Following a heart attack, the brain processes signals directly from sensory neurons in the heart, indicating a crucial feedback loop that involves not only the brain but also the immune system—both vital for effective recovery.
According to Vineet Augustine from the University of California, San Diego, “The body and brain are interconnected; there is significant communication among organ systems, the nervous system, and the immune system.”
Building on previous research demonstrating that the heart and brain communicate through blood pressure and cardiac sensory neurons, Augustine and his team sought to explore the role of nerves in the heart attack response. They utilized a groundbreaking technique to make mouse hearts transparent, enabling them to observe nerve activity during induced heart attacks by cutting off blood flow.
The study revealed novel clusters of sensory neurons that extend from the vagus nerve and tightly encompass the ventricles, particularly in areas damaged by lack of blood flow. Interestingly, while few nerve fibers existed prior to the heart attack, their numbers surged significantly post-incident, suggesting that the heart stimulates the growth of these neurons during recovery.
In a key experiment, Augustine’s team selectively turned off these nerves, which halted signaling to the brain, resulting in significantly smaller damaged areas in the heart. “The recovery is truly remarkable,” Augustine noted.
Patients recovering from a heart attack often require surgical interventions to restore vital blood flow and minimize further tissue damage. However, the discovery of these new neurons could pave the way for future medications, particularly in scenarios where immediate surgery is impractical.
Furthermore, the signals from these neurons activated brain regions associated with the stress response, triggering the immune system to direct its cells to the heart. While these immune cells help form scar tissue necessary for repairing damaged muscle, excessive scarring can compromise heart function and lead to heart failure. Augustine and colleagues identified alternative methods to facilitate healing in mice post-heart attack by effectively blocking this immune response early on.
Recent decades have indicated that communication occurs between the heart, brain, and immune system during a heart attack. The difference now is that researchers possess advanced tools to analyze changes at the neuron level. Matthew Kay from George Washington University noted, “This presents an intriguing opportunity for developing new treatments for heart attack patients, potentially including gene therapy.”
Current medical practices frequently include beta-blockers to assist in the healing process following heart attack-induced tissue damage. These findings clarify the mechanism by which beta-blockers influence the feedback loops within nervous and immune systems activated during heart attacks.
As Robin Choudhury from the University of Oxford remarked, “We might have already intervened with the newly discovered routes.” Nevertheless, he cautioned that this pathway likely interacts with various other immune signals and cells that remain not fully understood.
Moreover, factors like genetics, gender differences, and conditions such as diabetes or hypertension could affect the evolution of this newly identified response. Hence, determining when and if a pathway is active in a wider population remains essential before crafting targeted drugs, Choudhury added.
“The gut microbiome has transformed our understanding of human health,” says Tim Spector, PhD, co-founder of the Zoe Nutrition App from King’s College London. “We now recognize that microbes play a crucial role in metabolism, immunity, and mental health.”
Although significant advancements in microbiome research have surged in the past 25 years, humans have a long history of utilizing microorganisms to enhance health. The Romans, for instance, employed bacterial-based treatments to “guard the stomach” without comprehending their biological mechanisms.
In the 17th century, microbiologist Antony van Leeuwenhoek made the groundbreaking observation of the parasite Giardia in his own stool. It took scientists another two centuries to confirm his discoveries, until the 21st century when the profound impact of gut and skin microbes on health became evident.
By the 1970s, researchers determined that gut bacteria could influence the breakdown of medications, potentially modifying their efficacy. Fecal transplant studies hinted at how microbial communities could restore health. However, it was the rapid advancements in gene sequencing and computing in the 2000s that truly revolutionized this field. Early genome sequencing revealed every individual possesses a distinct microbial “fingerprint” of viruses, fungi, and archaea.
In the early 2000s, groundbreaking studies illustrated that the microbiome and immune system engage in direct communication. This collaboration reshapes the microbiome’s role as a dynamic participant in our health, impacting a wide range of systems, from the pancreas to the brain.
Exciting findings continue to emerge; fecal transplants are proving effective against Clostridium difficile infections, while microorganisms from obese mice can induce weight gain in lean mice. Some bacterial communities have shown potential to reverse autism-like symptoms in mice. Recently, researchers have even suggested that microbial imbalances could trigger diabetes and Parkinson’s disease. “Recent insights into the human microbiome indicate its influence extends far beyond the gut,” states Lindsay Hall from the University of Birmingham, UK.
Researchers are gaining a clearer understanding of how microbial diversity is essential for health and how fostering it may aid in treating conditions like irritable bowel syndrome, depression, and even certain cancers. Studies are also investigating strategies to cultivate a healthy microbiome from early life, which Hall believes can have “profound and lasting effects on health.”
In just a few decades, the microbiome has evolved from an obscure concept to a pivotal consideration in every medical field. We are now entering an era that demands rigorous testing to differentiate effective interventions from overhyped products, all while shaping our approach to diagnosing, preventing, and treating diseases.
Strategies to uphold the current involve oversized versions of parachute-like ocean anchors
Ed Darnen (2.0 by CC)
As part of an ambitious initiative to avert severe climate change, large parachutes could be deployed into Atlantic waters using transport tankers, drones, and fishing vessels.
The Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC) moves warm water from the tropics northward and helps stabilize temperatures in Northern Europe.
Nevertheless, the swift melting of Arctic ice and rising sea temperatures have hampered these currents, prompting some scientists to warn that they could falter entirely within this century. Such an event would disrupt marine ecosystems and exacerbate the cooling of the European climate.
Experts emphasize the urgent need to cut greenhouse gas emissions to mitigate the risk of AMOC collapse and other catastrophic climate “tipping points.” However, some are exploring alternative, more fundamental methods to preserve the current.
Stuart Haszeldine from the University of Edinburgh, along with David Sevier, introduced a concept from the British water treatment firm Strengite during a recent meeting in Cambridge, UK. They propose utilizing just 35 ocean tugs, each capable of pulling underwater parachutes roughly half the size of a soccer pitch, which could effectively move enough water to maintain the current. “A modest amount of energy and equipment can yield a significant impact,” Haszeldine remarks.
These parachutes, designed similarly to existing ocean anchors, stabilize containers in rough weather while also aiding in water movement across the sea surface. Each parachute features a central hole 12 meters wide to allow marine creatures to escape.
The operation would run 365 days a year in a rotating schedule, using drones, transport tankers, tugs, or wind kits. “It’s a small but consistent intervention,” notes Haszeldine.
Sevier refers to this proposal as “any Mary,” indicating a solution to stave off the severe consequences of AMOC collapse. “This is about buying time,” he asserts, emphasizing the need for the world to reduce emissions sufficiently to stabilize global temperatures at safe levels.
However, leading AMOC researchers express skepticism about the idea. Rene van Westen from the University of Utrecht, Netherlands, highlights that the density differences between cold, salty water and warm, fresh water play a crucial role in the descent and upwelling movements that sustain AMOC.
“If this idea is to work,” Van Westen argues, “you can only use surface wind to influence the top layer of water.
Stephen Rahmstoef from the Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research concurs. “The challenge lies not in moving surface water horizontally but in sinking it to depths of 2,000 to 3,000 meters and returning it south as a cold, deep current,” he states.
Meric Srokosz of the UK National Oceanography Centre believes the proposal is “unlikely to succeed,” given the variable weather conditions that complicate equipment deployment in the oceans.
Haszeldine welcomes feedback from fellow scientists regarding the proposal and hopes it will inspire ocean and climate modelers to assess the ecological and environmental ramifications of the plan. “I believe this warrants further investigation,” he asserts.
More generally, Haszeldine argues for increased research focused on climate intervention strategies to sustain ocean circulation: “I don’t see anyone else working on ocean currents.”
Vitamin K is a crucial nutrient primarily found in green vegetables and may play a vital role in safeguarding the brain from cognitive decline.
Recent research suggests that vitamins, particularly vitamin K, could help in preserving the cells of the hippocampus, which is the brain’s memory center.
In a recent study, scientists conducted an experiment where 60 middle-aged mice were fed either low or regular diets supplemented with vitamin K for six months. Subsequent behavioral tests revealed the impact of vitamin K on mouse learning and memory.
The study showed that mice lacking vitamin K struggled with memory and learning tasks. Compared to mice on a regular diet, those deficient in vitamin K had difficulty recognizing familiar objects, indicating memory loss. They also faced challenges in spatial learning tasks, as evidenced by their performance in a water maze.
Green vegetables like spinach, kale, lettuce, Brussels sprouts, broccoli, and cabbage are excellent sources of vitamin K. Avocados and kiwi fruits also contain high levels of this nutrient – Credit: Mediterranean via Getty
Further analysis of the mice’s brain tissue revealed reduced neurogenesis in the hippocampus of vitamin K-deficient mice. Neurogenesis, the process of generating new neurons, is essential for maintaining brain health and protecting against damage.
“Neurogenesis is believed to be crucial for learning and memory functions, and its impairment may contribute to cognitive decline,” stated Ton Zheng, a research scientist at Tufts’ Center for Human Nutrition (HNRCA).
In addition to reduced neurogenesis, the brains of vitamin K-deficient mice also showed signs of inflammation, further linking vitamin K deficiency to cognitive decline.
While the study highlights the importance of vitamin K, researchers emphasize the significance of obtaining nutrients from a balanced diet rather than relying on supplements.
“It’s essential for people to consume a healthy diet rich in vegetables,” advised Professor Sarah Booth, senior author of the study and director of the HNRCA.
Most individuals typically obtain sufficient vitamin K from their diet, with sources like spinach, kale, peas, Brussels sprouts, broccoli, cabbage, parsley, avocados, and kiwi. However, older adults are more prone to vitamin K deficiency.
A recent report has highlighted the concerning state of Earth’s snow and ice, indicating that various key climate tipping points are more likely to be reached than previously thought. These include significant ice melt leading to severe sea level rise and disruptions to crucial ocean currents controlling the Atlantic heat cycle.
The report reveals alarming statistics such as Venezuela losing its last glacier this year, Greenland’s ice sheet losing an average of 30 million tons of ice per hour, and the impending collapse of Thwaites Glacier, also known as the “terminal glacier.” This collapse could potentially result in the rapid disappearance of Antarctic ice.
Compiled by over 50 leading snow and ice scientists as part of the International Cryosphere Climate Initiative, the report summarizes the conditions for 2024, highlighting the disastrous impact of global warming on the planet’s frozen regions.
Of particular concern is the potential collapse of the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC), which could lead to drastic changes in weather patterns, such as rapid cooling in the North Atlantic and warming in the Southern Hemisphere.
Additionally, the report underscores the rising consensus among scientists that these climate tipping points are now more likely to be surpassed, with the window for mitigating actions rapidly narrowing.
The report’s release coincided with the United Nations’ COP29 climate change conference in Azerbaijan, where global leaders gathered to address pressing environmental concerns. Despite some progress, particularly in carbon credit trading, the report emphasizes that current climate policies are inadequate to meet global climate goals.
While the scientific community continues to sound the alarm about the escalating climate crisis, there are growing fears that world leaders are failing to grasp the gravity of the situation. Urgent action is needed to address the imminent threats posed by melting ice, collapsing glaciers, and disruptions in vital ocean currents.
In conclusion, the report serves as a stark reminder of the urgent need for decisive action to combat climate change before irreversible consequences unfold.
ITonga was plunged into darkness in the aftermath of a massive volcanic eruption in the early days of 2022. The undersea eruption, 1,000 times more powerful than the Hiroshima bomb, sent tsunamis into Tonga’s neighbouring islands and covered the islands’ white coral sand in ash.
The force of the eruption of the Hunga Tonga Hunga Ha’apai volcano cut off internet connections to Tonga, cutting off communications at the very moment the crisis began.
The scale of the disruption was clear when the undersea cables that carry the country’s internet were restored weeks later. The loss of connectivity hampered restoration efforts and dealt a devastating blow to businesses and local finances that rely on remittances from overseas.
The disaster has exposed extreme vulnerabilities in the infrastructure that underpins how the Internet works.
Nicole Starosielski, a professor at the University of California, Berkeley and author of “The Undersea Network,” says modern life is inseparable from the running internet.
In that sense, it’s a lot like drinking water: a utility that underpins our very existence, and like water, few people understand what it takes to get it from distant reservoirs to our kitchen taps.
Modern consumers have come to imagine the internet as something invisible floating in the atmosphere, an invisible “cloud” that rains data down on our heads. Many believe everything is wireless because our devices aren’t connected by cables, but the reality is far more unusual, Starosielski says.
An undersea internet cable laid on the ocean floor. Photo: Mint Images/Getty Images/Mint Images RF
Nearly all internet traffic — Zoom calls, streaming movies, emails, social media feeds — reaches us through high-speed fibre optics laid beneath the ocean. These are the veins of the modern world, stretching for around 1.5 million kilometres beneath the surface of the ocean, connecting countries through physical cables that conduct the internet.
Speaking on WhatsApp, Starosielski explains that the data transmitting her voice is sent from her phone to a nearby cell tower. “That’s basically the only radio hop in the entire system,” she says.
It travels underground at the speed of light from a mobile phone tower via fibre optic cable on land, then to a cable landing station (usually near water), then down to the ocean floor and finally to the cable landing station in Australia, where The Guardian spoke to Starosielski.
“Our voices are literally at the bottom of the ocean,” she says.
Spies, Sabotage, and Sharks
The fact that data powering financial, government and some military communications travels through cables little thicker than a hose and barely protected by the ocean water above it has become a source of concern for lawmakers around the world in recent years.
In 2017, NATO officials reported that Russian submarines were stepping up surveillance of internet cables in the North Atlantic, and in 2018 the Trump administration imposed sanctions on Russian companies that allegedly provided “underwater capabilities” to Moscow for the purpose of monitoring undersea networks.
At the time, Jim Langevin, a member of the House Armed Services Committee, said a Russian attack on the undersea cables would cause “significant harm to our economy and daily life.”
Workers install the 2Africa submarine cable on the beach in Amanzimtoti, South Africa, in 2023. Photo: Logan Ward/Reuters
Targeting internet cables has long been a weapon in Russia’s hybrid warfare arsenal: When Russia annexed Crimea in 2014, Moscow cut off the main cable connection to the peninsula, seizing control of the internet infrastructure and allowing the Kremlin to spread disinformation.
Global conflicts have also proven to wreak unexpected havoc on internet cable systems: In February, Iran-backed Houthi militants attacked a cargo ship in the Red Sea. The sinking of the Rubimaa likely cut three undersea cables in the region, disrupting much of the internet traffic between Asia and Europe.
The United States and its allies have expressed serious concerns that adversaries could eavesdrop on undersea cables to obtain “personal information, data, and communications.” A 2022 Congressional report highlighted the growing likelihood that Russia or China could gain access to undersea cable systems.
It’s an espionage technique the US knows all too well: in 2013, The Guardian revealed how Britain’s Government Communications Headquarters (GCHQ) had hacked into internet cable networks to access vast troves of communications between innocent people and suspected targets. This information was then passed on to the NSA.
Documents released by whistleblower Edward Snowden also show that undersea cables connecting Australia and New Zealand to the US were tapped, giving the NSA access to internet data in Australia and New Zealand.
Despite the numerous dangers and loud warnings from Western governments, there have been few calls for more to be done to secure cable networks, and many believe the threat is exaggerated.
The 2022 EU report said there were “no published and verified reports suggesting a deliberate attack on cable networks by any actor, including Russia, China or non-state groups.”
“Perhaps this suggests that the threat scenarios being discussed may be exaggerated.”
One expert speaking to the Guardian offered a more blunt assessment, describing the threat of sabotage as “nonsense”.
TeleGeography map of undersea internet cables connecting the US, UK and Europe. Photo: TeleGeography/https://www.submarinecablemap.com/
The data bears this out, showing that sharks, anchors and fishing pose a bigger threat to the global Internet infrastructure than Russian espionage. A US report on the issue said the main threat to networks is “accidental human-involved accidents.” On average, a cable is cut “every three days.”
“In 2017, a vessel accidentally cut an undersea communications cable off the coast of Somalia, causing a three-week internet outage and costing the country $10 million per day,” the report said.
An Unequal Internet
But for many experts, the biggest risk to the internet isn’t sabotage, espionage or even rogue anchors, but the uneven spread of the globe-spanning cable infrastructure that ties together the world’s digital networks.
“There aren’t cables everywhere,” Starosielski said. “The North Atlantic has a high concentration of cables connecting the U.S. and Europe, but the South Atlantic doesn’t have as many.”
“So you’re seeing diversity in terms of some parts of the world being more connected and having multiple routes in case of a disconnection.”
As of 2023, there are more than 500 communication cables on the ocean floor. Map of the world’s submarine cable networks These are found to be mainly concentrated in economic and population centres.
The uneven distribution of cables is most pronounced in the Pacific, where a territory like Guam, with a population of just 170,000 and home to a U.S. naval base, has more than 10 internet cables connecting the island, compared with seven in New Zealand and just one in Tonga, both with a population of more than 5 million.
The aftermath of the 2022 Tonga eruption spurred governments around the world to act, commissioning reports on the vulnerabilities of existing undersea cable networks while technology companies worked to harden networks to prevent a similar event from happening again.
Last month, Tonga’s internet went down again.
Damage to undersea internet cables connecting the island’s networks caused power outages across much of the country and disruption to local businesses.
For now, economic fundamentals favor laying cables to Western countries and emerging markets where digital demand is surging. Despite warnings of sabotage and accidental damage, without market imperatives to build more resilient networks, there is a real risk that places like Tonga will continue to be cut off, threatening the very promise of digital fairness that the internet is based on, experts say.
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