Artist’s Impression of CarbSAR Satellite Orbiting the Earth
Credit: Oxford Space Systems
Britain’s newest satellite, **CarbSAR**, is set to launch on Sunday, equipped with cutting-edge knitwear technology. This innovative satellite will deploy a mesh radar antenna crafted using machinery typically found in textile manufacturing.
“We utilize a standard industrial knitting machine for jumpers, enhanced with features tailored to create specialized threads,” says Amur Raina, Director of Production at Oxford Space Systems (OSS) in the UK.
OSS collaborates with Surrey Satellite Technology Limited (SSTL) to install the antenna on a compact, cost-effective spacecraft capable of capturing high-resolution images of the Earth’s surface.
If successful, this unique design could be integrated into the UK Ministry of Defence’s (MoD) surveillance satellite network later this year.
The “wool” utilized in OSS’s weaving process is ultra-fine tungsten wire, coated with gold. The machines produce several meters of fabric simultaneously, which are then cut into segments and sewn into 3 millimeter-wide discs. These discs are tightly stretched over 48 carbon fiber ribs to form a smooth parabolic dish optimized for radar imaging.
The key innovation lies in the structural design, where each rib wraps radially around a central hub, resembling a 48-coil tape measure. This unique design enables the entire assembly to collapse down to just 75 cm in diameter, drastically reducing the volume of the 140-kilogram CarbSAR satellite during launch.
Upon reaching orbit, the stored strain energy in the bent carbon fibers will allow the ribs to return to their original shape, thereby pulling the mesh into a precise parabolic configuration.
“For optimal imaging, we must deploy it accurately to achieve the perfect parabolic shape,” adds Sean Sutcliffe, CEO of OSS. “Our design’s precision is its standout feature.” Testing has shown the mesh sheet remains within 1 millimeter of its ideal shape, ensuring exceptional performance.
The demand for Earth observation via small radar satellites is on the rise, thanks to their ability to image the ground in all weather conditions and even at night—a capability increasingly appreciated by emerging space companies.
This data is particularly sought after by military forces globally and played a crucial role as an intelligence resource during the recent Russian-Ukrainian conflict.
Despite once leading Europe in space radar developments in the 1990s, the UK has fallen significantly behind in the international arena.
With CarbSAR and the upcoming MoD constellation named Oberon, part of the broader ISTARI program, UK aerospace engineers have a chance to re-establish their presence in the industry.
“We’re seeing heightened interest from foreign governments in radar solutions,” states Andrew Cawthorn, Managing Director of SSTL. “Our primary focus is demonstrating that we can successfully deploy this antenna and capture images.”
CarbSAR is engineered to detect objects as small as 50 cm, sufficient for identifying tanks and aircraft.
After deployment, approximately two days post-liftoff, the Royal Space Force, supervised by the Royal Air Force, will closely monitor the antenna’s performance.
“CarbSAR symbolizes the innovative spirit and collaboration of one of the UK’s leading space companies,” said Major General Paul Tedman, Commander of the UK Space Force. “We eagerly anticipate seeing CarbSAR operational and exploring how its advanced technologies can enhance Oberon and our comprehensive ISTARI satellite initiative.”
The space station industry is experiencing significant growth. For years, the only option for sending astronauts and experiments into orbit was the International Space Station (ISS). However, as NASA plans to deorbit the ISS by the end of the decade, a new commercially owned space station is set to emerge.
Mary Guenther, director of space policy at the Progressive Policy Institute in Washington, DC, states, “These developments have been in progress for years, primarily alongside NASA, with hardware expected to begin operations in 2026.” While privately developed modules have been attached to the ISS, never before has there been a fully independent commercial space station.
Without the ISS, a commercial space station will be essential. Guenther emphasizes, “It’s time for NASA to advance into uncharted territory and leave the operation of a low Earth orbit space station to commercial entities.”
In 2026, two companies, including the startup Vast, are poised to launch operations in the U.S. Vast plans to deploy the Haven-1 station aboard SpaceX’s Falcon 9 rocket as early as May. This station is smaller and simpler than the ISS and will use SpaceX’s Crew Dragon capsule for certain life support systems, marking a historic milestone as the first commercial space station.
The Haven-1 is designed to accommodate a crew of four for space tourism, featuring a photography dome and Wi-Fi, in addition to hosting smaller-scale microgravity experiments. It is envisioned as a precursor to the larger Haven-2, which Vast executive teams aim to position as a successor to the ISS.
“Everyone, including Vast, is preparing for 2030,” says Colin Smith from Vast. “With the ISS scheduled to deorbit at the end of 2030, there’s a growing urgency as we near 2025.”
Sierra Space is another player with plans for a 2026 space station, currently developing the Dream Chaser spaceplane. This company intends to launch a prototype of its expandable space station module called the Large Scale Integrated Flexible Environment in 2026, which will be part of the collaborative Orbital Reef project led by Blue Origin and Sierra Space.
The era of commercial space stations promises to differ significantly from that of the ISS, given the broader array of industry participants. “Numerous commercial space station models are emerging to cater to various markets,” Guenther notes. “I am eager to see how these companies distinguish themselves in order to attract clientele, and how competition can spur innovation.”
Many anticipate that private space stations will considerably lower the cost of operating in orbit, similarly to how private launch providers have made space access more economical.
“The ISS is the most expensive structure humanity has ever constructed, costing about $150 billion to support just seven individuals. Without changes, there will be no future for space commerce, manufacturing, or habitation,” Smith comments. “Our vision is to empower millions to thrive in space, and the steps we take now will pave the way for that future.”
Nonetheless, it remains uncertain whether market demand will support a flourishing space economy. The prospect of establishing multiple specialized space stations in orbit is thrilling, yet it necessitates clients beyond NASA and other national space organizations. As new stations commence operations this year, their sustainability will soon become apparent.
“There exist promising industries poised to expand into space, such as pharmaceuticals and materials,” Guenther remarks. “It will be fascinating to see which of these sectors flourish and grow.”
The bold initiative by Reflect Orbital aims to commence in 2026, deploying satellites to reflect sunlight back to Earth. This technology seeks to illuminate dark regions for visibility and enhance energy generation. However, many astronomers express skepticism regarding the project’s feasibility and its implications for scientific research.
Reflect Orbital, a US-based company, aspires to provide “sunlight on demand.” Their first satellite is expected to launch in early 2026, illuminating ten locations as part of its inaugural “world tour.” Plans include deploying thousands of satellites fitted with extensive mirrors designed to reflect sunlight back to the Earth, catering to needs such as remote control, defense, infrastructure, and energy production.
By 2030, Reflect Orbital anticipates having sufficient satellite coverage to deliver 200 watts per square meter to solar farms on Earth, mimicking the light levels of dusk and dawn, thereby facilitating reliable energy production, especially in regions lacking natural light.
Despite these ambitions, their Federal Communications Commission (FCC) specifications suggest that a single satellite may not generate significant power. Astronomers, including members from Tucson’s Dark Sky Consulting and the American Astronomical Society, utilized these filings to underscore potential energy limitations.
As highlighted by John Valentine, a prominent scholar in the field, the reflected light would only exceed a full moon’s brightness fourfold, indicating insufficient electricity generation. In order to produce more significant light output, deploying satellites with a multitude of reflectors would be essential, presenting logistical challenges and increased costs.
Furthermore, the dynamic nature of the mirrors could pose challenges for astronomical research, since they might intermittently produce flashes of sunlight. Additionally, even micro-damage to a satellite’s reflector from tiny meteoroids could scatter light unintentionally, complicating operational efficiency.
Reflect Orbital is actively engaging with the scientific community to explore solutions for these arising concerns. As of now, the company has not responded to inquiries from New Scientist.
Asteroids are an intrinsic aspect of our solar system. Millions of rocky bodies orbit the sun, including those categorized as near-Earth asteroids, which occasionally come close to our planet. While cinematic portrayals often depict asteroid strikes as abrupt, inevitable catastrophes, experts contend that in reality, the risk is significantly more manageable and frequently preventable.
But what are the actual probabilities of an asteroid colliding with Earth? Recent studies shed light on this issue and offer some unexpected insights.
What are the chances that an asteroid will hit Earth?
A major asteroid impact would have effects that could be felt globally. Depending on its landing site, it might either harmlessly drop into the ocean or inflict severe damage on populated regions.
“Most people on Earth are likely aware of moderate to large asteroid impacts,” explains Carrie Nugent, a planetary scientist at the Olin Institute of Technology in Massachusetts.
However, Nugent emphasizes that catastrophic outcomes are exceedingly rare. While our planet has faced significant asteroid impacts throughout its history, including a notable one that contributed to the extinction of the dinosaurs 66 million years ago, current scientific understanding suggests there is no immediate cause for alarm.
New research on asteroid impact probability
Nugent, along with a team from Aalborg University in Denmark, employed computer simulations to analyze the risks associated with asteroid impacts. Their research concentrated on asteroids akin to recognized Near Earth Objects (NEOs).
Utilizing the publicly available NASA JPL Horizons system, they simulated the orbits of these asteroids to determine the frequency with which they intersect Earth’s orbit, allowing researchers to estimate the likelihood of large asteroids striking our planet.
According to their findings published on August 12th in the Planetary Science Journal:
Asteroids over 140 meters (460 feet) – Roughly equivalent to the length of a small cruise ship
Collisions with Earth approximately once every 11,000 years
Keeping asteroid risks in perspective
Understanding probabilities like “once every 11,000 years” can be complex. To provide clarity, Nugent compared asteroid impacts to other more familiar real-world events.
Her analysis revealed that:
You are more likely to survive an asteroid impact than to be struck by lightning.
Conversely, your chances of dying in a car accident are significantly higher than from an asteroid collision.
There are also other low-probability but high-risk events, such as the collapse of a deep hole in dry sand, that can result in fatalities but remain largely unknown to the general public.
“This is an extremely rare cause of death that many are unaware of,” Nugent noted, underscoring how human perception often miscalculates risk.
Can asteroid collisions be prevented?
In contrast to popular narratives in films and literature, asteroid strikes are not fate-driven events. In fact, scientists have demonstrated that altering an asteroid’s trajectory is possible.
In 2022, NASA’s DART mission successfully changed the path of a small asteroid that posed no threat to Earth. This experiment showcased that, with sufficient warning, we could potentially deflect a hazardous asteroid and avert a collision entirely.
“This is the only natural disaster we can completely prevent,” Nugent asserts.
Why asteroid tracking is important
Continuous research and sky survey initiatives are crucial for planetary defense. Early detection and tracking of near-Earth asteroids provide scientists ample time to evaluate risks and take necessary actions if needed.
Modern asteroid detection systems are continually improving, diminishing uncertainty and enhancing Earth’s preparedness against cosmic threats.
Conclusion
Though asteroid strikes captivate public imagination, scientific evidence indicates that they are infrequent, quantifiable, and preventable. Advances in tracking technology and the success of missions like NASA’s DART test reassure us that Earth is better shielded than ever.
Experts suggest that asteroid research should foster confidence and continued investment in planetary defense rather than fear.
SNR 0519, the remnants of a supernova that erupted around 600 years ago
Claude Coenen/ESA/Hubble & NASA
Our planet may owe some of its characteristics to a neighboring star that met its end as a supernova during the formation period of the solar system. This notion of a supernova bubble enveloping the sun and inundating it with cosmic rays might be a common phenomenon across the galaxy, implying that there could be many more Earth-like planets than we ever imagined.
Thanks to ancient data, we understand from a meteorite sample that the early solar system was rich in radioactive materials that generated significant heat and quickly decayed. The heat produced by these elements was crucial for releasing substantial amounts of water from the colliding space rocks and comets that coalesced to form Earth, ensuring there was enough water for life to eventually thrive.
However, the origin of these elements remains a mystery. While many are commonly produced in supernovae, simulations of nearby supernovae have faced challenges in replicating the exact ratios of radioactive elements observed in meteorite specimens from the early Solar System. A significant issue is that these explosive events were incredibly forceful and might have obliterated the delicate early solar system before planetary formation could take place.
Recently, Ryo Sawada and fellow researchers at the University of Tokyo have discovered that if a supernova occurs at an adequate distance, it could supply Earth with the necessary radioactive components without interfering with the planet-forming process.
In their theoretical framework, a supernova located approximately three light-years from our solar system could initiate a two-step process to generate the essential radioactive elements. Certain radioactive substances, like aluminum and manganese, are directly created during supernova explosions and might reach the solar system propelled by shock waves from the explosion.
Subsequently, the high-energy particles known as cosmic rays released by the supernova travel along these shock waves, colliding with other atoms in the gaseous, dusty, and rocky disk still in its formative phase, birthing the remaining radioactive elements such as beryllium and calcium. “We realized that prior models of solar system formation primarily concentrated on the injection of matter, neglecting the role of high-energy particles,” stated Sawada. “We contemplated, ‘What if our nascent solar system was simply engulfed in this particle bath?'”
Due to the occurrence of this process in more distant supernovae than previously explored, Sawada and his team estimate that between 10 and 50 percent of Sun-like stars and planetary systems might have been enriched with radioactive elements in this manner, leading to the formation of water-abundant planets that resemble Earth. Earlier theories posited that the proximity of the supernova would have made such an event exceedingly rare, akin to “winning the lottery,” as Sawada described. The fact that the supernova is further positioned indicates that “Earth’s creation is probably not an unusual occurrence, but a widespread phenomenon that transpires throughout the galaxy,” he adds.
“This is exceedingly clever because it strikes a harmonious balance between destruction and creation,” remarks Cosimo Insera from Cardiff University in the UK. “The right elements and the correct distance are essential.”
If this theory holds true, Inserra mentioned that upcoming telescopes like NASA’s Habitable World Observatory could significantly aid in the search for Earth-like planets by identifying remnants of ancient supernovae and locating systems that were within proximity to supernovae during their formation stages.
For many years, researchers have been intrigued by two massive structures hidden deep beneath the Earth’s surface. These anomalies might possess geochemical characteristics that differ from the surrounding mantle, yet their source remains unclear. Geodynamicist Yoshinori Miyazaki from Rutgers University and his team offer an unexpected explanation regarding these anomalies and their significance in influencing Earth’s capacity to sustain life.
This diagram shows a cross-section that reveals the interior of the early Earth, featuring a hot molten layer situated above the core-mantle boundary. Image credit: Yoshinori Miyazaki/Rutgers University.
The two enigmatic structures, referred to as large low-shear velocity regions and ultra-low velocity regions, lie at the boundary between the Earth’s mantle and core, approximately 2,900 km (1,800 miles) beneath the Earth’s exterior.
Large low-shear velocity regions are vast, continent-sized masses of hot and dense rock.
One of these regions is located beneath Africa, while the other is situated beneath the Pacific Ocean.
The ultra-low velocity zone resembles a thin layer of melt that adheres to the core much like a puddle of molten rock.
Both structures significantly slow seismic waves and display unusual compositions.
“These are not random, odd phenomena,” Dr. Miyazaki, co-author of a related paper published in the journal Nature Earth Science, explained.
“They represent traces of Earth’s primordial history.”
“Understanding their existence could help us unravel how our planet formed and what made it habitable.”
“Billions of years in the past, the Earth was covered by an ocean of magma.”
“While scientists anticipated that as the mantle cooled, it would establish distinctive chemical layers—similar to how frozen juice separates into sweet concentrate and watery ice—seismic surveys have shown otherwise. Instead, large low-shear velocity regions and ultra-low velocity zones appear as irregular accumulations at the Earth’s depths.”
“This contradiction sparked our inquiry. When starting with a magma ocean and performing calculations, the outcome does not match the current observations in the Earth’s mantle. A critical factor was missing.”
The researchers propose that over billions of years, elements such as silicon and magnesium may have leached from the core into the mantle, mixing with it and hindering the development of pronounced chemical layers.
This process could clarify the bizarre structure of the large low-shear velocity and ultra-low velocity regions, potentially visibly representing the solidified remnants of a basal magma ocean tainted by core materials.
“What we hypothesized is that this material could be leaking from the core,” Dr. Miyazaki noted.
“Incorporating core components might account for our current observations.”
“This discovery goes beyond merely understanding the chemistry of the deep Earth.”
“Interactions between the core and mantle may have shaped the Earth’s cooling process, volcanic activity, and atmospheric evolution.”
“This could help clarify why Earth possesses oceans and life, while Venus is a frigid hothouse and Mars a frozen wasteland.”
“Earth has water, life, and a relatively stable atmosphere.”
“In contrast, Venus’ atmosphere is over a hundred times thicker than Earth’s and is mainly carbon dioxide, while Mars’ atmosphere is much thinner.”
“While we do not fully comprehend why this is the case, the processes occurring within the planet—its cooling and layer evolution—could be a significant part of the explanation.”
By synthesizing seismic data, mineral physics, and geodynamic modeling, the authors reaffirm that the extensive low-shear velocity regions and ultra-low velocity zones offer crucial insights into Earth’s formative processes.
These structures may also contribute to volcanic hotspots like those in Hawaii and Iceland, thereby connecting deep Earth dynamics to the planet’s surface.
“This study exemplifies how the integration of planetary science, geodynamics, and mineral physics can aid in unraveling some of Earth’s long-standing enigmas,” said co-author Dr. Jie Deng, a researcher at Princeton University.
“The notion that the deep mantle may still retain the chemical memory of ancient core-mantle interactions provides fresh perspectives on Earth’s unique evolution.”
“Every new piece of evidence contributes to piecing together Earth’s early narrative, transforming scattered hints into a more coherent picture of our planet’s development.”
“Despite the limited clues we have, we are gradually forming a significant narrative,” Dr. Miyazaki remarked.
“With this research, our confidence in understanding Earth’s evolution and its distinctiveness can now be bolstered.”
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J. Deng et al. 2025. Heterogeneity in the deep mantle formed through a basal magma ocean contaminated by core materials. Nature Earth Science 18, 1056-1062; doi: 10.1038/s41561-025-01797-y
Ryan Wills. Barry Hetherington. ESA; NASA; Adobe Stock
For over five decades, Richard Binzel has been studying the skies for potentially hazardous asteroids. In 1995, he introduced the Near-Earth Object Hazard Index, which was later renamed the Torino Scale. This scale evaluates asteroids on a scale from 0 to 10, determined by both the probability of an impact with Earth and the potential destruction that impact could cause.
This year, Binzel’s scale gained attention when asteroid 2024 YR4 briefly reached a level 3 status, marking the first time an asteroid had achieved this level in two decades. Although the immediate risks have since diminished, this event highlighted the continued necessity of the Torino Scale. Binzel, who is affiliated with the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, reassured us that such peak levels are unlikely to be reached during our lifetimes or even those of our grandchildren. He discussed with New Scientist the nuances of asteroid hunting, the risk of catastrophic collisions, and the trajectory of planetary defense.
Alex Wilkins: How was the asteroid impact risk perceived when you began your career?
Richard Binzel: I published my first paper in the 1970s. [Geologist] Eugene Shoemaker was aware that the craters on Earth were the result of impacts. Hence, I grew up understanding that asteroid impacts are a natural phenomenon still occurring today within our solar system.
Public perception was dismissive at best. While Shoemaker focused on serious scientific inquiry without much regard for public opinion, others, including astronomers Clark Chapman, David Morrison, and Don Yeomans, began acknowledging the importance of public communication. In 1989, Chapman and Morrison published Space Catastrophe, which offered one of the first serious examinations of this subject for the general public. The discovery of the KT boundary layer by Alvarez, associated with the Chicxulub asteroid that may have led to the extinction of the dinosaurs, served as a pivotal wake-up call regarding modern geological history’s potential impacts.
What prompted you to create the Near-Earth Object Hazard Index?
In 1997, an object designated XF11 exhibited a non-zero collision probability based on its initial orbit. Email was just starting to gain traction, and I was part of a small email communication group consisting of Brian Marsden, Yeomans, Chapman, and Morrison discussing how to handle this information. I was eager to publish findings but wanted to ensure accuracy regarding the risk. As further measurements of its orbit were conducted, the probability of collision was expected to fade. Why raise the alarm if the risk would likely disappear?
Marsden decided to draft a press release just as he was uncovering early observations that allowed him to conclude the collision probability was zero. I recall Yeomans sending an email stating, “Hey everyone, it’s zero.” Marsden believed it was crucial to communicate this to the public, though most of us felt we weren’t ‘crying wolf.’
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I first presented this idea at a United Nations conference, but it was not well received. “
This experience underscored the necessity of having a method of communication when an asteroid is discovered—even if small—with a non-zero collision probability. It’s crucial to be patient and acquire sufficient data to resolve uncertainties. It’s vital not to suppress information when similar objects are found elsewhere, as secrecy breeds distrust. We unanimously agreed that transparency was paramount, allowing people to understand what we knew as early as possible. This philosophy gave birth to what was initially termed the Near-Earth Object Hazard Index.
A diagram showing what the Chicxulub crater on the Yucatán Peninsula looked like immediately after the asteroid impact that may have wiped out the dinosaurs.
D. Van Ravenswaay/Science Photo Library
How was your idea received initially?
Coincidentally, I attended a United Nations conference focused on near-Earth asteroids where I first presented this concept, but it met with skepticism. Some attendees argued it was unnecessary since details about an orbit could be explained through longitude, latitude, and ascending node. They deemed a straightforward 0 to 10 scale superfluous. Arrogantly, some astronomers insisted they need not depend on it, believing they were knowledgeable enough to interpret complex three-dimensional orbital properties.
Nevertheless, I persisted. After bringing it back to the Turin conference, I decided to name it the Turin Scale. I aimed to avoid personal attribution to maintain humility; it was for collective benefit.
The Turin Scale assigns an asteroid a score from 0 to 10 based on its size and risk of hitting Earth.
Was the outcome as you expected?
I anticipated more activity than what we’ve observed, likely due to the effective tracking methods in place for objects. If there’s a non-zero probability associated with an object, it typically gets sorted out quickly.
Over a dozen objects have achieved a score of 1 on the Turin scale with minimal publicity, but that’s precisely as intended. It’s akin to the Richter scale; when Californians learn they might experience a magnitude 1 or 2 earthquake, it doesn’t disrupt their day.
What does the future hold for asteroid tracking?
The pace of near-Earth asteroid discovery is set to surge with the operational launch of the Vera C. Rubin Telescope and the Near-Earth Object (NEO) survey telescope. We’ll identify these objects at an unprecedented rate. Some will possess highly uncertain initial trajectories that require extensive extrapolation, resulting in non-zero collision probabilities. It will take time to gather ample orbital data and assert where these objects will be decades into the future, fully ruling out any collision risks.
We may encounter objects that reach levels like 4 or 5 on the Turin scale, but the true threat level remains out of the ‘red zone.’ I doubt we’ll see such instances in anyone’s lifetime, or even our great-grandchildren’s. These events are incredibly rare. However, there are mechanisms for the public to recognize what to monitor and what to disregard.
As for lower scores on the Turin scale, they will become so routine that they will no longer garner public attention. People can trust astronomers to track interesting objects and ensure their eventual disappearance. The Turin Scale has fulfilled its purpose.
Asteroid 2024 YR4 reached a value of 3 on the Turin scale and then dropped to 0.
NASA/Magdalena Ridge 2.4m Telescope/NMT
Was the Torino system effective during the incident with asteroid 2024 YR4 reaching level 3?
My colleague articulated the message effectively, reiterating that as we collected more data, we anticipated the object would become less concerning. This was our constant reassurance. The descriptions of the categories on the Turin Scale offer insights valuable to astronomers. We were highly confident that further data would eliminate Earth impact possibilities.
The confusion among the media and the public stemmed from misunderstanding the impact probability, which was consistently low. (At its peak, 2024 YR4 had a 3.1 percent impact probability.) As more data came in, the probability fluctuated—this is a natural outcome based on expanding our understanding. Initially, we observed an asteroid over a short trajectory, but extrapolating that trajectory significantly into the future could sometimes indicate higher projections. This increase was more of an adjustment process than a sign of danger.
What can you tell us about Apophis? It’s a 340-meter asteroid expected to come remarkably close to Earth in 2029 but is projected to miss. What gives us such confidence?
When discussing Apophis, I provide three key reassurances: Apophis will safely pass Earth. Apophis will safely pass Earth. Apophis will safely pass Earth. The confidence stems from over two decades of precise tracking, including radar signals reflecting off the asteroid to pinpoint its position within a meter. The margin of uncertainty regarding its close pass is a mere plus or minus 3 kilometers.
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If we need to take action to mitigate an incoming asteroid, we possess the ability, provided we have sufficient time. “
Astronomers have been taking this object very seriously for the last 20 years. Initially, when it was discovered, it had a rating of 4 on the Turin scale, a unique occurrence for any object. However, it was only for a brief duration, maybe just a week, around Christmas 2004 when the asteroid attracted significant attention. I wanted to nickname it “The Grinch” since I was up late on Christmas Eve scrutinizing asteroid orbits until my family pulled me away.
NASA’s DART mission, which aimed to change an asteroid’s orbit, signifies a new chapter for planetary defense. How crucial was this mission?
DART represents a leap forward in our evolution as a species. No longer are we entirely at the mercy of the cosmos. DART illustrated our capacity to target and alter an object’s trajectory. This is a defining moment for humanity, asserting that if we need to counter an asteroid’s approach, we have the capabilities to do so—given we have the time.
Many still voice concerns about the threat of a giant asteroid potentially eradicating humanity. How has this perception evolved since your early involvement in the field?
We are making strides. It’s not an overwhelming concern; rather, it’s a manageable risk that we’ve come to better understand. Personally, after dedicating 50 years of my life as a scientist mostly funded by public resources, I feel a moral duty to advocate for the necessity of detecting serious asteroid threats, thereby fulfilling our responsibilities as scientists.
To illustrate, if we were unexpectedly surprised by an asteroid that we could have detected had we invested in telescopes a decade ago, it would signify a monumental oversight in scientific history. This is the primary frustration I harbor regarding asteroids: the idea that we haven’t fully done our jobs.
As Vera Rubin and the NEO surveyors become operational, it marks a significant advancement. We’re finally in a position to conduct thorough assessments and determine the potential threats posed by asteroids in the coming epochs. With our capacity to seek answers, it’s our responsibility to pursue them.
Gliese 251 is an early red dwarf star, ranking as the 74th closest star system to our Sun.
An artistic interpretation of the Gliese 251 system. Featuring Gliese 251c (left), its host star (right), and the already discovered planet Gliese 251b (center). Image credit: Michael Marcheschi / m2design.
You can find Gliese 251 as a bright M dwarf star, located at a distance of 5.58 parsecs (18 light years) in the constellation of Gemini.
Also known as GJ 251, HD 265866, or Wolf 294, this star is believed to host at least two super-Earths, Gliese 251b and Gliese 251c.
Initially discovered in 2020, Gliese 251b has a mass of 3.85 Earth masses and completes an orbit in 14.2 days.
The newly identified exoplanet, Gliese 251c, boasts a mass of 3.84 times that of Earth and has an orbital period of 53.6 days.
“With so many exoplanets now known, discovering new ones may not seem significant,” remarked Paul Robertson, an astronomer at the University of California, Irvine.
“The exceptional aspect is that its host star is nearby, roughly 18 light-years distant. From a cosmic perspective, it’s essentially in our neighborhood.”
Gliese 251c was detected using the Habitable Zone Planet Finder (HPF), a state-of-the-art near-infrared spectrometer mounted on the Hobby-Eberly Telescope at McDonald Observatory in Texas.
This planetary signal was subsequently validated using the NEID spectrometer at Kitt Peak National Observatory in Arizona.
Corey Beard, Data Scientist at Design West Technologies, states:
“While the discovery is statistically significant, we are still assessing the state of the planet due to instrument and methodological uncertainties.”
“Direct imaging of this candidate will rely on the next generation of telescopes and community investment.”
Given Gliese 251c’s closeness to Earth, it stands out as a prime candidate for future direct imaging studies utilizing the Thirty Meter Telescope (TMT).
The TMT, with its large mirror, could potentially directly image dim exoplanets like Gliese 251c and verify the presence of water.
“TMT is anticipated to be the only telescope capable of capturing such details. These images will pertain to exoplanets,” Dr. Beard added.
“Such imaging isn’t feasible with smaller telescopes.”
The results from the research team were published in Astronomy Magazine.
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Corey Beard et al. 2025. Discovery of a nearby super-Earth candidate located in the habitable zone, suitable for direct imaging. A.J. 170, 279; doi: 10.3847/1538-3881/ae0e20
I acknowledge that there are already countless shows available at this stage. Every channel and streaming service is brimming with content that craves your attention, leaving us with limited hours to watch. However, I would like to suggest a new program called Space Live, which currently features just one episode. The only drawback is that the episodes seem to last indefinitely.
In truth, it’s not a program at all but rather a channel. The footage debuted on Wednesday morning and is available on ITVX, solely comprising live visuals of Earth transmitted from the International Space Station. This presentation is captivating, particularly for those unaware that one can feel both awe and boredom simultaneously.
It is claimed to be the world’s first. ITV has collaborated with the British space media firm Sen to utilize live 4K footage from their distinctive SpaceTV-1 video camera system on the International Space Station, providing three camera angles: one focused on the docking ports, a horizon view revealing sunrises and storms, and a downward camera as the ISS traverses over Earth. A tracker on the screen indicates the ISS’s real-time position, accompanied by an AI-driven information feed offering insights about geography and weather.
The Space Live footage is significantly enhanced compared to NASA footage. Photo: ITV
To be exact, one could argue that it’s not groundbreaking at all. NASA’s YouTube channel has been streaming footage from the ISS for years, attracting thousands of viewers consistently. Nevertheless, Space Live is a bit more sophisticated. The visuals are undoubtedly superior. For instance, at 8:30 a.m. Wednesday, Space Live presented stunning images of sunlight reflecting off the waters surrounding the Bay of Biscay, while NASA could only offer a piece of cloth inscribed with the word “Flap.” There’s even a relaxing soundtrack that loops repeatedly but doesn’t become overly irritating. In essence, it’s an upgrade.
And it’s truly captivating, at least during the first orbit. While we can’t wholly demonstrate the phenomenon known as the “overview effect,” which suggests that viewing Earth from space grants a fresh perspective on humanity, it is undeniably humbling to realize our planet’s smallness. The duration of the ISS’s journey from southeastern England (where I’m located) to conflict-ridden Ukraine is measured in mere seconds. Next, it would traverse across Asia to Australia. There’s hardly anything that separates us.
Inevitably, as the station glides around the Earth, eternally caught between sunrise and sunset, your thoughts drift to the people you know in various places. There’s a comforting quality to that.
However, one cannot remain in awe forever. The same goes for Space Live. Eventually, the enchantment of technology, perspective, and Earth’s beauty begins to fade, turning the experience akin to staring at a map on a plane when you’ve exhausted your movie options. Your focus starts to wander, and you realize that there are other live channels available on ITVX. One features Love Island, while others simply showcase Christmas movies. Then, with a sigh, you come to terms with the fact that the wonder of our only home, quietly revolving in the cosmos, has become just another content option—regardless of what ITV channel broadcasts American Ninja Warrior Jr.
The visuals are both breathtaking and reassuring. Photo: ITV
Nonetheless, it’s comforting to know that Space Live exists, even if it might not always capture your attention. It may not be something you’d typically expect to see on a large screen in a pub, unless a lively crowd gets excited about glimpsing the Ural River. As a background watch, though, it’s undeniably soothing. I suspect that for the select few, this channel will serve as a quiet companion as they navigate their daily routines.
And while that may not have been humanity’s initial motivation for achieving the incredible feat of breaking free from Earth’s constraints—let’s not forget that Neil Armstrong didn’t formally declare, “That’s one small step for a man, one giant leap for the screensaver industry”—the concept of Space Live is still delightful. I may not tune in all the time, but it will undoubtedly be my go-to source whenever I’m looking to reconnect with our essence and acknowledge how minimal the barriers are that divide us.
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The U.S. depends on imports for nearly 80% of the rare earth elements necessary for critical electronics, making the securing of mining rights and import agreements a pivotal political issue. NBC News’ Zinhle Essamuah clarifies what rare earth elements are and their significance. October 13, 2025
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Researchers from MIT and other institutions have discovered chemical fossils possibly left by ancient sponges on rocks dating back over 541 million years. These fossils consist of a distinctive type of sterlan, a stable variant of sterols found within the cell membranes of complex organisms. The team linked these sterlans to a category of sea sponges known as demosponges.
It highlights the picture representation of the ancient Stellan timeline, highlighting important compounds and their possible biological sources. Image credit: Shawar et al. , doi: 10.1073/pnas.2503009122.
“While I cannot precisely describe what these creatures looked like, I can assert they inhabited the ocean, had soft bodies, and likely lacked a silica skeleton,” stated MIT professor Roger Sammons.
In 2009, the researcher discovered the first chemical fossil believed to have originated from ancient sponges.
The team examined rock samples from outcrops in Oman and found an abundant sterlan they deduced to be a remnant of 30 carbon (C30) sterols—a rare steroid form attributed to ancient sea sponges.
Stellan was identified in very old rocks formed during the Ediacaran era (635-541 million years ago).
This era preceded the Cambrian period, which was marked by a sudden global explosion of complex, multicellular life forms.
The findings imply that ancient sponges may have existed far earlier than most multicellular organisms, potentially being one of the first animals on Earth.
Nevertheless, following the publication of these findings, alternative hypotheses emerged regarding the origin of C30 sterlan, suggesting that these chemicals could arise from other biological sources or non-organic geological processes.
The current study bolsters the initial hypothesis that ancient sponges produced this chemical record, as the researchers found new chemical fossils within the same promelat rock that were almost certainly biogenic.
Similar to previous studies, they searched for chemical fossils in rocks dating back to the Ediacaran period.
Samples were collected from drill cores and outcrops in Oman, West India, and Siberia, with analyses focused on the signatures of geologically stable sterols present in all eukaryotes (including plants, animals, and organisms with nuclear membranes).
“Without sterols or comparable membrane lipids, you cannot be classified as a eukaryote,” Professor Sammons remarked.
The chemical fossil identified in 2009 was 30-carbon sterols.
Additionally, the team deduced that these compounds could be synthesized due to distinct enzymes encoded by genes prevalent in demosponges.
“Finding sterols with 30 carbons is quite rare,” noted Dr. Lubna Shawar, a researcher at Caltech.
In this study, scientists concentrated on the chemistry of these compounds, observing that genes from the same sponge can produce even scarcer sterols with 31 carbon atoms (C31).
Upon analyzing rock samples of C31 sterlan, they discovered it was rich in the aforementioned C30 sterlan.
“These unique sterlans have been present all along,” Dr. Shawar remarked.
“We had to inquire the right questions to uncover them and truly comprehend what they signify and their origin.”
The researchers additionally procured samples of modern demosponges to examine for C31 sterols.
They determined that it is indeed a biological precursor of C31 sterlan found in rocks, observed in several species of contemporary demosponges.
Going further, they chemically synthesized eight different C31 sterols as reference materials to verify chemical structures.
The molecules were subjected to conditions simulating how sterols transform during deposition, burial, and pressurization over millions of years.
They found that two sterol-only products closely matched the structure of C31 sterols located in ancient rock samples.
The evidence from both substances strongly indicates that these compounds were created by living organisms rather than random non-biological processes.
Moreover, these organisms are likely ancestors of demosponges and still possess the capability to produce this set of compounds.
“It’s a blend of what’s present in the rock, what’s within the sponge, and what’s demonstrated in the lab,” explained Professor Sammons.
“Three supportive and concordant pieces of evidence strongly suggest these sponges are among Earth’s earliest animals.”
“This study illustrates how to authenticate biomarkers and confirm that the signals arise from life forms rather than contamination or abiogenic chemistry,” Dr. Shawar stated.
New Results were published this week in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.
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Lubuna Shawar et al. 2025. Chemical characterization of C31 sterols from the sponge and Neoproterozoic fossil star counterpart. PNAS 22 (41): E2503009122; doi: 10.1073/pnas.2503009122
A supernova may have directed cosmic rays towards Earth
Muratart/Shutterstock
Approximately 10 million years ago, a volatile star might have unleashed cosmic rays toward Earth, and astronomers are currently narrowing down the potential culprits behind this cosmic event.
Earlier this year, Dominique Koll of Helmholtz Zentrum Dresden-Rossendorf and his colleagues in Germany discovered a spike in radioactive beryllium trapped in five kilometers of sediment in the Pacific Ocean, dating back over 10 million years. This form of beryllium is generated exclusively when cosmic rays collide with the Earth’s atmosphere, leading Koll and his team to hypothesize that a supernova explosion might be the origin of this event.
Nonetheless, alternative explanations cannot be dismissed. These include the Sun’s magnetic influence on Earth at that time and the possibility of ocean currents from Earth’s poles contributing to beryllium deposition, areas where cosmic rays and beryllium production are typically more intense.
Now, Efrem Maconi from the University of Vienna and his team have pinpointed two likely supernova candidates using data obtained from the Gaia space telescope.
By examining the trajectories of roughly 2,700 stars near our Sun over the past 20 million years and assessing their potential to produce supernovae, Macconi and his colleagues determined that there is a 70% probability of such events occurring among these star clusters.
Researchers have identified two possible progenitors for the explosion. The most probable one, located about 200 light years away, is a relatively young cluster named ASCC 20, while the cluster OCSN 61, situated further away, is also a potential source.
Additional support for the supernova theory is that 10 million years ago, our solar system was engulfed in a bustling region of the galaxy, surrounded by extensive clouds of gas, dust, and stars known as the Radcliffe waves.
“This is a promising indication that warrants further investigation,” says Koll. “If [Maconi] were to claim we could fully eliminate this possibility, I would happily accept that as a solid conclusion. However, in this instance, it certainly remains intriguing.”
Further modeling of stellar movements will be necessary to ascertain whether these stars indeed played a role, yet this hypothesis aligns well with other findings in Earth’s geological history. Unlike cosmic rays that travel close to the speed of light, dust moves much slower, making it plausible that beryllium spikes resulted from cosmic rays from a supernova initially impacting Earth.
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Moreover, the atmospheric pressure is equivalent to that found on Earth at an altitude of 35km (almost 115,000 feet), well above the cruising altitude of commercial flights. This sparse atmosphere is predominantly carbon dioxide, containing only minimal amounts of oxygen.
Additionally, liquid water is virtually nonexistent on Mars, with radiation levels being 400 times greater than those on Earth, and only rare instances of extremely saline trickles.
Nonetheless, certain Earth organisms have shown a remarkable ability to endure such harsh conditions.
The European Space Agency conducted a series of experiments between 2008 and 2016, exposing various organisms and seeds to simulated Martian conditions aboard the International Space Station.
Tardigrades, fungi, and some bacteria survived for over a year, but solely in dormant forms, such as spores and cysts.
Some lichens and algae went a step further, demonstrating actual metabolic activity when partially shielded from radiation—this could occur on Mars if they are embedded in soil or hidden within rock crevices.
In 2024, Chinese researchers discovered that various desert moss species (Syntrichia caninervis) could endure simulated Martian conditions. However, “tolerance” is far from thriving in such an environment.
Although the moss was able to recover after a week in the simulated Martian environment and returned to normal growth, researchers did not find evidence of metabolic activity, such as oxygen production, within the Martian setting.
But the challenges are even greater.
Mars has an average surface temperature of -63°C (-81°F) and an atmospheric pressure that corresponds to 35km (nearly 115,000 feet), along with radiation levels that are 400 times higher than on Earth.
Mars soil contains perchlorate, a problematic oxidizer that is toxic to cell functions and leads to DNA damage. Exposure to the ultraviolet radiation prevalent on Mars makes it even more reactive.
The Chinese experiments did not simulate perchlorate presence in the Martian environment. Had it been included, it likely would have obliterated the moss entirely.
Some fungi survive perchlorate, and several bacterial species can utilize it as an energy source, even breaking it down into harmless by-products. However, these species still require water and warmth to thrive.
Typically, when we store items, we employ various methods to eliminate bacteria and fungi or inhibit their growth.
We freeze food, dehydrate it, sterilize with UV light, soak it in saline solutions, or seal it in oxygen-removing containers. On Mars, all these methods are naturally enforced!
If we aimed to sterilize a planet, we could hardly surpass the existing conditions on Mars.
This article addresses the inquiry posed by Robin Mason of Manchester: “Is there anything on Earth that can withstand Martian conditions?”
Please send your questions via emailto Question @sciencefocus.com, or reach us throughFacebook,Twitter, orInstagramPage (please include your name and location).
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Satellite images of the moon’s Antarctic region and Schrödinger Basin
NASA/Science Photo Library
The moon might endure far longer than previously thought, raising the concern of contaminating its surface before future lunar missions take place.
Space missions are required to follow the “Planetary Protection” policy, ensuring that microorganisms from Earth do not contaminate other celestial bodies.
Unlike Earth, where protective measures such as the atmosphere and magnetic fields exist, the moon’s surface faces intense high-energy particles from space, extreme temperatures, and harmful ultraviolet rays from the sun, making it a harsh habitat for surviving organisms.
As a result, many astronomers classify the moon’s surface as inherently barren. The Space Research Committee ranks it in the second lowest category of planetary protection, alongside Venus and comets, indicating that “spacecraft-mediated contamination could compromise investigations.”
Nonetheless, new findings from Stefano Bertone of the NASA Goddard Space Flight Center and colleagues indicate that in certain areas near the moon’s poles, which are set to be visited by NASA’s upcoming Artemis Mission, life might survive for several days, possibly over a week. This heightens the risk of contaminating these zones and generating misleading results in the search for extraterrestrial life.
“We’re returning to the moon, leaving traces behind. We need to study what kinds of traces we’re leaving and how to minimize them,” Bertone remarked at the Europlanet Science Congress (EPSC) in Helsinki, Finland, on September 12th.
Bertone and his team discovered five microbial species that show resilience to harsh environments, including black mold (Aspergillus niger) and bacteria Staphylococcus aureus and Bacillus subtilis. They assessed how much ultraviolet radiation these organisms could withstand in their laboratory. They compiled data concerning UV levels on the moon’s surface, sunlight exposure, and temperature fluctuations, which allowed them to create a map indicating where these five organisms could survive for at least one day.
All living organisms can endure well-lit areas outside the permanently shadowed regions where sunlight and ultraviolet rays are absent, making these bright zones prime candidates for lunar exploration. The black mold exhibited the highest resilience, surviving in extensive areas for up to seven days.
“This is a significant study that clearly shows if there’s a risk of contamination, then certain actions need to be taken. However, we must also recognize that these actions have economic implications,” stated Stas Barabash from the Swedish Institute of Astrophysics. For instance, space agencies might decide that equipment requires more thorough sterilization, which could increase mission costs.
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Exciting indications suggest that one of the planets in the TRAPPIST-1 star system, located around 40 light-years away, may have an atmosphere suitable for life. However, scientists aim to obtain 15 additional images to confirm this.
TRAPPIST-1 is a small red star hosting at least seven planets. Discovered in 2016, it has become a focal point for astronomers hunting for extraterrestrial life, as three of its planets lie within the Goldilocks Zone, where liquid water can exist.
Ryan McDonald from St Andrews University, UK, states that the discovery of TRAPPIST-1 stirred considerable excitement among astronomers. However, subsequent imaging of three exoplanets—two of which are in the Goldilocks zone—did not identify any atmospheres, which was a letdown. Yet, McDonald and his team have maintained a focus on TRAPPIST-1e, situated at the center of this zone, and now hold a positive outlook.
In 2023, McDonald and colleagues utilized the James Webb Space Telescope to examine TRAPPIST-1e and have continued to enhance their images of this world. Through the analysis of starlight alterations as distant planets cross in front of stars, scientists can deduce the composition of atmospheres and identify beneficial life-sustaining chemicals.
Nonetheless, TRAPPIST-1’s classification as a red dwarf complicates these measurements due to its cooler nature compared to our sun. This cooling effect can lead to prevalent atmospheric chemicals like water also existing within the star itself. Consequently, it’s crucial to differentiate TRAPPIST-1e’s atmospheric signals from those of the star’s light. This challenging task requires innovative models and extensive effort. Initial findings suggest that TRAPPIST-1e may possess a life-friendly atmosphere, potentially representing a pivotal moment in the search for habitable conditions in the universe.
“The data exhibits fluctuations in accordance with atmospheric modeling, aligning well with nitrogen-rich atmospheres and possibly including methane,” remarks McDonald. “Among all the spectra collected from the TRAPPIST-1 system, this is the most promising, indicating potential atmospheric components.”
Should the nitrogen-rich atmosphere hypothesis be confirmed in subsequent analyses, McDonald states the next step will be to search for gases such as methane or carbon dioxide and utilize climate models to assess surface temperatures and the potential for liquid water.
However, the researchers caution that current data cannot entirely dismiss the possibility that TRAPPIST-1e is merely a barren rock. Additional observations are imperative. They have data from four JWST observations but aim for an additional 15 in the near future. “We need to minimize the error margins,” comments McDonald.
Matthew Jenge from Imperial College London notes that while many exoplanets are being discovered, astronomers are eager to pinpoint those with conditions conducive to life.
“Complexities arise because a planet can be in the right orbital zone but, with the wrong atmosphere, may become inhospitable like Venus. Astronomers are investigating numerous exoplanets, and eventually, one will likely be found with a nitrogen/oxygen-rich atmosphere. Photosynthesis may be key to achieving oxygen richness,” he says.
“If [TRAPPIST-1e] is habitable, consider what transpired on that planet over the past 7.6 billion years. The older the planet, the higher the likelihood of developing intelligent life,” he adds.
McDonald believes that by 2060, data may reveal multiple planets whose existence is hard to explain without including life forms, though he stresses that proving the existence of extraterrestrial life is still a distant goal. “We remain skeptical,” he concludes.
Following the successful testing of techniques using solar group spacecraft, it may soon be possible to forecast significant solar storms capable of disrupting Earth’s electronics by more than half a day in advance.
The Sun periodically emits powerful plasma bursts known as coronal mass ejections (CMEs), which create strong magnetic fields that can harm electronics on our planet. While satellites and telescopes do monitor CME indicators, their predictions depend on the magnetic field within each CME, making it challenging to identify which emissions will be hazardous.
One of the most reliable instruments for assessing these magnetic fields is found in satellites positioned in gravity-stable orbits around the Earth, known as Lagrange Points. Though these satellites are positioned hundreds of thousands of kilometers away, they exist at only about 1% of the distance to the Sun, which contributes to their ability to provide warnings about the intensity of a CME within an hour of its impact.
Now, Emma Davis from Glaz and her colleagues at Austria’s Space Meteorological Office have discovered a method utilizing the European Space Agency’s solar orbiter to issue earlier alerts. “Solar Orbiters are primarily a scientific mission and not specifically designed for this purpose,” Davis explains. “This is an added benefit from unforeseen alignments during a CME event.”
On March 17th and 23rd of this year, two sets of CMEs were heading toward Earth while the solar orbiter was positioned between our planet and the Sun. Davis and her team leveraged the spacecraft’s magnetic field and solar wind speed measurements to model the internal magnetic architecture of each CME and anticipate the severity of the geomagnetic storms they would induce. Remarkably, the entire forecasting process required less than five minutes, allowing predictions 7 and 15 hours before the events reached Earth.
Davis noted that their predictions closely aligned with the actual geomagnetic strengths observed, which she found remarkable considering the dynamic changes the CME’s magnetic fields undergo as they approach Earth. “The fortunate aspect was that not many unexpected events occurred, and these CMEs behaved rather predictably,” she adds.
She cautions that upcoming storms may not follow the same predictable patterns and that determining the exact arrival time of these storms remains challenging, with uncertainties lasting several hours.
Nevertheless, she underscores the importance of real-time measurements once a CME departs from the Sun. Chris Scott from the University of Reading, UK, who was not part of this research, noted, “It provides an early indication of the potential configuration of the magnetic fields within each eruption.”
However, data from these two events alone are insufficient for fine-tuning predictive models, and further observations are essential before establishing reliable, specialized solar storm monitoring missions near the Sun, Scott concludes.
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On July 20th and July 23rd, 2025, NASA’s Psyche spacecraft captured images of Earth and the Moon from a distance of approximately 290 million km (180 million miles). The spacecraft’s twin cameras took several long exposure photographs, showcasing the two celestial bodies as glimmering dots in the sunlight against the backdrop of the Aries constellation.
Psyche imaged Earth and the Moon, approximately 290 million km (180 million miles) away in July 2025. Image credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/ASU.
Psyche is NASA’s mission aimed at studying metal-rich asteroids located in the main asteroid belt between Mars and Jupiter.
This mission marks NASA’s first endeavor to examine asteroids composed primarily of metal rather than rock and ice.
Psyche launched on October 13, 2023, at 10:19 AM aboard a SpaceX Falcon Heavy rocket from the Kennedy Space Center.
By August 2029, the spacecraft will begin its exploration of asteroids that scientists believe are remnants of planetary cores due to their high metal content.
“The multispectral imager equipment features a pair of identical cameras equipped with filters and telescope lenses designed to capture the asteroid’s surface using light across various wavelengths,” stated a member of the mission’s science team.
“The color and shape of the asteroid’s spectrum can provide insights into its composition.”
“For instance, the Moon and the large asteroid Vesta exhibit similar spectral ‘bumps and wiggles’ that scientists could potentially identify in Psyche.”
Researchers are interested in Psyche as it may enhance our understanding of how rocky planets with metallic cores, including Earth, were formed.
When selecting targets for imaging tests and calibration, they seek bodies that reflect sunlight similarly to Psyche.
This allows for comparisons with previous data obtained from telescopes or spacecraft observing these familiar spectral objects.
Earlier this year, Psyche pointed its cameras toward Jupiter and Mars for calibration purposes, and the results were successful.
To monitor changes in imager performance, researchers are also comparing data from various tests.
This ensures that when the spacecraft enters orbit around Psyche, the equipment will function as anticipated.
“We’re thrilled about the opportunity to further our understanding through our efforts,” remarked Dr. Jim Bell, Psyche Imager Instrument Lead at Arizona State University.
“We gather ‘trading cards’ from these distinct celestial bodies and run them through the calibration pipeline to ensure data accuracy.”
Psyche wasn’t the only instrument that underwent successful checkouts in July 2025.
The mission team also tested the spacecraft’s magnetometer and gamma-ray and neutron spectrometer, a routine procedure conducted every six months.
“Everything is operational and functioning well,” stated Dr. Bob Mas, the mission project manager at NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory.
“We aim to fly by Mars in May 2026, having accomplished all planned activities for the cruise phase.”
“This flyby represents the next significant milestone for the spacecraft, utilizing the gravitational pull of Mars to assist in reaching Psyche.”
“This will be the first of two planned loops around the solar system, marking the initial 1.6 billion km (1 billion miles) journey since its launch from NASA’s Kennedy Space Center in October 2023.”
Solar flares pose risks to GPS systems and communication satellites
NASA/SDO/AIA
AI models developed with NASA satellite imagery are now capable of forecasting the sun’s appearance hours ahead.
“I envision this model as an AI telescope that enables us to observe the sun and grasp its ‘mood,'” states Juan Bernabe Moreno from IBM Research Europe.
The sun’s state is crucial because bursts of solar activity can bombard Earth with high-energy particles, X-rays, and extreme ultraviolet radiation. These events have the potential to disrupt GPS systems and communication satellites, as well as endanger astronauts and commercial flights. Solar flares may also be accompanied by coronal mass ejections, which can severely impact Earth’s magnetic field, leading to geomagnetic storms that could incapacitate power grids.
Bernabé-Moreno and his team at IBM and NASA created an AI model named Surya, derived from the Sanskrit word for ‘sun,’ by utilizing nine years of data from NASA’s Solar Dynamics Observatory. This satellite captures ultra-high-resolution images of the sun across 13 wavelength channels. The AI models have learned to recognize patterns in this visual data and create forecasts of how the sun will appear from future observational stations.
When tested against historical solar flare data, the Surya model demonstrated a 16% improvement in accuracy for predicting flare occurrences within the next day compared to traditional machine learning models. There is also a possibility that the model could generate visualizations of flares observable for up to two hours in advance.
“The strength of AI lies in its capacity to comprehend physics in unconventional ways. It enhances our intuition regarding physical processes,” remarks Lisa Upton at the Southwest Research Institute in Colorado.
Upton is especially eager to explore if the Surya model can aid in predicting solar activity across the sun and at its poles—areas where NASA instruments cannot directly observe. While Surya does not explicitly aim to model the far side of the sun, it has shown promise in forecasting what the sun will resemble for several hours ahead as sections rotate into view, according to Bernabe Moreno.
However, it remains uncertain whether AI models can overcome existing obstacles in accurately predicting how solar activity will influence Earth. Bernard Jackson from the University of California, San Diego, points out that there is currently no means to directly observe the magnetic field composition between the Sun and Earth, a crucial factor determining the direction of high-energy particles emanating from the star.
As stated by Bernabé-Moreno, this model is intended for scientific use now, but future collaborations with other AI systems that could leverage Surya’s capabilities may allow it to support power grid operators and satellite constellation owners as part of early warning frameworks.
The name Hadian Ion is derived from Hades, the Greek god of the underworld, and is used by geologists to describe Earth’s first 600 million years. While scientists initially believed that a sea of lava engulfed the Earth during the Hadean Eon, recent discoveries have revealed minerals from that era in newly formed rocks. These minerals, known as Zircon, indicate that Hadean Earth likely featured solid land, oceans, and possibly even an active water cycle.
Researchers from the United Arab Emirates, Australia, and China have been investigating whether freshwater existed on Hadean Earth. They collected sandstone samples from Jack Hills in Australia, which contained grains eroded from ancient rocks that housed weather-resistant zircon. Previous studies have shown that 7% of the zircon grains from Jack Hills date back to the Hadean Eon, making them among the oldest materials available today.
The team noted that zircon grains are ideal for this study because they retain the same chemical composition as crystallized Hadean magma. This allows researchers to analyze zircon grains to discern the original magma’s composition. To select the appropriate grains, researchers photographed the zircons and illuminated them with an electron beam using a method called Casodoriminesense.
The researchers focused on zircon particles that were structurally intact and exhibited homogeneous color and fluorescence. They measured uranium abundance and analyzed lead atoms with varying neutron counts. Using a technique called Mass analysis, they examined isotopes in the zircon. The ratio of these isotopes, 238U and 206Pb, provides insight into the age of the crystal and its origins.
The researchers also assessed the ratios of two oxygen isotopes, 18O and 16O, within the zircon. They explained that these oxygen isotope ratios are highly sensitive to interactions between liquids and rocks, allowing them to trace the variations in the Jack Hills Zircons’ O-isotope ratios to determine when the hydration cycle began. Their findings confirmed that the zircon grains originated from a primary magma source.
Next, the researchers analyzed how different oxygen isotope ratios in zircon were generated. They explained that 18O is heavier than 16O due to its additional two neutrons. Typically, zircon crystals formed in magma share oxygen isotope ratios similar to those in modern seawater. Higher heavy oxygen isotope ratios indicate the incorporation of more 18O fragments from the Earth’s crust rather than from seawater.
Meanwhile, interactions between magma and liquids produce distinct oxygen isotope ratios. Some zircons exhibited lighter oxygen isotope ratios of 18O, more than found in contemporary seawater. For such ratios to form, the magma must be at high temperatures and in contact with liquid. The researchers identified zircon crystals that crystallized with very light oxygen isotopic ratios between 200 million and 4 billion years ago, suggesting that the original melt interacted with surface water. These ratios imply that land emerged above the oceans, allowing water to accumulate on Earth’s surface.
To further investigate, the researchers employed computational models to determine the type of surface water that influenced the extreme oxygen isotope ratios in zircon particles. They tested whether the zircon oxygen isotope ratios result solely from interactions with seawater, freshwater, or a mix of both. Their findings indicated that magma interacting only with seawater could not account for the observed oxygen isotope ratios, suggesting a combination of influences. Consequently, researchers proposed that freshwater interacted with early Hadean crust over tens of millions of years to generate light oxygen isotopic ratios.
The researchers concluded that an active water cycle existed on early Earth. They noted that this revised timeline for the onset of the water cycle could significantly impact the emergence of life on Earth. The presence of land above sea level, freshwater, and an active water cycle implies that the building blocks for life may have been present just 550 million years after Earth’s formation. They theorized that life could have potentially originated in freshwater reservoirs in exposed crust. Ongoing research into geological materials from this period may yield further insights into the early processes that facilitated the emergence of life.
Apple has entered into a $500 million agreement with a US company specializing in rare earth magnets, crucial for the production of electronic devices, following China’s reduction in rare and essential material exports.
This support comes after MP Materials, which runs the only rare earth mine in the US, finalized a multi-billion dollar agreement with the US Department of Defense last week, making the Pentagon its largest shareholder. Both agreements aim to address supply chain vulnerabilities after China limited its rare earth exports earlier this year in response to Donald Trump’s sweeping tariffs.
The deal, revealed on Tuesday, guarantees Apple a consistent supply of rare earth magnets from China, the world’s leading producer. Analysts noted that the cost of bolstering US magnet production is minimal compared to the long-term risk of completely losing access to vital components for Apple.
“We are currently in an era where executives are willing to invest significantly for a dependable supply chain. They want to avoid interruptions,” remarked Greserin Bascaran, director of the Centre for Strategic and International Research’s Centre for Key Mineral Security Program.
Rare earth elements, a collection of 17 metals, are vital for creating powerful magnets, which are found in devices that vibrate mobile phones, as well as in weaponry, electric vehicles, and numerous other electronic products.
China imposed export limitations on rare earths in April in reaction to Trump’s tariffs. In June, the US and China reached an accord that settled many disputes over rare earths, but broader trade tensions still emphasize the need for non-Chinese supplies.
Under the agreement, Apple will prepay $20 million to MP for magnets due to start delivery in 2027. The duration of the transaction and the quantity of magnets involved were not disclosed by the company.
The agreement stipulates that magnets will be produced from recycled materials, aligning with Apple’s longstanding commitment to reducing dependence on mining. The magnets will be processed using operations in Fort Worth, MP, Texas, and recycled at Mountain Pass, MP, California.
“Rare earth materials are critical for developing advanced technologies, and this collaboration will enhance the availability of these essential materials in the United States,” stated Apple CEO Tim Cook in a statement.
Since the government announced its deal, MP Material’s stock price has nearly doubled. This is a notable turnaround from last year when CEO Jim Richinski expressed frustration over rare earth pricing that led to the merger with Australian competitors.
Bob O’Donnell, president of market research firm Technalysis Research, noted that Tuesday’s development is “entirely significant,” given Apple’s substantial requirement for rare earth magnets in its devices.
“Additionally, by prioritizing US-based suppliers, we will help position Apple more proactively within Washington,” he added.
Apple stated that this agreement forms part of a four-year, $500 million investment commitment towards the US, while facing threats from Trump regarding an iPhone not manufactured in the US. Nevertheless, many analysts argue creating an iPhone in the US is impractical, given labor costs and the existing smartphone supply chain.
While Apple did not specify which devices will utilize the magnets, MP mentioned that this deal will provide magnets for hundreds of millions of devices, significantly impacting Apple’s product lineup.
MP expects to start producing mined and processed rare earth materials and commercial magnet production at its Texas facility by the end of this year.
Today’s rotation is inexplicably accelerating, making it one of the shortest days of the year.
While summer days are certainly longer, July 9th, 2025, will be 1.3 ms shorter than the average.
This speed fluctuates slightly, but it generally takes 24 hours, or 86,400 seconds, for one complete rotation around the axis. To monitor these variations, International Earth Rotation and Reference System Services (IER) continuously tracks the length of the day with remarkable precision.
In 2020, the IER noted that our planet has been spinning faster and has continued this trend since then.
Their data suggests that the shortest days of the year will occur on July 9th, July 22nd, and August 5th, when the moon is at its farthest from the equator.
The moon subtly influences Earth’s rotation through tidal braking, where its gravitational pull slightly distorts our planet.
This phenomenon not only creates tides but also gradually siphons off angular momentum from Earth’s rotation, slowing it down by about 2 ms each century.
This means that during the Triassic period, around 200 million years ago, a day was just under 23 hours long. After another 200 million years, we can expect days to extend to 25 hours.
Days were shorter for Brachiosaurus
IERS may implement a second leap second to ensure that high-precision clocks remain accurate. The most recent leap second was added on December 31, 2016.
During times when the moon is far from the equator, the impact on Earth’s rotation is less pronounced, causing these days to be slightly longer. However, the duration seen in recent years is about half of what it was before 2020.
Several events can alter Earth’s rotation, such as the 2011 9.0 magnitude Japan earthquake, which shortened the day by 1.8 microseconds, but the cause of the current accelerating trend remains unknown.
A gradual slowdown is unlikely to have any catastrophic consequences for our planet. The time difference is too minimal for most to notice—you may need to consider skipping a leap second in 2025, with one potentially added again in 2029.
Regardless of the cause, this phenomenon is unlikely to be permanent, and our planet will eventually revert to its long-term rotation pattern.
Recent studies indicate that Earth and the rest of the Milky Way could be drifting through the universe’s voids for billions of years.
By analyzing the echoes left by the Big Bang’s “Soundwave,” a group of astronomers has uncovered that the universe’s voids may be more extensive than previously believed.
If validated, this theory could solve one of the major dilemmas in cosmology known as Hubble tension, which highlights the discrepancy in how quickly our universe is expanding based on various measurement methods.
Astronomers have grappled with this issue for quite some time, finding that the expansion rate measured from the distant universe is significantly slower than that determined from observations of local regions.
“The possible resolution to this discrepancy is that our galaxy resides near the center of a large, local void,” stated Dr. Indranil Banik from the University of Portsmouth at the National Astronomical Conference in Durham.
This situation arises because the area surrounding the void is densely packed with galaxies, and their gravitational influence gradually pulls in nearby galaxies, leading to the void’s slow emptying over time.
“Due to the void’s emptiness, the speed of objects receding from us is greater than if the void were absent,” Banik explained. Thus, it may appear that the local universe is expanding at a faster rate than it truly is.
For Hubble’s tension to hold, the empty void must exhibit a galactic density approximately 20% lower than the universe’s average and span about 1 billion light-years.
Life in the Void
The concept of living within a void is not new, but confirming its existence poses challenges.
For instance, it’s quite difficult to perceive the shape of your environment when you are immersed within it—like trying to analyze your home from inside a room.
Current cosmological theories suggest uniformity across large scales, implying the absence of significant voids within our vicinity.
Galaxies tend to cluster together like the Perseus clusters, separated by large voids. Yet, everything should appear uniform on a grand scale – credits: Image processing Cuillandre (Cea Paris-Saclay), G. by ESA/Euclid/Euclid Consortium/NASA, J.-C. Anselmi
However, Banik’s team has gathered evidence supporting the existence of a local void by studying the acoustic vibrations known as baryon acoustic oscillations (BAO). These fluctuations result from pressure waves produced during the primordial phase of the Big Bang.
Over billions of years, these oscillations have influenced the arrangement of galaxies in the broader universe. If our galaxy is positioned at the center of a void, it would distort the BAO patterns we observe nearby.
This research, drawing on data collected over the past 20 years, reinforces the idea that we genuinely inhabit a vast void.
Real challenges will emerge when examining how life within the void impacts other aspects of the surrounding universe, which may prove to be lonelier than we ever anticipated.
As a star exhausts its fuel, it succumbs to gravitational forces and collapses. When a star over eight times the mass of our sun collapses, it can result in asupernova, a tremendous explosion that releases more energy in just a few seconds than what the sun produces over 10 billion years.
During a supernova explosion, high-energy particles known as Cosmic Rays of Galaxy and a violent outpouring of electromagnetic waves, referred to as Gamma rays, are generated. These emissions are termed Ionizing radiation because they dislodge electrons from the molecules they encounter, resulting in ionization. This process can devastate everything from biomolecules like DNA to atmospheric particles like aerosol. Consequently, researchers believe that supernovae pose significant threats to nearby life forms.
While humans have not witnessed a supernova explosion close to Earth, our ancestors may have been less fortunate. A nearby supernova could eject radioactive elements encapsulated in interstellar dust grains, which can travel through the solar system and eventually reach Earth.Geologists have traced these grains in marine mud over the last 10 million years and estimate that a supernova has likely exploded within 100 parsecs of our planet in the last million years. The Earth is positioned about 8,000 parsecs from the center of the Milky Way, making these stellar explosions relatively close in cosmic terms.
Historically, scientists have speculated that nearby supernovae may have influenced animal diversity by contributing to mass extinction events over the past 500 million years. Some researchers propose that cosmic rays emitted from supernovae could potentially deplete the Earth’s ozone layer every hundred million years, exposing surface dwellers to harmful UV radiation. Others suggest that ionizing radiation can interact with aerosols to form clouds that block sunlight. However, scientists remain divided on the extent of ozone depletion, how severe a supernova’s impact could be, its effects on climate, and how catastrophic it might be for the biosphere.
Recently, researchers have revisited the potentially destructive impact of nearby supernovae using models that simulate interactions among planetary atmospheres, oceans, land, and biospheres. Earth system models employ atmospheric chemistry frameworks, such as EMAC, to capture complex processes previously overlooked, including air circulation and chemical reactions. Specifically, EMAC utilizes data from outdoor experiments conducted by CERN to calculate how ions interact with aerosol particles.
The research team modeled the Earth as it exists today, with 21% atmospheric oxygen, normal radiation levels, and an intact ozone layer. They simulated an explosion of ionizing radiation equivalent to a supernova 50 parsecs away, increasing the gamma rays in their model tenfold for a few seconds and boosting cosmic rays in the galaxy by a factor of ten per annum.
The team investigated the effects of ionizing radiation bursts on the ozone layer. Their findings confirmed that ionizing radiation strips electrons from atmospheric nitrogen and oxygen atoms, leading to the formation of highly reactive molecules known as radicals, which can destroy ozone. However, they discovered that certain reactions occurred at slower rates than anticipated, resulting in less ozone depletion than expected. They also found that ionizing radiation interacts with water vapor to produce hydroxyl radicals, which, when combined with nitrogen radicals, actually contribute to ozone formation.
Based on their findings, the team estimated that supernovae could potentially deplete up to 10% of Earth’s ozone layer. This level of ozone loss is comparable to the 6% depletion caused by human-made fluorocarbons and is far from lethal. They repeated the model to account for an Earth with just 2% atmospheric oxygen, simulating conditions around 500 million years ago when life transitioned to land. This modeling revealed repeated UV protection in the ocean, and they found that at this reduced oxygen concentration, only 10% to 25% of the ozone layer was lost.
The team then analyzed how radiation from the supernova influences cloud formation and climate. They calculated that ionizing radiation could increase the number of cloud-forming particles by about 10% to 20% globally. This alteration is quite similar in magnitude to recent anthropogenic warming and could cool the Earth by approximately 2.5 watts per square meter. While they acknowledged that these changes might disturb the environment, they believe it wouldn’t lead to sudden extinction.
The researchers concluded that radiation from nearby supernovae is unlikely to trigger mass extinction events on Earth. Since our early ancestors first emerged, the atmosphere has functioned as a protective barrier, safeguarding us from immediate harmful effects. Nevertheless, they cautioned that their model does not account for the risks associated with long-term exposure to elevated levels of ionizing radiation, which remains largely unexplored. They suggested that future research should seek safe methods to investigate the direct impacts of cosmic radiation on humans and animals.
Deep, resonating pulses and heartbeats are being revealed beneath East Africa, ripping the continent apart.
This unusual phenomenon is attributed to a rhythmic surge in melting mantle rocks that rise and fall beneath the Earth’s surface, as explained by recent research. Natural Earth Science. These forces are so intense that they’ve been capable of splitting Africa for millions of years, resulting in the formation of new oceans.
These geological pulses were identified in the AFAR triangle, the region where three tectonic plates (the African, Somali, and Arabian plates) converge beneath Ethiopia, Eritrea, and Djibouti. This area, known as a structural triple junction, is one of the rare locations on Earth where the crust is simultaneously pulled in three different directions.
As the plates shift, significant fissures, known as lifts, form. Here, the Earth’s crust thins until it eventually fractures. It is within these gaps that the discovery was made.
“We discovered that the mantle underneath was not stationary but rather uniformly dynamic,” said Dr. Emma Watts, a geologist at Swansea University who led the research.
To delve further, the research team gathered volcanic rock samples from the area and examined their chemical composition. What emerged was a type of “geological barcode,” showcasing a consistent pattern of chemical traits, which indicates that magma plumes have ascended over millions of years.
Geologists study layers of volcanic sediments to decipher the history of the rocks. Coset Volcano, the main Ethiopian rift. – Credit: Thomas Gernon, University of Southampton
At times, some barcodes were broader than others, hinting that the clefts channel pulse magma.
“The chemical patterns indicate that the plume behaves like a heartbeat,” stated Professor Tom Gernon, who also contributed to the study from the University of Southampton.
He elaborated that these pulses function differently based on the Earth’s crustal structure. Magma pulses can travel more freely, akin to the way blood flows through arteries along the Red Sea.
“Our findings reveal a close link between the evolution of deep mantle upwellings and the movement of the plates above,” said Derek Keir, co-author of the research at the University of Southampton.
“This significantly influences our understanding of surface volcanism, seismic activity, and continental fission.”
New findings from MIT indicate that early eukaryotes (complex life forms that eventually evolved into the diverse multicellular organisms we see today) may have thrived in meltwater ponds between 72 and 635 million years ago during a period referred to as Snowman Earth.
Impressions of the artist “Snowman Earth.” Image credit: NASA.
Snowman Earth is a colloquial term for a period in Earth’s history characterized by extensive ice coverage across the planet.
This term often refers to two consecutive glacial events that occurred during the Cleogen era, a timeframe geologists define as lasting from 635 million to 72,000 years ago.
The debate remains whether the Earth was akin to a solid snowball or a softer “slash ball.”
What is certain is that much of the planet experienced deep freeze conditions, with an average temperature of about 50 degrees Celsius.
The pressing question is how and where life managed to survive during this time.
“We aim to comprehend the essentials of complex life on Earth,” stated Fatima Hussain, a graduate student at MIT.
“We examine eukaryotic evidence before and after the Crazians in the Fossil Record, yet there’s limited direct evidence regarding their habitats.”
“The main mystery lies in how life persisted. We are working to uncover the specifics of how and where.”
Numerous theories suggest potential refuges for life during Snowman Earth, such as isolated areas of open ocean (if they existed), around deep-sea hydrothermal vents, and underneath ice sheets.
By examining meltwater ponds, Hussain and her team explored the idea that surface meltwater could have supported eukaryotic life during the planet’s early years.
“There are various hypotheses regarding potential survival habitats for life during the Crazians, but we lack comprehensive analogs,” Hussain remarked.
“Meltwater ponds are currently found on Earth, easily accessible, and provide a unique opportunity to focus on the eukaryotes inhabiting these environments.”
For their study, the researchers analyzed samples from meltwater ponds in Antarctica.
In 2018, scientists visited the McMurdo Ice Shelf region of East Antarctica, which is known for its small meltwater ponds.
In this area, water freezes all the way to the seabed, encompassing dark sediments and marine life.
The loss of wind-driven ice from the surface creates a conveyor belt effect, gradually bringing trapped debris to the surface, which absorbs solar warmth, melting surrounding ice and leading to the creation of shallow meltwater ponds.
Each pond is adorned with mats of microorganisms that have accumulated over time, forming sticky communities.
“These mats can be several centimeters thick and are vibrant, clearly demonstrating distinct layers,” Hussain explained.
These microbial mats consist of single-celled, photosynthetic organisms, such as cyanobacteria, which are prokaryotic and lack nuclei or other organelles.
While these ancient microorganisms are known to withstand extreme environments like meltwater ponds, researchers sought to determine if complex eukaryotic organisms—characterized by cell nuclei and membrane-bound organelles—could also survive in such harsh conditions.
To address this question, the researchers required more than just a microscope, as the defining traits of microscopic eukaryotes within microbial mats are often too subtle to discern visually.
The study involved analyzing specific lipids called sterols and a genetic component known as ribosomal ribonucleic acid (rRNA). Both serve as identifiers for various organisms.
This dual analytical approach provided complementary fingerprints for distinct eukaryotic groups.
In their lipid analysis, the researchers uncovered numerous sterols and rRNA genes in microbial mats that align closely with certain types of algae, protists, and microscopic animals.
They were able to assess the diversity and relative abundance of lipid and rRNA genes across different ponds, suggesting that these ponds are home to a remarkable variety of eukaryotes.
“The two ponds exhibit differences. There’s a recurrent cast of organisms, but they manifest uniquely in different environments,” Hussain noted.
“We identified a diverse array of eukaryotic organisms spanning all major groups in every pond we studied.”
“These eukaryotes are descendants of those that managed to survive Snowman Earth.”
“This underscores how meltwater ponds during the Snowman period globally could have nurtured eukaryotic life, enabling the diversification and emergence of complex organisms, including ourselves, in later epochs.”
Study published in the journal Nature Communications.
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F. Hussain et al. 2025. Diverse eukaryotic biosignatures from the Earth-analogous environment of Antarctic Snowman. Nat Commun 16, 5315; doi:10.1038/s41467-025-60713-5
Asteroid 2024 YR4 may create the largest lunar impact in the past 5,000 years
Mark Garlic/Science Photo Library/Getty Images
Originally believed to be on a collision path with Earth, asteroid 2024 YR4 still poses some level of threat to our planet. There remains a chance that such celestial bodies could impact the moon, potentially resulting in a catastrophic explosion that could flood Earth with debris capable of damaging satellites.
Astronomers have been monitoring this building-sized asteroid since its detection in December 2024. Initial forecasts heightened the risk of a collision with Earth in 2032, suggesting the impact could unleash enough energy to obliterate a city; fortunately, it now appears 2024 YR4 will likely miss us.
Nonetheless, the likelihood of a lunar impact is gradually increasing, currently estimated at 4.3% based on observations made before the asteroid moved out of our telescopes’ view until 2028. Paul Wiegelt from the University of Western Ontario and his team suggest that such a collision could inflict significant damage on Earth’s satellites.
“We were somewhat taken aback by the amount of debris that could potentially reach Earth,” Wiegert remarked. “In reality, Earth is a surprisingly small target from the moon’s vantage point. Thus, while impacts on Earth are infrequent, gravitational forces can draw in that material under certain conditions.”
Wiegert and his colleagues calculated that 2024 YR4 could create a crater over a kilometer wide on the moon, marking the largest lunar impact in at least the last 5,000 years, albeit still small compared to typical craters. By ejecting debris into space and simulating their trajectories tens of thousands of times, they concluded that this event could lead to collision rates for Earth’s satellites comparable to those observed over years or even days.
While these collisions may not entirely disable a satellite, they could cause significant anomalies due to electrical disruptions. Accurately modeling their potential damage proves challenging, Wiegert noted.
If luck is not on our side, the impact of fragmented materials could be particularly severe, according to Mark Burchell at the University of Kent in the UK. “If they impact a spacecraft’s coolant pipe or an exposed sensor, the loss of critical functions occurs suddenly,” he explained. “Once damaged, satellites cannot be repaired. Even minor issues can lead to serious problems.”
Wiegert emphasized that this scenario should provoke global space agencies to consider deflecting asteroids on a collision course with the moon, similar to efforts aimed at protecting Earth. A NASA Planetary Defense Coordination Agency representative stated that while it is crucial to identify Near-Earth Objects (NEOs) posing potential risks, it is “premature to speculate on possible response options” for a potential 2024 collision.
Depending on how events unfold, swift action could be necessary. When 2024 YR4 reappears in Earth’s telescopic view in 2028, we should be able to refine the precision of its orbital path, Wiegert commented. As chances for a lunar impact rise, it offers a four-year window for decision-making on any necessary actions.
Though it might not be as well-known as the Hubble Space Telescope or the James Webb Space Telescope, NASA’s Landsat 7 has significantly enhanced our understanding of our planet. For over 25 years, it has been capturing the stunning landscapes of Earth from space, documenting remarkable details of the planet’s ever-changing environment.
Launched in 1999 with an expected mission duration of only five years, Landsat 7 has instead emerged as one of the longest-running Earth observation missions in history. While it doesn’t gaze into distant galaxies, its instruments are focused on the vibrant, living surfaces of Earth instead.
From an altitude of 700 km (about 435 miles), it has produced vital data for scientific research and conservation, showcasing stunning images of dynamic deserts, glaciers, forests, and coastlines.
“[Landsat 7 has] been essential in tracking environmental changes such as natural disasters, deforestation, and urban expansion,” said David Applegate, former director of the US Geological Survey.
“It documented significant events such as Hurricane Katrina in 2005, the Haiti earthquake in 2010, the Australian wildfires from 2019 to 2020, and rapid urban growth across the globe.”
The Landsat 7’s primary sensor, the Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus (ETM+), captured in the clean room at Lockheed Martin Space Systems. Photo Credit: NASA/Raytheon
Landsat 7 is scheduled to retire this month after covering 6.1 billion km (3.8 billion miles) in space and capturing over 3 million images. A carefully planned shutdown will involve depleting its batteries, turning off the fuel line heater, and rendering the communications system silent permanently. For another 55 years, the satellite will drift silently above Earth before eventually re-entering the atmosphere and burning up.
As we bid farewell, we reflect on its lens and celebrate the beauty and complexity of our planet, revealing both the impacts of deforestation and the intricate patterns of continents.
Coral Reef Conservation
In the first year of the Landsat 7 mission, detailed images of coral reefs were gathered from around 900 locations worldwide. These vibrantly colored swirls depict atolls, enclosed coral reefs that typically surround a lagoon, often formed from eroded volcanic islands. Photo Credit: NASA Goddard Space Flight Center Science Visualization Studio
Guinea-Bissau, West Africa
Guinea-Bissau, a small country in West Africa, showcases intricate patterns evident in the shallow waters along its coast, where silt from the Geba and other rivers is carried away by the Atlantic Ocean. Photo Credit: NASA/USGS
Siberia, Dragon Lake
Dragon Lake, formed by the Bratsk Reservoir along the Angara River in southern Siberia, Russia, is shown here frozen in winter. Photo Credit: NASA/USGS
Lena Delta, Siberia
The Lena River, approximately 4,500 km long, is among the largest rivers globally. The Lena Delta Reserve is the most extensive protected wilderness area in Russia, serving as a sanctuary and breeding ground for many Siberian wildlife species. Photo Credit: NASA/USGS
9/11, New York
This true-color image was captured on September 12, 2001, by the Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus (ETM+) sensor on the Landsat 7 satellite shortly after the Twin Towers fell. Photo Credit: USGS/EROS
Comprehensive Continental Mosaic of Antarctica
A complete continental mosaic of Antarctica was constructed using images from Landsat 7. Photo Credit: NASA/USGS
Bolivian Deforestation
Once a vast expanse of lush vegetation, the Amazon rainforest is rapidly changing. This image demonstrates the significant deforestation occurring in Bolivia’s portion of the Amazon Basin, where loggers have carved extensive paths while ranchers have cleared areas for grazing. The bright red areas indicate healthy vegetation. Photo Credit: NASA/USGS
Icefall, Lambert Glacier, Antarctica
Lambert Glacier, the largest glacier in the world, features an ice waterfall that nourishes the glacier from the expansive ice sheets covering the plateau. The ice flows slowly, resembling water, descending about 1,300 feet (400 meters) to the underlying glacier. Photo Credit: NASA/USGS
Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill
On April 20, 2010, a catastrophic oil spill followed an explosion at an oil well in the Gulf of Mexico. Efforts to contain the expanding oil slick began immediately. Landsat imagery provided by the US Geological Survey reveals the extent of the spill, with Landsat data being vital for monitoring its range and movement. Photo Credit: NASA/USGS
Westfjords, Iceland
The Westfjords are a series of peninsulas located in northwestern Iceland. Though they comprise less than one-eighth of the country’s land area, their rugged coastlines account for over half of Iceland’s total coastline. Photo Credit: NASA/USGS
“Spilled Paint”: Iran’s Dasht-e Kavir
Resembling spilled paint, this image showcases a vibrant tapestry of landscapes in Iran’s largest desert, Dasht-e Kavir, or Great Salt Desert. It spans approximately 77,000 square kilometers (29,730 square miles) and consists of dry stream beds, desert plateaus, and salt marshes. Extreme temperatures and dramatic daily fluctuations, alongside severe storms, are characteristic of this harsh environment. Photo Credit: NASA/USGS
Hurricane Katrina, New Orleans
Following Hurricane Katrina, which led to severe flooding of up to 80% of New Orleans, Landsat 7 captured this image on September 15, 2005. Two and a half weeks post-hurricane, efforts were ongoing to siphon water back into Pontchartrain Lake, with pumps extracting approximately 380 cubic meters of water every second. Photo Credit: USGS/CEROS
Namib Naukluft National Park, Namibia
Namib Naukluft National Park is an ecological reserve in the Namib Desert, where coastal winds give rise to the world’s tallest dunes, which can reach 980 feet (300 meters). Photo Credit: NASA/USGS
Vatnajökull Glacier Ice Cap, Iceland
This image features blue ice fingers breaking away from the Vatnajökull glacier in Iceland’s Skaftafell National Park, situated at the southern extremity of Europe’s largest ice cap. Photo Credit: NASA/USGS
Uppsala Glacier Retreat in Argentina
Landsat images captured in 1986, 2001, and 2014 illustrate the retreat of the Uppsala Glacier. Photo credit: NASA
Astronomers affectionately name planets discovered around other stars after those in our solar system. For instance, the sun is referred to when a giant gas giant orbits a star, known as a Hot Jupiter. On the other hand, planets that are massive icy and gaseous entities located further from their star system are called Cold Neptune. Scientists have a keen interest in exoplanets that are several times larger than Earth, referred to as Super Earth.
Super Earths do not necessarily bear a resemblance to our planet. They do not have to reside in the habitable zone of their respective planetary systems, nor must they support life similar to Earth. Rather, they are defined by their dimensions; these super-Earths are larger than our planet yet smaller than Neptune, which is the smallest gas giant in our solar system. They can generally be rocky or icy, but may also possess gaseous characteristics.
In 2020, a group of scientists observed a star, dubbed TOI512, which is roughly twice as old and massive as our sun and appears slightly red. Their observations were conducted using the TESS satellite, which indicated that it contained two exoplanets. TESS works by monitoring selected stars over extended periods to analyze variations in their brightness. Scientists plot this brightness against time, analyzing the light curve to interpret periodic dips in brightness, indicating that an object passes in front of the star. By measuring the time between dips, astronomers can determine how quickly a planet orbits its star and how much light from the star is obscured.
Recently, an international team of scientists argued that TESS’s observations of TOI512 support different interpretations. They confirmed the existence and characteristics of a single Super Earth in the TOI-512 system instead of two exoplanets. Their interpretation of the light curve indicates that the exoplanet is located at approximately 7% the distance the Sun is from Earth. They suggested that regular dips in the TESS data for TOI512 occur about seven days apart, implying that the light blockage corresponds to a super-Earth about 1.5 times the size of our planet.
However, the light curve provides limited information about the exoplanet. To gather more details regarding its mass and composition, scientists examine how it exerts gravitational influence on its host star, observing the effect on the star’s emitted light through radial velocity measurements. They noted that the stronger the gravitational pull on the star, the larger the exoplanet. Consequently, this team followed TESS observations with radial velocity measurements from the ESPRESSO echelle spectrograph for rocky exoplanets.
By combining data from TESS and ESPRESSO, astronomers determined that the exoplanet orbiting TOI512 is approximately 3.6 times the size of Earth, with a similar density and an almost circular orbit. They estimated its surface temperature to be around 1,000 Kelvin, which is 736°C or 1357°F!
The team then modeled the composition of planets with these characteristics using statistical simulation techniques. In their model, scientists posited that the planets consist of four layers of varying sizes, including an outer gas envelope, an iron core, a silicate mantle, and water shells made of hydrogen and helium. They tested the model by generating 5,000 simulated stars that matched the properties of TOI-512, along with 2,000 simulated planets around each star.
Their findings revealed that the model could not replicate the properties of the TOI-512 exoplanet unless it featured a significant amount of surface water and a deep steam atmosphere. They suggested that this discovery challenges previous models of planetary layers, which assumed that rocky planets near stars lose both their atmospheres and water.
They proposed that this contradiction might imply that the planet is still actively shedding water, as earlier researchers have indicated that rocky planets can retain up to 20% of their original water for as long as a billion years. The team concluded that TOI512 is an excellent candidate for follow-up observations to determine if it is a steam planet or a model for future exoplanet studies.
The aim of restricting global warming to below 1.5°C faces challenges as recent climate data suggests global temperatures remain alarmingly high, with 2025 tracking closely to 2024’s record heat.
April 2025 marked the second hottest April on record, losing out only to April 2024, as per reports from the European Union’s Copernicus climate service and the nonprofit Berkeley Earth. That month, global temperatures consistently exceeded 1.51°C above pre-industrial levels, marking 22 consecutive months over this critical threshold. Copernicus reports. The average temperature for April 2025 remained cooler than April 2024, still surpassing pre-industrial levels by 1.49°C.
This unrelenting warmth has astounded scientists. The year 2024 was deemed the hottest on record, with an average global temperature exceeding 1.55°C above the pre-industrial average. It marked a significant event as it was the first calendar year to surpass the 1.5°C threshold. Under the 2015 Paris Climate Agreement, nations pledged to limit global temperature increases to well below 2°C, ideally to 1.5°C.
Scientists had anticipated that the cooling effects of the La Niña weather pattern would emerge in January, offering some relief. However, global temperatures have remained persistently elevated, raising concerns about 2025 possibly following 2024 in exceeding the critical 1.5°C marker. “The recent La Niña event hasn’t provided the expected cooling relief,” stated Robert Rohde from Berkeley Earth during a briefing on May 13.
Data from Berkeley Earth suggests an 18% likelihood that 2025 will be the hottest year recorded, and a 53% chance of it being the second hottest. Rohde estimates a 52% probability of having an average temperature exceeding 1.5°C this year.
The trajectory of global temperatures for the remainder of the year relies heavily on whether new El Niño or La Niña patterns emerge in the Pacific, according to Rohde.
The ongoing hot streak has dashed hopes of capping global temperatures at the 1.5°C Paris target. Although targets are assessed over a 20-year average, researchers are increasingly worried that recent high-temperature streaks have led to a breach of this threshold. “It’s becoming inevitable that we’ll see a long-term average above 1.5°C in the next decade,” Rohde cautioned.
Last year, scientists warned that exceeding 1.5°C would result in a three-year period of significant temperature rise, effectively compromising the goals of the Paris Agreement. Similarly, a paper released earlier this year indicated that 12 consecutive months above 1.5°C have already signaled a long-term warming trend at that level.
Richard Allan from the University of Reading expressed surprise at the durability of the warmth. Findings from the past two years and new record temperatures have fundamentally altered the scientific perspective on the feasibility of limiting warming to 1.5°C. “Without substantial mitigation efforts or extraordinary volcanic events in the next 20 years, we expect we will be above the 1.5°C threshold,” he remarked.
Nevertheless, he maintains that the Paris Agreement’s goal of limiting warming to below 2°C remains attainable. “It is crucial to strive for temperatures beneath that threshold,” he emphasized.
A tale is shared about miners who discovered copper cans in early mining-era dumps. According to them, wastewater from copper mining flowed across his land, transforming steel cans into copper.
The tale may not be entirely true, but the process is factual and is known as cementation. Montana Resource, which succeeded the Anaconda Copper Company, still employs this alchemical method in the operations at the Continental Pitmine in Butte, Montana.
Adjacent to the mine lies the Berkeley Pit, filled with 50 billion gallons of highly acidic and toxic liquid. Montana Resource channels this liquid from the pits to cascade down iron piles, converting iron into copper for production.
While there have long been methods for extracting metals from water, recent years have ushered in a global rush for metals—vital for manufacturing and technological advancements—leading to a new wave of extraction methods and processes.
Researchers are currently focusing on mineral-rich sources like wastewater, including saline water from desalination plants, oil and gas fracking water, and mining wastewater. Researchers at Oregon State University estimate that the saline water from desalination plants alone contains approximately $2.2 trillion worth of metals.
“Water is a mineral reservoir of the 21st century,” stated Peter S. Fisuke, director of the National Water Innovation Alliance in California at the Department of Energy’s Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. “Today’s technology allows us to gather wastewater and extract valuable resources.”
There is extensive research dedicated to recovering rare earth elements—metallic elements sought after due to their increasing demand—from waste. For instance, researchers at Indiana Geological Water Survey at Indiana University are Mining rare earths in coal waste which includes fly ash and coal tails. Additionally, researchers at the University of Texas Austin have created membranes that imitate nature for Separating rare earths from waste.
Utilizing mining wastewater is not only quicker and more economical than establishing a new mine, but it also generates lesser environmental impact.
The vast, contaminated reservoirs in the pit near Butte contain two light rare earth elements (REEs): neodymium and praseodymium. These are crucial for creating small yet powerful magnets, medical technologies, and enhancing defense applications like precision-guided missiles and electric vehicles. Notably, an F-35 Fighter Jet uses around 900 pounds of rare earth metals.
“We’re transforming significant liabilities into assets that contribute to national defense,” remarked Mark Thompson, vice president of environmental affairs at Montana Resources. “There’s a lot of complex metallurgy at play here—the real cutting-edge science.”
This is a crucial moment for exploring domestic rare earth production. The U.S. currently lags behind China, and President Trump’s trade tensions have raised concerns that China may tighten its rare earth mineral exports in response to U.S. tariffs. Experts in mineral security at the Center for Strategic and International Research warn that this gap could enable China to accelerate its defense advancements more swiftly than the U.S.
The Trump administration is particularly fixated on Greenland and Ukraine due to their valuable rare earth deposits.
Trump has recently authorized the government to commence mining on much of the seabed, including areas in international waters, to tap into mineral wealth.
There are 17 distinct types of rare earth metals identified in the Berkeley Pit. While not rare in abundance, they are often deemed scarce due to their dispersion in small quantities.
Rare earths are divided into two categories: heavy and light. Heavy rare earths, including dysprosium, terbium, and yttrium, tend to have larger atomic masses, making them more scarce and thus typically traded in smaller quantities, leading to shortages. In contrast, light rare earths are characterized by a lower atomic mass.
Acid mine drainage is a hazardous pollutant created when sulfur-containing pyrite within rocks interacts with oxygen and water during mining. This process results in the formation of sulfuric acid, which poisons waterways. This environmental issue affects thousands of abandoned mines, contaminating 12,000 miles of streams across the nation.
However, acids facilitate the dissolution of zinc, copper, rare earths, and other minerals from rock formations, presenting an opportunity for extraction techniques that were not previously available.
Paul Ziemkievich, director of the Water Institute at West Virginia University, has been researching Butte’s pit water for 25 years. Alongside a team from Virginia Tech and the chemical engineering firm L3 process development, they developed a method to extract crucial metals from acid mine drainage originating from West Virginia coal mines, the same approach utilized in Butte. Large, densely woven plastic bags filled with sludge from the water treatment plant are employed, allowing water to seep through slowly and yielding about 1-2% rare earth preconcentrate, which requires further refining through chemical processes. The final patented step involves a solvent extraction method that results in pure rare earth elements.
“One of the remarkable aspects of acid mine drainage is that our concentrations are particularly rich in heavy rare earths,” explained Dr. Ziemkiewicz. “Light rare earths carry a lesser value.”
The Butte project is awaiting news on a $75 million grant from the Department of Defense, which is critical for enhancing rare earth enrichment and commencing full-scale production.
Zinc is also abundant in the acid mine drainage mixture and serves as an essential financial asset for the process as it commands a higher market price. Nickel and cobalt are also extracted.
Demand for rare earth elements is high; however, China dominates production, manipulating prices to maintain low costs and stifle competition. This is why the Department of Defense funds various projects focused on rare earth elements and other metals. The U.S. operates only a single rare earth mine in Mountain Pass, California, which produces roughly 15% of the global supply of rare earths.
The Berkeley Pit has posed a chronic problem since 1982, when Anaconda copper companies ceased their open-pit mining operations and halted water pumping, causing it to become filled with water. The acidity levels from the mine’s drainage have proven dangerous; in 2016, thousands of snow geese that landed in the pit quickly succumbed to poisoning, with around 3,000 birds reported dead.
The Atlantic Richfield Company and Montana Resources play crucial roles in permanently treating pit water to avert pollutioning the surrounding groundwater (Montana Resources operates the continental pit adjacent to the Berkeley Pit). The Clean Water Act mandates that companies manage acid mine drainage, and enhancing treatment capabilities at the local horseshoe bend plant is more cost-effective than developing a new facility, which may also offset treatment costs while boosting profits.
Numerous research initiatives have been launched to extract suspended metals from the water. Thompson displayed a map illustrating where radiation was emitted from Butte and where water samples have been dispatched to research facilities nationwide. However, the ongoing metal production process stands as the first to demonstrate profitability.
The mineral wealth present in this region has been recognized for many years; however, extracting it has proven challenging until Dr. Ziemkiewicz’s team innovated new methods. They generate rare earths from two coal mines in West Virginia, where acid mine drainage presents ongoing issues. Each of these mines yields about 4 tons of rare earths annually.
On the other hand, the Berkeley Pit is projected to produce 40 tons annually, bolstered by significantly higher concentrations of rare earths in solution and substantial water content. Dr. Ziemkiewicz believes that this method, when applied to other mines, could potentially satisfy nearly all domestic rare earth requirements for defense-related uses.
However, certain forecasts project that demand for rare earths may surge by as much as 600% in the next few decades.
Lawrence Berkeley laboratories are investigating technologies related to water filtration, particularly experimental approaches to improve membranes, as part of their overarching efforts to purify water, recover significant minerals, and produce necessary minerals. They operate a particle accelerator known as an advanced light source, which generates bright X-ray light that enables scientists to examine various materials at an atomic scale.
The lab has collaborated with external researchers to develop a new generation of filters referred to as nanosponges, designed to capture specific target molecules like lithium.
“It’s akin to an atom catcher’s mitt,” explained Adam Uliana, CEO of Chemfinity, a Brooklyn company exploring the use of nanosponges to purify a variety of waste. “It only captures one type of metal.”
In addition to rare earths, lithium, cobalt, and magnesium have gained significant attention from researchers.
Ion exchange, a well-established technology for extracting metals from water and purifying contaminants, is also gaining interest. Lilac Solutions, a startup based in Oakland, California, has developed specialized resin beads to extract lithium from brine via ion exchange, with plans for their first production facility in Great Salt Lake, Utah.
The company’s technology involves pumping brine through an ion exchange filter to extract minerals, returning water to its source with minimal environmental disruption. If this approach proves viable on a larger scale, it could revolutionize lithium extraction, significantly decreasing the necessity for underground mines and open-pit operations.
Maglathea Metal is an Auckland-based startup that produces magnesium ingots from the saline effluent generated by desalinating seawater. The company processes the brine, which consists of magnesium chloride salts, using a current powered by renewable energy to heat the solution, resulting in the separation of salt from molten magnesium.
CEO Alex Grant noted that the process is exceptionally clean, although it has yet to be applied to magnesium production. Much of the company’s work is funded by the Department of Defense.
With China accounting for 90% of global magnesium production, the current smelting process, known as the Pidgeon process, is highly polluting and carbon-intensive, involving heating to around 2,000 degrees using coal-fired kilns. Dr. Fisuke anticipates further innovations on the horizon.
“Three converging factors are at play,” he stated. “The value of these critical materials is climbing, the expenses associated with traditional mining and extraction are escalating, and reliance on international suppliers, particularly from Russia and China, is diminishing.”
After 53 years traversing the cosmos, a quirky Soviet spacecraft known as Cosmos-482 has made its way back to Earth, penetrating the atmosphere at 9:24 am on Saturday, according to Los Cosmos, a Russian state entity overseeing the space program.
Cosmos-482, designed for a landing on Venus, may have survived its descent. As reported by Roscosmos, its remnants were found scattered across the Indian Ocean near Jakarta, Indonesia.
Launched on March 31, 1972, the Kosmos-482 became tethered to Earth’s orbit due to a premature shutdown of one of its rocket boosters. Its return evokes memories of the Cold War space race, sparking images of terrestrial forces projecting into the solar systems.
“It takes me back to a time when the Soviet Union was bold in space exploration. We might all be more adventurous in space,” remarks Jonathan McDowell, an astrophysicist at the Harvard & Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics, who monitors orbiting objects. “In that context, it is a bittersweet occasion.”
While the U.S. triumphed in the lunar race, the Soviet Union set its eyes on Venus through its Venella program.
Between 1961 and 1984, the Soviets dispatched 29 spacecraft towards this enigmatic world, although many missions did not succeed more than a dozen fell short. The Venella missions observed Venus from orbit, gathered atmospheric data, descended through its caustic clouds, collected and analyzed soil samples, and transmitted the first images from the planet’s surface.
“Kosmos-482 serves as a reminder of the Soviet Union’s encounter with Venus 50 years ago, a tangible relic of that endeavor,” states Asif Siddiqi, a historian at Fordham University focusing on Soviet space activities. “It’s oddly fascinating how the past continues to linger in orbit around the Earth.”
Fifty years later, as the country aims to return to the moon and dispatch probes to Mars, Jupiter, and various asteroids, only an isolated Japanese spacecraft remains at Venus amidst proposals facing delays with uncertain timelines and an unpredictable future.
While landing astronauts on the moon during the space race was a monumental achievement, it also highlighted the rest of our solar system. As the U.S. increasingly focused on Mars, the Soviet Union turned its attention to the second planet from the sun.
“Back then, both nations were intrigued by Mars, but Venus proved a more accessible target,” asserts Kathleen Lewis, curator of the International Space Program at the Smithsonian’s National Air and Space Museum.
Often referred to as Earth’s twin due to its similar size, Venus is shrouded in a dense atmosphere of carbon dioxide and veiled under thick layers of sulfuric clouds. Its surface endures scorching temperatures reaching 870 degrees Fahrenheit, coupled with atmospheric pressure nearly 90 times greater than Earth’s.
“How do you create technology capable of surviving a months-long journey across the solar system, entering a thick atmosphere, and capturing images without being destroyed?” Dr. Siddiqi questioned. “It’s an astonishing challenge to consider solving back in the 1960s.”
Venella 9 Descent Craft and Lander credit… Via NASA
The Soviets, unbothered by the challenges presented by such a hostile world, persistently launched hardware towards Venus. At that time, no blueprint existed for such endeavors.
“You were essentially inventing the technology to send to Venus,” Dr. Siddiqi explained. “Today, if a country like Japan wishes to send a mission to Venus, they have decades of knowledge and engineering guidebooks. In the ’60s, there was nothing.”
The Soviet Venella program achieved many milestones, including being the first probe to enter the atmosphere of another planet, the first spacecraft to successfully land on another planet, and the first to capture sounds from an alien landscape.
The breakdown of Kosmos-482 occurred midway through this timeline, and its re-entry wasn’t the first encounter with Earth for the intended Venus lander.
Around 1 am on April 3, 1972, merely days after the troublesome launch, several 30-pound titanium spheres, each the size of a beach ball and inscribed with Cyrillic letters, descended upon the town of Ashburton, New Zealand.
One landed in a turnip field, leaving local residents cautious. The New Zealand Herald reported in 2002 that one of these spheres was ultimately confined in a police cell in Ashburton.
According to space law, ownership of a downed space object belongs to the country that launched it; however, the Soviets did not claim ownership of the sphere initially. The “space ball” was eventually returned to the farmers who discovered it.
Although Cosmos-482 was lost, the two other spacecraft launched days earlier successfully reached Venus and relayed data from the surface for 50 minutes. Two years later, when Venera 9 and 10 arrived, the Soviets ensured redundancy by launching both spacecraft.
The Venera program concluded in the mid-1980s with an ambitious Vega probe, which, starting in 1984, deployed a landing craft on Venus’s surface in 1985 and flew by Halley’s Comet in 1986.
“The legacy of Soviet Venus exploration in the 70s and 80s was a point of pride for the Soviet Union,” Dr. Lewis noted.
The re-entry of Cosmos-482 holds unique historical significance but isn’t particularly unusual today, as nations and companies continue to launch more technology into orbit, resulting in an increase of objects descending from the sky.
“We see frequent re-entries nowadays,” says Greg Henning, an Aerospace Corporation engineer and space debris specialist. The nonprofit organization tracks objects in orbit. “We observe dozens of instances each day, most of which go unnoticed.”
This is particularly true now, as heightened solar activity expands the Earth’s atmosphere, increasing drag on orbiting objects.
Some of these re-entries create spectacular light displays, whether through controlled descents like SpaceX’s cargo and crew capsules or unintentional ones, such as the failed test flight of SpaceX’s Starship prototype. Others, like China’s Long March 5B rocket booster, are uncontrolled and potentially hazardous.
However, in rare instances, spacecraft such as Cosmos-482 return to Earth as remnants of humanity’s formative endeavors.
“There exists an archive of the space race that continues to circle Earth. Many objects released in the 1950s, ’60s, and ’70s remain in orbit,” Dr. Siddiqi remarked. “At times, pieces of this living museum may fall on my head, reminding me of its presence.”
The Soviet spacecraft, which was launched on a failed mission to Venus in 1972, is thought to have crashed to Earth early Saturday morning.
The European Space Agency monitored the craft’s uncontrolled descent and reported that it was last tracked by German radar. By the time of the anticipated crash, radar could no longer locate Cosmos 482, concluding that “it is likely that re-entry has already occurred.”
No injuries have been reported.
Cosmos 482 was part of the Soviet Venera Program, a series of probes designed to study Venus. While ten of these missions successfully landed on the harsh planet, the rocket carrying Cosmos 482 malfunctioned, leaving its upper stage, including the descent module, trapped in Earth’s orbit.
For the next 53 years, the approximately 3-foot-wide, 1,069-pound spacecraft orbited Earth in a smaller, elliptical path until it was close enough to descend into the atmosphere.
It’s common for space debris to re-enter the Earth’s atmosphere. The ESA reports that over 2,400 human-made objects fell from space in 2022. Most burned up upon re-entry, with the majority not landing in the ocean.
However, Cosmos 482 was engineered to withstand the dense atmosphere of Venus and operate on a planet with an average temperature of 867 degrees Fahrenheit (464°C). This design means it was theoretically robust enough to endure a routine re-entry through Earth’s atmosphere.
There are no recorded instances of space debris causing human fatalities. An ESA official stated in a blog post about Cosmos-482, “The risk of a satellite re-entering and causing injury is exceedingly low. The annual chance of an individual being harmed by orbital debris is less than one in 100 billion. By comparison, a person is approximately 65,000 times more likely to be struck by lightning.”
On Friday, U.S. space forces estimated that the spacecraft would re-enter the atmosphere at 1:52 AM on Saturday over the Pacific Ocean, west of Guam.
Discarded Soviet-era spacecrafts do not pose a significant risk to Earth, according to experts.
The Kosmos-482, initially designed for a mission to land on Venus, has been stuck in Earth’s orbit for 53 years due to rocket issues. It is anticipated to re-enter the Earth’s atmosphere in the coming days, with the latest forecasts predicting an uncontrolled descent on Saturday.
While the sight of large metal fragments falling back to Earth might seem alarming, old satellites and rocket debris actually re-enter the atmosphere almost daily. According to the European Space Agency (ESA), such events are quite common.
Typically, spacecraft burn up harmlessly upon re-entry. Even if some components survive the intense heat, it is rare for them to land on populated areas, mainly due to the fact that oceans cover about 71% of the Earth’s surface.
“The likelihood of a satellite re-entering and causing injury is exceedingly low,” noted an ESA official in Blog entries regarding Kosmos-482. “Statistically, an individual has less than a one in 100 billion chance of being harmed by space debris. In contrast, a person is approximately 65,000 times more likely to be struck by lightning.”
ESA’s Space Debris Office predicts that Kosmos-482 will start its descent around 4:26 AM on Saturday, with a possible variance of ±4.35 hours.
Meanwhile, U.S. space forces anticipate an earlier re-entry time of about 1:52 AM on Saturday.
The specific re-entry trajectory remains uncertain due to atmospheric dynamics, space weather, and orbital decay, complicating the task of accurately predicting when and where an uncontrolled spacecraft will land.
As the spacecraft nears re-entry, predictions may become more reliable, but pinpointing the exact landing site remains challenging.
NASA has indicated that the potential landing area could be “52 N-52 seconds latitude,” a vast expanse that includes much of Africa, Australia, North America, South America, and parts of Europe and Asia.
Officials from the Space Force have stated that current projections suggest Kosmos-482 will re-enter the Pacific Ocean, west of Guam, landing south of Australia, possibly over or near the southern ocean.
Launched by the Soviet Union in 1972, Kosmos-482 was part of a mission aimed at landing on Venus but ended up in orbit around Earth following a rocket failure.
While most of the debris from this ill-fated mission returned to Earth decades ago, the spherical landing capsule is anticipated to descend this weekend.
This capsule, measuring around 3 feet in diameter, was engineered to withstand the extreme conditions of Venus, raising questions about its capacity to survive re-entry into Earth’s atmosphere, as highlighted by Marco Langbroek, a scientist from the Delft Institute of Technology in the Netherlands, who has been monitoring Kosmos-482 and posting updates online.
“Even if it manages to re-enter, there’s a chance that it might collide intact,” Langbroek noted in a blog update on Thursday. “However, the impact could be severe, and I highly doubt the parachute deployment system will function after 53 years of battery drainage.”
Nonetheless, this does not imply that coastal populations are at imminent risk.
“While the risks are not exceedingly high, they aren’t nonexistent. With masses under 500 kg and impacts resembling those of meteorites, the probabilities are similar,” he wrote.
Over 50 years after its launch, the Soviet spacecraft Cosmos 482 is set to return to Earth. Initially designed to land on Venus, it began to disintegrate in low Earth orbit, never completing its intended mission. After orbiting our planet for decades, it is finally on a path to re-enter.
Kosmos 482 was launched in 1972; however, much about its mission and structure remains classified due to its Cold War origins. The intention to reach Venus is inferred from other Soviet missions focused on the planet at that time, and indications suggest that the spacecraft attempted a maneuver in orbit before fragmenting. The exact reason for its failure is unclear, but three out of four pieces landed in New Zealand shortly after launch.
The last fragment has drifted into a higher orbit, approximately 210 km at its closest to Earth and as far as about 9,800 km. Over time, particles from the Earth’s upper atmosphere have slowed its descent, gradually bringing it closer to re-entering. It is projected to crash on May 9th or 10th.
The capsule remains of the spacecraft are estimated to be over one meter wide and weigh nearly 500 kilograms. Given its size and the possibility that it was engineered to withstand the intense conditions during a Venusian descent, impact speeds may exceed 200 km/h.
Predicting the exact impact site for Kosmos 482 is challenging. Based on its current trajectory, it could land anywhere between the latitudes of 52° south and 52° north, covering a vast area from the southern tip of South America to parts of Canada and Russia. Fortunately, despite the extensive range of potential landing sites, the likelihood of it striking a populated area is minimal. “The numbers are infinitesimally small,” stated Marsin Pilinsky from the University of Colorado Boulder. statement. “The ocean is a likely landing zone.”
Pilinsky is part of a team monitoring the debris. As the re-entry date approaches, landing predictions will become more accurate. Instances of space debris falling to Earth are not rare; for instance, NASA tracks one orbital object entering the atmosphere daily, with most either burning up or landing in oceans. However, Kosmos 482 is notably larger and more robust than typical space debris.
The robotic Soviet spacecraft has been floating in space for 53 years. It will return to Earth later this week.
Launched in March 1972, the Kosmos-482 was meant to land on the dynamic surface of Venus, marking the ninth mission in the Soviet Venella program. However, a malfunction left it orbiting Earth, where it has been circling ever since.
“This artifact was slated for Venus 50 years ago, lost and forgotten for half a century,” stated Jonathan McDowell, an astronomer at the Harvard & Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics. He pointed to the Public Catalog of space objects, adding, “Although it’s headed for the wrong planet, it will still create a moment of atmospheric entry.”
Having a protective heat shield, the spacecraft weighs roughly 1,050 pounds and is built to endure its descent through Venus’s harsh atmosphere, meaning it may survive the plunge and reach at least partway to the surface.
Nonetheless, the chance of ground impact is minimal.
“I’m not concerned—I’m not warning my friends to hide,” said Darren McKnight, Advanced Technology Fellow at Leo Labs, a company tracking orbital objects, which monitors Kosmos-482 six times daily. “We typically see a large object re-enter Earth’s atmosphere about once a week.”
When is Kosmos-482 expected to return to Earth?
The estimates are updated daily, but the current anticipated re-entry date is Friday or Saturday. The New York Times will provide updated estimates as they arise.
According to the Aerospace Corporation, which monitors space debris, there is a predicted re-entry window of 12:42 AM Eastern Time on May 10, with a margin of error of 19 hours. Window Calculation
Marco Langroek, a satellite tracker at Delft Institute of Technology, has been monitoring Cosmos-482 for several years and estimates a re-entry around 4:37 AM Eastern Time on May 10, with similar uncertainties.
Where will it land?
The exact landing spot remains unknown. “And we won’t know until after it happens,” Dr. McDowell noted.
The Kosmos-482 travels at over 17,000 mph, and atmospheric friction slows it down rapidly, making timing crucial; even a slight miscalculation could land it in a completely different location.
What is certain is that the orbit of Kosmos-482 encompasses latitudes between 52°N and 52°S, covering large sections of Africa, Australia, North America, and much of Europe and Asia.
“There are three outcomes when an object re-enters: splashing, destruction, or injury,” Dr. McKnight remarked.
“A splash is ideal,” he added, noting that much of the Earth is ocean, while the undesired outcomes would be “destruction” or “injury.”
Will the spacecraft withstand the impact?
If Kosmos-482 endures the re-entry, it will impact at approximately 150 miles per hour, provided its heat shield remains intact. “I doubt much will remain after that,” Dr. McDowell stated. “Imagine crashing a car into a wall at 150 mph; not much would be left.”
If it returns over a populated area during nighttime, observers may see Kosmos-482 as bright streaks racing across the sky.
Should any part of the spacecraft survive the descent, it will legally be owned by Russia.
“Under international law, any found object must be returned,” explained Michelle Hanlon, Executive Director of the Aerospace Law Center at the University of Mississippi. “Russia is recognized as the registered owner and retains jurisdiction over the objects.”
How can I identify this object?
Roughly 25 years ago, Dr. McDowell sifted through Norad’s catalog of some 25,000 orbital objects, attempting to identify each one. He often found the answer was, “this is debris from a rather dull rocket explosion.”
However, one object, 6073, stood out; launched from Kazakhstan in 1972, it traveled between 124 and 6,000 miles from Earth in a highly elliptical orbit.
Analyzing its trajectory and dimensions led Dr. McDowell to theorize it was likely the much-anticipated Kosmos-482 lander rather than merely debris from a failed launch, a hypothesis confirmed by multiple ground observations and recently declassified Soviet documents.
A Soviet-era spaceship aims to land on Venus, with plans for it to return to Earth in the near future.
Currently, it is uncertain where the mass of half-ton metal will descend and how much will survive the journey. Experts are monitoring space debris.
Dutch scientist Marco Langbroek estimates that the spacecraft may re-enter Earth’s atmosphere around May 10th.
“There are risks involved, but there’s no need for excessive concern,” Langbroek stated in an email.
The object is relatively small, and even if it remains intact, the likelihood of it causing damage is similar to that of encountering a random meteorite fall, which occurs annually. “The chance of being struck by lightning in your lifetime is far greater,” he added.
He also mentioned that the spacecraft could potentially impact someone or something; however, this scenario cannot be entirely dismissed.
The Soviet Union sent the spacecraft, known as Cosmos 482, into orbit in 1972 as part of its Venus mission series. It never successfully launched from Earth orbit due to a rocket malfunction.
Most of its counterparts fell back within a decade, yet Langbroek and others believe the landing capsule, a spherical object about three feet (1 meter) in diameter, has been in a highly elliptical orbit for the past 53 years, gradually descending.
There is a substantial possibility that the over 1,000-pound (approximately 500 kilograms) spacecraft could endure re-entry. It was designed to withstand the harsh conditions of Venus’ atmosphere, which is thick with carbon dioxide, according to Langbroek from Delft University of Technology in the Netherlands.
Experts are skeptical about the longevity of its parachute system. Additionally, heat shields might have deteriorated over extended periods in orbit.
Jonathan McDowell of the Harvard Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory mentioned in an email that while the spacecraft would benefit from an intact heat shield, if it manages to re-enter successfully, “a half-ton metal object will be falling from the sky.”
The spacecraft is projected to re-enter around 51.7°N and 51.7°S, passing near London, Edmonton, Alberta, and Cape Horn, South America. However, given that much of the Earth is covered by water, “the chances are favorable.”
Stars and planets arise from swirling clouds of cosmic gas and dust, primarily composed of hydrogen and other molecular elements. On Monday, astronomers announced the discovery of the closest known cloud to Earth, a vast, crescent-shaped region teeming with potential for star formation.
This cloud, located approximately 300 light-years from our solar system, has been named after EOS, the Greek goddess of dawn. It is the first molecular cloud identified through hydrogen fluorescence, according to Blakeley Burkhart, an astrophysicist at Rutgers University.
“If you observe these clouds in the sky, they’re enormous,” Dr. Burkhart stated. The findings were published in conjunction with a colleague in the Nature Astronomy Journal. She also remarked, “It literally glows in the darkness.”
Investigating clouds like EO, especially regarding their hydrogen content, could reshape astronomers’ understanding of the galactic material available for planet and star formation. This research also provides insights into the rates of formation and destruction of the materials that fuel these processes.
“For the first time, we are observing this hidden reservoir of hydrogen that can create stars,” explained Thavisha Dharmawardena, an astronomer at New York University and co-author of the study. Following the discovery of EOS, astronomers expressed a desire to identify more hydrogen-rich clouds.
Molecular hydrogen, which consists of two hydrogen atoms, is the universe’s most abundant substance. This stellar nursery contains it abundantly. However, detecting these molecules from the ground is challenging because they emit light at wavelengths easily absorbed by the Earth’s atmosphere.
In contrast, carbon monoxide—composed of one carbon atom and one oxygen atom—is simpler to detect. It emits light at longer wavelengths, making it accessible for observation with radio telescopes commonly used to identify star-forming clouds.
EOS eluded detection for a long time due to its unexpected nature and low carbon monoxide levels.
Dr. Burkhart identified the cloud while analyzing data from approximately 20 years earlier from the Far-Ultraviolet Imaging Spectrograph (FIMS), an instrument aboard a Korean satellite. She found molecular hydrogen signatures in areas where she believed no molecular cloud existed and collaborated with Dr. Dharmawardena for deeper investigation.
“At this stage, I was familiar with nearly every molecular cloud by name,” Dr. Dharmawardena noted. “I had no awareness of this particular structure; I couldn’t comprehend it.”
Dr. Dharmawardena confirmed the discovery against the 3D map of interstellar dust in our galaxy, which was developed using data from the now-retired Gaia Space Telescope. “EOS was distinctly outlined and visible,” she commented. “It’s a stunning structure.”
John Black, an astronomer at Sweden’s Chalmers Institute of Technology, lauded the methods used to unveil EOS, though he was not part of the research team.
“It’s remarkable to witness molecular hydrogen firsthand and trace the outline of this cloud,” Dr. Black remarked. He added that, compared to carbon monoxide, hydrogen reveals the “authentic shape and size” of EOS.
Utilizing molecular hydrogen data, astronomers estimated the mass of EO to be about 3,400 times that of our Sun, significantly exceeding the carbon monoxide-based estimate of 20 solar masses.
Dr. Burkhart suggested that similar carbon monoxide measurements may underrepresent the mass of other molecular clouds. She emphasized the significance of this finding in stellar formation, as larger clouds can spawn larger stars.
In a follow-up study, EOS, which remains unreviewed, revealed that the cloud has not produced a star previously. However, the future potential for star formation remains uncertain.
Dr. Burkhart collaborated with a team of astronomers to conceptualize a NASA spacecraft named EOS, which inspired the cloud’s name. This proposed space telescope aims to map molecular hydrogen content in clouds across the galaxy, including its namesake.
Such a mission could enhance our understanding of the potential for more concealed clouds and known stellar clouds to contribute to star and planet formation.
“I genuinely don’t know how stars and planets come into being,” Dr. Burkhart admitted. “By observing molecular hydrogen firsthand, we can gain insights into how the birthplaces of stars form and how they ultimately fade away.”
One of the most immense singular formations observed in the cosmos, these expansive hydrogen gas clouds, have been found surprisingly close to Earth.
Naming it EOS, after the Greek goddess of dawn, the cloud was discovered through the faint ultraviolet light emitted by hydrogen molecules.
Referred to as molecular clouds, these colossal structures of gas and dust serve as nurseries for new stars.
Historically, astronomers have depended on radio and infrared telescopes to locate these clouds, detecting the carbon monoxide signature. However, scientists took a distinct approach to uncover EOS.
“This marks the first molecular cloud identified through the direct search for distant ultraviolet emissions of molecular hydrogen,” stated Professor Blakesley Burkhart, the leading researcher on the project.
“The data revealed glowing hydrogen molecules detected through fluorescence in distant ultraviolet rays. This cloud truly shines in the dark.”
https://c02.purpledshub.com/uploads/sites/41/2025/04/eos.mp4Scientists have identified potential star-forming clouds, designated EO. It ranks among the largest single structures in the sky and is one of the nearest formations to the sun and earth ever observed.
Situated just 300 light years from Earth at the confines of a gas-rich area known as the local bubble, EOS spans a region of sky comparable to a full moon width of 40 and possesses approximately 3,400 times the sun’s mass.
Despite its size and proximity, it remained concealed due to being “co-dark,” which indicates a deficiency of carbon monoxide that traditional detection methods rely on.
“The discovery of EOS is thrilling because it allows us to directly observe the formation and dissociation of molecular clouds and how galaxies transform interstellar gases and dust into stars and planets,” Burkhart commented.
Dr. Thavisha Dharmawardena noted, “During my graduate studies, I was informed that observing molecular hydrogen wasn’t straightforward.”
The data was acquired using a Faltraviolet spectrometer installed on the Korean satellite STSAT-1. Published in 2023, Burkhart quickly unearthed a concealed structure.
“The story of the cosmos is one of billions of years of atomic transformation,” Burkhart explained.
“The hydrogen found in the EOS cloud dates back to the Big Bang and eventually fell into our galaxy, merging near the sun. Thus, these hydrogen atoms have traveled a remarkable 13.6 billion-year journey.”
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Astronomers using Gemini Multi-Object Spectrograph (GMOS) A telescope in southern Gemini determined that the recently discovered nearby asteroid 2024 YR4 is one of the largest objects in recent history that could affect the moon, and is likely to originate from the major asteroid belt in the solar system. Their Survey results It will be published in Astrophysics Journal Letter.
This image from the 2024 YR4 was captured at Gemini Southeres Scope in Chile, half of the International Gemini Observatory run by Noallab. Image credits: International Gemini Observatory / Noirlab / NSF / Aura / M. Zamani.
The 2024 YR4 was discovered on December 27, 2024 by the Asteroid’s Ground Impact Last Altar System (ATLAS).
At the time, the asteroids had a close approach to Earth, passing a distance of just 0.017 Au (astronomy unit).
In January 2025, a month after its discovery, the 2024 YR4 exceeded the International Asteroid Warning Network (IAND) notification threshold, which was predicted on December 22, 2032, with a 1% chance of future impact on Earth.
The asteroid misses Earth during this encounter, but there is still a few percent remaining chance that it could hit the moon instead.
Now interested in characterizing famous asteroids, Eureka scientific Athleton Mar Bryce Borin A colleague used a Gemini Southeres scope to capture images of the 2024 YR4 at several different wavelengths.
A detailed analysis of the asteroid LightCurve allowed the team to determine its composition, orbital properties and 3D shape.
“Our observation with Gemini South provided an important part of the puzzle in determining the characteristics of the 2024 YR4,” Dr. Bolin said.
“Studying this asteroid could be an Earth impactor and was crucial in understanding the poorly understood Earth Cross population.”
Information collected from the light curve indicates that the 2024 YR4 is likely an S-type asteroid. In other words, it has a silicate-rich composition.
The reflective pattern suggests a diameter of approximately 30-65 m (98-213 feet), making it one of the largest objects in recent history and affects the moon.
It is unlikely, but if it affects the moon, the asteroid would provide an unprecedented opportunity to study the relationship between the size of the asteroid and the size of the resulting impact crater – an amount previously unknown.
Analysis also revealed that the asteroid’s rotation period is about once every 20 minutes, and is shaped like a rare hockey puck.
“The discovery was pretty unexpected as most asteroids are thought to be shaped like potatoes and toy tops rather than flat disks,” Dr. Bolin said.
Based on these orbital characteristics, astronomers determined that the 2024 YR4 is most likely to originate from the main asteroid belt, and that gravity interaction with Jupiter is likely to cause it to be disrupted by its current short-range orbit.
Its retrograde spin direction suggests that it may have moved inward from the central main belt region, adding to its understanding of how small asteroids evolve and reach orbits beyond Earth.
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Bryce T. Borin et al. 2025. Discovery and characterization of the Asteroid 2024 YR4, which crosses the Earth. apjlin press; arxiv: 2503.05694v2
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