Tag Archives: overlooked

How the Bark Microbiome Influences Climate: An Overlooked Key Player

Posted on by
Reply

Melaleuca wetland forests

Exploring Melaleuca Wetland Forests in New South Wales, Australia

Image Credit: Luke Jeffrey / Southern Cross University

The bark of a single tree can host trillions of bacteria, which may have a crucial yet underappreciated role in regulating greenhouse gases in our atmosphere.

Globally, the total surface area of tree bark is estimated to be around 143 million square kilometers, roughly equivalent to the Earth’s total land area. This extensive area represents a vast microbial environment known as the ashosphere, yet the microorganisms residing there have largely been overlooked by researchers. Learn more.

“It may seem obvious, but we’ve historically ignored tree bark,” states Bob Leung, a researcher from Monash University in Melbourne, Australia. “I had never considered that microbes existed in tree bark, but it makes perfect sense. Bacteria thrive everywhere, so it’s reasonable to expect them in the bark as well.”

Leung and his team initiated their research on a common wetland species known as paperbark (Melaleuca quinquenervia). Their findings revealed that over 6 trillion bacteria inhabit every square meter of tree bark, a density comparable to that found in soil.

Genetic testing of 114 bacterial species indicated that most belong to three primary bacterial families: Acidobacteriaceae, Mycobacteriaceae, and Acetobacteriaceae; intriguing as they remain entirely unclassified by science.


A fascinating characteristic of these microorganisms is their ability to metabolize hydrogen, carbon monoxide, and methane for energy. While hydrogen (H2) itself isn’t a greenhouse gas, it can enhance the warming effect of the atmosphere by reacting with other gases.

Researchers extended their study to include seven additional Australian tree species from diverse habitats, such as Casuarina, rubber trees, and banksias, and assessed their bark’s ability to absorb or emit greenhouse gases both in natural settings and laboratory experiments.

Under aerobic conditions, where oxygen is present, all bark types were found to consume hydrogen, carbon monoxide, and methane. However, when the trees were submerged in water—typical in wetland areas—the microbes adapted by producing these same gases.

Melaleuca quinquenervia trees in an Australian forest”
data-credit=”Luke Jeffrey / Southern Cross University”/>

The Canopy of Melaleuca quinquenervia

Image Credit: Luke Jeffrey / Southern Cross University

According to researchers, the collective amount of hydrogen absorbed by bark microorganisms worldwide is estimated to be between 600 million and 1.6 billion kilograms annually, which represents about 2% of the total hydrogen removed from the atmosphere.

This groundbreaking study marks the first effort to evaluate the role of tree bark in atmospheric hydrogen cycling, notes Luke Jeffrey at Southern Cross University in Lismore, Australia.

“Recognizing the hidden contributions of trees, beyond their role in carbon dioxide absorption, is crucial,” emphasizes Jeffrey. “Trees actively engage with other greenhouse gases, which is significant as H2 interacts with atmospheric methane and could help mitigate the increasing methane dilemma.”

However, the global landscape remains uncertain since the team evaluated only eight tree species from eastern Australia. “Significant research is needed across diverse forest types, tree varieties, microbial communities, and environmental conditions,” says Jeffrey.

Brett Somerelle of the Sydney Botanic Gardens asserts that this research underscores the gaps in our understanding of microbial diversity, composition, and functionality within tree bark ecosystems. “It will be fascinating to observe how these factors change across a broader spectrum of tree species, particularly in arid environments like savannahs and woodlands,” notes Summerell.

Understanding the relationships between fungi and bacteria in tree bark is equally critical, he adds.

Topics:

Source: www.newscientist.com

Was There an Overlooked Culture in Bronze Age Türkiye that Thrived?

Posted on by
Reply

The remnants of Seyitömer Höyük in western Turkey exemplify a classic Luwian settlement.

Turkish Ministry of Culture and Tourism, General Directorate of Cultural Heritage and Museums, Department of Excavations; Luwian Studies #0255

Surveys of archaeological locations in western Turkey have uncovered numerous significant towns that thrived during the Bronze Age. This lends credence to the contentious theory that this area hosted influential political entities which contributed to the upheaval in the eastern Mediterranean around 3,200 years ago.

Historically, scholars have recognized several prominent Bronze Age civilizations coexisting in the Eastern Mediterranean from approximately 2000 to 1200 BC, including the ancient Egyptians, the Mycenaean Greeks, and the Hittites of present-day central Turkey.

Yet, President Eberhard Sanger, Luwian research, has long thought that critical elements might be missing from the current understanding. He theorizes that there existed a number of formidable states in western Turkey, positioned between the Hittites on the eastern side and the Mycenaeans on the western side.

A decade ago, Sanger revealed findings based on satellite imagery suggesting that western Turkey was home to archaeological sites supporting his theory. However, the timelines of occupation at these locations remained unclear from the images alone.

In the ensuing years, Sanger and his team have analyzed excavation reports from various Turkish sites and personally visited many locations to deepen their knowledge of their historical context.

The focus has been on large sites exceeding 100 meters in diameter, where archaeologists uncovered Bronze Age pottery. The newly published database catalogs 483 archaeological sites across western Turkey fulfilling these criteria. “We are studying settlements that hosted hundreds of individuals over centuries,” Sanger noted.

He speculates that these settlements were organized into a network of small states, which he collectively refers to as the Ruwian states. This evokes parallels to Mycenaean civilization, which also appeared to be comprised of several small states, each with its respective palace and king. Sanger remarked that these provinces remain largely unrecognized due to the tendency of Turkish excavators to focus on individual site contexts rather than regional interactions.

The notion that a small yet significant state existed in this region isn’t entirely inconsistent with current evidence. “There was a substantial kingdom known as Arzawa in western Anatolia,” states Guy Middleton from Newcastle University, UK, who did not participate in the study. “The king of Arzawa communicated with the pharaoh.” [Amenhotep III] During a period when the neighboring Hittite kingdom was waning, he was referred to as the “Great King,” akin to one of the gangsters.

However, much archaeological evidence pertaining to Arzawa and additional Ruwian provinces remains elusive, according to Sanger. He attributes this partly to the fact that many sites associated with these states experienced continued occupation well after the Bronze Age, effectively burying the Ruwian layers under more recent archaeological layers. “It can take years or even decades of excavation to reach Bronze Age strata,” he remarked.

Ian Rutherford, a researcher from the University of Reading in Britain, states that “Luwian” was a term used by the Hittites to refer to the people of western Anatolia, but without additional evidence, it’s challenging to ascertain if everyone there was Luwian or if non-Luwian cultures were also present. “I remain skeptical,” he commented.

Most provocatively, Sanger posits that the Luwian states occasionally formed extensive political coalitions that could contend with the more recognized Bronze Age civilizations of the Eastern Mediterranean. He even suspects that a Luwian confederacy played a role in the collapse of Hittite civilization approximately 3,200 years ago, instigating an assault on ancient Egypt at that time. A mysterious group known as the Sea Peoples often features in these historical events, and Sanger believes they were Luwians. Many researchers, including Middleton, contend that the narrative surrounding the collapse of the Sea Peoples and Bronze Age civilizations is considerably more intricate and nuanced.

Nevertheless, Sanger finds support for his theories in unexpected sources. One such source is the myth of the Trojan War in ancient Greece, set during the late Bronze Age. In this narrative, vast numbers of Mycenaean Greeks purportedly engaged in a protracted ten-year conflict at Troy, which Sanger identifies as one of the proposed Luwian states.

He points out that the account appears odd, given that it reportedly took ten years for such a large Greek army to seize a relatively modest city. He theorizes that the tale gained traction in the centuries following the Bronze Age as audiences at that time interpreted it to depict a significant clash between the Greeks and a robust coalition of warriors from various Luwian provinces. “Fiction must resonate,” remarks Sanger.

Cairo and Alexandria, pioneers of science in the ancient world: Egypt

Experience an unforgettable adventure through Cairo and Alexandria, two of Egypt’s most famed cities, where ancient history intertwines with contemporary allure.

topic:

Source: www.newscientist.com

Celebrating 40 Years of the Master System: Unveiling the Overlooked Legacy of Sega’s Underrated Console

Posted on by
Reply

TThere’s an enduring saying that history is penned by the victors, and this is just as true for video games as it is for any other arena. It’s easy to think of the Nintendo Entertainment System (NES) as the sole gaming console of the mid-to-late 1980s. For those who grew up in Nintendo’s key markets of Japan and North America, this bulky device was essentially the only option available, especially with its iron grip on third-party developers that crafted a monopoly on prominent titles. However, in Europe, where home computers thrived, the NES struggled against superior competitors.

The Sega Master System first made its debut in Japan in the fall of 1985, originally branded as the Sega Mark III. Powered by the renowned Z80 CPU (which was also utilized in home computers like the Spectrum, Amstrad, and TRS-80) and a robust Sega-designed video display processor, it comes equipped with 8kb of RAM, boasts a 64-color palette, and can render 32 sprites on-screen simultaneously, making the NES (which uses the antiquated 6502 processor) look like an antiquity.

Initially marketed in Japan as an extension of Sega’s SG-1000 series, this device resembled a budget-friendly home computer rather than a pure gaming console, complete with optional keyboard and printer. Nonetheless, as the NES surged in popularity across Japan and the United States, Sega reassessed its strategy, stripping away some computer functions before reintroducing the Mark III as the Master System in 1986. This sleek, angular console stood in stark contrast to the beige Betamax aesthetic of the NES.

Sega Master System titles were available in two formats: cartridges and Sega cards for shorter, more affordable games. Photo: booksR/Alamy

Included with the Master System was a light gun, and Sega also introduced 3D glasses compatible with specific games. “We refer to it as a 3D version of Outrun,” says programmer Chris White, who later developed the Master System emulator for Sega’s PlaySega website. “It definitely gave me a headache, and the flashing lenses caused mild disorientation, but it was a reflection of Sega’s willingness to experiment boldly.”

Initially, Sega managed the distribution of the Master System in the U.S., but they sought local partners to navigate the more fragmented European market. In the UK and France, later expanding to Spain, Virgin Mastertronic took on that role. “Sega’s partners had a stronger marketing position in Europe,” noted Nick Alexander, Virgin Mastertronic’s managing director during that time. “They also established better retail and distribution relationships compared to Nintendo. There was a running joke in Computer Trade Weekly, a video game trade magazine, stating that Nintendo viewed Europe as a land of dragons. They were out of touch and concerned, which is why they focused primarily on the U.S.”

Alexander, who led Virgin Games since 1983, embraced the company’s innovative, youth-oriented marketing approach. “We envisioned video games as equivalent to a band on tour,” he shared. “Thus, we procured a double-decker bus and traveled across the country, visiting school playgrounds and shopping centers. This garnered significant press attention. While Nintendo targeted family entertainment, we understood that in Europe, it resonated primarily with Germany. We aimed at teenagers, knowing that if we won them over, their younger siblings would also be drawn to the Master System. That was our formula for overshadowing Nintendo in Europe.”

While Nintendo had Mario, Sega possessed a significant asset: arcade heritage. The company ported many of its popular arcade hits to the console, including Space Harrier, Outrun, Golden Ax, and Afterburner, marketing it in the West as a home arcade experience. Even though these weren’t perfect conversions of the original games, they were notably faster and more vibrant than those previously available on home computers. For teenage arcade enthusiasts at the time, this felt revolutionary.

“Game center in my living room”… Shinobu of Sega Master System. Photo: ArcadeImages/Alamy

“Thanks to the impressive hardware of the Master System, games visually surpassed other Z80-based systems,” White asserts. “It gives developers the ability to create scrollable tilemaps and dynamically position sprites, which makes programming straightforward and alleviates a lot of processing demands from the CPU. This design shared numerous similarities with Sega’s arcade technology; in fact, it was originally derived from the graphics chip used in Sega’s arcade machines, the TMS9918. ”

For European developers, mastering the hardware was a dream. “We had been developing for the Spectrum and Amstrad, and our titles were being ported to the C64,” recalls Andrew Oliver, who, along with his brother Philip, created Dizzy games for Codemasters. “I vividly remember attending the CES show in Las Vegas, where Sega had an extensive booth that stood alongside Nintendo, promoting their message of ‘speed.’ Back then, computers were all about vibrant visuals and rapid execution. Ultimately, Codemasters signed a licensing agreement and obtained a development kit for the console. It operates on a Z80, similar to the Spectrum, yet the graphics chip is reminiscent of the C64, resulting in fast performance with impressive parallax scrolling and sprites. The programming process was quite straightforward.”

Additionally, British developers believed that Sega offered a more useful platform than Nintendo. Mike Simpson, a programmer at the British publisher Personal Software Services, later acquired by MirrorSoft, shared, “We established a small in-house studio in Coventry, employing around 20 people to port various titles.” He continued, “Someone approached us about porting Xenon 2, a top-tier 16-bit Amiga game, to the Master System. It seemed like an impossible task, but we had to give it a shot. I was even invited to Japan for training in programming. I spent a week at Sega in Tokyo, getting insights from Mark Cerny,” [the later lead architect of PlayStation 4 and 5]. “I recall rows of tightly packed desks and conference room chairs being used as makeshift beds.”

Skip past newsletter promotions
A classic console… Sonic the Hedgehog. Photo: Sega

Even with the arrival of the Mega Drive, the Master System maintained its popularity in Europe (and later in Brazil) and continued to be supported with simplified versions of Mega Drive hits like Sonic the Hedgehog. Sonic Chaos, a beloved offshoot developed for both the Master System and Sega’s handheld devices (which shared the same hardware), stands out as a highlight of the series. Subsequently, Sega released a revamped Master System 2 at a budget-friendly price of £50, bundled with Sonic.

However, the Master System offered more than just ports and arcade classics. It has a rich legacy with iconic platformers like Wonder Boy III: The Dragon’s Trap, Psycho Fox, Fantasy Zone, Alex Kidd’s Miracle World, the groundbreaking role-playing adventure Phantasy Star, and the excellent Zelda-like Golbelius: Valley of Fate. These titles, as well as many often overlooked from the NES era, remain true gems. Unlike many classic Nintendo games, Master System titles are now more accessible to modern collectors.

Indeed, while the NES dominated in America to the point where “Nintendo” became synonymous with gaming, the Master System emerged victorious in Europe, Brazil, and elsewhere. Historical accounts may be harsh, but for those of us who lived through it, who read European gaming magazines or flipped through Sega catalogs in the annual Argos and Grattan Christmas sales, the Master System was more than a console; it was an arcade experience that foretold the future of gaming. A promise that the Mega Drive would continue to uphold.

Source: www.theguardian.com

Why Climate Change Is Overlooked and How to Address It

Posted on by
Reply

For many years, climate scientists and advocates have held onto a sense of optimism. They believe that once the impacts of global warming become undeniable, both individuals and governments will take significant action. The hope is that a major disaster—whether it be a fierce hurricane, extreme heat, or widespread flooding—will force a collective recognition of the gravity of the issue and lead to meaningful change. However, despite the increasing frequency of such disasters, climate change continues to rank low on voters’ agendas, and effective policy responses remain elusive.

This widespread inaction is often attributed to various political or structural barriers. Yet, decades of psychological studies indicate that more profound factors may be at play. The human brain often fails to recognize gradual changes.

Many areas are experiencing severe climate-related issues, but for the majority of the world, the changes manifest as slow and subtle shifts in daily weather.

This gradual nature of change presents challenges. People primarily assess climate issues based on personal experiences: there’s a heightened concern for an unusually hot day than when the weather feels typical. However, as conditions quietly worsen, the perception of “normalcy” shifts. This is often referred to as the boiling frog effect, where subtle and gradual changes fail to trigger alarm bells, leading to a state of indifference: akin to a frog in a pot of water that is gradually heated.

In 2020, we researched climate impacts in Princeton, New Jersey. This area is not burdened by wildfires or droughts, but it has seen a loss of something significant: winter ice skating. For many years, Carnegie Lake would freeze enough for skating, but now it seldom does.

Conversations with long-time residents and a review of local newspaper archives revealed a marked decline in ice skating on the lake over the last century, evoking a sense of loss. This disruption to winter traditions made Princeton’s experience with climate change feel more immediate, tangible, and personal.

We then posed the question: could binary climate indicators—such as “Lake Frozen” vs. “Lake Not Frozen”—serve as more effective alerts than graphs depicting gradual temperature increases?

I explored this concept through a series of experiments. Participants were presented with one of two graphs. One illustrated rising winter temperatures in a fictional town, while the other depicted whether the lake froze each year. Notably, both graphs represented the same underlying climate trends, but reactions varied significantly.

Those who viewed the binary “freeze or not” graphs consistently acknowledged that climate change had a more substantial impact compared to those who saw the temperature graphs. Follow-up studies analyzing data from North American and European lakes corroborated these findings. When climate impacts were communicated in stark terms, individuals responded more seriously.

What motivated this difference? We discovered that binary data creates an impression of sudden shifts. When people observed a series of winters where the lake froze juxtaposed with years it didn’t, they perceived a distinct “before” and “after,” despite the gradual nature of change.

Climate change transcends mere physical challenges; it also encompasses psychological dimensions. As long as we convey it in ways that resonate, we risk desensitizing our warning signals until it’s too late.

We encourage policymakers, journalists, and educators to leverage these insights. Highlighting specific losses that resonate—such as winters without ice skating, drought-damaged harvests, and summers plagued by wildfires—can be impactful. Utilize visuals that contrast “what we had” with “what we’ve lost.”

Allow people to witness the changes—it’s not merely about the slope of the line.

Grace Lew is affiliated with Carnegie Mellon University in Pennsylvania, while Lachitt Dubay is affiliated with UCLA.

Topic:

  • Climate change/
  • Global warming

Source: www.newscientist.com

How Your Overlooked Memories Shape Your Decisions Today

Posted on by
Reply

When recalling memories, neural activity is sparked in different brain regions

Nopparit/Getty Images

Even forgotten memories appear to influence our behavior.

“People often perceive memories as something to reflect on or contemplate,” says Nick Turk Brown from Yale University, who was not involved in this research. “However, we don’t spend our days lost in past memories. We work, parent, and have fun. Our memories continuously shape our actions; I believe 95% of our cognitive processes operate in this unseen manner.”

Memory can be described in various ways. One perspective focuses on self-reported recollections, like what someone had for dinner yesterday or details about their seventh birthday. Another way to conceptualize memory involves the persistent networks of brain cells known as engrams, which create the biological representation of experiences we have memorized.

Many researchers have long believed that forgetting a memory implies the disappearance of its related engrams. However, studies on mice suggest that forgotten memories endure even when they cannot be consciously retrieved.

In a study led by Tom Willems from the University of Bern, Switzerland, 40 participants briefly viewed 96 pairs of images, including human faces and objects like guitars and staplers.

The researchers then monitored the participants’ brain activity while testing their memory of whether two images had been paired 24 hours prior, using high-resolution functional magnetic resonance imaging. Participants were also asked if they remembered seeing the images together, if they were uncertain, or if they were just guessing.

When they confidently recalled the images, participants correctly chose the paired images 87% of the time in both tests. Conversely, those who could not recall what they had seen managed to achieve about a 50% accuracy rate.

Participants uncertain of their memory estimated correctly 57% of the time after both 30 minutes and 24 hours, suggesting that this group may still retain some memory of the associations.

Interestingly, when guessers made the right choice, their brain activity patterns mirrored those of participants who confidently remembered, particularly in the relevant hippocampal regions.

During a follow-up test after 24 hours, individuals who believed they had forgotten remained active in the hippocampus, while those who recognized the images exhibited activity in the anterior cingulate gyrus of the neocortex.

As Amy Milton from Cambridge University states, “I suggest that the shift of memory activity to the neocortex is associated with recall, but it remains unclear whether this change is a cause or a result of what is remembered.”

Nevertheless, the findings align with a predominant theory of memory function, known as Standard Integration Theory, as explained by Turk Brown. This theory proposes that memories are initially formed in the hippocampus and later consolidated in the neocortex during sleep for long-term storage.

This research highlights a potential separation between the memories we consciously access and the associated engrams in the brain, according to Turk-Browne. “This offers a fascinating illustration of the subtle, automatic, and pervasive influence of hippocampal memories on behavior.”

“Essentially, what they propose is that some memories don’t have to be consciously searched for in order to influence behavior later,” Milton explains.

She expresses no surprise that strong memory traces can shape our actions without our conscious awareness, referencing the phenomenon of priming. Seeing or hearing something can subtly prompt specific responses without us discerning the reasons.

However, priming occurs in various brain regions, such as the prefrontal cortex, and as Turk-Browne notes, it typically produces only transient effects lasting seconds or minutes.

Topic:

Source: www.newscientist.com

Underground Hydrogen Fuel: An Often Overlooked Potential Source from Earthquakes

Posted on by
Reply

Here’s a rewritten version of your content while retaining the HTML tags:

<div id="">
    <p>
        <figure class="ArticleImage">
            <div class="Image__Wrapper">
                <img class="Image" alt="" width="1350" height="901" 
                     src="https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/25193246/SEI_248767567.jpg" 
                     sizes="(min-width: 1288px) 837px, (min-width: 1024px) calc(57.5vw + 55px), (min-width: 415px) calc(100vw - 40px), calc(70vw + 74px)"
                     srcset="https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/25193246/SEI_248767567.jpg?width=300 300w, 
                             https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/25193246/SEI_248767567.jpg?width=400 400w, 
                             https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/25193246/SEI_248767567.jpg?width=500 500w, 
                             https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/25193246/SEI_248767567.jpg?width=600 600w, 
                             https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/25193246/SEI_248767567.jpg?width=700 700w, 
                             https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/25193246/SEI_248767567.jpg?width=800 800w, 
                             https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/25193246/SEI_248767567.jpg?width=837 837w, 
                             https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/25193246/SEI_248767567.jpg?width=900 900w, 
                             https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/25193246/SEI_248767567.jpg?width=1003 1003w, 
                             https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/25193246/SEI_248767567.jpg?width=1100 1100w, 
                             https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/25193246/SEI_248767567.jpg?width=1200 1200w, 
                             https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/25193246/SEI_248767567.jpg?width=1300 1300w, 
                             https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/25193246/SEI_248767567.jpg?width=1400 1400w, 
                             https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/25193246/SEI_248767567.jpg?width=1500 1500w, 
                             https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/25193246/SEI_248767567.jpg?width=1600 1600w, 
                             https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/25193246/SEI_248767567.jpg?width=1674 1674w, 
                             https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/25193246/SEI_248767567.jpg?width=1700 1700w, 
                             https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/25193246/SEI_248767567.jpg?width=1800 1800w, 
                             https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/25193246/SEI_248767567.jpg?width=1900 1900w, 
                             https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/25193246/SEI_248767567.jpg?width=2006 2006w" 
                     loading="eager" fetchpriority="high" data-image-context="Article" 
                     data-image-id="2478160" data-caption="A tectonic plate crack in Iceland" 
                     data-credit="semnic/iStockphoto/Getty Images"/>
            </div>
            <figcaption class="ArticleImageCaption">
                <div class="ArticleImageCaption__CaptionWrapper">
                    <p class="ArticleImageCaption__Title">Crack in Iceland’s tectonic plates</p>
                    <p class="ArticleImageCaption__Credit">semnic/iStockphoto/Getty Images</p>
                </div>
            </figcaption>
        </figure>
    </p>
    <p>Seismic activity can generate significant amounts of hydrogen deep within the Earth by breaking down rocks, leading to reactions with water. This hydrogen represents a frequently underestimated energy source, especially for those considering living underground and utilizing gas as a viable alternative fuel.</p>

    <p>Recently, interest has surged in locating substantial underground hydrogen reserves for use as clean energy. Primarily, companies are pursuing these deposits...</p>
</div>

Source: www.newscientist.com

The overlooked nutrient that can play a vital role in preserving brain health as you age

Posted on by
Reply

Vitamin K is a crucial nutrient primarily found in green vegetables and may play a vital role in safeguarding the brain from cognitive decline.

Recent research suggests that vitamins, particularly vitamin K, could help in preserving the cells of the hippocampus, which is the brain’s memory center.

In a recent study, scientists conducted an experiment where 60 middle-aged mice were fed either low or regular diets supplemented with vitamin K for six months. Subsequent behavioral tests revealed the impact of vitamin K on mouse learning and memory.

The study showed that mice lacking vitamin K struggled with memory and learning tasks. Compared to mice on a regular diet, those deficient in vitamin K had difficulty recognizing familiar objects, indicating memory loss. They also faced challenges in spatial learning tasks, as evidenced by their performance in a water maze.

Green vegetables like spinach, kale, lettuce, Brussels sprouts, broccoli, and cabbage are excellent sources of vitamin K. Avocados and kiwi fruits also contain high levels of this nutrient – Credit: Mediterranean via Getty

Further analysis of the mice’s brain tissue revealed reduced neurogenesis in the hippocampus of vitamin K-deficient mice. Neurogenesis, the process of generating new neurons, is essential for maintaining brain health and protecting against damage.

“Neurogenesis is believed to be crucial for learning and memory functions, and its impairment may contribute to cognitive decline,” stated Ton Zheng, a research scientist at Tufts’ Center for Human Nutrition (HNRCA).

In addition to reduced neurogenesis, the brains of vitamin K-deficient mice also showed signs of inflammation, further linking vitamin K deficiency to cognitive decline.

While the study highlights the importance of vitamin K, researchers emphasize the significance of obtaining nutrients from a balanced diet rather than relying on supplements.

“It’s essential for people to consume a healthy diet rich in vegetables,” advised Professor Sarah Booth, senior author of the study and director of the HNRCA.

Most individuals typically obtain sufficient vitamin K from their diet, with sources like spinach, kale, peas, Brussels sprouts, broccoli, cabbage, parsley, avocados, and kiwi. However, older adults are more prone to vitamin K deficiency.

The study was recently published in the Journal of Nutrition.

Read more:

Source: www.sciencefocus.com

The President’s Overlooked Achievements at NASA

Posted on by
Reply

Many have speculated about what prompted Mr. Carter to make this decision.

A 2016 study by Ars Technica suggested that Mr. Carter considered using the Space Shuttle as a tool for securing arms control agreements with the Soviet Union. During the 1979 Strategic Arms Limitation Talks with Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev, Carter agreed that the Space Shuttle would not be used to build factories or missiles, thereby ensuring Soviet compliance. He even hinted that he could monitor the launch site.

National security reasons may have also influenced the White House’s support for the development of the space shuttle.

Neal, a source, mentioned, “I believe this convinced him that the shuttle had a valid purpose and should be preserved.”

Mr. Carter confirmed to Ars Technica that he discussed the space shuttle with Mr. Brezhnev, providing a different explanation for his choice. He stated, “I wasn’t enthusiastic about sending humans on missions to Mars or space. However, we believed the shuttle was a beneficial way to continue NASA’s progress. We did not want to squander the investments we had already made.”

Neal pointed out that this rationale aligns with Carter’s character and leadership style.

“He was hands-on, a natural and trained engineer,” she remarked. “He was not a lawyer or a natural politician. I think he felt that canceling the program was inappropriate but that there needed to be a clearer definition of what the shuttle’s capabilities were.”

Despite the political climate, Carter’s decision to save the space shuttle program was likely challenging.

“Looking back, it was a brave decision,” she acknowledged.

As president, Carter supervised some of NASA’s less daunting achievements.

He included a written statement on NASA’s twin Voyager spacecraft, launched in 1977 with a mission to explore the outer reaches of the solar system and beyond.

According to Matthew Shindell, curator of planetary science and exploration at the National Air and Space Museum, Carter’s message on the Voyager spacecraft was intended to introduce humanity to any alien civilization that might intercept it during its journey.

The “Golden Record” carried by Voyager was a 12-inch gold-plated copper disc containing sounds and images depicting Earth’s diverse life and cultures.

The “Golden Record” carried by Voyager was a 12-inch gold-plated copper disc containing sounds and images selected to depict the diversity of life and culture on Earth.
NASA (via AP)

Carter’s words became a profound message to the cosmos.

“This is a gift from a small world far away, symbolizing our sounds, science, images, music, thoughts, and emotions. We are striving to survive and hope to address our challenges and one day join the galactic community. This record encapsulates our aspirations and resolve in the vast and marvelous universe, embodying goodwill.”

The Voyager probes continue their journey through space. Voyager 1 ventured more than 15 billion miles from Earth, while Voyager 2 covered about 13 billion miles. Both have traveled longer than any other spacecraft in history.

In 2012, Voyager 1 became the first human-made object to enter interstellar space, surpassing the outermost boundaries of the Sun’s influence and journeying into the space between stars.

Although the Voyager mission was planned before Carter’s presidency, the years of strategic planning to take advantage of the optimal planetary alignments resulted in launching a spacecraft during his administration. The peak had been reached.

“The achievements of Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 in visiting all the planets will likely not be replicated in our lifetimes,” observed Shindell. “They have paved the way for our continued fascination with exoplanets.”

Despite his significant contributions to the country’s space program, Mr. Carter’s space legacy is often overlooked.

Source: www.nbcnews.com

The Dangers of Overlooked Fatigue on Your Sleep and Ways to Combat It

Posted on by
Reply

You’ve probably experienced this scenario before: after a long day, feeling mentally and physically drained, all you want to do is crawl into bed and sleep.

However, your brain, the most powerful biological supercomputer in the universe, decides to play tricks on you. Instead of allowing you to rest, it keeps you wide awake, with thoughts racing through your mind at lightning speed.

So why does this happen? Why does it prevent us from sleeping when we need it the most? The answer is simple: when you’re too tired, your brain overrides the signals for sleep and keeps you awake.

If you’ve heard of being “over-fatigued” before, it’s often used to describe babies who become agitated and unsettled from being awake too long, leading to sleep disturbances and stress.

Similarly, adults can experience the same issues when unaddressed emotions interfere with the body’s natural sleep processes. The longer you stay fatigued, the more challenging it becomes to fall asleep.

Fortunately, there are ways to break this cycle. In the sections below, we’ll explore what causes excessive fatigue and share three scientifically proven steps to combat it for good.

Excessive fatigue impacts your sleep quality

Being overly tired is a paradoxical situation. When you’re physically and mentally drained, your brain is actually overstimulated and in a state of hyperarousal, making it difficult to transition to sleep.

This hyperarousal state affects essential functions that promote sleep, particularly hindering the buildup of sleep pressure in the brain.

Sleep pressure refers to the buildup of neurochemicals and hormones that increase throughout the day, signaling your body’s need for rest.

“Interestingly, as sleep pressure rises, the brain can become more excitable,” explains Professor Matt Jones, a Neuroscientist at the University of Bristol. “The neurons in the cerebral cortex tend to fire more frequently as wakefulness increases.”

“The primary theory is that sleep helps reset sleep pressure, preventing the brain from becoming overly excited and metaphorically ‘exploding!'”

When you’re vigilant and overwhelmed by racing thoughts, this process of resetting the brain for sleep is disrupted, particularly impacting the locus ceruleus area in the brainstem.

“In times of hyperarousal, the activity in this brain region remains high, impeding the transition to sleep and resisting mechanisms that facilitate falling asleep,” Jones clarifies.

Furthermore, persistent fatigue and sleep deprivation can exacerbate troubling thoughts, making it harder to sleep the following night.

“A study in 2019 found that individuals with insomnia were more likely to ruminate about recent embarrassing events and have disrupted sleep compared to healthy sleepers,” he explains.

“Insomniacs might even become hypersensitive to their heartbeat, showing how an unrested brain struggles to ignore irrelevant stimuli,” Jones adds.

“A well-rested brain can filter out unnecessary information, but insomnia disrupts this process, leading to increased mental strain,” he concludes.

©Getty

Strategies to prevent excessive fatigue

When you’re too tired and key brain regions remain hyperaroused while trying to sleep, essential processes for rest are disrupted.

Dr. Alex Scott, a Psychology lecturer at Keele University, explains that in today’s society, people struggle to regulate their emotions and process daily experiences effectively due to various distractions.

“At the end of the day, we are less inclined to deal positively with our emotions, often exaggerating worries and ruminating in bed,” he shares.

Scott suggests that when fatigued, individuals tend to use unhealthy coping mechanisms, like rumination and blame-shifting.

If rumination proves ineffective for alleviating fatigue, Scott recommends the following three strategies:

1. Avoid counting sheep

Paradoxically, trying too hard to fall asleep can make it even harder. Instead of using traditional methods like counting sheep, Scott encourages individuals to understand that sleep is an automated process that cannot be forced.

“Focus on processing your emotions through exercises like a worry journal,” Scott advises.

2. Maintain a worry diary

Although it may seem tedious, journaling your worries can significantly improve sleep quality for those with sleep issues, according to Scott.

Before bedtime, write down all your concerns in a journal, allowing you to acknowledge them and develop strategies to address them the next day.

“The act of writing down your worries may help you rationalize them and temporarily set them aside, promoting better sleep,” Scott explains.

3. Establish a bedtime routine

Creating a relaxation routine before bed, ideally starting an hour before sleep, can help alleviate mental fatigue and prepare your mind for rest.

“Engage in activities like reading, mindfulness, or journaling during this time to unwind and avoid associating your bed with worries,” Scott suggests.

Learn more about our experts

Professor Matt Jones: A Neuroscientist at the University of Bristol, delving into the science of sleep, memory, and decision-making. His research has been featured in numerous academic journals, such as Frontiers in Neurology, Sleep, and the Neuroscience Journal.

Dr. Alex Scott: As a Psychology lecturer at Keele University, Scott explores the relationship between sleep and mental health issues. His work has been published in esteemed journals like the British Journal of Health Psychology and the British Medical Journal.

Source: www.sciencefocus.com

Neuroscientists reveal the overlooked senses that go beyond the traditional five

Posted on by
Reply

What is the total number of senses that an average human possesses? When we consider senses as receptors like the retina of the eye and the cochlea of the ear, the usual response would be seeing, hearing, touching, smelling, and tasting. That makes a total of five senses.

These senses are known as “exteroceptive” as they provide information about the external environment.

Aside from these, the body also has receptors that detect internal activities such as the heartbeat, lung expansion, stomach movements, and various other bodily functions that go unnoticed. These internal senses are collectively known as “interoception.”

However, the answer to the question is actually more intricate and fascinating. Apart from the traditional senses, the body also has receptors that transmit different types of information which are not commonly categorized as sensations, like temperature.

Furthermore, certain receptors serve multiple sensory functions. For instance, the retina not only processes light for vision but also informs the brain about the transition from day to night. This “day/night sensation” forms the foundation of circadian rhythms which impact metabolism and sleep patterns.

Explore more about the science of senses:

Even a basic sense like vision is intricately connected to other senses that are perceived independently.

For instance, our visual perception and how we perceive things are interconnected with the brain’s monitoring of our heart rate as part of interoception.

As the heart contracts and pumps blood, the brain receives reduced visual input from the surroundings.

The brain also synthesizes sensations for which there are no specific receptors. For instance, the perception of taste is constructed by the brain combining gustatory (taste) and olfactory (smell) signals, while the sensation of wetness is a blend of touch and temperature information.

©Getty

In essence, the brain constructs all our perceptions of vision, hearing, smell, taste, and touch based solely on sensory input from the body’s receptors. For instance, light waves don’t simply enter the eye; they travel to the brain as electrical signals that are then interpreted by the eye.

Moreover, the brain predicts in advance what we will perceive based on past experiences, current circumstances, and the body’s condition, blending these predictions with sensory input from the retina to create our visual perception of the world.

Similarly, when we touch our wrist to feel our pulse, we are essentially experiencing a mental construct based on the brain’s predictions and the actual sensory signals received. Our sensations are not solely experienced through our sense organs but are perceived in the brain.

Dive deeper into neuroscience:

Source: www.sciencefocus.com

The overlooked community of scientific detectives is now gaining attention from the research community

Posted on by
Reply

A group of investigators devoted to finding errors in scientific research has shocked some of the world’s most prestigious research institutions and the scientific community as a whole.

The highly publicized case of alleged image manipulation in a paper co-authored by a former Stanford University president and a leader at the Dana-Farber Cancer Institute has garnered national media attention, prompting speculation from top scientific leaders that this may only be the beginning.

“At this pace, we’re going to see another paper published every few weeks,” said Holden, the editor-in-chief of Science, one of the world’s two most influential journals. Mr. Thorpe said on site.

Investigators argue that their work is necessary to rectify the scientific record and prevent generations of researchers from pursuing futile avenues due to flawed papers. Some scientists are calling for universities and academic publishers to reform their approach to addressing flawed research.

“I understand why the investigators who discovered these issues are so furious,” said Michael, a biologist and former editor of the journal eLife, as well as a prominent advocate for reform in scientific publishing. “Authors, journals, institutions, everyone is incentivized to downplay their significance,” Eisen said.

For approximately a decade, investigators identified widespread problems with scientific images in published papers and voiced their concerns online, but received little attention. Last summer, neuroscientist and then-Stanford University President Marc Tessier-Lavigne resigned amid scrutiny over allegations of image manipulation in a study he co-authored and a report criticizing his lab culture. Since then, there has been a noticeable shift. While Tessier-Lavigne himself has not been found to have engaged in any misconduct, members of his lab appear to have manipulated images in questionable ways. Thereport from the scientific panelhired to investigate the allegations stated.

In January, a blogger’s scathing post exposed questionable research by top leaders at the Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, which subsequently retracted six papers and requested corrections to dozens more.

In hisresignation statement, Tessier-Lavigne stated that the committee could not find any evidence that he was aware of any misconduct, and that he had never submitted documents that appeared to be inaccurate. In a statement from its research integrity officer, Dana-Farber stated that it had taken decisive action to correct the scientific record and that discrepancies in the images were not necessarily evidence that the authors were attempting to deceive.

“We are experiencing a moment of public awareness that really turned a corner when the Mark Tessier-Lavigne scandal unfolded, and since then the Dana-Farber scandal has been the most recent and continuous,” Thorpe said.

This long-standing issue is now receiving national attention, with the emergence of new artificial intelligence tools that are helping address problems ranging from longstanding errors and sloppy science to unethically manipulated images in photo-editing software, making it easier to spot various issues.

This increased scrutiny is prompting changes in how some publishers operate. Universities, journals, and researchers are being urged to consider new technologies, the potential backlog of undiscovered errors, and methods for enhancing transparency when problems are identified.

This comes at a challenging time in academic circles. Venture capitalist Bill Ackman, in apost last month on X, discussed the use of artificial intelligence to identify plagiarism by leaders of top universities with ideological differences, and raised questions about political motivations in plagiarism investigations. More broadly, public trust in scientists and science has steadily declined in recent years, according to thePew Research Center.

Eisen stated that he does not believe investigators’ concerns about scientific images veer into “McCarthyist” territory. “I think they’re honing in on a specific type of problem in the literature, and they’re right. That’s bad,” Eisen said.

Scientific publishing is the primary means by which scientists establish a foundation of understanding in their fields and share new discoveries with their colleagues. Before publication, scientific journals review submissions and solicit feedback from researchers outside the field to identify errors or faulty inferences, a process known as peer review. Journal editors evaluate research findings for plagiarism and conduct copy editing prior to publication. While this system is not perfect, it still relies on the good faith efforts of researchers to avoid manipulating research results.

Over the past 15 years, scientists have become increasingly concerned that some researchers are digitally altering images in papers to distort or enhance their results. The field of image integrity screening has expanded significantly since Yana Christopher, a scientific imaging expert with the European Federation of Biochemical Societies and its journals, began working in the field nearly 15 years ago. At the time, “no one was doing this, and people were in denial about research misconduct,” Christopher stated. “The prevailing belief was that it was very rare and that instances of manipulating results were few and far between.”

Scientific journals now employ entire teams dedicated to processing images and ensuring their accuracy. The number of retractions of published papers has increased significantly in recent years, with records indicating that over 10,000 papers were retracted last year, according to aNature analysis. A loose collective of scientific investigators applies external pressure, often identifying and flagging errors and potential manipulation on the online forum PubPeer. Many of these investigators receive little or no compensation or public recognition for their work.

“There’s a certain level of urgency,” Eisen stated. Ananalysis of comments on over 24,000 articles posted on PubPeer revealed that over 62% of PubPeer comments were related to image manipulation. For years, investigators relied on keen observation, pattern recognition, and a grasp of photo manipulation tools. In recent years, artificial intelligence tools capable of scanning documents for anomalies have been rapidly developed and improved.

Scientific journals are now utilizing similar technology to detect errors prior to publication. In January, Science announced that it is using an artificial intelligence tool called Proofig to scan papers undergoing editing and peer review for publication.Science editor-in-chief Thorpe stated that the family of six journals quietly incorporated the tool into their workflows approximately six months prior to the January announcement. The journal previously relied on visual inspection to identify these types of issues. During the editing process, Proofig flagged papers that had not yet been published, citing “logical explanations” for problematic images that were difficult to justify, or issues that the authors had addressed prior to publication. “Less than 1% of errors are significant enough to prevent a paper from being published,” Thorpe stated.

Chris Graff, director of research integrity at publisher Springer Nature, stated that the company is developing and testing “in-house AI image integrity software” to identify duplicate images. Graff’s research integrity department currently uses Proofig to assess papers in case concerns arise post-publication. The testing process varies among journals, but some Springer Nature publications use Adobe Photoshop tools to manually identify image manipulation and conduct experiments to visualize cellular components or general discrepancies in raw scientific experimental data.

“Although AI-based tools can facilitate and scale investigations, we still believe the human element is important in all investigations,” Graff stated, emphasizing that image recognition software is not infallible and that human expertise is necessary to guard against false positives and negatives. No tool can detect all mistakes and fraud.

“There are many facets to that process. You can never catch them all,” Thorpe remarked. “As journals, institutions, and authors, we need to do a better job of addressing this when it occurs.”

Many forensic scientists have grown frustrated that their concerns have been disregarded, or that investigations have progressed slowly with little public resolution. Sholto-David, who publicly voiced his concerns about the Dana-Farber study in a blog post, stated that the response from journal editors was so unsatisfactory that he nearly “gave up” on writing a letter to journal editors regarding the errors he had discovered. Elizabeth Bick, a microbiologist and longtime image investigator, said that if she reports image issues frequently, “nothing happens.”

While public comments on PubPeer questioning research data can stimulate discussion surrounding questionable research, authors and institutions often do not directly respond to online criticism. Although journals can issue corrections or retractions, it is generally the responsibility of research institutions or universities to investigate incidents. If the incident pertains to federally funded biomedical research, the federal Office of Research Integrity may conduct an investigation.

Thorpe stated that agencies need to assume responsibility when errors are discovered and act more swiftly to openly and candidly address what occurred to regain public trust. He stated, “The university has been very sluggish in responding, very slow in instituting the process, and the longer this goes on, the greater the damage will be. I don’t know what would have happened if Stanford had said these papers are flawed, instead of initiating this investigation.”

Some scientists are concerned that the problem of image manipulation is just the tip of the iceberg in terms of scientific integrity. Detecting issues with images is much simpler than spotting simple data errors in spreadsheets. While it is crucial to crack down on problematic papers and hold individuals accountable, some scientists believe that these measures address a larger problem: rewarding career advancement for those who publish the most exciting results rather than enduring results. “Scientific culture itself doesn’t say we care about getting it right. It says we care about getting papers that make a splash,” Eisen said.

Source: www.nbcnews.com