Illustration of Mimivirus: A Giant Virus Infecting Amoebae
Credit: Science Photo Library / Alamy
Viruses exploit host cell machinery to produce proteins, with certain large viruses encoding essential components within their genomes to instruct host cells to generate viral proteins. This phenomenon emphasizes how giant viruses challenge the distinction between living and nonliving entities.
Since the discovery of the mimivirus in Bradford, England in 2003, which infects amoebas, biologists have increasingly focused on these giant viruses. Some exhibit sizes larger than typical bacteria, complex shapes, and possess numerous genes.
Among these genes are those that code for components involved in translation—the biological process that turns genetic information into proteins. In cellular biology, translation occurs through ribosomes, initiated by molecular assemblies known as initiation complexes.
To investigate whether giant viruses possess a similar system, Max Fells and his team from Harvard Medical School explored the dynamics within infected amoebas and the manipulations by mimivirus post-infection.
The researchers isolated ribosomes from infected cells and identified the viral proteins linked to them. “This was our initial clue that these might be the elements we were seeking,” said Fells.
Subsequently, they knocked out the gene responsible for the viral complex by substituting it with a modified DNA sequence, resulting in a virus that could not synthesize the corresponding protein. This intervention decreased virus production by up to 100,000-fold and severely inhibited the formation of new infectious particles.
These findings collectively indicate that during an infection, viral complexes potentially redirect the protein synthesis machinery of the host to significantly boost the production of viral structural proteins, even under extreme conditions like nutrient scarcity and oxidative stress, which typically hinder protein synthesis in host cells.
This discovery introduces a profound evolutionary inquiry: how did these viruses acquire such capabilities? Some researchers propose that giant viruses may descend from ancient cellular life forms, while others suggest they evolved from typical viruses through gene acquisition from their hosts.
“Giant viruses have acquired a diverse array of cellular machinery from their eukaryotic hosts over evolutionary time,” stated Frank Aylward from Virginia Tech, who was not part of the study. Genetic exchange can occur during viral infection, allowing natural selection to favor advantageous genes over extended evolutionary periods.
Many of the largest viruses dominate the internal environment of single-celled organisms, which presents more variability than the relatively stable environments of multicellular hosts. Consequently, this flexible control over protein synthesis may confer a significant evolutionary advantage, Aylward noted.
This research also raises critical questions. The mimivirus genome comprises approximately 1,000 proteins, the majority of which remain functionally enigmatic. It remains unclear how these viruses intricately control protein production throughout a single infection cycle.
“Viruses have traditionally been regarded as passive participants in the evolution of living systems,” stated Hiroyuki Ogata from Kyoto University, Japan. “This study demonstrates that giant viruses can reconfigure molecular systems that are fundamental across the spectrum of life.”
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For over 165 years, the enigmatic prototaxite has stood as one of the earliest giants to rise from Earth’s barren landscapes, defying simple classification. These towering, columnar organisms dominated the terrestrial environment over 400 million years ago, reaching impressive heights of 8 meters (26 ft), long before the advent of trees. A recent study conducted by paleontologists from the University of Edinburgh and the National Museums of Scotland posits that this mysterious entity was not merely a giant fungus, as often presumed, but rather belonged to an entirely extinct lineage of complex life.
Prototaxites dominated terrestrial ecosystems 410 million years ago as the largest living organisms. Image credit: Matt Humpage.
The prototaxite marks the first giant life form on Earth’s surface, emerging during the late Silurian to late Devonian periods, approximately 420 to 370 million years ago.
Recognized for their pillar-like fossils that can reach up to 8 meters, they played a crucial role in early terrestrial ecosystems well before the emergence of trees.
These organisms were widely distributed across ancient terrestrial environments and were likely consumed by arthropods, marking a pivotal stage in land colonization and holding significant ecological importance.
Despite over 165 years of inquiry, the biological identity of prototaxite remains a topic of heated debate among paleontologists, who contest whether it is a fungus or belonged to a distinct, entirely extinct lineage of complex eukaryotes.
In a groundbreaking study, Dr. Corentin Rollon and colleagues examined Prototaxites Taichi, found preserved in remarkable three-dimensional detail within the 407-million-year-old Rhynie Chert in Aberdeenshire, Scotland.
“The Rhynie Chert is a remarkable treasure trove,” noted Dr. Rollon, the lead author of the study published in this week’s edition of Scientific Progress.
“This site represents one of the oldest fossilized terrestrial ecosystems, and its well-preserved biodiversity enables innovative approaches like machine learning applied to fossil molecular data.”
“Numerous other specimens from the Rhynie Chert are preserved in museum collections, contributing vital context to our findings.”
The research team investigated new specimens of Prototaxites Taichi, identifying the largest known example of this species at the site, facilitating detailed anatomical and molecular comparisons with fossil fungi found in the same deposits.
Microscopic imaging revealed a complex internal structure that diverges significantly from any known fungi.
The fossil comprises three distinct types of tubes, including large, thick-walled tubes featuring annular stripes and dense spherical regions known as medullary points.
These intriguing features form a complex 3D network of interconnected tubes, suggesting a branching pattern unheard of in fungal biology.
Researchers employed infrared spectroscopy and machine learning techniques to classify molecular fingerprints from prototaxite alongside those of fossil fungi, arthropods, plants, and bacteria found in Rhynie Chert.
Fossilized fungi from this location maintain characteristic chemical signatures linked to chitin-rich cell walls, which were intriguingly absent in ancient prototaxite.
The team also searched for perylene, a biomarker associated with pigment compounds produced by specific fungi, previously detected in other Rhynie Chert fossils. However, no such compounds were found in the prototaxite sample.
Collectively, the structural, chemical, and biomarker findings imply that prototaxite does not align with any known fungal group, including the earliest forms of modern fungi.
“This research marks a significant advancement in a 165-year-long discussion,” stated Dr. Sandy Hetherington, the senior author of the paper.
“These organisms represent life forms distinct from those we currently recognize, displaying different anatomical and chemical characteristics from fungi and plants, thereby belonging to a unique, now-extinct lineage of complex life.”
“Our study combines chemical analysis and anatomical insights into prototaxite, revealing that it cannot be classified within any known fungal group,” explained co-author Laura Cooper.
“As earlier researchers have discounted classifications to other large and complex life forms, we conclude that prototaxite belonged to an entirely distinct lineage of extinct complex life.”
“Thus, prototaxite symbolizes independent evolutionary experiments in constructing large and complex organisms, known to us only through exceptionally preserved fossils.”
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Corentin C. Rollon et al. 2026. Prototaxites fossils are structurally and chemically distinct from both extinct and extant fungi. Scientific Progress 12(4); doi: 10.1126/sciadv.aec6277
Geophysicists from Washington State University and Virginia Tech have uncovered a potential pathway for nutrient transport from the radioactive surface of Jupiter’s icy moon, Europa, to its subsurface ocean.
Artist’s concept of the oceans of Jupiter’s moon Europa. Image credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech.
Europa is believed to host more liquid water than all of Earth’s oceans combined, but this vast ocean lies beneath a thick, ice-covered shell that obstructs sunlight.
This ice layer means that any potential life in Europa’s oceans must seek alternative sources of nutrition and energy, raising important questions about how these aquatic environments can support life.
Moreover, Europa is under constant bombardment from intense radiation emitted by Jupiter.
This radiation interacts with salts and other surface materials on Europa, producing nutrients beneficial for marine microorganisms.
While several theories exist, planetary scientists have struggled to determine how nutrient-rich surface ice can penetrate the thick ice shell to reach the ocean below.
Europa’s icy surface is geologically active due to the gravitational forces from Jupiter; however, ice movements primarily occur horizontally rather than vertically, which limits surface-to-ocean exchange.
Dr. Austin Green from Virginia Tech and Dr. Katherine Cooper from Washington State University sought inspiration from Earth to address the surface recycling challenge.
“This innovative concept in planetary science borrows from well-established principles in Earth science,” stated Dr. Green.
“Notably, this approach tackles one of Europa’s persistent habitability questions and offers hope for the existence of extraterrestrial life within its oceans.”
The researchers focused on the phenomenon of crustal delamination, where tectonic compression and chemical densification in Earth’s crust lead to the separation and sinking of crustal layers into the mantle.
They speculated whether this process could be relevant to Europa, especially since certain regions of its ice surface contain dense salt deposits.
Previous investigations indicate that impurities can weaken ice’s crystalline structure, making it less stable than pure ice.
However, delamination requires that the ice surface be compromised, enabling it to detach and submerge within the ice shell.
The researchers proposed that dense, salty ice, surrounded by purer ice, could sink within the ice shell, thereby facilitating the recycling of Europa’s surface and nourishing the ocean beneath.
Using computer simulations, they discovered that as long as the surface ice is somewhat weakened, nutrient-rich ice laden with salts can descend to the bottom of the ice shell.
This recycling process is swift and could serve as a reliable mechanism for providing essential nutrients to Europa’s oceans.
The team’s study has been published in the Planetary Science Journal.
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AP Green and CM Cooper. 2026. Dripping into destruction: Exploring the convergence of viscous surfaces with salt in Europa’s icy shell. Planetary Science Journal 7, 13; doi: 10.3847/PSJ/ae2b6f
A groundbreaking study by planetary scientists at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) reveals how the significant differences in polar vortex patterns between Jupiter and Saturn are influenced by the unique properties of their deep interiors. These findings offer valuable insights into the structure of these gas giants.
This composite image, captured by the JIRAM instrument aboard NASA’s Juno satellite, depicts a central low-pressure system at Jupiter’s north pole along with eight surrounding low-pressure systems. The colors in this image represent radiant heat, revealing temperature variations in their cloud layers. Image credit: NASA / JPL-Caltech / SwRI / ASI / INAF / JIRAM.
“Our study shows that the internal properties, including the softness of the vortex base, influence the fluid patterns observed at the surface,” explained Dr. Wang-Ying Kang from MIT.
The research was inspired by stunning images of Jupiter and Saturn obtained from NASA’s Juno and Cassini missions.
Since 2016, Juno has been orbiting Jupiter and revealing astonishing details about its north pole and intricate spiral formations.
The data suggest that each vortex on Jupiter is immense, measuring around 5,000 km (3,000 miles) in diameter.
Meanwhile, Cassini documented Saturn’s iconic polar vortex, which spans a singular hexagonal shape approximately 29,000 km (18,000 miles) wide, before its controlled descent into Saturn’s atmosphere in 2017.
“Despite their similarities in size and primary composition of hydrogen and helium, deciphering the differences in polar vortices between Jupiter and Saturn has been challenging,” noted MIT graduate student Jial Shi.
Researchers aimed to uncover the physical mechanisms behind the formation of either a single vortex or multiple vortices on these distant planets.
To achieve this, they employed a two-dimensional model of surface fluid dynamics.
While polar vortices are inherently three-dimensional, the fast rotation of Jupiter and Saturn leads to uniform motion along their rotational axes, allowing the team to effectively analyze vortex evolution in two dimensions.
“In rapidly rotating systems, fluid motion tends to be uniform along the axis,” Dr. Kang added. “This insight allowed us to convert a 3D challenge into a 2D problem, significantly speeding up simulations and reducing costs.”
With this in mind, researchers created a two-dimensional model of vortex behavior in gas giants, adapting equations that describe the evolution of swirling fluids over time.
“This equation is commonly used in various situations, including modeling cyclones on Earth,” Dr. Kang stated. “We tailored it for the polar regions of Jupiter and Saturn.”
Scientists applied the two-dimensional model to simulate fluid dynamics on gas giants in various scenarios, adjusting parameters such as planetary size, rotational speed, internal heating, and the characteristics of the fluid.
They introduced random “noise” to simulate initial chaotic fluid flow on the planets’ surfaces.
By analyzing how this fluid evolved over time across different scenarios, the researchers found that some conditions led to the formation of a single large polar vortex, akin to Saturn’s structure, while others resulted in multiple smaller vortices, similar to those on Jupiter.
Through careful examination of the parameters affecting each scenario, the study identified a unifying mechanism: the softness of the vortex base constrains the size that vortices can attain.
The softer and lighter the gas at the bottom of the vortex, the smaller the resulting vortex, enabling multiple smaller vortices to exist at Jupiter’s poles. Conversely, a denser and harder base permits the growth of sizable vortices, manifesting as a singular entity like Saturn.
If this mechanism holds for both gas giants, it could suggest that Jupiter has a softer internal composition, while Saturn may contain denser materials.
“The fluid patterns we observe on the surface of Jupiter and Saturn may provide insights into their interior compositions,” Shi remarked.
“This is crucial because Saturn’s interior likely harbors richer metals and more condensable materials, leading to stronger stratification than that found in Jupiter,” Shi added. “This will enhance our understanding of gas giant planets.”
Imagine cradling your newborn baby, deeply gazing into their eyes. You’re at the airport, eagerly awaiting your family’s return from a year-long journey, and suddenly, you spot them approaching. Or perhaps you’re in a packed stadium, witnessing your team lift a long-awaited trophy. Each moment evokes a profound sense of connection, sending chills down your spine and bringing tears to your eyes.
Does this resonate with you? Although you might not know it yet, you’re experiencing an emotion referred to as “kama muta.” This phenomenon is gaining traction in psychological circles for its critical role in our relationships with family, friends, and community. By actively seeking to evoke this feeling, you can enhance your life’s purpose and strengthen your social bonds.
This article is part of a series on simple changes to boost your health in the new year. Read the complete series here.
The term kama muta emerged from research initiatives starting in 2012 by Alan Fisk, an anthropologist, with contributions from colleagues at UCLA and the University of Oslo. They began exploring why happy ending scenes in movies bring us to tears. Prior to this, emotional research mostly focused on tears as indicators of sadness.
Initial discussions evolved into formal research involving extensive interviews and surveys about strong emotional responses to positive events. They identified common descriptors such as “being moved,” “stirred,” and “uplifted,” often accompanied by physical sensations like watery eyes, goosebumps, and warmth in the chest. Most importantly, this emotion appeared linked to the enhancement of social relationships.
And it’s not exclusive to happy situations; it can arise in diverse scenarios, including parental care, reunions, and even Alcoholics Anonymous meetings where individuals experience a powerful sense of acceptance.
“Instead of feeling isolated or ashamed of your past, you realize your challenges connect you to others,” says Fisk.
This emotional response can also manifest during religious practices such as prayer, conveying a connection to the divine. Additionally, communal events like sports victories often evoke profound feelings of pride and admiration for teams that have faced adversity.
Live music inspires emotional connections
Andrew Chin/Getty Images
Despite the richness of the English language, we lack a term that encompasses these impactful experiences. Thus, we often overlook the emotional parallels across various situations. “Our premise is straightforward,” Fisk asserts. “These experiences share a common feeling.”
To describe this, the researchers adopted sanskrit‘s term Kama Muta, which translates to “moved by love.” Fisk notes, “The Sanskrit expressions have a poetic quality.”
Fisk explains it as “love igniting,” suggesting it may have evolved to deepen our care for those closest to us. In ancient times, shared bonds were vital for survival, and emotions fostering these ties significantly benefited our ancestors. Today, social connections are equally crucial for human health. Emotions like kama muta may help broaden our perspectives on life, thereby enhancing overall well-being.
Discovering Kama Muta
Thanks to our innate empathic abilities, we can experience kama muta by viewing emotional videos, transcending cultural boundaries. For instance, Fisk’s studies revealed that participants from diverse backgrounds reacted similarly to videos depicting profound connections.
Such experiments indicate that experiencing kama muta can significantly inspire you to cultivate and maintain relationships. After feeling this emotion, subjects expressed greater commitment to their relationships and a heightened desire to connect intimately with others.
Concerts often provoke kama muta due to music’s beauty and strength of unity it fosters among strangers; experiences like Taylor Swift sharing friendship bracelets with fans exemplify this unique bond.
People who exhibit higher levels of empathy may be more susceptible to kama muta. However, anyone can learn to nurture this emotion by actively listening to those around them.
“When individuals feel truly heard, they tend to feel more connected to the listener,” suggests Kenneth Demaree, a psychologist based in New York. He believes that this connection leads to deeper self-disclosure and greater emotional revelations.
Additionally, many secret pathways exist for experiencing kama muta, even in solitude. Whether through reading or watching love stories, you can evoke such feelings, with watching cute animal videos striking a chord often.
Cultivating your emotional experiences changes your perception, shifting from suppression to appreciation. “You may think it’s a disaster to feel emotional,” shares Fisk, “but by understanding that everyone goes through these feelings, you’re more inclined to embrace them.”
Like any emotion, kama muta consists of various components, including physical sensations, mental interpretations, and motivations to act. Researchers have developed a kama muta multiplex scale to measure your experience. Explore our research-driven quizzes to evaluate your feelings while watching a kitten video—just one example. Or view heartfelt images of loved ones or engage in meaningful discussions with friends. Then rate your experience by how closely these statements resonate with you, on a scale from 0 (not at all) to 6 (very often).
Section 1
Have you experienced it?
Moist eyes
Tears
Goosebumps or hair standing on end
Chills or shivers
Warm sensation in the middle of your chest
Feeling of warmth in the chest area
Feeling breathless
Lump in throat
Difficulty articulating
Smiling
Feeling buoyant and light
Feeling refreshed, energized, and uplifted
Section 2
Did you feel it?
Incredible bond
A profound sense of intimacy
A unique love that rises
A special feeling of being welcomed or embraced
Section 3
Did you feel it?
Urge to express care for someone
Desire to hug someone
Impulse to do something special for someone
Increased commitment to the relationship
Section 4
How did you feel overall about the experience?
It was heartwarming
It left a lasting impression
It touched me deeply
While there are no absolute indicators to determine if you felt kama muta or not, researchers affirm that the higher your aggregate scores across these sections, the more intense your kama muta experience is likely to be.
We might be observing the earliest indications of peculiar stars that harness dark matter. These dark stars could provide explanations for some of the universe’s most enigmatic entities, and offer insights into the actual nature of dark matter itself.
Standard stars are birthed when a gas cloud collapses, leading to a core dense enough to initiate nuclear fusion. This fusion generates significant heat and energy, radiating into the surrounding gas and plasma.
Dark stars could have emerged in a similar fashion during the universe’s infancy, a period of higher density which also saw a notably concentrated presence of dark matter. If a gas cloud collapsing into a star contains substantial dark matter, it may begin to collide and dissipate prior to nuclear fusion, generating enough energy to illuminate the dark star and halt further collapse.
The process leading to the formation of dark stars is relatively straightforward, and currently, a team led by Katherine Freese from the University of Texas at Austin is exploring its potential outcome.
In an ordinary large star, once the hydrogen and helium are depleted, it continues fusing heavier elements until it runs out of energy and collapses into a black hole. The more mass the star contains, the quicker this transition occurs.
However, the same is not true for dark stars. “By incorporating dark matter into a star roughly the mass of the Sun, and sustaining it through dark matter decay rather than nuclear means, you can continuously nourish the star. Provided it receives enough dark matter, it won’t undergo the nuclear transformations that lead to complications,” explains George Fuller, a collaborator with Freese at the University of California, San Diego.
Despite this, general relativity imposes a limit on how long dark matter can preserve these unusual giants. Albert Einstein’s theory suggests that an object’s gravitational field does not increase linearly with mass; instead, gravity intensifies the gravitational force. Ultimately, an object may reach a mass at which it becomes unstable, with minor variations overpowering its gravitational pull and resulting in a collapse into a black hole. Researchers estimate this threshold for a dark star is between 1,000 and 10 million times the Sun’s mass.
This mass range makes supermassive dark stars prime candidates for addressing one of the early universe’s profound mysteries: the existence of supermassive black holes. These giants were spotted relatively early in the universe’s history, but their rapid formation remains a puzzle. One prevailing theory posits that they didn’t arise from typical stars, but rather from some colossal “seed.”
“If a black hole weighs 100 solar masses, how could it possibly grow to a billion solar masses in just a few hundred million years? This is implausible if black holes were formed solely from standard stars,” asserts Freese. “Conversely, this situation changes significantly if the origin is a relatively large seed.” Such faint stars could serve as those seeds.
Yet, the enigmas of the early universe extend beyond supermassive black holes that dark stars could elucidate. The James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) has unveiled two other unforeseen object types, referred to as the little red dot and the blue monster, both appearing at substantial distances. The immediate hypothesis for these is that they are compact galaxies.
However, like supermassive black holes, these objects exist too far away and too early in universal history for simple formation explanations. Based on observations, Freese and her associates propose that both the little red dot and the blue monster may represent individual, immensely massive dark stars.
If they indeed are dark stars, they would display particular clues in their light. This aspect pertains to specific wavelengths that dark stars should ostensibly absorb. Normal stars and galaxies dense with them are too hot to capture that light.
Freese and colleagues have found possible indicators of this absorption in initial JWST observations of several distant entities; however, the data is too inconclusive to confirm its existence. “Currently, of all our candidates, two could potentially fit the spectrum: a solitary supermassive dark star or an entire galaxy of regular stars,” Freese notes. “Examining this dip in the spectrum, we’re convinced it points to a dark star rather than a conventional star-filled galaxy. But for now, we only possess a faint hint.”
While it remains uncertain if we have definitively detected a dark star, this development marks progress. “It isn’t a definitive finding, but it certainly fuels motivation for ongoing inquiries, and some aspects of what JWST has been examining seem to align with that direction,” remarks Dan Hooper from the University of Wisconsin-Madison.
Establishing whether these entities are genuinely dark stars necessitates numerous more observations, ideally with enhanced sensitivity; however, it remains ambiguous whether JWST can achieve the level of detail required for such distant galaxies or dark stars.
“Confirming the existence of dark stars would be a remarkable breakthrough,” emphasizes Volodymyr Takistov from the High Energy Accelerator Research Organization in Japan. This could facilitate new observational avenues into foundational physics. This is particularly true if dark stars are recognized as seeds for supermassive black holes. Freese, Fuller, and their team deduced that the mass at which a black hole collapses correlates with the mass of the dark matter particle annihilating at its center, implying that supermassive black holes could serve as metrics to evaluate or at least restrict dark matter properties. Of course, validating the existence of dark stars is the first priority. “Even if these entities exist, their occurrence is rare,” Hooper states. “They are uncommon, yet significant.”
Exploring the Mysteries of the Universe: Cheshire, England
Join some of the brightest minds in science for a weekend dedicated to unraveling the universe’s mysteries, featuring a tour of the legendary Lovell Telescope.
“We are not just composed of human cells and microorganisms, but fragments from others as well…”
Lois Fordham/Millennium Images
Hidden Guests Translated by Lise Barnoud and Bronwyn Haslam, Greystone Books
Although my children were conceived using donated eggs, one might presume we lack any genetic connections. Yet, science confirms that this assumption is not entirely accurate.
Research reveals that during pregnancy, fetal cells traverse the placenta and integrate into the mother’s body, affecting various organs. Likewise, my mother’s cells—and even those transferred from her to me—can also reach my children. With an older sister, the cellular sharing could potentially be even more extensive. Her cells may have crossed into my mother, then to me, and subsequently transferred to my children.
This intriguing concept and its ramifications—that we are holobionts, consisting not just of human cells and microbes but also fragments of other cells—lie at the core of the book. Hidden Guests: How Cell Migration and the New Science of Microchimerism Are Redefining Human Identity by Liz Barneau.
Barneau not only documents the serendipitous discovery of these microchimeric cells but also discusses how cultural and political factors have shaped their interpretation. The notion that pieces of a parent, sibling, or even a fetus reside within our bodies or minds can elicit a spectrum of emotions.
“Some find solace in feeling connected to deceased loved ones, while others worry about renewed control exerted by men,” she notes, referencing claims by some anti-abortion advocates that fetal cells “haunt” women post-abortion, causing illnesses and punishing them.
Fortunately, Barneau primarily focuses on scientific evidence. She chronicles the journeys of researchers through their errors, inquiries, and breakthroughs, illustrating how cells derived from fetuses can have both beneficial and detrimental effects. While these cells might facilitate tissue repair and combat tumors, they are also implicated in autoimmune disorders. Barneau handles the more sensitive topics with care, describing how the cells of an aborted fetus can persist in a woman’s body for decades.
Additionally, she explores how their presence can disrupt traditional genetic inheritance patterns, unveiling remarkable biological enigmas. For instance, a woman may use her own eggs to conceive all her sons, yet only a third of her sons may exhibit shared genetic features. Alternatively, a woman with hepatitis C might possess numerous liver cells that correspond to DNA from two former partners, potentially linked to an aborted pregnancy years before. There’s also the case of an Olympic cyclist who tried to explain a suspicious blood type mix by claiming “vanishing twins,” referring to fraternal twins whose DNA merges in utero.
“
The existence of microchimeric cells could create extraordinary biological mysteries “
Hidden Guests is clearly articulated and full of insightful analogies. Journalist Barneau likens microchimeric cells in our bodies to stars in distant galaxies that “bear molecular signatures distinct from ours.” She draws parallels stating that blaming a cell for a tumor’s growth is akin to assigning fault for a fire to a firefighter.
Many revelations await readers. Spoiler alert: Barneau encourages contemplation on the fact that, just as donor cells migrate from a transplanted organ to various parts of a recipient’s body, cells containing a partner’s genetic material can enter blood and lymphatic vessels surrounding the vagina, embedding themselves across the body or brain.
This genetic ambiguity, wherein cells journey back through familial lines, can indeed be perplexing. Nevertheless, Barneau excels at elucidating the current landscape of this nascent field and its significant implications for both medicine and human identity without veering into speculation. She adeptly unravels the long-standing perspective of “one individual, one genome” in an engaging manner.
As a mother who once believed I lacked any biological link to my children, I now realize: Hidden Guests is scientifically enthralling and profoundly reassuring. Barneau enlightens us that we carry traces of others within us. Thanks to her insights, I eagerly anticipate the future developments in this field.
Helen Thomson, a writer based in London, columnist for New Scientist
The haunting sound emerged first. Inside the Bart Railroad tunnel in San Francisco, Don Veca recorded the piercing metallic screech of a train. “It was both beautiful and disturbing, like a demon in torment,” he reflects. This haunting audio became one of the most iconic elements of 2008’s Dead Space.
“We unleashed that industrial shriek at full volume right after a vacuum of silence, creating one of the most impactful sonic contrasts in gaming,” Veca recalls, having made a name for himself as the audio director for the Dead Space series. “Our game designers were not fans, but our higher-ups embraced it. Eventually, it became legendary.”
Nearly twenty years since Dead Space first had players gripping their controllers in fear, horror game designers worldwide continue to pursue that same thrill. So, how do they discover new methods to terrify gamers, and what drives our relentless attraction to horror?
sounds of fear
Ask anyone involved in developing classic horror games, and they will likely agree: authentic fear begins with sound.
Veca highlights that it starts at a psychological level. “It stems from the mind: not the fear of what is, but of what might come,” he explains. “The genuine fear isn’t from a thief with a weapon. It’s the shadow lurking behind the door, the unnerving silence, the certainty that something approaches… yet the timing and nature of it remain unknown.”
This element of unpredictability became a cornerstone of Dead Space’s audio design. “We created suspense like a rising tide,” Veca describes. “Something might happen… Something might happen… and then nothing occurs, just the household kitten. You laugh, the adrenaline fades, and moments later, there’s a burst of claws, blood, and screams!”
Infection…Dead Space. Photo: EA
Jason Graves, the BAFTA-winning composer behind Dead Space and 2015’s Until Dawn, concurs. “Sound and music set the stage for fear. It’s about the build-up, the tension, and the moment of release when something appears.”
Graves even regarded the score as a form of infectious entity. “In Dead Space, something corrupts the crew and transforms them into monsters, so I ‘infected’ the orchestra,” he explains. “No peculiar techniques, no instrument tapping, no chords, just clusters and tension.” When a player thinks it’s silent, it could be each of the 60 strings playing a note softly. This creates a dynamic, constantly evolving soundscape.
If there are any doubts regarding the significance of sound, Graves offers a challenge. “My daughter played ‘Until Dawn’ and was frightened throughout. I suggested muting it, but she completed it anyway. This illustrates how our brains function; we can perceive an atmosphere even without visuals. Monsters lurking under the bed, shadows in the water—our imaginations amplify the dread. It’s ten times more terrifying than anything we show them.”
human element
For cult game developer Swery (real name Hidetaka Suehiro), horror transcends cheap thrills; it delves into the essence of humanity. He began pondering what truly frightens players when his mentor, Resident Evil creator Tokuro Fujiwara, posed the question, “What constitutes fear in games?”
Hidetaka Suehiro, known as Swery, is a game developer. Photo: White Owls Co., Ltd.
“I was in my twenties and simply said, ‘Game over,’” Swery recalls. “He responded: ‘So, isn’t a game without a “game over” scary? What about a haunted house that doesn’t inflict damage?’ I was stumped. I’ve been searching for the answer ever since.”
This curiosity laid the foundation for 2010’s Deadly Premonition, a surreal horror experience set in a small town that combines absurd humor with existential dread. “Before we created the horror aspect, we established a clear vision: to construct a town and its inhabitants. We developed the story post-creation of the town,” he recounts.
“At the core of fear lies humanity,” Swery added. “Human beings possess inner complexity and suffering, are fragile, and can succumb to evil… that’s the essence.”
While monsters may symbolize our fears, for Thomas Grip, game director of the critically acclaimed 2015 deep-sea horror game Soma, horror is also about exploring the human experience rather than merely the malevolent.
“I believe it embodies a different type of fear,” he says. “There are no grand plot twists or constant frights. The focus is on compelling players to confront uncomfortable inquiries: What does it mean to be human? What does it mean to be conscious? What renders life worthwhile?”
Dismissing gore and dark surprises, at Soma, silence and philosophical inquiry become central to the experience. “The key to horror narratives across mediums is allowing the audience to draw their own conclusions,” Grip emphasizes. “If the narrative merely declares, ‘There’s something eerie, please be scared,’ it lacks depth. The most effective horror provokes deeper contemplation.”
Terror of the deep sea…Soma. Photo: Friction game
The unknown and a twist on the familiar
Another element of delight is the fear of the unknown, with anxiety often stemming from what remains unseen. “You shouldn’t reveal everything,” Grip states. “Players are granted only a glimpse, allowing their imaginations—filled with personal fears and anxieties—to fill the void. That’s where genuine horror resides.” The creatures in Soma embody that notion. “The key lies in familiarity,” he explains. “The best monsters evoke the thought, ‘Something is off…’ and the more they are seen, the more chilling they become. People respond strongly to things that appear infectious and unhealthy, triggering a primal fear.”
In the 2021 indie horror sensation Poppy Playtime, horror takes on a playful twist within a charming yet deadly toy factory. “Nostalgia is inherently vulnerable. When we reflect on our childhoods, we often associate them with safety, but when those memories are distorted, we experience a visceral reaction,” comments Zach Belanger, CEO of Poppy Playtime Studios, Mob Entertainment.
“The effectiveness of Huggy Wuggy lies in our inquiry, ‘How can something feel both delightful and unsettling simultaneously?’” he declares regarding the game’s fluffy antagonist.
Pixels are scary…loop // error. Illustration: Coropixel Studio
Psychological horror in 2025’s loop // error invokes dread through suggestion, leveraging a blocky black-and-white pixel art style that leaves details to the imagination. “Utilizing pixelated visuals and a conscious absence of color creates an unusual atmosphere; your mind visualizes something that isn’t actually present,” says Koro, an independent developer. “It’s reminiscent of recalling a nightmare: hazy and incomplete yet emotionally potent.”
“The horror in Loop//Error is not reliant on clichés,” Koro adds. “It springs from deep within the human psyche, observing your mental collapse and realizing that the most terrifying place you can be trapped is within yourself.”
interactive elements
Lastly, another significant component that heavily influences horror in video games is interactivity.
“In games, you’re not just passive observers; you’re immersed in the experience, which heightens your emotions. Your heart races, yet you retain control,” explains psychologist Kieron Auckland, a cyberpsychology expert at Arden University.
Daniel Knight, creator of the 2020 ghost-hunting multiplayer game Phasmophobia, concurs. “The game fully engulfs you in fear,” he describes of the title that captivated Twitch audiences upon its release. “When you open a door or step into a dark space, you’re the one who feels the terror. You bear the consequences of what unfolds.”
Grip also believes this aspect contributes to the genre’s sustainability. “In video games, you make choices that lead you toward peril,” he states. “It’s personal. The fear arises from you being the one stepping into a dimly lit passage.”
Ultimately, horror films revolve around actions taken in darkness, whereas video games afford players a chance for exploration.
Galaxy clusters create gravitational lenses, bending light around them
NASA, ESA, Michael Gladders (University of Chicago); Acknowledgment: Judy Schmidt
Quantum physics might hold the key to unraveling the mysteries of celestial objects that remain undetectable or poorly observed through telescopes.
In our quest to comprehend the universe, we gather and scrutinize light emitted by stars and various celestial entities. However, this light often doesn’t travel in a straight path. When passing near massive entities like planets or black holes, the light’s trajectory can curve, resulting in a distorted image, akin to having an additional lens in the process.
Considering smaller objects that lack significant mass, traditional imaging strategies often fall short when dealing with “microlensing” effects. Researchers including Liu Zhenning at the University of Maryland have demonstrated that light analysis protocols that respect the quantum aspects may yield superior results.
They aimed to utilize the quantum features of light to deduce the mass of objects responsible for microlensing. According to Liu, microlensing is detectable when light brightness increases, signaling the presence of an object obscuring our view. However, if this object doesn’t possess substantial mass, its weight remains indeterminate from the light characteristics already measured by the telescope. Such bodies could encompass solitary small black holes or wandering planets.
Given that light consists of photons—quantum particles—there’s valuable information embedded in the quantum nature of its journey to Earth. Notably, when a photon encounters multiple paths around an object, the travel time discrepancies impact its quantum properties. Due to the wave-like characteristics of quantum particles, these photons can traverse both paths simultaneously, mimicking a water wave around a rock. The team’s methodology is adept at analyzing the time differences of both routes, which can be transformed into mass estimates for the objects.
Liu mentions that while planets and black holes inducing microlensing may not be completely imperceptible by other means, these techniques could necessitate more light collection, implying the need for larger telescopes. Quantum methods, however, can function effectively even with smaller photon counts.
For instance, his team’s mathematical assessments indicate that their protocol is particularly effective for stars located in the galactic bulge, a section of the Milky Way where dark matter candidates have been previously identified using gravitational lensing techniques. Because this new approach doesn’t demand a sophisticated quantum computer and can be employed with more conventional devices combined with classical computers to capture and analyze individual photons, it’s poised for real-world testing in the near future.
Daniel Oy, a professor at the University of Strathclyde in the UK, asserts that quantum methodologies significantly enhance the extraction of time-delayed data from light, an enhancement he characterizes as a pivotal advancement in quantum technology. He posits that since quantum theory sets limits on measurement precision in physics, it aligns perfectly with the challenge of detecting faint astronomical signals like those from a limited number of photons.
You might be surprised to discover that diabetes encompasses more than just two types. While Type 1 and Type 2 are well-known, you may have come across Type 1.5, which has recently gained attention.
Type 1.5 diabetes, formally known as Latent Autoimmune Diabetes (LADA), is not a new variant of diabetes but is relatively uncommon. It has been recognized as a distinct type since 1993; comprising 3 to 12 percent of all adult diabetes cases.
Like type 1 and type 2 diabetes, LADA is characterized by elevated blood sugar levels, or glucose, in the blood.
Regardless of the diabetes type, symptoms remain consistent. These include intense thirst, frequent urination, fatigue, and unexpected weight loss. The UK’s leading charity against diabetes notes these include the “four T’s”: thirst, toileting, tiredness, and thinness. diabetes uk
If you experience these symptoms, prompt diagnosis is crucial. Left untreated, diabetes can lead to severe complications affecting the kidneys, eyes, feet, and even nerves.
So, if the symptoms are similar across diabetes types, how can healthcare experts discern which type you have? And how does this differentiation influence treatment?
Comparing Type 1.5 Diabetes to Type 1 and Type 2 Diabetes
Diabetes, in its various forms, has affected humans throughout history. Ancient healers in Greece, India, and Egypt frequently mentioned a peculiar symptom: sweet-smelling urine. Thus, the term diabetes derives from the Greek word “diabetes,” meaning to pass, and the Latin word “mellitus,” meaning sweet.
This sweet-smelling symptom arises from the buildup of glucose in the body. Glucose is processed by a hormone called insulin, produced by the pancreas, which converts it into a usable energy source for cells.
Glucose buildup occurs when the body either:
Fails to produce sufficient insulin (as in type 1 diabetes)
Or does not respond effectively to insulin (as seen in type 2 diabetes)
In both scenarios, the kidneys struggle to reabsorb excess glucose in the bloodstream. When they cannot eliminate glucose effectively, surplus sugar spills into the urine, indicating the presence of disease.
LADA shares numerous traits with these two predominant diabetes types, leaning closer to type 1 than type 2.
Finger prick test provides an immediate overview of blood sugar levels.
One significant reason individuals with type 1 diabetes have insufficient insulin is that their immune system attacks pancreatic cells responsible for insulin production. As these cells decline, the body struggles to maintain glucose levels.
The same is true for LADA. An influx of immune cells targets the pancreas, leading to decreased insulin production and gradually rising blood sugar levels. However, the timeline for the onset of the disease differs.
Type 1 diabetes typically has a rapid onset, often diagnosed in childhood or during a clinical emergency. In contrast, LADA progresses slowly and usually occurs in adults over 30.
As we age, a protective layer known as the periislet basement membrane (BM) develops around insulin-producing pancreatic cells. Current understanding suggests that this layer shields these cells from immune system attacks.
Thus, LADA’s onset resembles type 2 diabetes, which typically manifests in adults. Due to this similarity, up to 14% of individuals diagnosed with type 2 diabetes may actually have LADA.
Significance of Misdiagnosis
The primary treatment for type 2 diabetes is a medication called metformin. Administered in pill form, metformin works in two ways: it not only restricts the liver from absorbing excessive glucose but also enhances the body’s sensitivity to insulin.
However, a clear management strategy for LADA is still not established. While metformin may be prescribed, insulin replacement therapy could also be necessary. If someone has LADA misdiagnosed as type 2 diabetes, they might receive metformin when insulin is the actual requirement.
Taking inappropriate medication over extended periods can elevate blood sugar levels. Chronically high blood sugar can lead to severe complications, including heart disease, stroke, eye issues (retinopathy), foot problems (ranging from increased susceptibility to infections and ulcers to sensory loss), kidney disease (nephropathy), and nerve disorders (neuropathy).
LADA can also invoke damage to small blood vessels, termed microvascular disease. A 2020 study indicated that strict glycemic control from the onset of LADA significantly decreases the risk of subsequent microvascular disease.
Consequently, minimizing misdiagnosis rates is vital for individuals with LADA. Fortunately, there are effective methods to distinguish LADA from type 1 and type 2 diabetes.
The first and foremost step a doctor can take is to check for antibodies. These antibodies incorrectly signal the immune system to attack insulin-producing pancreatic cells. Finding at least one antibody suggests the presence of autoimmune diabetes. Elevated antibody levels may indicate a more rapid progression of LADA.
This principle also applies when multiple antibodies are present. In such cases, immediate insulin treatment becomes crucial to help manage blood sugar levels more effectively.
Practitioners may also assess a person’s insulin output. This can be done by measuring a blood protein known as c-peptide, which is produced during insulin synthesis in the pancreas. Elevated c-peptide levels may respond well to metformin. However, if the levels are significantly low or undetectable, immediate insulin therapy should be initiated. In LADA, c-peptide levels tend to diminish over time, and it is recommended to conduct tests every six months.
A person’s body composition can further indicate LADA. Individuals exhibiting symptoms of the “four T’s” (thirst, frequent urination, fatigue, and weight loss) who maintain relatively low fat levels or body weight are generally more inclined to have LADA than type 2 diabetes. Additionally, LADA patients typically possess favorable cholesterol levels, which can aid in refining the diagnosis.
Once an accurate diagnosis is established, LADA can be treated appropriately. It’s critical to reach this point with guidance from healthcare professionals.
For millennia, individuals have harnessed the transformative power of plants and fungi, using substances like ayahuasca, cannabis, psilocybin mushrooms, and tobacco in spiritual ceremonies to reshape their perceptions of reality.
Justiceia Pecteris
Jill Pflugheber and Steven F. White
Recently, a new book sheds light on these psychoactive and medicinal plants and fungi, revealing their intricacies through advanced microscopy techniques.
Virola theiodora
Jill Pflugheber and Steven F. White
Utilizing confocal microscopy, which employs laser scans at varying depths to produce sharply focused images of intricate specimens, this advanced technique is primarily used in academic research.
Neltuma pallida
Jill Pflugheber and Steven F. White
Jill Pfluber from the University of Kentucky applied confocal microscopy to explore 50 revered plants and fungi across the United States. Her findings contribute to Microcosm: Sacred Plants of the Americas, a publication co-authored with independent historian Stephen F. White.
Cannabis
Jill Pflugheber and Steven F. White
The outcome is a captivating exploration into the hidden complexities of some of the world’s most esteemed plant species, as explained by White. He emphasizes their goal of creating “plant art” that challenges and enriches people’s understandings of sacred plants. “We aspire for those who encounter Microcosm to develop a newfound respect for these plants,” he states.
Theobroma cacao
Jill Pflugheber and Steven F. White
From their primary photography, the images present some results of their exploration: Brugmansia Suaveolens; Justicia Pecteris; Virola theiodora; Neltuma pallida; Cannabis; and Theobroma cacao.
For the first time, real-time footage of human embryos being implanted into an artificial uterus has been recorded.
This remarkable achievement, published in the journal Advances in Science, offers an unparalleled glimpse into one of the crucial stages of human development.
Implantation failure is a leading cause of infertility, responsible for 60% of miscarriages. Researchers aim to enhance understanding of the implantation process to improve fertility results in both natural conception and in vitro fertilization (IVF).
“We can’t observe this, due to the transplantation in the mother,” stated Dr. Samuel Ojosnegros, head of bioengineering at the Institute of Bioengineering (IBEC) and the lead author of the study, as reported by BBC Science Focus.
“Thus, we required a system to observe how it functions and to address the primary challenges to human fertility.”
Implantation marks the initial phase of pregnancy, where the fertilized egg (developing embryo) attaches to the uterine lining, allowing it to absorb nutrients and oxygen from the mother—vital for a successful pregnancy.
To investigate this process, the research team developed a platform that simulates the natural uterine lining, utilizing a collagen scaffold combined with proteins essential for development.
The study then examined how human and mouse embryos implant onto this platform, uncovering significant differences. Unlike mouse embryos that adhere to the uterine surface, human embryos penetrate fully into the tissue before growing from within.
Video showing the implantation process of mouse embryos (left) and human embryos (right).
“Human embryos are highly invasive,” said Ojosnegros. “They dig a hole in the matrix, embed themselves, and then grow internally.”
The footage indicated that the embryo exerts considerable force on the uterus during this process.
“We observed that the embryo pulls, moves, and rearranges the uterine matrix,” stated Dr. Amélie Godeau, co-first author of the research. “It also responds to external force cues. We hypothesize that contractions in vivo may influence embryo transfer.”
According to Ojosnegros, the force applied during this stage could explain the pain and bleeding many women experience during implantation.
Researchers are currently focused on enhancing the realism of implantation platforms, including the integration of living cells. The goal is to establish a more authentic view of the implantation process, which could boost the likelihood of success in IVF, such as by selecting embryos with better implantation potential.
“We understand more about the development of flies and worms than our own species,” remarked Ojosnegros. “So enjoy watching the film.”
The hormonal shifts during menopause impact both reproductive health and brain chemistry, with estrogen and progesterone levels undergoing significant fluctuations.
As estrogen decreases, women often struggle to manage pre-existing ADHD symptoms, leading to issues like poor attention and emotional instability.
Symptoms that were once manageable may intensify, prompting women to seek help.
However, hormones aren’t the sole factor. Increased awareness of ADHD also plays a vital role. Traditionally viewed as a “childhood disorder,” ADHD was primarily identified through hyperactivity and disruptive behaviors.
Women often exhibit more nuanced symptoms that can be overlooked or attributed to other issues like forgetfulness or anxiety.
In recent times, clinicians and the general public are increasingly adept at identifying ADHD in women, thanks in part to the widespread awareness generated by social media and advocacy efforts. This may account for the rise in overall ADHD diagnoses, particularly in women during menopause.
For many women, menopause offers a moment of introspection, encouraging them to connect past challenges with ADHD.
The interplay of hormonal changes and heightened awareness makes this a crucial time for women seeking diagnosis and support.
Though this life stage may seem overwhelming, with appropriate treatment and guidance, women can reclaim control and find joy during this transformative phase.
This article addresses the question (posed by Cathy Davy via email): “Why are more menopausal women diagnosed with ADHD?”
For questions, please reach out via emailto Question @sciencefocus.com or MessageFacebook,Twitter, orInstagram(please include your name and location).
Explore our ultimateFun Fact and more fascinating science pages.
These striking images capture the efforts of photographer Nicole Tung, who dedicated nine months to documenting the human and environmental toll of overfishing in Southeast Asia. Since the 1950s, fishing has rapidly evolved from a traditional craft into a global industry, primarily in developed nations. The rise in overfishing and illegal catch practices is alarming, driven by the increasing demand from a growing population.
Tung emphasizes the significance of the region as a vital part of the global fisheries market. Her project received funding from the €50,000 Kaminyak Photojournalism Award for fieldwork, which shifted her perspective on seafood consumption. Rather than suggesting complete abstention, she advocates for greater awareness and informed choices from consumers.
She expressed her distress over harrowing accounts from Indonesian fishermen, who detailed the violence and dreadful conditions they encounter at sea.
The image above illustrates a fisherman delivering a catch of tuna at General Santos fishport in the Philippines after a month at sea, including Bigger Tuna and Blue Marlin.
Thai dock worker
Nicole Tung
In other scenes, dock workers from Myanmar sort fish species being offloaded in Ranong, Thailand. Below, the indigenous Ulak Roy people and Thai villagers from Koh Lipe gather wood from nearby islands during a festival celebrating the end of the fishing and tourism season. They utilize the materials to construct ceremonial boats as offerings to their ancestors.
Indigenous Urak Lawoi people and Thai villagers sail their boats in Thailand
Nicole Tung
In this concluding image, a family of Filipino fishermen prepares bait for their fishing line in Quezon, Palawan, Philippines.
In 1964, a San Diego high school student named Randy Gardner participated in a Science Fair Project by staying awake for an astounding 11 days.
By the second day of the experiment, Gardner began to experience memory lapses. By the seventh day, he suffered from intense hallucinations, and by the 11th day, he exhibited inconsistencies, paranoia, and muscular tremors.
Fortunately, the 17-year-old fully recovered without any lasting effects. No one has surpassed this record since then, as noted in the Guinness Record Book. Due to health concerns, sleep deprivation records were discontinued in 1997.
However, cognitive decline can occur without an 11-day deprivation; even a few nights of poor sleep can lead to diminished functioning, memory recall, and emotional regulation.
Now, let’s explore the science behind sleep and its impact on brain performance.
What happens to your brain while you’re sleeping?
Photo credit: Getty
During sleep, our brains engage in essential repairs and various tasks, including removing waste and detoxifying itself.
Short-term memories are organized, long-term memories in the neocortex are solidified, and REM sleep plays a crucial role in problem-solving and emotional regulation.
But it’s not just all activity; there are restorative phases during non-REM sleep stages 1, 2, and 3, which slow the heartbeat, relax the muscles, and reduce brain wave activity—with brief bursts during stage 2.
In REM sleep, brain activity intensifies, resembling the state of wakefulness. The amygdala and hippocampus are highly active, aiding in memory processing and emotion regulation. This dream phase supports creative thinking when you wake up.
Brain impacts of poor sleep
Lack of sleep or poor sleep quality can impact your brain’s performance in several ways.
The prefrontal cortex, responsible for decision-making and problem-solving, becomes less effective. This leads to reduced attention, cognitive flexibility, and working memory.
An overactive amygdala can hinder the emotional contextualization of information, and difficulties in storing information in the cortex weaken memory integration.
Other short-term effects of inadequate sleep include: • Impaired judgment • Slowed reaction times • Declined risk assessment
When sleep deprivation becomes normal
For individuals with chronic sleep disorders, these short-term consequences are part of their everyday reality.
Moreover, chronic sleep deprivation has serious ramifications. Research conducted by the National Medical Library reveals a link between chronic sleep deprivation and Alzheimer’s disease.
“Studies indicate that sleep performs essential housekeeping, such as clearing potentially harmful beta-amyloid proteins,” states the Sleep Foundation.
“In Alzheimer’s disease, the aggregation of beta-amyloid leads to cognitive decline. Even one night of sleep deprivation can increase the accumulation of beta-amyloid in the brain.”
According to one study, individuals with sleep disorders have a significantly elevated risk of developing Alzheimer’s, with an estimated 15% of cases linked to lack of sleep.
Maintaining brain health and cognitive function heavily relies on regular, quality sleep, making it essential to optimize your sleep environment.
Optimizing sleep quality
Hästens, a bed maker based in Sweden, recognizes the vital importance of quality sleep. Since 1852, Hästens has crafted handmade beds in the Swedish town of Kaepi, taking up to 600 hours and using only natural materials.
“A good night’s sleep will enhance your performance,” notes Hästens. “In today’s fast-paced world, sleep may feel like a luxury, but from a medical standpoint, it’s crucial for a strong immune system and overall health.”
Explore the full range of Hästens beds and accessories, and learn more about the benefits of quality sleep here.
Local Hästens Sleep Spa bed tests can be booked online www.hastens.com or at your nearest certified retailer.
As we age, it’s common to perceive others as more content, as revealed by a recent study.
Researchers have discovered that older adults often exhibit a “positive bias” in interpreting facial expressions. This suggests they are more inclined to classify neutral or negative faces as happy rather than sad or angry.
“This indicates they tend to interpret vague or ambiguous expressions as ‘happy’ instead of ‘sad’ or ‘angry,'” noted Dr. Noham Wolpe in an interview with BBC Science Focus. “Crucially, this bias correlates with subtle cognitive decline and alterations in the specific brain circuits responsible for emotional processing and decision-making.”
Using data from over 600 adults, the research team examined this phenomenon through emotion recognition tasks along with brain imaging techniques.
They found structural variations in the hippocampus and amygdala—key regions for memory and emotion—and changes in connectivity with the orbitofrontal cortex, which plays a role in weighing emotional information and guiding decisions.
“These regions form crucial networks that aid in interpreting emotional signals and informing decisions,” Wolpe explained, highlighting how the relationship between the orbitofrontal cortex and amygdala strengthens in adults facing cognitive decline.
“This enhancement may lead them to perceive ambiguous or neutral emotional signals as positive, a phenomenon known as positive bias,” he remarked, noting that the reason behind this increased connectivity associated with cognitive decline is still unknown.
Researchers remain uncertain why the interamygdala connectivity and orbitofrontal cortex, highlighted in red, strengthen in individuals with cognitive decline – Trust: Getty
Although this research is in its nascent stages, its implications are significant. Positive biases might one day serve as early indicators of dementia, as changes in emotional processing frequently precede memory impairment.
“While emotion recognition tests are not yet ready to replace current cognitive assessments, in the future they could be combined with standard screening methods to enhance early detection,” Wolpe stated.
Wolpe and his team are already investigating innovative approaches, such as immersive virtual reality tasks, to better understand how people instinctively respond to emotional signals.
The next objective is to determine if this positive bias can actually forecast cognitive decline. The team has recently concluded a follow-up evaluation of participants in the Cambridge Aging and Neuroscience Research, approximately 12 years after the original assessments. Participant data is also being linked to GP records to monitor dementia diagnoses.
“A crucial takeaway,” Wolpe mentioned, “is that subtle biases in how we perceive others’ expressions can signal early brain changes, long before the typical signs of dementia manifest.”
“Grasping these connections could pave the way for quicker detection and ultimately more effective interventions.”
read more:
About our experts
Noham Wolpe is a senior lecturer at the Sagol School of Neuroscience at Tel Aviv University. His research focuses on understanding the interplay between cognition, mental health, and behavior, both in health and disease.
When Mount Vesuvius erupted in 79 AD, it buried Pompeii under a meter of ash and pumice, effectively freezing the Roman city in time. However, a new study reveals that the story didn’t end there. Life persisted for centuries, emerging among the abandoned structures in significantly altered forms.
Recent findings from restoration efforts in the city’s southern quarter indicate that Pompeii was reoccupied shortly after the eruption and remained inhabited until at least the fifth century.
“Researchers and archaeologists have always been intrigued by the idea of people returning to Pompeii, but this was often overshadowed by a focus on the remarkably preserved artwork from before 79 AD,” said Gabriel Zuchtliegel, director of Pompeii Archaeological Park and lead author of the new study, in an interview with BBC Science Focus.
However, the resettlement was a shadow of Pompeii’s former self. “The reoccupation of Pompeii was not comparable to the city as it existed before AD 79,” Zuchtliegel stated.
“It resembled more of a slum—a highly unstable and unstructured settlement. As far as we know, there were no temples or public buildings.”
A collection of ceramic containers (amphorae), fragments, tiles, and marble repurposed by the inhabitants of this space after 79 AD – Credit: Archaeological Park in Pompeii
Families fashioned makeshift homes on the remaining upper floors of the buried buildings, while the lower levels (previously above ground) were transformed into hearths and caves, complete with ovens and small workshops.
But who chose to return to the devastated city? According to Zuchtliegel, these residents were likely those with limited options. “Certainly, they would have preferred to live elsewhere if possible, but some may not have had other resources.”
There was also an additional motivation: the opportunity to reclaim treasures buried beneath the ash. “A vast amount of wealth lay hidden underground, including metals, statues, coins, and marble,” Zuchtliegel noted.
“People may have initially returned to unearth the ruins of Pompeii… over time, vegetation would have reclaimed the land, creating a green and thriving landscape.”
This fragile community endured for centuries. Alongside the broader decline of the Western Roman Empire, it likely ceased to exist after another eruption in 472 AD. “There may have been general demographic declines, migration, and hardships related to the collapse of centralized governance,” Zuchtliegel explained.
“It’s astonishing to see how people endure and cope in such extreme circumstances.”
About our experts
Gabriel Zuchtliegel is the director of the Archaeological Parks in Pompeii. He studied Classical Archaeology at Humboldt University in Berlin and obtained his PhD from the University of Bonn.
Buckwheat seems to be a significant contributor to severe food allergies
Shutterstock/Buntovskikh Olga
It appears that roughly one in seven instances of life-threatening allergic reactions is triggered by foods that lack allergen labeling, prompting researchers to call for policy changes in this area.
Food allergies are rising in prevalence; however, many regulatory allergen lists have not been updated in many years. For instance, the European Union’s Essential labeling of food lists mandates the disclosure of 14 different food allergens, like peanuts and soy, but relies on data that dates back to 2011.
To explore less recognized allergens, Dominique Sabouraud-Leclerc from Centre Hosvia University in France conducted an analysis along with her colleagues, examining 2,999 reports of food-induced anaphylaxis that were voluntarily submitted by medical professionals within an allergenic environment network from 2002 to 2023.
The research aimed to identify emerging food allergens, defined as substances not listed in the European Essential Labeling List but responsible for at least 1% of reported cases.
The researchers found that goat milk, sheep milk, and buckwheat accounted for 2.8% and 2.4% of cases, respectively. Following these, peas, lentils, and alphagal (sugars that can induce allergies to lean meat and other mammalian products) each contributed to 1-2% of reported incidences. Apple products and beeswax items, such as edible pollen, honey, and royal jelly, were also responsible for 1% of cases.
In total, new food allergies constituted 413 cases, approximately 14% of the overall reports.
In terms of reaction severity, goat and sheep cheese elicited particularly dangerous responses, especially among young boys, leading to two fatalities. Recurrent reactions and unexpected exposures, often found in sauces and thickeners primarily made from goat and sheep dairy, were most prevalent, followed by peas, lentils, buckwheat, and pine nuts.
In light of these findings, the team recommended incorporating these four food types into the essential European warning labels. These ingredients should be clearly highlighted on packaging, such as through bold text.
“Our primary aim is to safeguard allergic consumers and ensure they have access to clear information,” said Sabouraud-Leclerc. “This encompasses quality patient care, including proper diagnosis, education, emergency preparation, and understanding food labels.”
The data collected were primarily from France, Belgium, and Luxembourg, but the findings are likely relevant to other nations, with some variations in prevalence based on local culinary practices, according to Sabouraud-Leclerc. “Updating the EU list could inspire similar actions in other countries, creating a snowball effect,” she added.
The glow within the cluster is the soft luminosity of stars that have been stripped from their galaxy amidst the layers of galaxy clusters.
Abell 3667 is depicted in this Decam image. Image credits: CTIO/NOIRLAB/NSF/AURA/ANTHONY ENGLERT, Brown University/TA Rector, Noirlab/M. Zamani & D of University of Alaska Anchorage & NSF. De Martin, NSF’s Noirlab.
Galaxy clusters comprise thousands of galaxies, varying widely in age, shape, and size.
Typically, they have a mass about 10 billion times that of the Sun.
Historically, galactic clusters were regarded as the largest structures in the universe, spanning hundreds of millions of light-years and including numerous galactic clusters and groups, until superclusters were discovered in the 1980s.
Nonetheless, galaxy clusters still hold the title of the largest gravitationally bound structure in the universe.
“The study of galaxy clusters not only informs us about the formation of the universe, but it also places constraints on the characteristics of dark matter,” stated Brown University astronomer Anthony Englat and his team.
One significant clue astronomers seek to grasp the history of galactic clusters is the light within the cluster. This faint glow is emitted by stars that have been stripped from their original galaxy due to the immense gravitational forces of the forming galaxy cluster.
These stars provide evidence of past galactic interactions, although most current telescopes and cameras face challenges in detecting them.
The subtle intra-cluster light from the galaxy cluster Abel 3667 shines vividly in new images created from a total of 28 hours of observation at 570 megapixels using the Dark Energy Camera (Decam) at NSF’s M. Blanco 4-M Telescope, a program of NSF’s Noirlab at Cerro Tololo Inter-American Observatory.
“Abell 3667 is located over 700 million light-years away from us,” the astronomer mentioned.
“Most of the faint light sources in this image are distant galaxies, not foreground stars from our own Milky Way.”
“In Abell 3667, two small galaxy clusters are currently merging, as evidenced by the luminous bridge (yellow) of stars extending toward the center of this image.”
“This bridge is formed from material stripped off from the merging galaxies, forming one massive conglomerate known as the brightest cluster galaxy.”
“Not only does this sparkling sky encompass distant galaxies, but it also highlights faint foreground features due to the prolonged exposure.”
“The Milky Way’s hair follicles, or integrated flux nebula, consist of faint clouds of interstellar dust that appear as soft bluish chains crossing the image.”
“These structures are patches of dust that are illuminated by the light of the stars within our own galaxy.”
“They present as diffuse, filamentous formations that can span extensive areas of the sky.”
Survey results will be published in the Astrophysics Journal Letter.
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Anthony M. Engrat et al. 2025. Announcing optical bridges in Abel 3667 in-cluster light: LSST precursor data. apjl 989, L2; doi: 10.3847/2041-8213/ade8f1
Recent research conducted by scientists at the University of Utah sheds light on unlocking hibernation abilities, potentially paving the way for treatments that could reverse neurodegeneration and diabetes.
Investigating the evolution of hibernation in certain species like helinates, bats, ground squirrels, and lemurs can unveil the mysteries of their extraordinary resilience. Image credit: Chrissy Richards.
Gene clusters known as fat mass and obesity (FTO) loci are crucial to understanding hibernation capabilities. Interestingly, these genes are also present in humans.
“What stands out in this region is that it represents the most significant genetic risk factor for obesity in humans,” states Professor Chris Greg, the lead author of both studies from the University of Utah.
“Hibernators seem to leverage genes in the FTO locus uniquely.”
Professor Greg and his team discovered DNA regions specific to hibernation factors near the FTO locus that regulate the expression of nearby genes, modulating their activity.
They hypothesize that hibernators can accumulate weight prior to entering winter by adjusting the expression of adjacent genes, particularly those at or near the FTO locus, utilizing fat reserves gradually for winter energy needs.
Moreover, regulatory regions linked to hibernation outside the FTO locus appear to play a significant role in fine-tuning metabolism.
When the research team mutated these hibernation factor-specific regions in mice, they observed variations in body weight and metabolism.
Some mutations accelerated or inhibited weight gain under specific dietary conditions, while others affected the mice’s ability to restore body temperature post-hibernation or regulate their overall metabolic rate.
Interestingly, the hibernator-specific DNA regions identified by researchers are not genes themselves.
Instead, this region comprises a DNA sequence that interacts with nearby genes, modulating their expression like conductors guiding an orchestra to adjust volume levels.
“This indicates that mutating a single hibernator-specific region can influence a broad array of effects well beyond the FTO locus,” notes Dr. Susan Steinwand from the University of Utah. First study.
“Targeting a small, inconspicuous DNA region can alter the activity of hundreds of genes, which is quite unexpected.”
Gaining insight into the metabolic flexibility of hibernators may enhance the treatment of human metabolic disorders like type 2 diabetes.
“If we can manipulate more genes related to hibernation, we may find a way to overcome type 2 diabetes similar to how hibernators transition back to normal metabolic states,” says Dr. Elliot Ferris, Ph.D., of the University of Utah. Second survey.
Locating genetic regions associated with hibernation poses a challenge akin to extracting needles from a vast haystack of DNA.
To pinpoint relevant areas, scientists employed various whole-genome technologies to investigate which regions correlate with hibernation.
They then sought overlaps among the outcomes of each method.
Firstly, they searched for DNA sequences common to most mammals that have recently evolved in hibernators.
“This region has remained relatively unchanged among species for over 100 million years; however, if significant alterations occur in two hibernating mammals, it signals critical features for hibernation,” remarked Dr. Ferris.
To comprehend the biological mechanisms of hibernation, researchers tested and identified genes that exhibited fluctuations during fasting in mice, producing metabolic alterations similar to those seen in hibernation.
Subsequently, they identified genes that serve as central regulators or hubs for these fasting-induced gene expressions.
Numerous recently altered DNA regions in hibernators appear to interact with these central hub genes.
Consequently, the researchers predict that the evolution of hibernation necessitates specific modulations in hub gene regulation.
These regulatory mechanisms constitute a potential candidate list of DNA elements for future investigation.
Most alterations related to hibernation factors in the genome seem to disrupt the function of specific DNA rather than impart new capabilities.
This implies that hibernation may have shed constraints, allowing for great flexibility in metabolic control.
In essence, the human metabolic regulator is constrained to a narrow energy expenditure range, whereas, for hibernators, this restriction may not exist.
Hibernation not only reverses neurodegeneration but also prevents muscle atrophy, maintains health amidst significant weight fluctuations, and suggests enhanced aging and longevity.
Researchers surmise that their findings imply if humans can bypass certain metabolic switches, they may already possess a genetic blueprint akin to a hibernation factor superpower.
“Many individuals may already have the genetic structure in place,” stated Dr. Steinwand.
“We must identify the control switches for these hibernation traits.”
“Mastering this process could enable researchers to bestow similar resilience upon humans.”
“Understanding these hibernation-associated genomic mechanisms provides an opportunity to potentially intervene and devise strategies for tackling age-related diseases,” remarks Professor Greg.
“If such mechanisms are embedded within our existing genome, we could learn from hibernation to enhance our health.”
The findings are published in two papers in the journal Science.
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Susan Steinwand et al. 2025. Conserved non-coding CIS elements associated with hibernation regulate metabolism and behavioral adaptation in mice. Science 389 (6759): 501-507; doi: 10.1126/science.adp4701
Elliot Ferris et al. 2025. Genome convergence in hibernating mammals reveals the genetics of metabolic regulation of the hypothalamus. Science 389 (6759): 494-500; doi: 10.1126/science.adp4025
Thirst is something we all encounter, and it can be quite uncomfortable. It’s also an early indicator of dehydration, which can escalate rapidly. Depending on factors like age, health, and environment, even mild to moderate dehydration can occur within just a few hours, leading to symptoms such as fatigue, dizziness, and confusion. If left unaddressed for 24 hours, severe dehydration can lead to critical issues such as shock and seizures.
Hidden dehydration (or hypochronic dehydration) is a more subtle condition that may arise from prolonged mild dehydration, affecting both physical and mental well-being.
Could this be the reason behind that frightening afternoon slump?
The Impact of Hidden Dehydration
As the name implies, hidden dehydration can be an insidious state, and you might be experiencing its effects without realizing the cause.
According to NHS guidelines, fatigue is one of the primary symptoms associated with hidden dehydration.
Symptoms include: Dark urine Dry mouth Dizziness Headaches Lack of concentration
The human body is composed of around 60% water. The brain and heart contain about 73% water, while muscle tissues are made up of 75% water. Dehydration leads to lower blood volume and blood pressure, reducing blood flow to the brain, which contributes to fatigue. After lunch, many individuals naturally feel a drop in energy. However, inadequate hydration throughout the day can amplify this slump.
The NHS advises that adults should drink 6-8 glasses of water (1.2-2 liters) daily. Although staying hydrated is key, how much do we know about the quality of the water we consume?
Why Water Quality Matters
In the UK, we are fortunate to have high standards for drinking water recognized globally. Nonetheless, it still contains hard minerals like calcium and magnesium, which are harmless but may affect the taste for some individuals.
A consistent supply of fresh water can indeed help you meet your hydration goals as advised by the NHS.
“Installing a water filter is one of the simplest methods to enhance your tap water quality,” states Waterdrop Filter. “A filter can eliminate impurities and improve taste.”
What Is Reverse Osmosis?
Reverse osmosis is a purification method used by Waterdrop filters. Water is pushed through a semi-permeable membrane to remove various impurities, including:
Lead, arsenic, and mercury Chlorine and fluoride Microorganisms Dissolved salts and minerals
The Waterdrop filter offers two reverse osmosis systems: the X16 and the A2. The X16 features an 11-step process with a 0.0001μm RO membrane that effectively reduces TDS, PFOA, PFOS, chlorine, fluoride, arsenic, lead, and more. With a flow rate of 1,600 gallons per day, it is ideal for larger households. Note that it requires electrical installation under the sink, and it comes equipped with LED lights and energy-saving modes for water safety.
The A2 is a compact countertop system ideal for individuals or smaller households. This system includes a five-stage process with a 0.0001 μm RO membrane to minimize TDS, PFOA, PFOS, chlorine, fluoride, lead, and arsenic. It features temperature controls ranging from 10°C to 95°C, along with a touch control screen for customizable temperature and volume settings.
Elevate your hydration habits by maintaining consistent water intake throughout the day, especially if you struggle with brain fog and fatigue during the afternoon.
Metaphysics often faces undue criticism. “Many people consider it a waste of time,” states philosopher Stephen Mumford from Durham University, UK, and author of Metaphysics: A Very Short Introduction. “Are they simply arguing over trivial matters, like how many angels can dance on the head of a pin?”
This viewpoint is understandable. Classical metaphysics—originating from the Greek term “meta”—has often grappled with peculiar questions. For instance, what constitutes a table? What shape does color assume? We utilize logical tools like “reductio ad absurdum” to derive conclusions solely from inference. This method seeks to demonstrate the validity of a claim by highlighting absurdities within its negation, quite different from the empirical observations that characterize scientific inquiry.
This article is part of our concept special, exploring how experts view some of the most intriguing scientific ideas. Click here for more information.
Nonetheless, the notion that metaphysics is merely an abstract discipline disconnected from reality is rebutted by Mumford:
Indeed, modern science has encroached upon areas once deemed exclusive to metaphysics, including the nature of consciousness and the implications of quantum mechanics. It’s becoming increasingly evident that both domains are interconnected.
To understand this interplay, one must recognize that everyone inherently possesses metaphysical beliefs, asserts Vanessa Seyfert, a philosopher of science at the University of Bristol, England. For instance, many believe in the existence of objects even when they are not being observed, despite the absence of robust empirical evidence to support this claim.
Moreover, “naturalized metaphysics” emerges from this discussion. Unlike traditional metaphysics, which remains speculative, this version is grounded in scientific understanding, according to Seyfert. “We observe what science reveals about our universe and consider whether we can accept it as literal truth.”
This contemporary metaphysics serves a crucial role for science, as it probes the foundational assumptions behind our understanding of the universe. “In many instances, metaphysical beliefs form the basis upon which empirical knowledge is constructed,” explains Mumford.
Causality—the principle that every effect has a cause—is a prime example. Despite the fact that causality itself is not directly observable, it is a belief we universally hold. “Essentially, the entirety of science operates on this metaphysical premise of causality,” he remarks.
These days, scientists routinely engage with deeply metaphysical concepts, ranging from chemical elements to space and time, as well as the very laws of nature, thereby intensifying the scrutiny of these ideas.
“We can critically evaluate our metaphysical assumptions or choose to overlook them for their validity,” says Mumford. “However, ignoring them means we make unexamined assumptions.”
One notable intersection of science and metaphysics exists in quantum mechanics, which delves into the atomic and subatomic realm. While it stands as a highly successful scientific framework, addressing its implications requires physicists to confront metaphysical queries, such as the interpretation of quantum superpositions.
In this realm, competing interpretations of reality exist without being testable through conventional experiments. It’s increasingly clear that scientific advancement hinges on confronting these hidden assumptions. In response, some researchers are revitalizing the notion of “experimental metaphysics,” aiming to assess the consistency of metaphysical beliefs that prioritize various interpretations of quantum theory.
“Ultimately, you cannot engage in physics without also grappling with metaphysical inquiries,” states Eric Cavalcanti, a prominent proponent of this perspective at Griffith University in Brisbane, Australia. “Both aspects must be addressed simultaneously.”
Explore further stories in this series via the links below:
Mosquitoes are notorious as some of the most lethal creatures on the planet, causing up to 1 million deaths annually due to the diseases they carry, such as malaria and dengue.
However, in the UK, we have 36 native mosquito species that rarely pose a significant threat, thus they do not constitute a part of the three-way tie for the deadliest creature in Britain.
One contender is the dog. Recently, Prime Minister Rishi Snack placed the American XL bully dog on the list of banned breeds after a rise in fatalities associated with dog attacks.
Statistics indicate an average of about three deaths annually. However, in 2022, ten individuals in England and Wales lost their lives due to dog bites. This unfortunate trend can largely be attributed to negligent ownership, particularly with the inclination to breed larger, more powerful dogs.
Small creatures can also be deadly. Therefore, bees and hornets are contenders for the title as well, as 0.5% of the population is allergic to stings, which can lead to fatal anaphylaxis, resulting in two to nine deaths in the UK each year.
The ultimate threat may be less apparent. Picture a serene scene with grazing cattle that cause approximately 4,000 accidents yearly in the UK.
Around five fatalities result from these incidents, primarily affecting the agricultural community, but pedestrians are also at risk. Cows, being prey animals, are instinctively protective of their calves.
Most mishaps occur when natural boundaries are disregarded. Cows can injure individuals by knocking them over or trampling them. It’s advisable to keep dogs on a leash and maintain a respectful distance from herds.
This article responds to the inquiry (Adrianna Gardner, Chelmsford) “What is the deadliest creature in the UK?”
Feel free to email us your questions atquestions@sciencefocus.com or reach out through ourFacebook,Twitter, orInstagram(please include your name and location).
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Researchers have discovered the first known “ghost plume” beneath Oman, suggesting a column of hot rock rising from the lower mantle with no visible volcanic activity on the surface.
The mantle plume is a mysterious intrusion of molten rock believed to transfer heat from the core-mantle boundary to the Earth’s surface, sometimes occurring beneath the heart of continental plates, as seen in regions like Yellowstone and East Africa. Notably, “these scenarios typically feature surface volcanoes,” states Simone Pilia from King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals in Saudi Arabia. Oman lacks such volcanic indicators.
Pilia first hypothesized the existence of this “accidental” plume while examining new seismic data from Oman. The analysis revealed that seismic waves from distant earthquakes travel more slowly through a cylindrical region beneath eastern Oman, indicating it is less dense than surrounding materials due to elevated temperatures.
Additional independent seismic assessments identified critical boundaries where Earth’s deep minerals undergo changes that align with the hot plume’s characteristics. This evidence suggests the plume extends over 660 km from the surface.
The presence of these plumes also explains why the region continues to elevate despite geological compression, a process where the crust is squeezed together. This discovery fits models that explain alterations in Indian tectonic plate movements.
“The more evidence we collected, the more convinced we became it was a plume,” remarks Pilia, who has named this geological feature the “Dinni plume” after her son.
“It’s plausible that this plume exists,” agrees Saskia Goes at Imperial College London, adding that this study is “thorough.” Nevertheless, she emphasizes that identifying narrow plumes is notoriously challenging.
If verified, the existence of a “ghost plume” trapped within Oman’s relatively thick rocky layers suggests there might be others. “We are confident that the Dinni plume is not alone,” says Pilia.
If multiple hidden plumes exist, it could indicate that heat from the core is transferring more readily through the mantle in these regions, influencing our understanding of Earth’s evolutionary history.
A tale is shared about miners who discovered copper cans in early mining-era dumps. According to them, wastewater from copper mining flowed across his land, transforming steel cans into copper.
The tale may not be entirely true, but the process is factual and is known as cementation. Montana Resource, which succeeded the Anaconda Copper Company, still employs this alchemical method in the operations at the Continental Pitmine in Butte, Montana.
Adjacent to the mine lies the Berkeley Pit, filled with 50 billion gallons of highly acidic and toxic liquid. Montana Resource channels this liquid from the pits to cascade down iron piles, converting iron into copper for production.
While there have long been methods for extracting metals from water, recent years have ushered in a global rush for metals—vital for manufacturing and technological advancements—leading to a new wave of extraction methods and processes.
Researchers are currently focusing on mineral-rich sources like wastewater, including saline water from desalination plants, oil and gas fracking water, and mining wastewater. Researchers at Oregon State University estimate that the saline water from desalination plants alone contains approximately $2.2 trillion worth of metals.
“Water is a mineral reservoir of the 21st century,” stated Peter S. Fisuke, director of the National Water Innovation Alliance in California at the Department of Energy’s Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. “Today’s technology allows us to gather wastewater and extract valuable resources.”
There is extensive research dedicated to recovering rare earth elements—metallic elements sought after due to their increasing demand—from waste. For instance, researchers at Indiana Geological Water Survey at Indiana University are Mining rare earths in coal waste which includes fly ash and coal tails. Additionally, researchers at the University of Texas Austin have created membranes that imitate nature for Separating rare earths from waste.
Utilizing mining wastewater is not only quicker and more economical than establishing a new mine, but it also generates lesser environmental impact.
The vast, contaminated reservoirs in the pit near Butte contain two light rare earth elements (REEs): neodymium and praseodymium. These are crucial for creating small yet powerful magnets, medical technologies, and enhancing defense applications like precision-guided missiles and electric vehicles. Notably, an F-35 Fighter Jet uses around 900 pounds of rare earth metals.
“We’re transforming significant liabilities into assets that contribute to national defense,” remarked Mark Thompson, vice president of environmental affairs at Montana Resources. “There’s a lot of complex metallurgy at play here—the real cutting-edge science.”
This is a crucial moment for exploring domestic rare earth production. The U.S. currently lags behind China, and President Trump’s trade tensions have raised concerns that China may tighten its rare earth mineral exports in response to U.S. tariffs. Experts in mineral security at the Center for Strategic and International Research warn that this gap could enable China to accelerate its defense advancements more swiftly than the U.S.
The Trump administration is particularly fixated on Greenland and Ukraine due to their valuable rare earth deposits.
Trump has recently authorized the government to commence mining on much of the seabed, including areas in international waters, to tap into mineral wealth.
There are 17 distinct types of rare earth metals identified in the Berkeley Pit. While not rare in abundance, they are often deemed scarce due to their dispersion in small quantities.
Rare earths are divided into two categories: heavy and light. Heavy rare earths, including dysprosium, terbium, and yttrium, tend to have larger atomic masses, making them more scarce and thus typically traded in smaller quantities, leading to shortages. In contrast, light rare earths are characterized by a lower atomic mass.
Acid mine drainage is a hazardous pollutant created when sulfur-containing pyrite within rocks interacts with oxygen and water during mining. This process results in the formation of sulfuric acid, which poisons waterways. This environmental issue affects thousands of abandoned mines, contaminating 12,000 miles of streams across the nation.
However, acids facilitate the dissolution of zinc, copper, rare earths, and other minerals from rock formations, presenting an opportunity for extraction techniques that were not previously available.
Paul Ziemkievich, director of the Water Institute at West Virginia University, has been researching Butte’s pit water for 25 years. Alongside a team from Virginia Tech and the chemical engineering firm L3 process development, they developed a method to extract crucial metals from acid mine drainage originating from West Virginia coal mines, the same approach utilized in Butte. Large, densely woven plastic bags filled with sludge from the water treatment plant are employed, allowing water to seep through slowly and yielding about 1-2% rare earth preconcentrate, which requires further refining through chemical processes. The final patented step involves a solvent extraction method that results in pure rare earth elements.
“One of the remarkable aspects of acid mine drainage is that our concentrations are particularly rich in heavy rare earths,” explained Dr. Ziemkiewicz. “Light rare earths carry a lesser value.”
The Butte project is awaiting news on a $75 million grant from the Department of Defense, which is critical for enhancing rare earth enrichment and commencing full-scale production.
Zinc is also abundant in the acid mine drainage mixture and serves as an essential financial asset for the process as it commands a higher market price. Nickel and cobalt are also extracted.
Demand for rare earth elements is high; however, China dominates production, manipulating prices to maintain low costs and stifle competition. This is why the Department of Defense funds various projects focused on rare earth elements and other metals. The U.S. operates only a single rare earth mine in Mountain Pass, California, which produces roughly 15% of the global supply of rare earths.
The Berkeley Pit has posed a chronic problem since 1982, when Anaconda copper companies ceased their open-pit mining operations and halted water pumping, causing it to become filled with water. The acidity levels from the mine’s drainage have proven dangerous; in 2016, thousands of snow geese that landed in the pit quickly succumbed to poisoning, with around 3,000 birds reported dead.
The Atlantic Richfield Company and Montana Resources play crucial roles in permanently treating pit water to avert pollutioning the surrounding groundwater (Montana Resources operates the continental pit adjacent to the Berkeley Pit). The Clean Water Act mandates that companies manage acid mine drainage, and enhancing treatment capabilities at the local horseshoe bend plant is more cost-effective than developing a new facility, which may also offset treatment costs while boosting profits.
Numerous research initiatives have been launched to extract suspended metals from the water. Thompson displayed a map illustrating where radiation was emitted from Butte and where water samples have been dispatched to research facilities nationwide. However, the ongoing metal production process stands as the first to demonstrate profitability.
The mineral wealth present in this region has been recognized for many years; however, extracting it has proven challenging until Dr. Ziemkiewicz’s team innovated new methods. They generate rare earths from two coal mines in West Virginia, where acid mine drainage presents ongoing issues. Each of these mines yields about 4 tons of rare earths annually.
On the other hand, the Berkeley Pit is projected to produce 40 tons annually, bolstered by significantly higher concentrations of rare earths in solution and substantial water content. Dr. Ziemkiewicz believes that this method, when applied to other mines, could potentially satisfy nearly all domestic rare earth requirements for defense-related uses.
However, certain forecasts project that demand for rare earths may surge by as much as 600% in the next few decades.
Lawrence Berkeley laboratories are investigating technologies related to water filtration, particularly experimental approaches to improve membranes, as part of their overarching efforts to purify water, recover significant minerals, and produce necessary minerals. They operate a particle accelerator known as an advanced light source, which generates bright X-ray light that enables scientists to examine various materials at an atomic scale.
The lab has collaborated with external researchers to develop a new generation of filters referred to as nanosponges, designed to capture specific target molecules like lithium.
“It’s akin to an atom catcher’s mitt,” explained Adam Uliana, CEO of Chemfinity, a Brooklyn company exploring the use of nanosponges to purify a variety of waste. “It only captures one type of metal.”
In addition to rare earths, lithium, cobalt, and magnesium have gained significant attention from researchers.
Ion exchange, a well-established technology for extracting metals from water and purifying contaminants, is also gaining interest. Lilac Solutions, a startup based in Oakland, California, has developed specialized resin beads to extract lithium from brine via ion exchange, with plans for their first production facility in Great Salt Lake, Utah.
The company’s technology involves pumping brine through an ion exchange filter to extract minerals, returning water to its source with minimal environmental disruption. If this approach proves viable on a larger scale, it could revolutionize lithium extraction, significantly decreasing the necessity for underground mines and open-pit operations.
Maglathea Metal is an Auckland-based startup that produces magnesium ingots from the saline effluent generated by desalinating seawater. The company processes the brine, which consists of magnesium chloride salts, using a current powered by renewable energy to heat the solution, resulting in the separation of salt from molten magnesium.
CEO Alex Grant noted that the process is exceptionally clean, although it has yet to be applied to magnesium production. Much of the company’s work is funded by the Department of Defense.
With China accounting for 90% of global magnesium production, the current smelting process, known as the Pidgeon process, is highly polluting and carbon-intensive, involving heating to around 2,000 degrees using coal-fired kilns. Dr. Fisuke anticipates further innovations on the horizon.
“Three converging factors are at play,” he stated. “The value of these critical materials is climbing, the expenses associated with traditional mining and extraction are escalating, and reliance on international suppliers, particularly from Russia and China, is diminishing.”
Could there be hydrogen under Mount Grison in Switzerland?
Thomas Stoyber/Alamie
Mountain ranges may serve as a significant source of clean energy in the form of unexplored hydrogen. Previous investigations hinted at the presence of “geological” hydrogen underground, but researchers have now pointed to mountains as potential reservoirs.
“Some minerals can react with water to produce hydrogen, serving as a source of sustainable green energy,” explains Frank Zwarn from the Helmholtz Geoscience Centre in Germany.
While a plethora of minerals exists on Earth, most are located at great depths in the mantle. However, during the formation and elevation of mountain ranges, certain mantle materials can be brought nearer to the surface, where they might interact with water through a process called meandering.
To understand the potential for hydrogen generation, Zwaan and his team modeled the uplift process and assessed the mantle material reaching areas with optimal temperatures and adequate circulating water for this reaction to occur. Their findings support the notion that large quantities of hydrogen could form below these mountains.
Serpentine minerals also exist in the ridges of the Central Sea, which some speculate may have played a role in the origin of life. However, Zwaan notes that the hydrogen created there is unlikely to remain trapped due to temperatures below 122°C (252°F), as bacteria can consume the trapped hydrogen. In contrast, it can be drilled from deeper areas of higher temperature below the mountains.
“I wouldn’t want to inhabit that area, but it’s ideal for preserving hydrogen,” Zwaan stated at the European Geoscience Union conference in Vienna last week. “There may be an additional opportunity to drill into what is known as a hydrogen kitchen, the zone where hydrogen is generated.”
The model’s outcomes are corroborated by preliminary findings from studies on various mountain ranges. For instance, Gianreto Manatschal from the University of Strasbourg in France confirmed evidence of hydrogen production beneath the Grison region of the Swiss Alps. However, he emphasized that there remains much to learn. “Our research is merely the beginning,” he remarked.
Notably, some hydrogen has been reported to be seeping from beneath the Northern Pyrenees, according to Alexandra Robert at the University of Toulouse, France. This research is still in its formative stages.
Medieval scribes fill a volume called veterinarians with illustrations and descriptions of fantastic creatures. Manuscripts containing representations of these animals also relied on the beast zoo. These and other volume covers were made from calf, goat, sheep, deer and pig skins.
Most of these skins were removed before they were converted to book bindings. However, the medieval manuscript sets in northeastern France have a distinctive finish. The weathered cover is covered with hair.
Matthew Collins, a biofactorologist at the University of Copenhagen and Cambridge and author of the new study, said: However, it turns out to be difficult to pinpoint the source of hairy leather.
These furry books appear to be at home at the Hogwarts Library, but were originally written by Clairvaux Abbey, a hub of the Cistercians, the orders of the Catholic monk Ks. Founded in the Champagne Adennes region of France in 1115, the monastery was located in one of the largest monastery libraries in medieval Europe.
Approximately 1,450 volumes of the monastery’s extensive corpus survive. Approximately half of these manuscripts remain in the original, fragile bindings. Many were tied in Romanesque style in the 12th and 13th centuries, parchment was placed between wooden boards fixed with thread and cord.
At Clairvaux Abbey, these Romanesque books were often housed in secondary covers, bristled with fur. Traditionally, this creepy leather was thought to be made from wild boars and deer. However, the hair follicles of some manuscripts do not match the fur of either mammal.
Dr. Collins and his colleagues examined the hairy covers of 16 manuscripts once housed at Clairebaud Abbey. Researchers rubbed the sides of the leather meat with an eraser and carefully removed the crumb-sized sample. We then used various techniques to analyze the protein sequences and bits of the ancient DNA of leather.
Their findings published in the journal on Wednesday Royal Society Open Sciencereveals that the book is tied to seal skins, not to local land mammal skins. Some books are tied up in the skin of harbor seals, and at least one came from harp seals. Comparing them to modern DNA suggests that the origins of Scandinavian and Scottish seals, or as far as Iceland and Greenland.
These different territories were once connected by complex medieval trading networks. During the Middle Ages, Scandinavian traders harvested walrus ivory and fur from Greenland and sent them to mainland Europe. Clairebaud and his monks were far more inland from these coastal front posts, but the monastery was near a trafficked trade route.
The discoveries shed light on medieval society, according to Mary Wellesley, a fellow at the London Institute of Historical Studies, who specializes in medieval manuscripts and was not involved in new papers.
“The small details of the manuscript can tell you a lot about the world that created them,” Dr. Wellesley said. “It’s a common assumption that people didn’t move around, but these monasteries are part of this incredible network of goods, books and ideas.”
Seals were a valuable product for meat, dull, waterproof skin. This could be made into boots or gloves. Some records even claim that Sealskin was used to pay church taxes. Coastal communities in Scandinavian and Ireland used Sealskin to bind books, but this practice was far more unusual in the mainland Europe.
However, Cistercian monks apparently liked Sealskin’s books. Examples of these furry manuscripts have been found in other Abbeys, descendants of Clairevaux. These monks used this material to combine the most important documents, including historical information about the Cistercians, historical information about St. Bernard.
According to Dr. Collins, the fur color of the seal may explain the preference of the monks for using animal skins. The cover of the manuscript is now yellowish-gray or spotted brown, but was once wrapped in the white fur of a seal puppy. This shade matched the best of the monks’ dissatisfaction.
“In medieval Europe, you really don’t have anything white or white,” said Dr. Collins. “It must have been very magical.”
The seal itself appears to resemble the magical entity of the monk ks. In medieval veterinarians, seals are labelled “sea calves,” resembling dogs that have raised fish tails.
New genus and species of Titanosaurus have been identified from fossilized sites found in the Hayeg Basin, Transylvania, western Romania.
The artist's impression of the lithotrothian dinosaur herd (right). Image credit: Abelov/CC by 3.0.
The newly identified species was alive Haeg IslandA large subtropical land located in the Thetis Sea about 70 million years ago (Cretaceous).
dubbing uriash kadicithe animals belong to Lithostrotiaa group of titanosaurus dinosaurs containing many armored species.
“The sauropod dinosaurs on Titanosaurus include the largest animal walking on land, with a huge species of over 60 tons,” says Paleoliths at the Museum of Fool Naturkunde, a Livenitz Installation Fool Evolution. said Dr. Veronica Dees Diaz, a scholar. colleague.
“By the late Cretaceous, Titanosaurus had achieved almost global distribution.
“Despite the rich and global fossil record, the evolutionary relationships of Titanosaurus are less known, limiting our understanding with this diverse megaharbibaud (the only group of sauropods is , the only group to survive the latest Cretaceous period).
“European giants in particular have been largely ignored in phylogenetic analysis,” they said.
“This neglect comes mainly from the historical advantages of the Gondwana species and the rarity and imperfection of Laurasian artefacts, particularly from Europe.”
“However, this began to change with the combination of reassessment of existing species and specimens and the discovery of new sites with distinct partial skeletons.”
“As a result, the fossil records of the most recent Cretaceous European sauropods are increasingly important for biogeographical scenarios, and rich evolutionary history is increasingly recognized for increasing incorporation into phylogenetic analysis. It is beginning to make clear.
Holotype of uriash kadici It was discovered in the formation of density in the Hayeg Basin, Romania.
Dinosaurs are estimated to weigh between 5 to 8 tons and their body length is close to 12 m.
“uriash kadici It is the largest titanosaurus species known from the Ha eg basin, exceeding the maximum reached by most other late Cretaceous European Titanosaurus. Abitosaurus (Estimated at 14 tons and 17.5 m long)”, the paleontologist said.
The existence of large giants such as ” uriash kadici It is worth noting and requires explanation as it appears to contradict, or at least weaken, the supposed behavior of “island domination” over these faunas. ”
uriash kadici It coexists with three other Titanosaurus species. Majarosaurus Dax, PaluditiTan nalatzensis and Petrustitan Hungarian.
The diversity was probably even higher, as evidenced by the substantial amounts of fossils involved.
“Our phylogenetic analysis shows that these Transylvanian titanosaurus exhibit particularly close relationships with Gondwana species. Majarosaurus Retrieved as a member or relative of the Saltasauria family. Palditian Affinity with lognkosauria and the Spanish Titanosaurus that were almost the same era Lohuecotitan; Petrustitan It is most closely related to early branched eutitanosaurian species in South America. and Uriash We share a unique feature with Gondwanan Titanosaurs,” they said.
“These analyses also reinforce the paleobiogeographic hypothesis that the latest Cretaceous European giants were members of the Gondwana lineage that invaded the old regions during the ages of Valemia and Albia.”
“Since the first discovery, Majarosaurus Dax The island's dwarfs have been identified as star sauropods, proposed as explanations for the small size of this species and other dinosaurs on Hayeg Island. ”
“on the other hand Palditian and Petrustitan It is also a small body sauropod. Uriash It is several orders of magnitude heavier and represents one of the largest Titanosaurus species found in the Late Cretaceous period of Europe. ”
“We have shown that the existence of this body size disparity is ecologically excluded from body size reduction due to competition with small-body titanosaurus, or as evidence that some lineages and small We interpret it as evidence that it occurred early in stratigraphically among the giants of the body. Hayeg Island has descendants of existing dwarf ancestors.”
“In contrast to some previous studies, signs of titanosaurus leaving the body size, including swapping the War star species for larger-sized species during the top Cretaceous period of the Transylvanian region. I can't see it.”
Discovery of uriash kadici Reported in a paper It was released this month Journal of Systematic Palaeontology.
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Veronica Dies Dias et al. 2025. The Romanian sauropod dinosaur revision reveals high titanosaurus diversity and body size disparities on Hayeg Island of Titanosaurus, affecting the biogeography of Titanosaurus. Journal of Systematic Palaeontology 23(1): 2441516; doi: 10.1080/14772019.2024.2441516
In 1836, European scientists discovered a unique animal in the Amazon River. It resembled an eel, was a few feet long, and had lungs filled with air, leading anatomists to believe it was a reptile.
A year later, another specimen was found in Africa and initially declared an amphibian based on its heart structure. After 30 years of debate, scientific consensus concluded that they were fish, breathing air through lungs rather than gills. Thus, the lung fish was identified.
In situations where they cannot access the water’s surface to breathe, West African lung fish (Protopterus Annectens) have the ability to do so. Their tiny eggs do not provide enough oxygen, but these lung fish have adapted to survive in swamp and river environments, enduring seasonal changes.
Lung fish create burrows in mud, forming mucus-filled chambers where they remain motionless without eating until the rains return, entering a dormant state. This survival tactic can last for several months in the wild, with some lung fish reported to have stayed dormant for up to four years.
The evolution of lung fish dates back over 400 million years, yet many mysteries still surround these creatures, particularly regarding their lung connections to other fish-like features.
Various fish species, such as Bitile and Bow Fin, possess lungs but lack swim bladders. The question of which organ evolved first remains unresolved, highlighting the complexities of evolutionary biology.
Pulmonary fish are often considered the closest living relatives of amphibians -Credit: Albert Guerello
In fish embryos, both swim bladders and lungs develop from intestinal pockets, suggesting a shared evolutionary link. Research indicating a blood system connection further supports the theory that lungs may be older organs than swim bladders, which likely developed later and underwent revisions.
Scholars have long debated whether lung fish, as some of the oldest living fish species, represent a common ancestor linking all vertebrates, including mammals, birds, reptiles, and amphibians.
Another enigmatic group, the coelacanths, are closely related to lung fish in recent studies, but share a closer link to bony fish like tuna and herring than to terrestrial vertebrates such as humans.
There are currently six species of lung fish in existence, with four originating from Africa. The Australian lung fish, known as Metosera, holds the title of the oldest living fish in captivity, with individuals like Grandad in Chicago’s aquarium reaching ages of over 100 years.
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Please envision the setting. It’s Halloween, and you decide to take a daring walk through a cemetery on the edge of town.
As the sounds of trick-or-treaters fade away, a dense fog creeps in and envelops the tombstones. It already has the vibe of a scene from Scooby-Doo, but things are about to escalate.
You trip and tumble, landing face-first in the debris, where you come across a decaying hand protruding from the ground. The digits are contorted. Long, gnarled nails. You attempt to scream, but the sound gets stuck in your throat.
Where is Velma Dinkley when you require her? Then you take another look and realize it’s not a hand after all. It’s a dead person’s finger (Xylaria polymorpha). It may appear to be on the end of a deceased person’s arm, but it’s actually a fungus.
Dead Man’s Finger Reaching Out of the Ground – Credit: Nik Taylor
A brief introduction to fungi: Fungi cannot consume food like animals or produce food like plants or algae. Instead, they secrete enzymes that break down nearby organic matter, releasing nutrients that they can absorb.
Unfortunately, despite its zombie-like appearance, this fungus decomposes dead wood, not bodies. It emerges from the decaying roots of hardwood trees like beech and oak. Hence the first part of its Latin name “Xylaria” which means “grows on trees.”
The second part of the Latin name, ‘polymorpha,’ means “various shapes” and reflects the fact that this fungus changes its appearance over time. When it sprouts in the spring, it forms clusters of three to six pale to dark gray “fingers,” each with a pale “claw” at the top.
However, when mature in winter, each finger can reach up to 10 cm (4 in) tall and be dark brown to blue-black in color. This has led to descriptions likening it to a decaying finger, burnt wood, or a mummified penis. Fungi spread by producing spores as they cannot move, and in this case, the fingers act as the fruiting bodies.
Like many fungi, X. polymorpha has two modes of reproduction: asexual and sexual. Asexual reproduction results in genetically identical copies of the fungus. It occurs in spring when the fungus releases spores called conidia from its surface.
On the other hand, sexual reproduction involves the release of ascospores through an upper opening. When ascospores from different parents fuse, a new genetically distinct fungus is produced.
Despite its odd and somewhat grotesque appearance, this fungus provides a food source for various invertebrates that feed on its nutrient-rich remains.
But refrain from trying to consume it yourself. A 2018 study found that this eerie-looking fungus contains toxins similar to those found in deadly mushrooms like the death cap. Consume it, and you might end up in the graveyard!
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Melting ice in the Rocky Mountains has led to the discovery of a 5,900-year-old white bark pine forest. Scientists discovered more than 30 trees during an archaeological survey on Wyoming's Beartooth Plateau at about 3,100 meters above sea level, 180 meters above the current tree line.
This, he says, “allows us to learn about past conditions at high altitudes.'' Kathy Whitlock at Montana State University. Japanese white pine (Albicari pine) These plants needed to grow during warmer weather, she says, because they don't currently grow at this elevation.
To understand the history of the lost forests, Whitlock's team analyzed tree rings and used carbon dating to find out how old the forests were. They discovered that the tree lived between 5,950 and 5,440 years ago, a time when temperatures were steadily dropping.
Data from ice cores in places like Antarctica and Greenland suggest that these temperature drops were influenced by centuries of volcanic eruptions in the Northern Hemisphere. These produced enough aerial deposits to block sunlight and lower global temperatures until the environment became too cold for these high-altitude trees to survive.
Although the newly discovered tree was lying flat, it was in exceptional condition, indicating that it was rapidly preserved after death. Although there is no evidence of avalanche cover, there are traces consistent with the current expansion of the ice sheet.
Climate models suggest that more continuous volcanic eruptions occurred in Iceland 5,100 years ago, causing further temperature drops, team members say Joe McConnell at the Desert Research Institute in Nevada. These temperature drops led to the expansion of the ice belt, and “the fallen trees were buried in the ice and protected from the elements for the next 5,000 years,” he says.
Only in recent decades have temperatures warmed enough to free trees from their ice cellars. The current tree line is “likely to shift upward as temperatures rise in the coming decades,” Whitlock said.
“This discovery was made possible thanks to anthropogenic climate change. Rising temperatures are exposing areas that have been buried under ice for thousands of years,” she says. “While discoveries like this are scientifically interesting, they are also a sad reminder of how vulnerable alpine ecosystems are to climate change.”
“This study is a very elegant and careful use of a rare 'time capsule' that tells us not only about these mountain forests 6,000 years ago, but also about the climatic conditions that allowed them to exist.” '' he says. Kevin Antukaitis at the University of Arizona.
These trees are not the first such finds that researchers have unearthed from Rocky Mountain ice. Previous research had found “fragments of wooden shafts used for arrows and darts,” Whitlock said. One of the shafts has been radiocarbon dated to be more than 10,000 years old, “which tells us that people have been hunting in high-altitude environments for thousands of years,” she says.
High-resolution UAV-based aerial survey of the massive Bronze Age fortress Domanissis Gora in Georgia, South Caucasus, reveals the extent of a large external fortification system and settlements that are largely undocumented in the region. The exceptional size of D. gora helps add a new dimension to population assembly models in Eurasia and other regions.
Aerial photo of the Domanisis Gora ruins. It shows where two canyons meet. Excavation work on the inner fortress in 2023 is visible in the foreground. Image credit: Nathaniel Erb-Satullo.
Fortified settlements in the South Caucasus appeared between 1500 and 500 BC and represent an unprecedented development in the region’s prehistory.
Located on the border between Europe, the Eurasian steppe and the Middle East, the Caucasus region has a long history as a crossroads of cultures with a unique regional identity.
In a new study, archaeologists focused on Domanisis Gora, a 60-80 hectare fortified settlement in Georgia that is exceptional in its preservation and size.
Dr. Nathaniel Erb Satullo of the Cranfield Institute of Forensic Sciences at Cranfield University and his colleagues wrote: “The fortifications of Domanisis Gora consisted of a double-walled fortified core and a much larger outer shell with additional fortifications. “There is,” he said.
“Two steep-sided gorges, 60 meters deep in places, supplement the defensive walls.”
“Previous research had noted that the site had an unusually large walled enclosure, but the site had not been systematically mapped.”
The researchers used the DJI Phantom 4 RTK drone, which can provide less than 2 cm relative position accuracy and very high-resolution aerial imagery.
To obtain high-precision maps containing man-made features, each feature in the aerial images was carefully checked to confirm its identity.
To understand how the landscape at the site has evolved, the orthophotos were compared to 50-year-old photos taken by a Cold War-era reconnaissance satellite that was declassified in 2013.
This gave scientists much-needed insight into which features are recent and which are old.
The team was also able to assess which areas of the ancient settlement were damaged by modern agriculture.
All of these data sets were integrated into geographic information system (GIS) software to help identify patterns and changes in the landscape.
“The drone takes approximately 11,000 photos and uses advanced software to combine these photos with a high-resolution digital elevation model and orthophotos, which show every point as if looking directly down. We created a composite photo,” said Dr. Elvusaturo.
The researchers found that the Domanisis Gora ruins were more than 40 times larger than originally thought, and included a large outer settlement protected by a kilometer-long wall.
“Using a drone, we were able to understand the importance of the site and document it in a way that would not be possible on the ground,” said Dr. Herv Saturo.
“Domanisis Gora is not only an important discovery for the South Caucasus region, but also has broader significance for the diversity of large-scale settlement structures and their formation processes.”
“We hypothesize that Domanicis gora may have expanded through interaction with mobile pastoral groups, with large settlements outside it expanding and contracting seasonally.”
“The site has now been extensively mapped and further research will be initiated to gain insight into areas such as population density and density, livestock movements and agricultural practices.”
The team’s paper was published in a magazine ancient.
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Nathaniel L. Erb-Saturo others. Megaforts of the South Caucasus: New data from southern Georgia. ancientpublished online on January 8, 2025. doi: 10.15184/aqy.2024.197
Credit for my newfound fascination with Ultraviolet (UV) light goes to fellow diarist Kate Blincoe. She recently expressed her excitement over the UV torch I gifted her, and now she sees the world in a whole new light.
UV light is a high-energy, short-wave light that is typically invisible to the naked eye but can be harmful to many organisms. Life on Earth thrived underwater during the late Proterozoic Era until the formation of the protective ozone layer 15 km to 30 km above us.
When a UV torch is pointed at a plant or animal at night, it triggers molecular interactions that result in the emission of lower-energy light within the visible spectrum. This fluorescence transforms ordinary parts of our environment into vibrant psychedelic scenes. For instance, a sandstone wall can appear as a red sheet (algae) intermingled with glowing lime (lichen).
Spiky sphagnum moss under UV light (left) and normal light. Photo: Mark Cocker
Photography capturing UV-induced transformations requires a comparison of before and after images to illustrate the remarkable changes. One such marvel is the metamorphosis of the golden saxifrage, which turns a lightwood embankment into a sparkling meadow of white and green, evolving into a pool of crimson confetti under the UV torch.
One of my favorite sights is the moss on an old quarry surface adorned with prickly foliage. By day, they present a lush bed of greenery, with central florets encircled by drooping side buds like oversized vegetative spiders. However, under UV light, these plants transform into a vibrant ensemble of lavender, aquamarine, turquoise, purple, and pink hues.
Upon receiving these UV-altered images, a friend questioned their significance, akin to how Henry David Thoreau pondered the beauty of a rainbow in December 1855. Thoreau believed that the world’s splendor far surpassed what meets the eye and that every raindrop had the potential to manifest as a rainbow. He asserted that beauty and music were not exceptions but integral aspects of life. The UV torch merely offers a fresh perspective on the divine enchantment surrounding us.
If you want to unsettle climate scientists, simply stand next to them and quietly mention the phrase “tipping point” in their ear. While climate change due to global warming is already concerning, the concept of climate tipping points adds an extra layer of fear. But what exactly are they and why are they causing alarm?
We find ourselves in a unique time where Earth’s average temperature is increasing at a rate at least 10 times faster than ever recorded in geological history. This has led to a surge in extreme weather events, melting ice sheets, and rising sea levels. Despite these clear signs, greenhouse gas emissions continue to rise rapidly, with global temperatures increasing by 1.64°C (nearly 3°F) in the past year alone. As a result, the possibility of irreversible and drastic changes in the climate system becomes more and more likely.
Tipping points are named as such because they require a critical threshold to be crossed before a significant change occurs. Once activated, like a seesaw tipping over, there is no turning back. These moments, as defined by the American Cultural Heritage English Dictionary, are described as “a critical moment in a complex situation where a small influence or development suddenly produces a large or irreversible change.” This holds true for the climate crisis we face.
How things shift
One of the challenges for scientists studying global warming is the unpredictability of tipping points in terms of timing and impact. Additionally, how these points are integrated into climate models can greatly affect predictions of future climate change. The complexity of the climate system suggests that there are numerous tipping points, with nine identified as having the potential to trigger significant global environmental changes.
These include the potential collapse of the Greenland and West Antarctic ice sheets, dieback of the Amazon rainforest, and release of methane from melting Arctic permafrost. Each of these events could have far-reaching consequences, from massive sea level rise to increased carbon levels in the atmosphere.
While some of these tipping points may seem distant, the looming collapse of the Gulf Stream and associated ocean currents presents an immediate concern. Previously considered unlikely, recent data suggests that this crucial system may be on the brink of destabilization sooner than expected, posing a threat to the UK and Northern Europe’s climate stability.
Recent research suggests Antarctic ice sheets may be melting faster than existing models predict – Photo courtesy of Getty Images
The Earth’s great engine
Understanding the significance of AMOC’s collapse requires knowledge of its role as a key component of the global ocean current system. This system, known as the global conveyor belt, transports heat from the tropics to the Arctic, playing a crucial role in global climate and weather patterns.
The sheer scale of AMOC’s operation is astounding, moving millions of cubic meters of water and gigawatts of heat every second. However, disruptions to this system, such as increased freshwater input from melting ice, can hinder AMOC’s ability to function properly, potentially causing a shutdown with severe global consequences.
If AMOC were to fail, global weather patterns would be disrupted, leading to a range of impacts from cooler temperatures in Europe to altered monsoons in Asia and Africa. The effects would be felt globally, with implications for food security, migration patterns, and geopolitical stability.
These relatives are Pterodactylus. This will allow paleontologists to reconstruct the flying reptile’s life history from hatching to adulthood.
holotype specimen of Pterodactylus antiquus. Image credit: Robert SH Smyth & David M. Unwin, doi: 10.1080/14772019.2024.2421845.
Almost 250 years ago, the first pterosaur fossil was discovered in a quarry in northern Bavaria, Germany.
Dubbing Pterodactylus, this 150-million-year-old fossil provides the first evidence of a group of extraordinary flying reptiles that filled the skies of the Mesozoic Era, soaring above dinosaurs on wings spanning up to 10 meters or more.
This first pterosaur was only about the size of a turtledove, but it completely reshaped our understanding of prehistoric life.
Despite being the original “pterodactyl”, Pterodactylus was soon overshadowed, quite literally, in people’s consciousness by the more dramatic appearance of giant pterosaurs. Pteranodon and Quetzalcoatlus attracted attention. but Pterodactylus remained popular among pterosaur scientists.
For centuries, Pterodactylus and other similar pterosaurs in Bavaria are the focus of ongoing scientific research, and much of what we know about pterosaurs, from the shape of their wings and the way they fly to the way they eat and grow. It helps shape the.
But one question always remains. Among these many pterosaurs, which one is the true pterosaur? Pterodactylus And which belong to completely different species?
This confusion has continued for centuries and continues to this day.
Thanks to a new study that analyzed data from dozens of Pterodactylus The mysteries of specimens displayed in museums around the world have been solved, and the true nature of these fossils has finally been revealed.
Paleontologists Robert Smith and Dave Unwin from the University of Leicester shine an intense UV torch on fossil bones to make them fluoresce, allowing them to distinguish one type of pterosaur from another, almost visually. The researchers succeeded in revealing the details of tiny bones that cannot be seen.
Use Pterodactylus Unique features found in the head, hips, hands, and feet led them to systematically examine other fossils from the same deposits, and to their surprise, they discovered many other fossil examples. Pterodactylus It was “hidden” among what is believed to be another species of pterosaur.
“By examining many fossils in collections across Europe, we were able to re-identify more than 40 specimens. Pterodactylus” said Smith.
“UV-excited fluorescence is amazing in the amount of detail it can reveal. Features that were once hidden are now clearly visible.”
Complete your entire concept in the blink of an eye Pterodactylus It has changed dramatically.
With nearly 50 examples confirmed to date, knowledge about this most important pterosaur is exploding.
“We are now able to construct a complete and detailed skeletal anatomy of this important pterosaur,” Dr. Unwin said.
“The soft tissues of more than 20 specimens have been fossilized, allowing us to reconstruct the top of the head, the shape of the body, the webs of the feet, and even the wings.”
“UV-excited fluorescence is a well-known technique, but the difference in this case is that we were able to combine a new, high-quality light source with a systematic ‘catch-all’ approach, which revolutionized our research and will have a significant impact. Understanding pterosaurs.”
of result Published in Journal of Systematic Paleontology.
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Robert S. H. Smith & David M. Unwin. 2024. Re-evaluation of Pterodactylus antiquus and Diopecephalus flathead: Two troublesome classification concepts. Journal of Systematic Paleontology 22 (1): 2421845;doi: 10.1080/14772019.2024.2421845
A dog chased a ball past me at full speed across the open fields of Seascale Beach, Cumbria. The beach is surrounded by a small park, rows of shops, and houses, with tall chimneys and large rectangular buildings visible on a vast industrial site as you walk north.
Close to Seascale Beach is the Sellafield complex, a 2 square mile nuclear facility located 5 km away. Sellafield is home to most of the UK’s radioactive nuclear waste and the world’s largest store of plutonium.
I visited Sellafield earlier this year to learn about the management of Britain’s nuclear waste. It was an eye-opening and expensive lesson in dealing with hazardous material with no clear plan.
Sellafield played a crucial role in producing plutonium during the Cold War. The current cleanup operation involves processing and storing spent nuclear fuel, cooling and stabilizing it, then storing it in silos covered with steel and concrete.
Initially, safe long-term storage was not a priority, leading to waste being disposed of from decades ago. The process of moving waste from dilapidated silos to more modern stores is ongoing.
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A recent report by the National Board of Audit highlighted that Sellafield is still in the early stages of the cleanup mission, expected to last until 2125 with an estimated cost of £136bn, showcasing uncertainty about the exact tasks and timeline.
The plan for the most dangerous nuclear waste is to bury it deep underground in a geological disposal facility (GDF). Finding a suitable location involves not just solid rock but also a willing community.
Three communities are currently in discussion about building a GDF facility, with experts believing it to be the best option. Several countries are also working on similar facilities.
The complexity of site selection may delay the facility’s opening until the 2040s or 2050s, amidst a push for new nuclear power to reduce emissions and reach net zero.
As we navigate through the challenges of nuclear waste management, experts like Professor Claire Corkhill from the University of Bristol play a crucial role in advancing our understanding of radioactive waste.
About our expert Professor Claire Corkhill
Claire is Professor of Mineralogy and Radioactive Waste Management in the School of Earth Sciences at the University of Bristol.
Her work has been published in magazines material, nature, and ceramics.
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Archaeologists used a laser-based detection system to discover more than 6,500 Pre-Hispanic structures in Campeche, Mexico, including a previously unknown Mayan city named Valeriana.
Details of the main ruins of Valeriana in Campeche, Mexico. Image credit: Auld-Thomas others., doi: 10.15184/aqy.2024.148.
“Our analysis not only revealed a complete picture of densely populated areas, but also revealed a lot of variation,” said Tulane University doctoral student and Northern Arizona University professor. Lecturer Luke Old-Thomas said.
“What we found was not only rural areas and small settlements, but also a town where people had long been actively farming amidst the ruins, right next to the only main road in the area. We also found a large city with pyramids.”
“The government knew nothing about it. The scientific community knew nothing about it.”
“This is an exclamation point after the statement that, no, we haven't discovered everything. Yes, there's still a lot to discover.”
lidar technology It uses laser pulses to measure distance and create a 3D model of a specific area.
This allows scientists to scan vast tracts of land from the comfort of their computer labs, discovering anomalies in the landscape that turn out to be pyramids, family homes, and other examples of Mayan infrastructure. It's done.
“With LIDAR, we can map large areas very quickly and with very high accuracy and level of detail, so we can say, “Wow, there are so many buildings that we don't know about, and they must have a large population.'' ‘It's huge,’ said Old Thomas.
“The counterargument was that lidar surveys were still too constrained to known large sites like Tikal, thus creating a distorted picture of the Maya lowlands.”
“What if the rest of the Maya region is much more rural and what we've mapped so far is the exception rather than the rule?”
The team's results provide compelling evidence of a Maya landscape that was more complex and diverse than previously thought.
“Rider teaches us that, like many other ancient civilizations, the Lowland Maya built a diverse tapestry of towns and communities on a tropical landscape,” said Marcello Canuto, a professor at Tulane University. “I'm grateful for that,” he said.
“Some areas have vast expanses of farmland and are densely populated, while others have only small communities.”
“Nevertheless, we can now see how much the ancient Maya modified their environment to support a long-lasting and complex society.”
a paper The findings were published in the journal October 29, 2024. ancient.
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luke old-thomas others. 2024. Running out of space: Environmental riders and the crowded ancient landscape of Campeche, Mexico. ancient 98 (401): 1340-1358;doi: 10.15184/aqy.2024.148
The veil of mystery surrounding the Treasury Monument in Petra, Jordan has been lifted once again.
Beneath an ancient building carved out of rock, archaeologists discovered a hidden tomb containing 12 relatively well-preserved human bones and a vast array of grave offerings.
A similar tomb was discovered more than 20 years ago opposite the famous Treasury Building, also known as Al-Khazneh, one of the Seven Wonders of the World and a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
Earlier this year, a team of researchers received permission from Jordanian authorities to conduct a week of remote sensing in and around the Treasury, a city center hand-carved into the walls of a desert canyon by the Nabatean people.
“There was always the idea that there might be more graves, but no one has yet been found,” Richard Bates, a geophysicist and professor at the University of St. Andrews in Scotland, said in an email. “The hope was to find an intact grave.”
A joint Jordanian-American team, which also included the Jordanian Department of Antiquities and the Amman-based nonprofit American Research Center, used ground-penetrating radar to detect the cavity and pinpoint its location and depth. Instead of digging straight through, which would have cut through solid rock and damaged parts of the building, Bates said they carefully dug by hand into the cavity from the outside.
Richard Bates. Excavation at the Treasury. Kindly provided by Professor Richard Bates, University of St Andrews
Inside, in the original burial site, are 12 human bones, one of which is clutching the top of a broken pitcher, most likely dating from the 1st century BC. Bates said the bodies likely included both men and women and ranged in age from children to adults. Although that is not confirmed yet.
“No complete burial has ever been found here before, so this discovery could potentially tell us more about the Nabataean kingdom,” Bates said.
The discovery could also provide new insights into the Treasury itself, whose purpose is still unknown.
“Despite its fame, the Treasury Department remains a mystery to us in many ways,” Pierce Paul Creesman, director of the Center for American Studies, said in an email. “Anything we can do to understand it more deeply is important.”
Visited by more than 1 million visitors a year, the Treasury is the most famous of Petra’s iconic monuments. In Steven Spielberg’s 1989 film Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade, it was featured as the resting place of the Holy Grail in the film.
The newly uncovered tomb excavation was featured in a two-part episode of the American reality television series Expedition Unknown, which aired on the Discovery Channel.
Bates said there are signs of other cavities in the area that could be graves.
“It’s very likely that more will be discovered, so we need to get the funding back and continue the research,” he said.
We’ve all experienced that familiar feeling of embarrassment when we realize we’ve overlooked something important while being confident in our decisions. Maybe it’s the car in front suddenly stopping at a crosswalk, or someone mistakenly using the term “escapegoat” instead of “scapegoat.”
This phenomenon is due to a hidden bias in our brains that tricks us into believing we have all the necessary information to make decisions without considering crucial details.
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A recent study identified this bias as the “illusion of information sufficiency,” which leads us to act as if we have complete knowledge to form opinions, make decisions, and judge others. This contradiction often results in misunderstandings and conflicts in our lives.
Psychologist Dr. Sandra Wheatley explains that taking shortcuts in decision-making is a way to navigate the complexities of the world. However, this tendency can lead us to make inaccurate judgments when we assume we have all the information we need.
The study involved 1,261 participants who were tasked with deciding whether to integrate two schools or keep them separate. Interestingly, participants who only saw one side of the argument were more confident in their decision-making than those who had access to both perspectives.
This overconfidence in limited information can prevent us from considering others’ viewpoints and understanding that our subjective truth may not always align with objective reality.
Dr. Wheatley emphasizes the importance of questioning sources and remaining open to information that challenges our beliefs when making important decisions or judgments about others.
About our experts
Dr. Sandra Wheatley is a Chartered Psychologist and an Associate Fellow of the British Psychological Society. She specializes in psychology, parenting, social relationships, and digital media.
Mars A recent study indicates that the Earth may be hiding a global ocean beneath its surface, with cracks in rocks potentially holding enough water to form it.
Scientists believe that the water lies about seven to 12 miles (11.5 to 20 kilometers) deep in Mars’ crust, possibly originating from the planet’s ancient surface water sources such as rivers, lakes, and oceans billions of years ago, according to Vashan Wright, the lead scientist at the Scripps Institution of Oceanography at the University of California, San Diego.
Despite the presence of water inside Mars, Wright noted that it does not necessarily mean that life exists there.
“However, our findings suggest the possibility of habitable environments,” he mentioned in an email.
The research team combined computer simulations with InSight data, including earthquake speeds, to suggest that groundwater is the most likely explanation. These results were published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences on Monday.
Wright remarked that if InSight’s observations near the equator of Mars at Elysium Planitia are representative of the entire planet, there could be enough groundwater to fill a terrestrial ocean approximately a mile (1 to 2 kilometers) deep.
Tools like drills will be required to verify the presence of water and search for signs of microbial life.
Despite the InSight lander no longer being in operation, scientists are still analyzing the data collected between 2018 and 2022 to gain more insights into Mars’ interior.
Over 3 billion years ago, Mars was mostly covered in water, but due to the thinning of its atmosphere, it lost its surface water, becoming the dry and dusty world we see today. It is believed by scientists that the ancient water either escaped into space or remains hidden underground.
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