
ULT utilized liquid mirrors instead of traditional glass. These liquids were more cost-effective to transport to the moon and could be molded into completely reflective surfaces. Given the moon’s gravity, constructing larger mirrors that exceed those on Earth became practical. For comparison, the James Webb Space Telescope, operational in the 2020s, features a 6.5-meter mirror.
While the lunar single telescope was powerful, it lacked the resolution to distinguish the detailed features of exoplanet bodies. Nonetheless, astronomers focused on expanding ULT’s capabilities.
A clever technique used in radio telescopes to enhance their range, Very Long Baseline Interferometry (VLBI), proved suitable for optical systems as well. In 2017, the Event Horizon Telescope Collaboration employed VLBI to capture the first image of a supermassive black hole at the center of our galaxy by merging inputs from eight Earth-based telescopes to amplify the effective telescope size.
In 2025, scientists spearheaded by Zixin Huang at the Engineering Quantum Systems Center at Macquarie University, Australia, proposed using VLBI for optical telescopes. Although technical, political, and financial barriers prolonged development, the advent of the first 100-meter diameter telescope in lunar craters by 2050 led to serious initiatives for constructing a lunar-sized optical telescope.
“
The telescope on the moon dates back 13 billion years and photographs the first generation of high-mass stars. “
By 2075, an additional seven telescopes were established on the lunar surface, linking to form an effective aperture equivalent to a 3000 km mirror.
In the mid-2020s, the James Webb Telescope revisited the past to observe the formation of the universe’s first galaxy. Now, through the combined observations, the enigmatic Population III stars have been unveiled. Stars are categorized into different groups; Population I contains recent stars abundant in heavy elements, Population II includes older stars with lower metal content, while Population III consists of the universe’s earliest stars formed post-Big Bang, characterized by minimal metallic content. The Big Bang primarily produced hydrogen and helium, with mere traces of lithium and beryllium. All heavier elements had to be synthesized in stars. The combined observations have looked back 13 billion years and documented the high-mass first-generation stars, including one blue giant star, 100,000 times the mass of the sun, dubbed Zixin-1 in honor of the astronomer who significantly contributed to the development of optical VLBI.
The moon-sized telescope concept has been referred to by various names over the years. Initially proposed in 2008 by a team from the University of Arizona, the lunar liquid spraying telescope eventually evolved into a larger project in 2020. To escape the possibly uninspired public names like Moony McMoonface, the term “Allsea Eyes” was officially adopted. The project is now affectionately dubbed Sauron: Super-Accessible Ultra-Resolution Optical Network.
The facility has enabled unprecedented imaging of black holes, but its primary objective was to determine if humanity is alone in the universe. The observations made of the exoplanet Gliese 667cc indicated the potential for alien civilizations to have developed in our cosmic neighborhood, particularly within the Trappist-1 system, about 22 light-years away. Despite debates surrounding the costs of constructing Sauron, they never gained significant traction.
Rowan Hooper is the podcast editor for New Scientist and the author of How to Spend $1 Trillion. These are 10 global issues that can be fixed. Follow him on BlueSky @rowhoop.bsky.social
This website uses cookies so that we can provide you with the best user experience possible. Cookie information is stored in your browser and performs functions such as recognising you when you return to our website and helping our team to understand which sections of the website you find most interesting and useful.
Strictly Necessary Cookies
Strictly Necessary Cookie should be enabled at all times so that we can save your preferences for cookie settings.
