Tag Archives: Iron

Astounding Discovery: Astronomers Find Iron ‘Rod’ at the Center of a Mysterious Ring Nebula

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Astronomers utilizing the WHT Extended Area Velocity Explorer (WEAVE), a cutting-edge instrument aboard the William Herschel Telescope on La Palma Island, have uncovered an intriguing elongated structure of ionized iron within the renowned Ring Nebula.

A composite image of the Ring Nebula featuring four WEAVE/LIFU emission line images. Image credit: Wesson et al., doi: 10.1093/mnras/staf2139.

The Ring Nebula, also known as Messier 57, M57, or NGC 6720, is a classic planetary nebula located approximately 2,000 light-years away in the constellation Lyra.

This nebula was first discovered by the French astronomer Charles Messier in January 1779 while he was on a mission to find comets.

Messier’s report about the discovery of Comet Bode reached fellow astronomer Antoine d’Alquier de Perpois shortly afterward, who subsequently rediscovered the Ring Nebula during his comet observations.

The newly identified rod-shaped cloud of iron atoms resides within the inner layer of this elliptical nebula.

Measuring about 500 times the length of Pluto’s orbit around the sun, this cloud’s atomic mass of iron is comparable to that of Mars.

This iron cloud was detected using the Large Integral Field Unit (LIFU) mode of the innovative WEAVE instrument on the 4.2-meter William Herschel Telescope, part of the Isaac Newton Group.

According to Dr. Roger Wesson, an astronomer from University College London and Cardiff University: “While the Ring Nebula has been extensively studied with various telescopes, WEAVE enables us to observe it in unprecedented detail, providing much richer information than previously available.”

“By continuously collecting spectra across the nebula, we can image it at any wavelength and analyze its chemical composition at any given location.”

“As we process the data and examine the images, we discover a never-before-seen ‘rod’ of ionized iron atoms at the heart of this iconic ring.”

The exact nature of the iron “rods” within the Ring Nebula remains uncertain.

Two potential scenarios emerge: the bar may offer new insights into the nebula’s formation and ejection by its parent star, or (more intriguingly) it could represent an arc of plasma from a rocky planet evaporating during the star’s initial expansion.

Professor Janet Drew, also from University College London, noted: “We need to investigate further, particularly to determine if the newly detected iron coexists with other elements. This could guide us toward the appropriate models to explore.”

“Currently, this crucial information is lacking.”

For more in-depth details, check out the findings published today in the Royal Astronomical Society Monthly Notices.

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R. Wesson et al. 2026. WEAVE Imaging Spectroscopy of NGC 6720: Iron Rods in the Ring. MNRAS 546 (1): staf2139; doi: 10.1093/mnras/staf2139

Source: www.sci.news

Research Shows Ice Dissolves Iron Minerals More Efficiently than Liquid Water

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Ice at 10 degrees Celsius releases iron from more abundant minerals compared to liquid water at 4 degrees Celsius, according to researchers from Umeå University, Chimiques de Rennes, and CNRS. This discovery sheds light on why many Arctic rivers are taking on a rusty orange hue as permafrost begins to thaw in warmer climates.

Schematic diagram of the iron mineral dissolution reaction of ice. Image credit: Sebaaly et al. , doi: 10.1073/pnas.2507588122.

“It may seem counterintuitive, but ice is not merely a static frozen mass,” stated Professor Jean François Boyley from Umeå University.

“Frozen states create microscopic pockets of liquid water between ice crystals.”

“These pockets function like chemical reactors, where compounds become concentrated and highly acidic.”

“This implies that even at temperatures as low as 30 degrees Celsius, they can engage with iron minerals.”

To investigate this phenomenon, Professor Boyley and his team examined goethite, a diverse array of iron oxide minerals, along with naturally occurring organic acids.

Through advanced microscopy and a series of experiments, they found that repeated freeze-thaw cycles enhance iron dissolution significantly.

When ice undergoes freezing and thawing, it releases organic compounds that were previously trapped, fostering additional chemical reactions.

Salt concentration also plays a critical role; fresh brackish waters promote iron dissolution, whereas seawater inhibits it.

The outcomes of this research are particularly relevant in acidic environments like mine drainage sites, frozen atmospheric dust, acid sulfate soils along the Baltic coast, or acidic freezing locales where iron minerals interact with organic matter.

“As global temperatures rise, the freeze-thaw cycles are becoming more frequent,” remarked Angelo Pio Severly, a doctoral candidate at Umeå University.

“Each cycle liberates iron from the soil and permafrost into the water, potentially impacting water quality and aquatic ecosystems over vast areas.”

“These findings emphasize that ice is an active participant, rather than a passive medium for storage.”

“It is crucial to recognize the growing impact of freeze and thaw processes in polar and mountainous regions on ecosystems and elemental cycling.”

The research team’s paper was published on August 26, 2025, in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.

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Angelo P. Severly et al. 2025. Ice as a kinetic and mechanical driver for iron oxide dissolution of oxalate oxide. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 122 (35): E2507588122; doi: 10.1073/pnas.2507588122

Source: www.sci.news

Rare Artifacts Discovered in Sweden Illuminate Iron Age Metal Trade Between the Atlantic and Baltic Seas

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A recent study by archaeologists investigated round heavy metal objects from Seldal, located in the Haland region of western Sweden. Initially thought to be Bronze Age artifacts due to their shape and size, these objects were determined to be composed of copper-zinc-tin-reed alloys typical of the Iron Age and later periods.

Plano Convex Ingots from Seldal in Harland, Sweden. Image credit: Sabatini et al., doi: 10.1016/j.jasrep.2025.105312.

The ancient ingots were uncovered in the village of Seldal on Sweden’s west coast during the fall of 2022.

This artifact has been identified as a Plano-Convex Ingot.

“Plano-convex ingots, commonly known as ‘bread’ ingots or ‘casting cakes,’ were prevalent during the Bronze Age, though they vary in size, shape, and composition,” explains Serena Sabatini, a researcher at the University of Gothenburg.

“These artifacts are typically round with flat top surfaces and various inflated convex bottoms.”

“They are created by pouring molten metal into shallow molds or cavities in the ground.”

“Most of these ingots exhibit a rough, ‘bubbly’ top surface, indicating they were poured into an open casting mold, while the bottom remains smooth, as it was not exposed to air during production.”

“Due to their straightforward manufacturing process, they are widely found across Eurasia and were utilized both in prehistoric and historical periods.”

The Särdal Ingot measures 14-15.3 cm in diameter, approximately 2.5 cm thick, and weighs 1223.5 grams.

Notably, the ingot’s surface displays significant corrosion, especially on the rough, raised area.

The overall dimensions and weight of the ingot initially suggested it could be a Bronze Age find.

“At first, we believed the Seldal Ingot dated back to the Bronze Age,” the archaeologist noted.

“However, since it was found alone and not dated within an archaeological context, we opted for isotopic and chemical analysis to determine its composition and estimate a time frame.”

The analysis yielded surprising results, revealing that the ingot was made from copper-zinc-tin-reed alloys typical of the Iron Age and later.

“The findings emerged thanks to the collaborative spirit of the international scientific community exploring archaeological topics, allowing us to identify the isotopic and elemental characteristics of the Seldal ingots, which closely resemble artifacts from two sites found in the Iwawa Lakeland region of northeastern Poland.

Research into the Baltic Sea area, which had a robust network connected to western Sweden and southern Scandinavia during the Roman Iron Age, indicates that the alloys from both Seldal and Iwawa Lakeland were present in the region during the latter half of the 1st millennium BCE.

“Thus, we propose that the Plano Convex Ingots from Harland and the ingots from Poland represent the outcomes of a metallic maritime trade linking Scandinavia, the Baltic Sea, and the Iberian Peninsula.”

Their paper will appear in the October 2025 edition of Journal of Archaeological Science: Report.

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Serena Sabatini et al. 2025. Iron Age Metals Trade between the Atlantic and the Baltic Sea: New insights from the first complete Plano-Convex Ingot found in Sweden and Ingot Rod in Iwawa Lakeland, northeastern Poland. Journal of Archaeological Science: Report 66:105312; doi:10.1016/j.jasrep.2025.105312

Source: www.sci.news

California Invests in Iron Salt Batteries to Safeguard Against Wildfires

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Batteries created from iron and salt in ceramic tubes present a reduced fire risk compared to lithium-ion batteries

Inlyte Energy

Batteries utilizing iron and salt can deliver emergency power without fire hazards, located near one of California’s historic redwood forests.

The 200-kilowatt battery will be integrated with solar panels at the Alliance Red Woods Conference Ground in Sonoma County, California. This site is situated in a high wildfire risk zone of Redwood Forest, merely 16 kilometers from Armstrong Redwoods State Natural Reserve, and is home to California’s tallest and oldest trees. During severe weather and wildfires, conference facilities often assist firefighters and evacuees, yet they are also prone to power grid outages.

“Our view of technology revolves around establishing a secure, cost-effective energy storage solution.” Ben Kaun from Inlyte Energy in California stated. “This perspective guided us toward developing large cells with affordable and plentiful active materials such as iron and salt.”

The battery projects are expected to provide up to two weeks of emergency backup power, operational by 2027. This capability will enable lighting within the conference grounds and supply power to local firefighter water pump stations without jeopardizing the iconic redwood trees.

This is attributed to the non-flammable nature of these easily sourced battery components (powdered iron and salt contained in ceramic tubes). “These batteries and their cells can be positioned closely together without the typical fire or explosion risks associated with lithium-ion batteries,” says Kaun.

Lithium-ion batteries, commonly used in smartphones and electric vehicles, can ignite under certain conditions, and this risk escalates when batteries are concentrated in large storage facilities. For instance, in January 2025, a fire at California’s largest battery storage site obliterated 300 megawatts of energy storage. Conversely, Inlyte’s iron-salt batteries possess significantly lower risk profiles. The Iron-Salt Battery initiative has secured nearly $4 million in funding from the U.S. Department of Energy to enhance energy resilience in wildfire-prone areas near Redwood Forest.

“These non-flammable batteries are a prudent choice for project developers considering energy storage installations in remote or drought-prone regions or near forests vulnerable to frequent drought,” says Dustin Mulbany from San Jose State University. “Energy technology and infrastructure have historically contributed to wildfires, and utilizing non-flammable batteries offers a way to mitigate some of these risks.”

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Source: www.newscientist.com

Low Iron Levels Are Common, But They Can Be Improved: Here’s How to Naturally Boost Yours

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Recent reviews published in Lancet Hematology by Dr. Ashley Benson and Dr. Jamie Law at Oregon Health and Science University reveal that iron deficiency impacts nearly one in three women, making it the most prevalent nutritional deficiency globally.

This deficiency is crucial for energy production, brain development, and maintaining a robust immune system.

According to the World Health Organization, anemia affects 31% of women of reproductive age, 36% of pregnant women, and 40% of children under 5.

Inflammation can interfere with iron absorption, stemming from acute diseases or chronic conditions such as obesity. With rising global obesity and chronic disease rates, this creates additional challenges in tackling iron deficiency worldwide.

Iron Deficiency

Iron deficiency can lead to anemia, as iron is vital for red blood cell production. Anemia is characterized by low hemoglobin levels, the protein that gives blood its red color and transports oxygen.

The World Health Organization reports that anemia affects 31% of adult women of reproductive age, 36% of pregnant women, and 40% of children under 5 years old. Approximately half of all global anemia cases result from iron deficiency. Common symptoms include pale skin, fatigue, shortness of breath, and irregular heartbeat (known as palpitations).

Iron deficiency poses serious health risks, especially when it causes anemia, including a weakened immune system, complications during pregnancy and childbirth, maternal and infant mortality, and delayed growth and brain development in children.

Diet can influence iron absorption. – Photo credit: Getty

The repercussions of iron deficiency are particularly severe for women and children, who are the most susceptible.

Menstruating women have a heightened need for iron due to monthly blood loss. Pregnant women require extra iron for the placenta, fetus, and increased blood volume. Children need iron for rapid growth and brain development, making adolescent girls—who are both growing and menstruating—especially vulnerable.

In their study, Benson and Law convened a panel of 26 experts alongside four patient representatives. Their collective recommendations advocate for a more positive and inclusive strategy for managing iron deficiency, particularly for at-risk populations.

The panel stressed the importance of regular screening during pregnancy and early childhood. They emphasized utilizing ferritin, a blood protein indicating liver iron storage, as a reliable marker for diagnosing iron deficiency and determining intervention timing.

If treatment is necessary, oral iron supplements are the first recommendation. They are effective, widely accessible, and cost-effective. For those experiencing side effects like nausea and constipation, the panel suggested taking supplements on alternate days to enhance tolerability. In more severe instances, or if oral iron proves ineffective, intravenous iron may be needed.

Lastly, the panel asserted that iron deficiency should not be viewed as an isolated issue, but rather part of the routine care for mothers and children, including pregnancy tests, child health visits, and nutrition programs.

Iron Advice

While some individuals may need treatments for iron deficiency, many cases can be prevented through daily dietary choices.

Begin by adding more iron-rich foods to your meals, such as pulses, legumes, green leafy vegetables, nuts, and iron-fortified cereals (opt for lower sugar options for kids and adolescents).

For those consuming animal products, limit intake to moderate amounts of lean meat—about 70g (2.5oz) per day, as recommended by the UK Eatwell Guide—which can provide easily absorbable iron.

If you primarily follow a plant-based diet, consider pairing iron-rich foods with vitamin C sources like lemon juice, tomatoes, and strawberries to enhance iron absorption.

Avoid drinking tea or coffee during meals as polyphenols can hinder iron absorption; this applies to taking iron supplements as well. Consuming them with a vitamin C source, such as orange juice, can significantly improve absorption.

If you belong to a higher-risk group—such as menstruating individuals or caregivers of young children—or if you experience excessive fatigue, consult your doctor. A simple blood test can evaluate your iron levels. In children, iron deficiency may also manifest as unusual cravings, such as for ice or non-food items.

Iron deficiency is prevalent but manageable and often preventable. With awareness and mindful choices, maintaining healthy iron levels can be as straightforward as selecting what goes on your plate.

For more fact-checked news, visit the BBC Verification Website.

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Source: www.sciencefocus.com

For centuries, the Iron Age site functioned as a purple dye factory

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Stoneware with purple dye residue found at Tel Shiqmona, Israel

Maria Bukin/Shalvi et al. , 2025, Plos One, CC-By 4.0

For centuries, modern Israeli coastal settlements have been home to industrial scale production from marine snails of purple dye, one of the most precious commodities in the ancient world.

Known as Tyrian Purple, it was particularly sought to color wool fabrics, and was highly regarded by wealthy and powerful people in Iron Age Mediterranean society. However, up until now, direct evidence of large-scale production sites has been sparse.

From 1100 BC to about 900 BC, Tel Shiqmona was a small Phoenician fishing village, producing small scale purple dyes. Later, when the Kingdom of Israel began to expand, the site said it had “transformed from a fishing village into a fortified purple dye production centre. Golan Charvy At the University of Chicago.

During archaeological research at the site, Sharvi and his colleagues discovered the remains of dye-dyed debris used to treat the material. 176 artifacts related to the production of purple dyes were collected, including 135 purple dye items.

The dye secretes mucus to protect itself and to kill prey. “The secretion is initially a slightly greenish fluid that oxidizes upon exposure to air and gradually turns purple,” says Sharvi. “However, to convert it into a real dye (something that chemically binds to textiles), it must be processed into solution through a complex series of chemical steps.”

Researchers argue that Tel Shiqmona is the only site in the world with clear evidence of the large-scale production of purple dyes in specialized facilities for a long time.

However, there is no historical record linking the site to the dye, and little is known about the actual process used to manufacture it, Shalvi says.

After the Kingdom of Israel fell around 720 BC, the scale of dye production fell until the Assyrians took over the site and increased the process again. When the Babylonians conquered the area around 600 BC, dye production at Tel Shiqmona was abandoned.

“It was most industrial sites in the Iron Age, and there was no monumental architecture or any particular beauty or elegance,” says Sharvi. “I think it’s a very smelly place, especially in modern noses, as the production process has produced a terrible smell. I imagine wool fleece dyed in various shades that are dry on the outside and inside of the building.

Purple dyes have captivated people all over the world, he says, and it has been the subject of extensive research. “The relationship with elite classes and religious rituals has grown in cultural, symbolic and economic significance, far beyond its function as mere colour.”

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Source: www.newscientist.com

Officials from Jewish non-profit organization claim that Iron Mask promotes violence with his “Nazi salute”

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According to a well-known US Jewish civil society, Donald Trump’s repetitive fascist-style salute could potentially incite violence.

Amy Spitalnick, the highest executive officer of the Jewish Council, a prominent non-profit organization based in New York City, emphasized the problematic nature of Trump’s salute during a recent rally.

Despite attempts to downplay the incident, Spitalnick firmly believes that the salute carries historical connotations and should not be dismissed lightly.

She highlighted the significance of the Nazi salute in political discourse and criticized those who fail to understand the gravity of such gestures.

Spitalnick also pointed out the dangerous implications of Trump’s support for far-right ideologies, urging people to take action against hate speech and extremism.

While some groups attempted to downplay the incident, Spitalnick and the Jewish Council remained steadfast in their condemnation of Trump’s salute.

Amy Spitalnick outside the United Nations in New York City on September 22, 2023. Photo: Rob Kim/Getty Image for New York’s protest movement

Spitalnick expressed disappointment in the lack of accountability from the Trump administration and its tolerance for extremist behavior.

In light of these events, Spitalnick urged people to remain vigilant and not underestimate the potential harm caused by such actions.

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She emphasized the importance of holding individuals accountable for their actions, especially those in positions of power like Musk and Trump.

Source: www.theguardian.com

Potential for Creating Life on Mars with Reflective Iron Rods

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Terraforming Mars would make it more similar to Earth, creating an environment capable of supporting life as we know it.

Detlef van Ravensweig/Science Photo Library

Releasing iron rods the size of glitter particles into the Martian atmosphere could raise the planet's temperature enough to melt water and support microbial life.

Making the Red Planet's surface habitable for Earth-like life – a process known as “terraforming” – will be a complex one, but a key part of it will be raising the surface temperature above the current median freezing point of -65°C (-85°F).

Some have suggested placing mirrors on the Martian surface or pumping methane into the atmosphere, but these ideas are difficult to implement because the necessary raw materials would need to be shipped from Earth.

now, Edwin Kite Researchers at the University of Chicago in Illinois found that a relatively tiny dust cloud (about 9 micrometers long and 160 nanometers wide) made from iron or aluminum rods mined from Martian rocks could warm Mars by about 30 degrees Celsius over the course of a few months to more than a decade, depending on how quickly the particles are released.

These rods, each about 9 micrometers long and 160 nanometers wide, are carried by winds from the surface into Mars' upper atmosphere, where they will remain for about 10 years, trapping heat from the surface and transmitting sunlight.

Kite and his colleagues modeled how the rods respond to light and fed that information into climate simulations, which showed that the increased temperature and pressure would be enough to support liquid water and possibly oxygen-producing bacteria in parts of Mars.

They also found that to achieve this warming, it would be enough to release the fuel rods at a rate fast enough to power about 30 garden sprinklers — a total of 700,000 cubic meters of metal per year, or about 1% of Earth's metal production.

“When we did the math, we found that the amount of man-made dust we needed would be surprisingly small — much less than we would need to create the same amount of warming with man-made greenhouse gases,” Kyte says.

While mining the Martian surface would still be difficult, Kite says this would be 5,000 times more efficient than any warming method proposed so far.

One of the big uncertainties in the simulations is how the tiny bars interact with water in the Martian atmosphere, which could have unexpected effects such as causing the water to collect around the dust and rain down back to the surface, reducing global warming.

It's an intriguing idea that might work if the particles remain in the atmosphere long enough, he said. Manoj Joshi researcher at the University of East Anglia in the U.K. But even if the amount of metal needed is small, he says it would still be an enormous amount of work to produce.

Joshi said there are also ethical questions about whether it's OK to alter the atmosphere of another planet: “Mars is so unexplored and we don't know much about it. Is it OK to alter a planet in this way?”

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Source: www.newscientist.com

The teeth of Komodo dragons are coated with iron.

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The Komodo dragon is a ferocious predator.

Charlotte Ellis/Zoological Society of London

Komodo dragons, some of the most ferocious reptiles on Earth, strengthen their teeth with iron caps, and researchers believe some dinosaurs may have had this adaptation as well.

Komodo dragon (Komodo dragon coati) is endemic to several Indonesian islands and preys on larger animals such as deer, pigs, and buffalo; it can grow to three meters in length and weigh up to 150 kilograms.

When I noticed that the animal had orange serrations on its teeth, Aaron LeBlanc The researcher, from King's College London, says he initially dismissed it as staining: “It wasn't until I visited the museum collection and saw all the teeth along the skulls of many Komodo dragon specimens that I became convinced I was looking at a new adaptation for this iconic reptile,” he says.

LeBlanc and his colleagues used high-powered x-rays at a synchrotron facility to examine the surfaces of Komodo dragon teeth and identify the different elements found along the teeth.

“When we mapped the cross-sections of Komodo dragon teeth, we quickly saw that iron was concentrated at the cutting edge and tip of the tooth, but not anywhere else in the tooth,” LeBlanc says, “and this matches up exactly with the orange stains we see on the teeth under a microscope.”

Komodo dragon tooth with orange steel cap

Dr Aaron LeBlanc, King's College London

Komodo dragon enamel is incredibly thin compared to human teeth, LeBlanc said: At the serrated edge, the enamel is just 20 micrometers thick, about a quarter of the thickness of a human hair. Human tooth enamel is about 100 times thicker.

The iron coating on Komodo dragon teeth is coated on top of this extremely thin layer of enamel, which the team believes gives the enamel extra strength, protects the serrations as the dragon eats its prey, or acts as a barrier against acidic digestive juices.

Iron is readily available in the environment, especially for large carnivores, and it's thought that the cells that make enamel change their behavior towards the final layer, producing an iron-rich finish.

Crocodiles and alligators can also concentrate iron in their enamel, but their teeth do not have iron-rich crowns.

The researchers also looked for iron coatings on the dinosaur fossil teeth. They haven't found evidence yet, but the researchers think that could be because the iron signal was destroyed by fossilization. “We need to look at better preserved dinosaur teeth to be sure,” LeBlanc said.

Leblanc says his fellow dentists are intrigued by the potential of these natural materials: “It's still a long way off, but I can imagine a time when we develop new enamel coatings inspired by nature, perhaps even the Komodo dragon,” he says.

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Source: www.newscientist.com

Can ‘iron snow’ potentially sustain life in Europa’s oceans?

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The only example of life in the universe is Earth, a rocky planet with over 70% water on its surface. As far as we know, all life on Earth relies on water to survive and thrive, so scientists refer to other planets where liquid water is known to exist as “habitable.”

But scientists also know that a puddle of water alone is not enough to sustain life. Life depends on a constant flow of electrons between molecules, which Electronic GradientTo create energy, electrons move away from areas of high electron density. Reducelow density areas, so-called Oxidize.

Scientists have found several planets and moons in our solar system that have liquid water. Researchers are particularly intrigued by Jupiter's moon Europa, because remote sensing has revealed that it has a salty liquid ocean about 100 kilometers (60 miles) deep on top of a crust of iron-rich rock, with a layer of ice about 10 kilometers (6 miles) thick on top of that.

Europa has no atmosphere to protect it from the sun's radiation, which allows chemical reactions to take place that consume electrons on its surface, creating an oxidizing environment. In contrast, its iron-rich crust creates a reducing environment beneath its oceans. This means that an electron gradient naturally forms along the path from Europa's oxidizing surface to its reduced ocean floor. Scientists want to know if life could harness this electron gradient to obtain enough energy to sustain itself and survive.

Researchers studying Europa From the data Cassini and Galileo The mission found that Europa's ocean temperatures range from 0 to -13 degrees Celsius, or 32 to 9 degrees Celsius. They found that the hottest temperatures are found closest to the ocean floor, where heat is generated by reactions between water and rock, similar to Earth's hydrothermal systems. They also found that some of the most abundant molecules near Europa's surface are all oxide molecules, such as carbonates and sulfates.

Based on these temperature constraints and the amount of energy provided by oxidizing molecules on Europa's surface, a team of researchers from the University of Akron and the University of Southern California calculated the amount of energy available for life in Europa's ocean and investigated whether three types of Earth microorganisms could live beneath Europa's ocean. The microorganisms they tested generate energy using carbonates, sulfates, or iron particles. They reasoned that because all three of these oxidizing molecules are found on Europa's icy surface, if delivered to the ocean floor, the organisms could combine with reducing molecules on the ocean floor to generate energy.

The researchers calculated that in Europa's environment, molten iron near the surface layer of ice would form solid particles when exposed to penetrating radiation from the sun, and slowly fall to the ocean floor — like snow falling from the sky on Earth, except instead of water ice particles, the ocean rains down in the form of rust-like, reddish iron particles.

The scientists calculated that iron oxide snow would provide a larger electron gradient than carbonates or sulfates, ultimately generating more energy for life. They estimated that iron snow could provide up to 2.5×1026 More than 100 microbial cells are found on Europa's ocean floor per year, which represents about 0.1% of the total number of microbial cells currently living in Earth's oceans.

However, the authors caution that only around 10% of the energy produced by organisms on Earth is used to generate cells — the remaining 90% is used to maintain metabolism, meaning that the number of cells that microbial life could actually generate from Europa's underwater iron pathways would be much lower than the authors estimate.

Nevertheless, the authors suggest that these cell count calculations could be used to design missions to search for life on Europa: When future satellites orbit Europa, researchers could estimate how much cell mass we might expect from microbes living in the iron passages on the Europa ocean floor.


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Source: sciworthy.com

Detecting Iron in the Accretion Disk Around the Supermassive Black Hole of NGC 4151: XRISM Observations

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NGC 4151 is a spiral galaxy located approximately 62 million light-years away in the northern constellation Hanabi.

This artist's concept shows possible locations for iron revealed in NGC 4151's XRISM X-ray spectrum. Image credit: Conceptual Image Lab, NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center.

The X-ray Imaging and Spectroscopy Mission (XRISM), a joint effort between JAXA and NASA, with extensive participation from ESA, launched from Japan's Tanegashima Space Center on September 6, 2023.

After beginning science operations in February 2024, the spacecraft focused on the supermassive black hole at the center of NGC 4151.

“XRISM's Resolve instrument captured a detailed spectrum of the region around the black hole,” said researcher Brian Williams, Ph.D., of NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center.

“The peaks and valleys are like chemical fingerprints that tell us what elements are present and can reveal clues about the fate of matter that approaches a black hole.”

NGC 4151's supermassive black hole holds more than 20 million times the mass of the Sun.

This galaxy is also active, meaning its center is unusually bright and changeable.

Gas and dust swirling toward the black hole forms an accretion disk around it, heated by gravity and frictional forces, creating fluctuations.

Some of the material at the edge of the black hole forms twin jets of particles that shoot out from either side of the disk at nearly the speed of light.

A bulging donut-shaped cloud of material called a torus surrounds the accretion disk.

XRISM's Resolve instrument captured data from the center of NGC 4151. The resulting spectrum reveals the presence of iron with a peak around 6.5 keV and a dip around 7 keV, thousands of times more energetic than the light visible to our eyes. Image credits: JAXA / NASA / XRISM Resolve / CXC / CfA / Wang et al. / Isaac Newton Telescope Group, La Palma Island / Jacobus Kapteyn Telescope / NSF / NRAO / VLA.

“In fact, NGC 4151 is one of the closest known active galaxies,” Dr. Williams and his colleagues said.

“Other missions, such as NASA's Chandra X-ray Observatory and the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope, are conducting research to learn more about the interactions between black holes and their surroundings, allowing scientists to study galaxies. Find out how the supermassive black hole at the center of time grows throughout the universe.

“This galaxy is unusually bright in X-rays, making it an ideal early target for XRISM.”

“The NGC 4151 spectrum in Resolve shows a sharp peak at energies just below 6.5 keV, an iron emission line.”

Astronomers believe that much of the power in active galaxies comes from X-rays emanating from hot, blazing regions near black holes.

When the X-rays reflect off the cold gas inside the disk, the iron there fluoresces, producing a specific X-ray peak.

This allowed for a more accurate depiction of both the disk and the eruptive region much closer to the black hole.

“The spectrum also shows some dips around 7 keV,” the astronomers said.

“The iron present in the torus caused these dips as well, but due to absorption rather than emission of X-rays, because the material there is much cooler than in the disk.”

“All of this radiation is about 2,500 times more energetic than the light we can see with our eyes.”

“Iron is just one of the elements that XRISM can detect. The telescope can also detect sulfur, calcium, argon, and more, depending on the source.”

“Each one tells us something different about the cosmic phenomena that litter the X-ray sky.”

Source: www.sci.news

Iron Age people may have buried their beloved pets, such as dogs and horses along with them

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Remains of dog and baby girl buried in Seminario Vescoville near Verona, Italy

Laffranchi et al. (CC-BY 4.0)

Late Iron Age people in northern Italy were sometimes buried with dogs and horses. Probably because they loved dogs and horses.

Archaeologists often suspect that the ancient worldwide custom of placing animals in human graves is associated with higher socio-economic status, beliefs about the afterlife, or certain family traditions. I was there. However, after thorough investigation, researchers say they are now beginning to suspect that such “community burials” may have simply been expressions of love for devoted non-human family members. Marco Mirella At the University of Bern, Switzerland.

He and his colleagues reexamined bones excavated from the 2,200-year-old Seminario Vescoville cemetery just east of Verona, Italy. There, the Cenomani lived in metal-making communities before and during the Roman conquest.

Most of the 161 graves discovered at the site contained only human remains, but 16 graves also contained whole or partial animal remains. Twelve of the items were pork or beef products, apparently food offerings to the deceased. Zita Laffranchialso at the University of Bern.

However, the remaining four were buried with dogs and/or horses, which were not used for food by the group. Among them were a middle-aged man with a small dog, a young man with part of a horse, a 9-month-old baby girl alongside the dog, and, most unexpectedly, a pony. She was a middle-aged woman. She had a dog’s head placed above her and a dog’s head placed above her head.

“At first, the excavators were surprised to find human legs under the horses, and their first idea was that there were horsemen here, there were warriors.” LaFranch says. However, the woman was buried unarmed, suggesting that her association with the 1.3 meter tall pony had nothing to do with the war.

The researchers found no particular trends in the age of the people buried with the animals, and DNA analysis suggested they were not genetically related to each other. Chemical analysis of these corpses Dietary differences related to socio-economic status were also not revealed compared to human-only graves.

The findings suggest that ancient people may have felt a strong connection to their animals and therefore chose to bury their loved ones with them, the researchers said. “And why not?” says Mirella. “You can never rule that out.”

Another explanation, the researchers added, is that the animals may have had symbolic meaning for the afterlife. For example, in Gallo-Roman religion, The Celtic horse goddess Epona was believed to protect individuals after death..And what about Gallo Romance? Sometimes dogs are associated with the afterlife.. In fact, burying dogs with infants may even have had a purpose: Protecting parents from future baby loss.

Still, the animals in the graves appear to have benefited from careful human care, rather than as disposable livestock. The dog in particular appears to have been fed human food and is showing signs of wound treatment and healing.

So it’s also possible that people were buried with animals for both symbolic and affectionate reasons, Mirella said.

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Source: www.newscientist.com