Revolutionary simulations from Maynooth University astronomers reveal that, at the onset of the dense and turbulent universe, “light seed” black holes could swiftly consume matter, rivaling the supermassive black holes found at the centers of early galaxies.
Computer visualization of a baby black hole growing in an early universe galaxy. Image credit: Maynooth University.
Dr. Daksar Mehta, a candidate at Maynooth University, stated: “Our findings indicate that the chaotic environment of the early universe spawned smaller black holes that underwent a feeding frenzy, consuming surrounding matter and eventually evolving into the supermassive black holes observed today.”
“Through advanced computer simulations, we illustrate that the first-generation black holes, created mere hundreds of millions of years after the Big Bang, expanded at astonishing rates, reaching sizes up to tens of thousands of times that of the Sun.”
Dr. Louis Prowl, a postdoctoral researcher at Maynooth University, added: “This groundbreaking revelation addresses one of astronomy’s most perplexing mysteries.”
“It explains how black holes formed in the early universe could quickly attain supermassive sizes, as confirmed by observations from NASA/ESA/CSA’s James Webb Space Telescope.”
The dense, gas-rich environments of early galaxies facilitated brief episodes of “super-Eddington accretion,” a phenomenon where black holes consume matter at a rate faster than the norm.
Despite this rapid consumption, the black holes continue to devour material effectively.
The results uncover a pivotal “missing link” between the first stars and the immense black holes that emerged later on.
Mehta elaborated: “These smaller black holes were previously considered too insignificant to develop into the gigantic black holes at the centers of early galaxies.”
“What we have demonstrated is that, although these nascent black holes are small, they can grow surprisingly quickly under the right atmospheric conditions.”
There are two classifications of black holes: “heavy seed” and “light seed.”
Light seed black holes start with a mass of only a few hundred solar masses and must grow significantly to transform into supermassive entities, millions of times the mass of the Sun.
Conversely, heavy seed black holes begin life with masses reaching up to 100,000 times that of the Sun.
Previously, many astronomers believed that only heavy seed types could account for the existence of supermassive black holes seen at the hearts of large galaxies.
Dr. John Regan, an astronomer at Maynooth University, remarked: “The situation is now more uncertain.”
“Heavy seeds may be rare and depend on unique conditions for formation.”
“Our simulations indicate that ‘garden-type’ stellar-mass black holes have the potential to grow at extreme rates during the early universe.”
This research not only reshapes our understanding of black hole origins but also underscores the significance of high-resolution simulations in uncovering the universe’s fundamental secrets.
“The early universe was far more chaotic and turbulent than previously anticipated, and the population of supermassive black holes is also more extensive than we thought,” Dr. Regan commented.
The findings hold relevance for the ESA/NASA Laser Interferometer Space Antenna (LISA) mission, set to launch in 2035.
Dr. Regan added, “Future gravitational wave observations from this mission may detect mergers of these small, rapidly growing baby black holes.”
For further insights, refer to this paper, published in this week’s edition of Nature Astronomy.
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D.H. Meter et al. Growth of light seed black holes in the early universe. Nat Astron published online on January 21, 2026. doi: 10.1038/s41550-025-02767-5
Paleontologists studied fossils that are 160 million years old. Anchiornis Huxley, a non-avian theropod dinosaur, was unearthed from the Late Jurassic Tianjishan Formation in northeastern China. The preserved feathers indicated that these dinosaurs had lost their flying capability. This rare find offers insights into the functions of organisms that existed 160 million years ago and their role in the evolution of flight among dinosaurs and birds.
This fossil of Anchiornis Huxley has nearly complete feathers and coloration preserved, allowing for detailed identification of feather morphology. Image credit: Kiat et al., doi: 10.1038/s42003-025-09019-2.
“This discovery has significant implications, suggesting that the evolution of flight in dinosaurs and birds was more intricate than previously understood,” said paleontologist Yosef Kiat from Tel Aviv University and his team.
“It is possible that some species had rudimentary flight abilities but lost them as they evolved.”
“The lineage of dinosaurs diverged from other reptiles approximately 240 million years ago.”
“Shortly after (on an evolutionary timeline), many dinosaurs began developing feathers, unique structures that are lightweight and strong, made of protein, and primarily used for flight and thermoregulation.”
About 175 million years ago, feathered dinosaurs, known as Penaraputra, emerged as distant ancestors of modern birds; they are the only dinosaur lineage that survived the mass extinction marking the end of the Mesozoic Era 66 million years ago.
As far as we know, the Pennaraputra group developed feathers for flight, but some may have lost that capability due to changing environmental conditions, similar to modern ostriches and penguins.
In this study, the researchers examined nine specimens of a feathered pennaraptorian dinosaur species called Anchiornis Huxley.
This rare paleontological find, along with hundreds of similar fossils, had its feathers remarkably preserved due to the unique conditions present during their fossilization.
Specifically, the nine fossils analyzed were selected because they retained the color of their wing feathers: white with black spots on the tips.
“Feathers take about two to three weeks to grow,” explains Dr. Kiat.
“Once they reach their final size, they detach from the blood vessels that nourished them during growth and become dead material.”
“Over time, birds shed and replace their feathers in a process known as molting, which is crucial for flight.” He notes that birds that depend on flight molt in an organized and gradual manner, maintaining symmetry and allowing them to continue flying during the process.
Conversely, the molting of flightless birds tends to be more random and irregular.
“Molting patterns can indicate whether a winged creature was capable of flight.”
By examining the color of the feathers preserved in dinosaur fossils from China, researchers could reconstruct the wing structure, which featured series of black spots along the edges.
Additionally, newly grown feathers, which had not fully matured, were identifiable by their deviation in black spot patterns.
A detailed analysis of the new feathers in nine fossils revealed an irregular molting process.
“Based on our understanding of contemporary birds, we identified a molting pattern suggesting these dinosaurs were likely flightless,” said Dr. Kiat.
“This is a rare and particularly intriguing discovery. The preservation of feather color offers a unique opportunity to explore the functional characteristics of ancient organisms alongside body structures found in fossilized skeletons and bones.”
“While feather molting might seem like a minor detail, it could significantly alter our understanding of the origins of flight when examined in fossils,” he added.
“Anchiornis Huxley‘s inclusion in the group of feathered dinosaurs that couldn’t fly underscores the complexity and diversity of wing evolution.”
The findings were published in the journal Communication Biology.
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Y. Kiat et al. 2025. Wing morphology of Anchiornis Huxley and the evolution of molting strategies in paraavian dinosaurs. Communication Biology August 1633. doi: 10.1038/s42003-025-09019-2
Karl Remström made his way down the mountain, feeling frozen and drained. It had taken him four hours to summit, followed by hours spent thawing out and fixing his gear. The trek home took another four challenging hours through the snow, a routine he repeated nearly every day for almost a month. But he was determined, undeterred by the frigid temperatures.
Upon returning to the small shelter he fashioned from branches at the mountain’s base, Remström checked his instruments and waited. Immediately, the galvanometer’s needle moved. He noted his findings and stepped outside to witness a massive beam of light reaching from the mountaintop into the sky.
It was December 29, 1882, and Remström was in northern Lapland, attempting to validate his theory regarding the origins of the aurora borealis. Few believed him then, but his findings would soon change that. He was convinced he had generated an artificial replica of the Northern Lights.
Lemström, a Finnish physicist, had become captivated by the aurora at the age of 30. While a postdoctoral researcher in Sweden in 1868, he participated in a scientific expedition to Svalbard, Norway—deep within the Arctic Circle. Although from southern Finland and having witnessed the aurora before, this marked his first experience with such a display at this latitude, and he was completely enthralled.
During that period, the cause of the aurora remained a mystery, spurring heated scientific discourse. Many of Remström’s contemporaries sought ways to create miniature simulations, with some achieving success. For instance, Swiss physicist Auguste de la Rive showcased in 1860 that a jet of violet light could be produced within a vacuum-sealed glass tube. He asserted it faithfully duplicated the phenomena of the Northern Lights, regardless of the primary color actually being green.
Two primary theories circulated about the nature of the Northern Lights. Some believed they stemmed from meteorite dust drawn by the Earth’s magnetic field, burning up in the atmosphere. Others theorized they were some form of electromagnetic occurrence, though the specifics remained hazy.
Lemström sided with Team Electromagnetics, positing that aurora borealis formed when electrical currents in the atmosphere flowed into cooler mountain peaks. Many researchers dismissed him as misguided or eccentric. Fiona Amery, a science historian at Cambridge University, stumbled upon Lemström’s nearly forgotten paper while researching auroral science of the 19th century.
Lemström was fueled to prove his detractors wrong. Instead of relying on small-scale simulations, he aimed to manifest a full-scale aurora in its natural environment: the frigid Lapland mountains.
By 1871, he held a lecturer position at what is now the University of Helsinki. He convinced the Finnish Scientific Association to back him in an expedition to Finnish Lapland’s Inari region, where he set up his device on Luosmavaara mountain on November 22 of the same year. His apparatus comprised a two-square-meter copper wire spiral secured over a two-meter high steel column, with metal rods pointing skyward connected to it. A copper wire route extended four kilometers down the mountain, linking to a galvanometer for current measurement and a metal plate for grounding. This intricate mechanism was designed to transmit and amplify electrical currents Lemström firmly believed were descending from the atmosphere, thus creating the aurora borealis.
Karl Lemström’s watercolor of the Olantunturi mountaintop experiment.
Finnish Cultural Heritage Agency
According to Amery, Remström likened the aurora borealis to lightning, suggesting that his device functioned similarly to a lightning rod. “He described lightning as sudden, while the aurora was gradual and spread out. He believed he could capture the aurora much like he could attract lightning.”
That evening, following his strenuous climb, Remström spotted a beam of light above the summit, and upon analyzing its spectrum, he discerned it matched the distinct yellow-green wavelength characteristic of the aurora borealis. He was certain he had evoked the Northern Lights. Unfortunately, no one acknowledged his findings due to the absence of photographic proof or independent witnesses. “He was regarded as quite obscure,” Amélie states.
This would have remained the case were it not for a fortunate turn of events. In 1879, the newly formed International Polar Commission announced plans for an International Polar Year—a year-long scientific initiative in the Arctic. “Suddenly, he could secure funding for aurora research,” Amélie says, “and he found himself in the right place at the right time.”
Arctic Mission
Recognizing the opportunity, Remström attended a planning conference in St. Petersburg, campaigning for the establishment of a meteorological observatory in Lapland. The committee approved, and Lemström opted for a site near the small Finnish town of Sodankyla. The Finnish Meteorological Observatory was founded in September 1882, with Lemström appointed as its first director.
He immediately sought a location to resume his aurora experiments, eventually settling on Olantunturi mountain, roughly 20 kilometers from the observatory. In early December, with a mere three hours of daylight and average temperatures around -30°C (-22°F), he and three helpers trekked to the summit and assembled a larger version of his previous device, spanning approximately 900 square meters.
The conditions were severe. Lemström later noted that it took four hours to reach the observatory from the summit, after which he needed to thaw out and frequently fix the wires, which crumbled under the weight of frost. He could work only a few minutes before his hands became numb, and this apparatus, too, operated briefly before freezing up again.
However, the effort proved worthwhile. Once the device was operational on December 5, Remström and his assistants witnessed a “yellow-white light surrounding the mountaintop; contrarily, no such brightness was found in the vicinity.” Spectroscopic analysis indicated the light matched the natural aurora’s properties.
Over the following weeks, similar occurrences transpired nearly every night. The most breathtaking display occurred on December 29, when a beam of light ascended 134 meters skyward. Lacking photographs, Remström resorted to creating drawings. His watercolor depicted a radiant beam surging to the mountain’s peak. He also erected two smaller aurora conductors on another mountain, Pieterintonturi, claiming to have observed comparable phenomena there.
Lemström was finally ready to share his triumph with the world. He sent a telegram to the Finnish Academy of Sciences, which gained widespread attention. The journal Nature published threedetailed accountsin its May and June 1883 issue, where Remström proclaimed that “experiments… unmistakably demonstrate that the aurora is an electrical phenomenon.”
Painting of physicist Karl Lemström, who endeavored to recreate the aurora borealis.
Public Domain
If he anticipated universal acclaim, he was gravely mistaken. Although his endeavors captured media attention, few colleagues concurred with his claims of having instigated the aurora borealis. “Some speculated he might have generated other intriguing electrical phenomena, such as St. Elmo’s fire or zodiacal lights,” Amery notes. “Others suggested it resembled an odd type of lightning more akin to ball lightning, and there were those who believed he may have fabricated it altogether.”
In early 1884, Danish aurora expert Sophus Tromholt attempted to replicate Remström’s experiment on Mount Esja in Iceland, but his device registered “no signs of life whatsoever.” A subsequent replication effort in the French Pyrenees in 1885 also faltered, except for civil engineer Célestin-Xavier Vossena, who narrowly escaped electrocution.
Unfazed, Lemström boldly asserted to have recreated the aurora again in late 1884, this time employing sturdier wires and adding a mechanism to inject electricity into the circuit, believing it would boost its energy. Nature published another report detailing these findings, yet Lemström’s zeal for working in extreme conditions began to wane, leading him to pursue new ventures (his next project involved using electricity to enhance crop growth). He passed away in 1904, still resolute in his conviction that he had generated the aurora borealis.
However, he did not. His hypothesis was flawed. Auroras arise from charged particles entering Earth’s atmosphere from space, rather than emanating from the ground. Still, Amery suggests he might have created something significant. “I suspect it could have been St. Elmo’s Fire, a form of luminous discharge,” she notes. “That’s my prevailing theory.” However, she also observes, “Perhaps there was a hint of wishful thinking.” The reality remains elusive, and we may never know—unless someone is inspired to construct a vast array of copper wire atop a frigid mountain during the Arctic winter.
This autumn, two greenish comets are traversing the inner solar system, presenting a unique opportunity to view them in the coming weeks.
The comets, designated C/2025 A6 (Lemon) and C/2025 R2 (SWAN), are currently observable from the Northern Hemisphere as they journey through our cosmic vicinity.
It is quite uncommon for a comet to be visible twice within the same month.
Both comets can be observed with binoculars or small telescopes until the end of October. Comet Lemon may become visible to the naked eye around its closest approach to Earth and peak brightness on or about October 21st.
Several astronomy enthusiasts have already spotted this icy traveler.
Astrophotographer Julian de Winter, a junior lecturer at the University of Mons in Belgium, captured Comet Lemon’s striking emerald glow and elongated tail from Texas in late September.
The faint green hue arises from carbon in the gas cloud enveloping the comet’s nucleus.
In the Northern Hemisphere, Comet Lemon will appear near the Big Dipper before dawn from now until mid-month. According to EarthSky, a site focused on astronomy and skywatching, the best viewing time is in the northeast sky, just beneath the distinctive bowl and handle of the Big Dipper.
In about a week, the comet will rise in the western sky and can be seen in the evening sky. From then until the month’s end, visibility of these celestial objects may be challenging, although they might be seen with the naked eye.
Comet Swan is visible in the evening sky until the end of the month. The prime time to locate it is about 90 minutes post-sunset, directed towards the southwest. This comet may not be bright enough for naked-eye observation, so binoculars or a small telescope will be necessary.
In the coming days, Comet Swan will ascend higher in the horizon post-sunset and could brighten as it nears its closest approach to Earth around October 20th.
Under optimal conditions of clear, dark skies with minimal light pollution, it may even be possible to see both comets on the same night towards the month’s end.
Discovered in January by the Lemmon Mission, Comet Lemmon tracks near-Earth objects using telescopes located in Arizona’s Santa Catalina Mountains.
Comet SWAN was identified more recently by amateur astronomers in early September while examining images from NASA’s Solar and Heliospheric Observatory’s SWAN instrument, which has been studying the Sun since its launch in 1995.
Additionally, this month, another type of comet—one originating from outside our solar system—is passing through. Comet 3I/ATLAS, the third identified interstellar visitor, was recently photographed by a spacecraft orbiting Mars and is set to make its closest approach to the Sun around October 30th.
Astronomers utilizing CSIRO’s Murchison Wide Field Array (MWA) telescope are on the quest to uncover the elusive period of reionization. This early stage in the universe’s history has been theorized but remains undetected by radio telescopes. This period marks the end of the universe’s dark ages, occurring approximately a billion years post-Big Bang, during which intergalactic gases transform from opaque to transparent, enabling light from the first stars and galaxies to permeate the cosmos.
A glimpse of the sky observed in radio waves by the Murchison Wide Field Array. Image credit: Nunhokee et al. / ICRAR / Curtin University.
“Our research was conducted in two phases,” stated Dr. Riddhima Nunhokey, an astronomer at Curtin University Node of the International Center for Radio Astronomical Research for All Sky Astrophysics (ICRAR).
“In the initial phase, we discovered the first signs of heating in the intergalactic gas—the intergalactic medium—around 800 million years after the Big Bang.”
“To examine this primordial phase of the universe, we must isolate faint signals from this epoch while eliminating all other sources of cosmic radio emissions.”
“These sources include emissions from nearby celestial bodies, interference from Earth’s atmosphere, and even noise generated by the telescope itself.”
“Only after meticulously subtracting these ‘foreground signals’ can we discern the signals from the era of reionization.”
“From this study, we have developed methods to manage foreground contamination and remove unwanted signals, thus enhancing our understanding of telescopes and improving the clarity of detected signals.”
“We are also able to integrate nearly a decade’s worth of MWA data, allowing us to make observations over a longer timeframe than before.”
“This is another reason we are closer than ever to detecting the signals.”
The team asserts that the enhanced quality and quantity of this new dataset made this discovery feasible.
The cold universe is producing signals that resemble these new data.
This absence of signals indicates that reionization must have commenced from a “cold start,” implying that the universe was “preheated” prior to the reionization phase.
“As the universe expands, intergalactic gases cool down, and thus we expect them to become extremely cold,” explained Professor Cathryn Trott, an astronomer at ICRAR’s Curtin University Node, associated with Astro 3D and the Curtin Institute of Radio Astronomy.
“Our measurements suggest that there is a certain level of heating present. While it may not be substantial, it does indicate that extremely cold reionization is unlikely, and that’s quite intriguing.”
“This study implies that this heating is probably influenced by energy from early black holes and primordial X-ray sources resulting from stellar remnants spread across the universe.”
CD Nunhokee et al. 2025. The 21 cm power spectrum limit of z = 6.5–7.0 based on Murchison wide field array observations. APJ 989, 57; doi:10.3847/1538-4357/adda45
Cathryn M. Trott et al. 2025. Utilizing Gaussian information to enhance the limit of the 21 cm signal at z = 6.5–7.0 using Murchison wide field array data. APJ 991, 211; doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/adff80
A recent study by archaeologists investigated round heavy metal objects from Seldal, located in the Haland region of western Sweden. Initially thought to be Bronze Age artifacts due to their shape and size, these objects were determined to be composed of copper-zinc-tin-reed alloys typical of the Iron Age and later periods.
Plano Convex Ingots from Seldal in Harland, Sweden. Image credit: Sabatini et al., doi: 10.1016/j.jasrep.2025.105312.
The ancient ingots were uncovered in the village of Seldal on Sweden’s west coast during the fall of 2022.
This artifact has been identified as a Plano-Convex Ingot.
“Plano-convex ingots, commonly known as ‘bread’ ingots or ‘casting cakes,’ were prevalent during the Bronze Age, though they vary in size, shape, and composition,” explains Serena Sabatini, a researcher at the University of Gothenburg.
“These artifacts are typically round with flat top surfaces and various inflated convex bottoms.”
“They are created by pouring molten metal into shallow molds or cavities in the ground.”
“Most of these ingots exhibit a rough, ‘bubbly’ top surface, indicating they were poured into an open casting mold, while the bottom remains smooth, as it was not exposed to air during production.”
“Due to their straightforward manufacturing process, they are widely found across Eurasia and were utilized both in prehistoric and historical periods.”
The Särdal Ingot measures 14-15.3 cm in diameter, approximately 2.5 cm thick, and weighs 1223.5 grams.
Notably, the ingot’s surface displays significant corrosion, especially on the rough, raised area.
The overall dimensions and weight of the ingot initially suggested it could be a Bronze Age find.
“At first, we believed the Seldal Ingot dated back to the Bronze Age,” the archaeologist noted.
“However, since it was found alone and not dated within an archaeological context, we opted for isotopic and chemical analysis to determine its composition and estimate a time frame.”
The analysis yielded surprising results, revealing that the ingot was made from copper-zinc-tin-reed alloys typical of the Iron Age and later.
“The findings emerged thanks to the collaborative spirit of the international scientific community exploring archaeological topics, allowing us to identify the isotopic and elemental characteristics of the Seldal ingots, which closely resemble artifacts from two sites found in the Iwawa Lakeland region of northeastern Poland.
Research into the Baltic Sea area, which had a robust network connected to western Sweden and southern Scandinavia during the Roman Iron Age, indicates that the alloys from both Seldal and Iwawa Lakeland were present in the region during the latter half of the 1st millennium BCE.
“Thus, we propose that the Plano Convex Ingots from Harland and the ingots from Poland represent the outcomes of a metallic maritime trade linking Scandinavia, the Baltic Sea, and the Iberian Peninsula.”
Their paper will appear in the October 2025 edition of Journal of Archaeological Science: Report.
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Serena Sabatini et al. 2025. Iron Age Metals Trade between the Atlantic and the Baltic Sea: New insights from the first complete Plano-Convex Ingot found in Sweden and Ingot Rod in Iwawa Lakeland, northeastern Poland. Journal of Archaeological Science: Report 66:105312; doi:10.1016/j.jasrep.2025.105312
Preserving a keen sense of smell has multiple benefits, notably for our ability to taste.
DeanDrobot/Getty Images
Directly applying strong radio waves to an individual’s head appears to enhance the sense of smell, at least for a limited time.
Aging, trauma, and certain neurological disorders can impact the olfactory nerves, potentially diminishing the ability to smell. Many individuals have reported a reduced sense of smell following Covid-19, which can adversely affect personal preferences and may pose safety risks, such as an inability to detect gas leaks.
“Current medical practices may include surgical interventions for severe olfactory dysfunction, but more typical cases rely on chemical treatments, such as repeated exposure to scents at home,” explains Yong Woo-chan from Gang Line University in Seoul. “While treatments in other medical fields have advanced significantly, olfactory treatment has remained relatively traditional. To address this gap, we proposed the idea of electrical testing through bioelectronic stimulation as a therapeutic option.”
Chang and his team aimed to stimulate the olfactory system directly; however, due to its location deep within the head, they opted for radio wave stimulation instead.
The researchers initially engaged 28 participants without any odor issues. The participants were exposed to 15 watts of power for 5 minutes, emitted from a 5 cm square antenna positioned 10 cm from their heads. “The stimulus itself is not consciously felt by the patient,” states Chan. “However, with prolonged exposure, some might notice a slight warming sensation at the stimulation site.”
The olfactory sensitivity was assessed using standard tests like the Sniffin’ Sticks odor threshold test. This involved participants working to identify the presence of alcohol N-butanol produced from fermented sugar at varying dilutions.
Following the radiofrequency treatment, researchers observed that participants demonstrated significantly improved olfactory function, with these enhancements lasting approximately a week. Individuals with olfactory challenges may require additional treatments, according to Chan.
The research team is currently preparing studies involving individuals with smell disorders. The device has been refined to deliver more intense stimulation, which could potentially lead to even greater improvements, according to Jang.
The Pacific Ocean released heat into the atmosphere in 2023
BlickWinkel/Alamy
A rare “triple dip” La Niña, which kept Pacific Ocean temperatures low for three consecutive years, may have set the stage for a significant rise in global heat observed in 2023.
While a rise in global temperatures was anticipated due to greenhouse gas emissions and warm surface waters, a peak was not expected until early 2024. From September 2023 indicates this surge has come earlier than forecasted.
Julius Mex from the University of Leipzig, Germany, and his team sought to understand the events of late 2023 that triggered this exceptional heat. “Our goal is to clarify why temperature changes in the Northern Decay were so extreme,” he states.
Utilizing a dataset that amalgamates historical weather records with climate models, the research team explored various factors, including the Pacific’s circulation, temperature, cloud coverage, radiation, and precipitation for the years 2022 and 2023.
The findings suggest that the Pacific’s cool La Niña conditions, persisting since 2020, were pivotal. They suppressed ocean warmth, fostered the creation of lowland clouds, and enhanced solar radiation reflection.
When the El Niño pattern emerged in 2023, the shift from La Niña to El Niño was so pronounced that it affected air circulation and precipitation patterns in the Western Pacific, releasing more heat into the atmosphere than initially expected.
Simultaneously, this transition led to a sharp decrease in cloud coverage over the Eastern Pacific Ocean, allowing for enhanced absorption of solar radiation. “This could drive significant annual temperature fluctuations,” notes Mex.
Karsten Hautin from Leipzig University, although not involved in the research, expressed agreement with the conclusions. “With a triple dip La Niña, the ocean fails to release heat,” he explains. “As a result, heat accumulates in the deeper ocean layers before eventually surfacing.”
Mex emphasizes that their findings indicate the reduction of ocean cloud cover as a critical element in the sharp temperature increase observed in 2023. “It fits perfectly,” he concludes.
Richard Allan from the University of Reading in the UK notes advances in understanding how cloud coverage shifted over the Pacific in 2022 and 2023. Nevertheless, he highlights that anthropogenic climate change, alongside decreases in cooling aerosol pollution, significantly contributes to diminished ocean cloud cover and escalating temperatures.
“The magnitude of the global temperature rise in 2023 resulted not only from heightened planetary heating due to increased greenhouse gases but also from the reduction and dimming of clouds connected with decreasing aerosol particle pollution,” Allan remarks.
Paleontologists have discovered a variety of animals, including saber-toothed predators, burrowing foragers, and large salamander-like creatures that flourished in southern Pangaea about 252 million years ago, just prior to the mass extinction of the Permian period.
Artistic rendering of an evening about 252 million years ago during the Late Permian Epoch in the Luangwa Basin, Zambia. This scene features several sabertooth Golgonopsians and Dishnodons in the beak. Image credit: Gabriel Ugueto.
“The extinction at the end of the Permian was catastrophic for life on Earth,” stated Professor Christian Saidal of the University of Washington.
“Yet, we do not have a complete understanding of which species managed to survive.
“The fossils we gather in Tanzania and Zambia provide a broader perspective on this remarkable period in our planet’s history.”
All new fossils were uncovered in three basins in southern Africa: the Roof Basin in southern Tanzania, the Luangwa Basin in eastern Zambia, and the Zambezi Central Basin in southern Zambia.
The majority were found by team members during several month-long excavation trips to the region over the past 17 years.
Others were analyzed from specimens excavated decades ago, preserved in museum collections.
“These regions in Zambia and Tanzania are home to incredibly well-preserved fossils from the Permian era,” Professor Saidal remarked.
“They provide us with an unparalleled glimpse into terrestrial life leading up to the mass extinction.”
The Permian period marks the conclusion of what paleontologists term the Paleozoic era.
During this time, animal life, which first emerged in our oceans, began to colonize land and developed complex terrestrial ecosystems.
The Permian epoch saw a diverse range of amphibians and reptile-like creatures inhabit environments ranging from early forests to arid valleys.
The mass extinction at the End-Permian wiped out many of these ecosystems, paving the way for the Mesozoic era, which witnessed the evolution of dinosaurs, the first birds, flowering plants, and mammals.
For decades, scientists relied on the Kalu Basin in South Africa for their best understanding of the Permian, the corresponding extinction, and the onset of the Mesozoic Era, which boasts nearly complete fossil records from before and after that mass extinction.
However, since the 1930s, paleontologists have noted that the fossil records in the Tanzanian and Zambian basins are comparably pristine.
This excavation represents the most extensive analysis of the local fossil record from the period surrounding the Permian mass extinction to date.
“The quantity of specimens found in Zambia and Tanzania is extraordinarily high, and their condition is so exquisite that paleontologists are able to draw species-level comparisons with those in South Africa,” Professor Sidor explained.
“We recognize that there is no better location on the planet to make such precise conclusions and comparisons to glean sufficient detail about this era.”
In the Series of 14 Articles published in Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology, researchers have detailed numerous new species of dicynodonts.
These small, burrowing, reptile-like herbivores first emerged during the Central Permian.
By the time of the mass extinction, the Dishnodons had beak-like snouts featuring two small tusks; many of them dug holes and became the dominant plant-eating animals on land.
The findings also uncover several large saber-toothed predators known as Golgonopsians, along with new species of amphibians, such as large salamanders.
“We can analyze two distinct geographical regions of Pangaea and observe the happenings before and after the Permian extinction,” Professor Saidal concluded.
“This allows us to explore critical questions regarding which species survived and which did not.”
Creating effective HIV vaccines may necessitate intricate formulations containing various viral proteins. Presently, two trials utilizing potential mRNA components have shown encouraging outcomes. The aim is to leverage mRNA technology for administering vaccines as a single dose rather than requiring multiple injections.
Typically, vaccines feature the virus’s outer protein, prompting the immune system to react against it. However, developing HIV vaccines poses significant challenges due to the virus’s proteins being heavily coated with sugars, which makes it tough for the immune system to generate antibodies. There’s also considerable variation across strains; therefore, even if an individual’s immune system can produce effective antibodies, these may only target a specific variant of the virus.
Nevertheless, a few individuals generate broadly neutralizing antibodies that are effective across multiple strains. Research in animals suggests that vaccines incorporating sequences of HIV proteins in various configurations can reliably elicit this broadly protective response, according to William Schief at the Scripps Institute in California.
This method highlights the advantages of mRNA vaccine technology, as mRNAs can be developed swiftly and conveniently, Schief states. “That’s a significant benefit.”
A single mRNA vaccine could encode multiple viral proteins simultaneously and has the potential to produce them in the body at different intervals, he adds. This implies that the mRNA HIV vaccine could potentially be administered as a single dose, even though several boosters typically follow. “Ideally, I’d prefer to administer one vaccine, with some components being released later,” Schief explained.
Earlier this year, his team shared promising results from preliminary human trials of the initial primers developed to stimulate B cells. Currently, his team is evaluating one of the subsequent boosters in another small study.
When volunteers received mRNA instructions for HIV external proteins integrated into the cell membrane, 80% generated antibodies shown to block infection in laboratory tests.
In this study, these antibodies were specific to one strain. Researchers anticipate that when boosters are administered sequentially, each component will be produced within the body in the correct order.
However, both trials reported a higher incidence of volunteers experiencing hive reactions, which have persisted for years. This reaction hasn’t been seen in any other mRNA vaccine trials or in non-mRNA vaccines incorporating HIV proteins, Schief notes. There appears to be an unknown factor related to delivering HIV proteins via mRNA that leads to this side effect. “It remains a scientific mystery at this time,” he states.
“The uncertainty surrounding the cause of this adverse effect makes it challenging to mitigate,” notes Hildegund Ertl, a vaccine expert associated with a company currently under exploration, Pharma5 in Morocco.
Ertl concurs that mRNA technology enables rapid testing of vaccine components but believes that the optimal final product could be delivered through different types of vaccines, such as those using empty viral shells. These alternatives can be stored at room temperature, unlike others that may require freezing, she points out.
Currently, there’s a medication called renacapavir, which offers nearly complete protection from HIV infection with two injections a year. Nevertheless, Schief believes a vaccine is still necessary. “We’re all striving to achieve this as quickly as possible,” he states, but even with the advancements in mRNA technology, an approved HIV vaccine may still be decades away.
Do our brains really develop from practically anything, allowing us to generate complex thoughts, actions, and even reflections on ourselves? Recent experiments with tadpoles have integrated electron implants into brain precursors during early embryonic stages, potentially bringing us closer to answering this question.
Earlier efforts to investigate neurodevelopment relied on tools like functional magnetic resonance imaging and rigid electrode wires. Unfortunately, the imaging resolution was often too low to be effective, while the rigid wires caused significant damage to the brain, yielding little more than a snapshot of specific developmental moments.
Researchers, including Jia Liu from Harvard University, discovered a material (a type of perfluropolymer) closely resembling brain tissue. They employed this to create a flexible, elastic mesh encasing an ultra-thin conductor, which was placed onto the neural plate—a flat structure that serves as the precursor to the brain—in the embryos of the African clawed frog (Axenopath Ravis).
As the neural plates folded and expanded, these ribbon-like meshes were enveloped by the developing brain, maintaining functionality amidst stretching and bending in the tissue. When the researchers sought to measure signals from the brain, they connected the meshes to computers to visualize neural activity.
The implants did not harm the brain nor provoke an immune reaction, and the tadpole embryos developed as anticipated. In fact, at least one grew into a normal frog, according to Liu.
“It’s incredible to integrate all these materials and ensure everything operates seamlessly,” said Christopher Bettinger from Carnegie Mellon University, Pennsylvania. “This tool has the potential to significantly advance basic neuroscience by enabling biologists to observe neural activity throughout development.”
The team derived two key insights from their experiments. First, the patterns of neural activity shifted as tissue differentiated into specialized structures, resulting in distinct functions. Liu noted that tracking an organism’s self-organization to a computer was previously deemed impossible.
The second area of focus was how brain activity in animals changes following amputation. Traditionally, it was believed that electrical activity would revert to its original developmental state. The research team confirmed this by utilizing implants in experiments with Axolotls.
Liu’s team is now broadening their research to include rodents. Unlike amphibians, rodent development occurs within the uterus, making the implantation of meshes more challenging. It requires in vitro fertilization and more intricate signaling measurement techniques compared to simply wiring the mesh to computers. Nonetheless, Liu is optimistic that the insights gained from observing early stages of conditions like autism and schizophrenia will justify the complexities involved.
Bettinger mentioned that similar devices could also be applied to monitor neuromuscular regeneration following injuries and during rehabilitation. “Overall, this highlights the remarkable potential of highly compliant electronic applications,” he stated.
Skywatchers around the world should gear up for an incredible celestial event, as the binary star system T Corona (T CrB) is expected to experience a magnificent nova explosion sometime between now and September. This explosion could occur at any moment.
This remarkable outburst will change T CrB from an unseen star to one as bright as Polaris.
Novae like the one predicted for T CrB happen in binary star systems where a white dwarf orbits closely with a companion star.
“A nova is a binary system in which two stars orbit close to each other.”Dr. Darren Baskill, an Astronomy lecturer at the University of Sussex, tells BBC Science Focus, “About half of the stars in the night sky are double star systems.”
These should not be confused with supernovae, the dramatic explosions that occur when a massive star dies and can illuminate an entire galaxy momentarily.
White dwarfs accumulate material from their companion stars through a process called accretion. When this material reaches a critical temperature, it triggers powerful hydrogen fusion reactions.
The outcome? A nuclear explosion that ejects gas from the white dwarf, significantly increasing the system’s brightness.
“This sudden onset of nuclear fusion causes the surface gas layer to become even hotter, triggering more nuclear reactions and leading to a brightening of the star – a nova explosion,” Baskill explained.
This is a “fireworks nova,” captured by NASA’s Chandra X-ray Observatory in 2015. Like T CrB, it caused a stir in the astronomy community when it suddenly appeared as one of the brightest stars in the sky for a few days in 1901. – Image credit: NASA
While most novae are unpredictable and observed only once, T CrB is a recurrent nova that erupts roughly every 80 years. If you miss it this time, you’ll have to wait until around the year 2100!
T CrB is the closest star system to Earth, about 3,000 light years away, and is bright enough to be seen with the naked eye even in areas with moderate light pollution.
The nova explosion of T CrB is so distant from Earth that it has just reached us. Since then, there have been over 35-40 similar explosions, and the light signals from each one are yet to reach us.
Previous eruptions of T CrB were recorded in 1866 and 1946, with a noticeable brightness decrease before the latter eruption. A similar decline was noted earlier this year, hinting at a potential new explosion.
“Amateur astronomers around the world have observed slight brightness changes in this star every three to four months,” Baskill noted. “In 1945, when this happened, the gas on the white dwarf’s surface exploded dramatically within a year, causing a nova. Is it possible that the same scenario could repeat soon?”
How to witness a nova explosion
Although T CrB is currently too dim to be seen without help, a nova eruption would be visible without any special equipment. Amateur telescopes can observe T CrB before the eruption.
To prepare, stargazers should study Corona Borealis using a star chart or a smartphone app.
This preparation will enhance the spectacle when a nova suddenly emerges and brightens a familiar constellation.
Dr. Mark HollandsResearchers from the University of Warwick advise: “The nova will be visible to the naked eye for a few nights, reaching a brightness similar to other stars in Corona Borealis. If you miss that window, it should be visible for several weeks with binoculars.”
Though our Sun will become a white dwarf in billions of years, it will not undergo a nova explosion due to the lack of a companion star.
Don’t miss this once-in-a-lifetime astronomical event and seize the rare chance to witness a nova explosion bright enough to see without a telescope.
About the experts
Darren Baskill is an Outreach Officer and Lecturer at the University of Sussex. She previously taught at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, where she founded the observatory’s annual ‘Astronomy Photographer of the Year’ competition.
Mark Hollands is a Postdoctoral Research Fellow at the University of Warwick, focusing on white dwarfs. His work appears in journals like Natural Astronomy, Monthly Bulletin of the Royal Astronomical Society, and he has spoken at conferences worldwide.
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