Every 26 seconds, the Earth’s crust resonates softly, akin to the rhythmic beating of a heart or the steady ticking of a clock.
These faint seismic events, termed “microearthquakes,” are imperceptible to the human senses, yet they are captured by the sensitive instruments used by seismologists.
Although scientists identified this consistent pulse decades ago, a definitive cause remains elusive.
Microearthquakes occur more frequently than one might think, arising from natural events on Earth, such as ocean waves crashing against shorelines or sports enthusiasts rhythmically stomping their feet.
They contribute to a sort of seismic background noise. Yet, this particular microearthquake is distinctive due to its persistent and rhythmic quality.
Dr. Jack Oliver, a geologist from Columbia University, played a key role in recognizing this global storm of microearthquakes, noting that the source was located in the southern Atlantic Ocean.
Now, over fifty years later, advancements in technology have allowed scientists to more precisely locate its origin.
These studies reveal that the pulse originates from Bonny Bay, situated in the Gulf of Guinea off the west coast of Africa.
Bonny Bay is located in the Gulf of Guinea off the west coast of Africa, near Nigeria, Cameroon, and Equatorial Guinea – Credit: Getty
Researchers have narrowed down the cause to two primary theories: ocean waves or volcanic activity.
Intense waves reflecting off the coast of Africa might converge at a specific location near Bioko Island.
When these waves strike the continental shelf, their energy can slightly bend the Earth’s crust, resulting in regular seismic waves.
Significantly, the strength of the 26-second pulse appears to correlate with storm intensity in the southern Atlantic, meaning that as storms escalate, so do the waves and the resulting seismic energy.
Mount Aso, a volcano in Japan’s Aso-Kuju National Park, generates seismic pulses thought to be caused by the movement of underground gas and magma – Credit: Getty
Conversely, Chinese researchers suggest that a volcano on Sao Tome Island may be responsible for these seismic pulses. Previous studies have linked volcanoes to microseismic activity as well.
For instance, Mount Aso in Japan is known to cause tremors believed to result from gas and magma movement underground.
Additional research has uncovered a second source of periodic microseismic activity from the same region, oscillating at a slightly different frequency of every 28 seconds.
This pulse seemingly originates near Pico Cao Grande, another volcano on Sao Tome Island.
This implies that the 28-second pulse could be volcanic in nature, while the 26-second pulse might stem from another undiscovered volcano.
Despite these intriguing findings, the exact cause of Earth’s seismic pulse continues to remain a mystery.
While this pulse’s consistency is fascinating, it doesn’t pose any danger, making it a relatively low-priority area for further seismological research.
It’s my hope that we uncover answers soon.
This article addresses the question posed by Patrick Hawkins via email: “Does the Earth have a heartbeat?”
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Researchers have uncovered a mysterious substance on the surfaces of both Pluto and Saturn’s moon Titan, but its identity remains elusive.
Titan’s dense atmosphere poses significant challenges in surface exploration. Identifying this enigmatic compound is crucial for understanding the moon’s intricate chemistry. Titan stands out as a prime candidate in the solar system for the search for extraterrestrial life, making the understanding of its chemical structure vital.
Astronomers utilize spectroscopy—an essential tool that analyzes the light wavelengths absorbed, reflected, and emitted by various chemicals—to study the organization of distant celestial bodies.
Bruno Besar and researchers at the Paris Observatory made significant findings using data from the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST). They discovered that a specific range of light wavelengths was being absorbed by a substance on Titan’s surface, which was also observed on Pluto, albeit across a broader spectrum.
At first glance, Titan and Pluto appear vastly different. Titan experiences much warmer temperatures, has a liquid ocean on its surface, and possesses a denser atmosphere compared to Pluto’s. However, the atmospheric chemistry reveals similarities, as “Both atmospheres predominantly consist of nitrogen and methane, leading to chemical reactions that generate haze particles that settle as snow,” explained Besar. This process is likely responsible for the formation of the unidentified compounds.
The researchers contrasted the spectral signatures detected on these two worlds with numerous spectra from both astronomical observations and lab experiments representing known compounds in Titan’s atmosphere, as well as forms of ice that may exist on both surfaces. None were found to match the mysterious signature.
Nevertheless, they identified several close candidates that, if slightly modified or combined with other molecules, could potentially explain the unknown compound. Notably, there are observable differences in the material’s characteristics between Pluto and Titan, suggesting variations in particle size as well. “There are several possibilities, but they aren’t straightforward compounds,” Besar indicated. “Whatever it is, it would be groundbreaking.”
To further investigate this intriguing discovery, a comprehensive three-pronged strategy is in place. First, researchers have acquired additional data from JWST, which may aid in pinpointing the distribution of materials on Titan’s surface. Geological features could offer valuable insights. Second, laboratory experiments are being conducted to replicate the spectral signature and identify its components. Finally, NASA’s Dragonfly spacecraft, slated for launch in 2028 and landing on Titan in 2034, holds the potential for groundbreaking discoveries.
Recent studies reveal that Uranus houses significantly more frozen water ice than previously believed, potentially resolving longstanding questions regarding its formation compared to its neighbor, Neptune.
As ice giants, Uranus and Neptune possess thick gaseous atmospheres, complicating our understanding of their internal structures and formation history. However, scientists can analyze atmospheric gases to glean insights into deeper planetary processes and composition.
Typically, the presence of carbon monoxide in a planet’s atmosphere indicates a core abundant in water and ice. Neptune exhibits ample carbon monoxide, suggesting it has an ice-rich core; in contrast, the lack of carbon monoxide in Uranus has led some researchers to posit that it has a rocky interior. If accurate, this implies a divergent formation history for these two ice giants.
Recently, Thibault Cavalier and colleagues at the University of Bordeaux, France, detected carbon monoxide in Uranus’ lower atmosphere for the first time. This discovery indicates that Uranus is likely more water-rich than previously assumed.
“Our findings suggest that Uranus aligns more with an ice giant profile than a rocky one,” stated Cavalier. “While model variations may influence our interpretations, this debate appears to have concluded.”
Utilizing the Atacama Large Millimeter/Submillimeter Array Telescope in Chile, Cavalier’s team observed Uranus three times between 2022 and 2024, identifying substantial carbon monoxide amounts in the lower atmosphere. They employed various models with different rock-to-ice ratios to replicate the detected carbon monoxide levels and found that only the ice-rich model was consistent with their observations.
The study also detected carbon monoxide in Uranus’ upper atmosphere, implying it may originate from an external source, such as a comet colliding with the planet centuries ago, according to Cavalier.
This landmark discovery of carbon monoxide is pivotal for understanding Uranus’ internal structure, yet the origin of this gas remains uncertain. Vanesa Ramirez from Leiden University in the Netherlands cautioned, “Interpreting atmospheric composition involves numerous assumptions regarding chemistry, mixing, and internal structures, all of which are still uncertain for Uranus.”
These uncertainties, combined with the varying models for simulating Uranus’ interior, suggest that multiple rock-to-ice ratios might align with the available data. Ramirez asserted, “This finding alone does not definitively resolve whether Uranus is primarily an ice-rich or rock-rich giant.”
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Scientists Discover Salty Clouds Surrounding the Pink Planet
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The pink planet, GJ 504b, located 57 light-years away from Earth, has been found to be encircled by salty clouds. Astrophysicist Aneesh Babraj, who spearheaded this research, discusses the implications with NBC News’ Gadi Schwartz. June 19, 2026
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In recent years, astronomers have been intrigued by a series of mysterious radio signals originating from the Milky Way. Approximately 12 of these long-period radio transients (LPT) have been detected across various regions of the galaxy.
Currently, scientists at the University of Sydney have made significant progress in understanding one of these signals. A study published in Nature Astronomy, led by Covey Rose, suggests that the signal originates from an anomalous star system they’ve dubbed the “Star Rosetta Stone.” This discovery could be pivotal in unraveling the nature of these enigmatic signals.
The newly identified system, known as ASKAP J1745-5051, consists of a white dwarf—a dense stellar remnant comparable in size to Earth, yet possessing a mass similar to that of the Sun—and a larger but lower-mass red dwarf star, roughly one-tenth the mass of the Sun. These two stars are in a close orbit, completing a full revolution in just over one hour.
Interactions between the magnetic fields of the stars generate radio bursts at specific points in their orbits, resulting in signals that occur at consistent intervals.
“This system serves as a vital tool for deciphering these signals. It may help us determine whether other long-period transients are related to pulsars or white dwarf systems acting as stellar Rosetta Stones,” Rose stated, referencing the archaeological artifact that aided in translating ancient Egyptian hieroglyphs.
The two stars engage in magnetic and gravitational interactions – Credit: Carl Knox (OzGrav/Swinburne) and Dr. Joshua Preston Pritchard (CSIRO)
In addition to radio signals, materials from the less massive star are drawn toward the white dwarf, heating it and resulting in the emission of X-rays.
This groundbreaking discovery provides a unique chance to study the magnetic interactions between stars and explore extreme plasma physics under conditions that cannot be replicated on Earth.
“These systems are natural laboratories,” Rose emphasized. “They enable us to test our understanding of how matter behaves in the presence of intense magnetic and gravitational forces.”
However, he cautioned, “While the source of these radio waves appears to be identified, many questions about the physics of cataclysmic stars still remain.”
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The “Cold Blob” in Temperature Visualization
Credit: NASA Scientific Visualization Studio/Goddard Space Flight Center
The Earth’s surface has experienced warming over the past 150 years, with the exception of certain areas in the North Atlantic Ocean. This specific region, found southeast of Greenland, has been termed the “warming hole” or “cold mass,” indicating it is up to 1°C cooler than historical averages.
There is ongoing debate among scientists regarding the reason for the existence of this cold blob. Recent studies suggest it may be linked to the weakening of the Atlantic Meridional Circulation (AMOC), a crucial ocean current that distributes warmth from the tropics to Europe.
<p>The AMOC is responsible for transporting warm, salty water from the Gulf of Mexico to the North Atlantic, where it cools, sinks, and then returns south along the ocean floor. Scientists are concerned that an influx of freshwater from melting ice in Greenland could lower the salinity in this area, potentially slowing the sinking process and weakening the overall circulation.</p>
<p>Recent research indicates that the AMOC may <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1748-9326/adfa3b">cross a tipping point</a> in the coming decades, potentially leading to a complete collapse. This collapse could have severe consequences, causing significant cooling in Europe and disrupting critical monsoon rains vital for agriculture in Africa and Asia. However, current direct observations of AMOC strength span only 22 years, which is insufficient to establish clear trends.</p>
<p>Climate <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-018-0006-5">modeling</a> suggests that the slowing AMOC reduces the supply of warm water to the North Atlantic, thereby creating this cold mass. Other models, however, attribute a major portion of the phenomenon to atmospheric changes.</p>
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<p>A <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1029/2022GL100420">2022 study</a> by <a href="https://cos.northeastern.edu/people/chengfei-he/">He Chengfei</a> and researchers from Northeastern University, Boston, found that accelerated warming in the Arctic is diminishing the temperature disparity between the polar regions and tropics. This shift is causing the jet stream to move northward into the cold mass area, resulting in stronger westerly winds that increase evaporation, drawing heat away from the ocean.</p>
<p>As evaporation intensifies, cloud cover also increases. Some research indicates that this cloud cover may further contribute to the cooling of the blob.</p>
<p>Research led by <a href="https://www.pik-potsdam.de/members/stefan/homepage">Stefan Rahmstorf</a> at the Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research is closely examining the cold mass through climate reanalysis, utilizing direct weather observations from satellites, buoys, and ships, rather than relying on modeling techniques.</p>
<p>Since 1955, they have discovered that heat loss from the ocean’s surface has diminished in the cold mass area. It appears that the ocean is cooling not just at the surface but also at depths of up to 1,000 meters. This indicates that the AMOC is transporting less heat rather than the atmosphere removing more heat.</p>
<p>According to Rahmstorf, “Wind and clouds can only account for a minor portion of the warming hole. While some models suggest atmospheric influences, the data indicates that oceanic factors are the primary causes.”</p>
<p>This finding highlights that the Atlantic circulation has been undergoing changes for decades, intensifying concerns regarding the potential collapse of not only the AMOC but also the surrounding subpolar circulation, which is vital to the process. If this circulation were to shut down, <a href="https://nyaspubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/nyas.14659">the UK and neighboring regions may experience even more rapid temperature drops</a> than a full AMOC collapse.</p>
<p>Rahmstorf warns, “The subarctic circulation reaching a tipping point could lead to severe climate impacts in Western Europe as early as the 2040s.”</p>
<p>However, direct measurements of ocean surface heat fluxes are currently lacking, making it challenging to accurately estimate them through modeling. A 2021 study, which used data from Rahmstorf's research, found that winds <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00382-021-06003-4">may account for the majority</a> of the cold blob's formation.</p>
<p>According to He, “Inferring the energy budget of a cold mass using reanalysis poses significant challenges.”</p>
<p>While recent research provides valuable insights, experts like <a href="https://profiles.ucl.ac.uk/38605-david-thornalley">David Thornalley</a> from University College London caution that definitive conclusions about the causes of cold blobs remain elusive.</p>
<p>Limited data prevents us from entirely ruling out alternative explanations. For instance, <a href="https://www.sams.ac.uk/people/researchers/fraser-dr-neil/">Neil Fraser</a> from the Scottish Marine Science Society notes that a tributary of the AMOC, known as the Norwegian Current, may be strengthening and transporting additional heat away from the cold mass regions.</p>
<p>In conclusion, while the existence of the cold mass aligns with AMOC weakening, conclusive evidence remains to be established.</p>
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The 27 degrees east meridian divides the Earth into two equally reflective halves.
Planetary Visions Limited/Science Photo Library
A significant line traversing Africa, Europe, Alaska, and the poles creates a division in the Earth that reflects equal amounts of light. This symmetry could have a vital influence on Earth’s climate system.
Research shows that the northern and southern hemispheres exhibit nearly equal albedo, with findings from Jiang Hao and colleagues from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration revealing an additional line of symmetry at 27 degrees east longitude and 153 degrees west longitude.
The hemispheres defined by this line demonstrate equality in three aspects: clear sky albedo, cloud reflectance, and ice-free ocean coverage. This symmetry has been consistent throughout 25 years of satellite data analyzed by Zhang et al.
Initially, Zhang suspected this symmetry might be coincidental. “Three factors led me to believe that East-West symmetry is significant: its uniqueness, its long-term persistence, and its triple symmetry nature,” he states. “Finding a stable, unique east-west split that balances land and ocean distribution alongside clear and cloudy sky reflectivity is no small feat, especially considering the dynamic nature of clouds.”
Analysis of 25 years of satellite data shows that while the east-west symmetry centers around 27 degrees east, its exact position shifts slightly year to year. Researchers have linked these minor fluctuations to the phases of the El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO), a global climate phenomenon tied to changes in Pacific Ocean temperatures.
“This symmetry could be more than just geometric happenstance,” says Zhang. “It may be involved in significant climate change mechanisms. ENSO could serve as a substantial adjustment factor that helps sustain long-term east-west symmetry centered at 27 degrees east.”
According to Ovind Hodnebrok from the International Center for Climate Research in Oslo, Norway, who was not part of the study, there were initial doubts regarding these findings.
“I was initially skeptical about the east-west symmetry at approximately 27 degrees east longitude. It seems intuitively less clear than the equatorial separation, leading me to suspect it could be coincidental,” Hodnebrok notes.
However, he now agrees that it may represent a “robust feature and potentially an intriguing characteristic of Earth.”
Hodnebrok also highlights the importance of ENSO connections. Unlike the north-south symmetry, which is reportedly weakening due to climate change impacts on sea ice and cloud formation, the east-west symmetry remains stable—though models suggest it could weaken over time, potentially indicating shifts in atmospheric circulation.
Martin Uecker and researchers at the University of New South Wales in Sydney assert that the east-west symmetry might simply be coincidental.
“Weather patterns and climate easily interact across longitudes due to the Earth’s rotation, which creates easterly and westerly wind bands that orbit the planet, facilitating east-west atmospheric perturbation propagation,” Uecker explains.
Zhang notes that mechanisms maintaining east-west symmetry could have significant implications for geoengineering initiatives. For instance, attempts to enhance albedo in one hemisphere might be undermined by broader feedback loops.
“To confidently assert claims about geoengineering effects, we must deepen our understanding of how clouds, circulation, precipitation, and planetary reflectivity interact within the Earth system,” Chan states.
A detailed review by paleontologists at the Field Museum of Natural History consolidates the latest fossil evidence of Archeopteryx, including the examination of five newly described specimens. The research highlights what the authors believe to be the most well-preserved specimen to date, offering an unparalleled insight into the ecology, behavior, and daily life of this iconic feathered dinosaur. Contrary to earlier assumptions, researchers assert that Archeopteryx was neither a solely terrestrial hunter nor a fully modern flier, but rather an ecological generalist capable of scrambling, perching, gliding, and flapping throughout coastal forests and tidal flats approximately 150 million years ago.
Reconstruction of Archeopteryx showcasing diverse locomotion modes in its habitat: (A) Flapping to a high perch; (B) Perched; (C) Gliding from heights; (D) Scansorial movements. Image credit: Field Museum / NICE PaleoVisLab Studio / Institute of Vertebrate Paleontology and Paleoanthropology.
Around 150 million years ago, during the Jurassic period, a small creature navigated the scrublands of what is now southern Germany. This remarkable animal had teeth reminiscent of reptiles, the claws of a predator, and feathered wings indicative of a newfound ability to leave the ground.
Paleontologists have spent over a century debating the capabilities of Archeopteryx. According to paleontologists Jingmai O’Connor and Alexander Clark from the Field Museum, “Archeopteryx from the 150-million-year-old Solnhofen-Prattenkalk deposit is known as the oldest bird to exhibit feathered wings for voluntary locomotion, marking it as the oldest known dinosaur.”
The researchers highlight that while the slightly younger Baminornis (dated between 149 and 148 million years ago) has a more advanced pectoral girdle, Archeopteryx remains vitally important for understanding the evolutionary transition from terrestrial life.
In their comprehensive paper, the researchers synthesized existing knowledge and assembled fossils of Archeopteryx, including the five newly analyzed specimens, to reconstruct its life.
“The description of five new Archeopteryx specimens represents a significant advancement in our understanding of this taxon,” they state, noting that four of these specimens are either complete or nearly complete (including exceptional finds from Chicago and Thermopolis).
The Chicago specimen, in particular, has been meticulously prepared for scientific analysis, preserving novel soft tissues that provide crucial insights.
The new analysis posits that limited powered flight was plausible for Archeopteryx. Its primary plumage displays asymmetry similar to that found in today’s birds, a trait absent in their flightless relatives.
Unlike modern pigeons that take off vertically, Archeopteryx might have launched from high perches, navigating headwinds, or ascending slopes while flapping its wings.
“As the oldest known bird, critical questions persist about the feasibility of flight in Archeopteryx,” the researchers note. “The evidence suggests some capacity for powered flight alongside gliding when energetically beneficial, akin to many modern birds.”
An overview of Archeopteryx‘s possible food web illustrating an omnivorous diet throughout various life stages, including its significance as prey for other organisms. Image credit: Field Museum / NICE PaleoVisLab Studio / Institute of Vertebrate Paleontology and Paleoanthropology / Samantha Clark.
One of the notable discoveries relates to Archeopteryx‘s first digit, or big toe. While the hallux of non-flying theropod dinosaurs typically faces forward and is designed for little grasping, in Archeopteryx, it is inverted, facing backward, suggesting an adaptation for gripping branches or rocks.
Although fossilized stomach contents remain undiscovered, the skull and mouth structure reveal intriguing clues about feeding adaptations that resemble those of modern birds. These adaptations include evidence of a primitive beak-like organ and a mobile tongue capable of manipulating food, suggesting that Archeopteryx targeted small, energy-dense foods such as insects and seeds to support its higher energy needs associated with flight.
The warm, seasonally dry climate of the Solnhofen Islands would have favored opportunistic omnivores by offering a varied year-round food supply.
“Evidence points to a primarily warm and dry climate with heterogeneous flora,” the researchers noted. “Fossil records indicate occasional wet seasons creating temporary water bodies, influencing food availability for Archeopteryx throughout the year.”
Regarding the bird’s coloration, chemical analysis of an isolated holotype feather hinted at white and black pigmentation. Such patterns may have provided camouflage against the open, weedy landscape, confusing potential predators.
Further analysis suggests that Archeopteryx was likely diurnal and active during bright daylight. “Given its diverse locomotion behaviors, Archeopteryx likely frequented the ground, medium- to large-sized plants, and the air, interacting with various substrates,” the researchers concluded.
Throughout its life, Archeopteryx would have utilized an array of food sources from the plant and animal kingdoms, supporting a wide range of organisms, from saprophytic parasites to apex predators.
The researchers emphasize that the differences examined in ecological terms reveal how flight adaptations may have influenced both the skeletal and soft tissue anatomy of Archeopteryx.
The team’s findings were published in a paper in the Journal of Ecology on April 21, 2026.
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JK O’Connor and AD Clarke. 2026. Archeopteryx. Journal of Ecology 2, 12; doi: 10.1007/s44396-026-00026-z
Titan, Saturn’s largest moon, features vast plains often covered with up to a meter of light, organic “snow.” Remarkably, approximately 65% of Titan’s surface consists of uniformly flat plains blanketed in a porous layer made of particles deposited from its hazy atmosphere.
Due to its dense atmosphere, studying Titan from a distance poses challenges. The Cassini spacecraft, which orbited Saturn from 2004 to 2017, employed radar technology to gather in-depth observations. Recently, Professor Alexander Hayes and his team at Cornell University refined their analysis of the radar data.
The interaction of radio waves from Cassini’s radar with Titan’s surface suggests complexities beyond those of typical rocky celestial bodies. “Existing models developed for the Moon and similar bodies do not apply directly to Titan,” Hayes explains. “Its radar scattering properties reveal it as a unique entity in our solar system.”
The researchers propose a two-layer model to better explain Titan’s surface characteristics, indicating that a hard substrate is covered by a soft, low-density material, differing from the simplistic rocky models. They suggest that this outer layer, varying in thickness from a few centimeters to a meter, comprises organic molecules descending from Titan’s dense atmosphere, resembling snowfall before compaction over time.
Furthermore, Titan’s surface experiences rain, wind, and erosion, necessitating exploration into how these processes contribute to the development of its blanket layers. “Understanding these mechanisms can provide valuable insights into Titan’s broader environmental processes,” Hayes adds.
NASA’s upcoming Dragonfly mission, set to launch in 2028 and reach Titan by 2034, aims to analyze these surface layers, enhancing our comprehension not only of Titan but also aiding the design of future missions targeting this extraordinary moon.
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A groundbreaking statistical analysis of archived sky surveys from the early Cold War reveals that enigmatic, short-lived bursts of light in the night sky are likely to coincide with ground-based nuclear weapons tests and rise in correlation with reports of Unexplained Aerial Phenomena (UAPs).
Four exposures of a 3 x 3 arc minute area of the sky centered on a triple transient identified in July 1952. Top left: POSS I red image from July 19, 1952 at 8:52 (UT) showing a triple transient just above center. Top right: 10 m exposed POSS I blue image taken immediately after. No evidence of a triple transient is present. Bottom left and right: POSS I red (left) and blue (right) images captured two months later (September 14, 1952), with transients still visible. Image credit: Solano et al., doi: 10.1093/mnras/stad3422.
“Sky surveys conducted prior to the launch of the first artificial satellite on October 4, 1957 identified transient star-like objects,” stated Dr. Beatriz Villarroel from the Nordic Institute for Theoretical Physics (Nordita) and Dr. Stephen Brühl of Vanderbilt University Medical Center.
“These short-lived transients (lasting less than 50 minutes) display a point spread function that is absent in preceding images and all subsequent surveys.”
“In several instances, multiple transients are observed in a single image, featuring characteristics that defy conventional explanations such as gravitational lensing, gamma-ray bursts, fragmenting asteroids, and plate defects.”
As part of the VASCO (Sources of Vanishing and Appearing Over a Century of Observations) project, Dr. Villarroel and Dr. Brühl identified over 100,000 short-lived star-like “transients” on photographic plates from the initial Palomar Observatory sky surveys conducted from 1949 to 1957.
They then correlated the timing of these flashes with a record of 124 ground-based nuclear tests and thousands of reported UAP sightings.
“Across 2,718 days during this period, transient phenomena were observed on 310 days (11.4%),” they reported.
“The count of transients per date varied from 0 to 4,528 across multiple locations and plates.”
“Terrestrial nuclear weapons tests (conducted by the US, USSR, and UK) occurred on 124 days (4.6%) during the study period.”
“UAP reports were logged in the UFOCAT database for 2,428 days during the study period (89.3%).”
The researchers noted that transients were approximately 45% more likely to occur on days within one day of a nuclear test compared to other days.
This effect peaked the day after nuclear testing, increasing the likelihood of witnessing a transient by about 68%.
The study also indicated a moderate correlation between the frequency of transients and the number of UAP sightings recorded on the same day.
For each additional reported sighting, the incidence of transient phenomena rose by about 8.5% on average.
While the researchers’ findings do not confirm what the transient phenomenon is or prove a causal link, they challenge several conventional explanations.
Scientists assert that the transient phenomenon differs from defects caused by dust or radioactive contamination on photographic plates. Additionally, its timing, notably its peak on the day post-nuclear tests, doesn’t align with simpler scenarios like debris from an explosion.
Consequently, the authors propose two major possibilities:
One possibility is that nuclear explosions may trigger previously unidentified atmospheric phenomena that create brief, point-like bursts of light.
The other, more speculative idea suggests that some transients may reflect high-altitude or orbital objects, possibly related to the same event that led to UAP sightings.
The researchers emphasize that neither hypothesis is currently proven.
“Our findings lend further empirical support to the legitimacy of the UAP phenomenon and its possible connections with nuclear weapons activity, augmenting data beyond mere sighting reports,” they concluded.
“We cannot dismiss the likelihood that some transients represent on-orbit UAP events captured on photographic plates prior to the first satellite launch.”
“This study enriches the limited peer-reviewed literature striving to employ systematic scientific methods in analyzing UAP-related data.”
“The ultimate implications of the associations discussed in this study for enhancing our understanding of transient phenomena and UAPs still require further investigation.”
A research paper detailing these findings was published in the journal on October 20, 2025. Scientific Reports.
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S. Brühl & B. Villarroel. 2025. Palomar Observatory Sky Survey (POSS-I) transients may relate to nuclear tests or reports of unidentified anomalous phenomena. Science Officer 15, 34125; doi: 10.1038/s41598-025-21620-3
Image Credit: NASA, ESA, Dennis Bodewits (Australia)
Recently, we were fortunate to observe Comet K1 just after it fragmented into four pieces. This event could offer crucial insights into the formation and evolution of our solar system.
John Noonan and researchers from Auburn University in Alabama had initially aimed to study a different comet using the Hubble Space Telescope. However, due to the spacecraft’s limitations in high-speed orbiting, they redirected their focus to a new target—comet C/2025 K1 (ATLAS). Upon directing Hubble towards K1, they were surprised to find it had already split into four distinct fragments.
“While we have observed comets break apart before, this was the first time we didn’t anticipate it occurring during our observations,” Noonan shared. “The ability to capture these images was incredibly fortunate.”
These unprecedented images of a freshly shattered comet provide invaluable data. Typically, it is challenging to predict when a comet will begin to splinter, let alone align a space telescope to capture the moment. However, the high-resolution images acquired allowed researchers to estimate that K1 began to fracture approximately a week prior to the images being taken.
Observations of Comet K1 Over Three Days
Image Credit: NASA, ESA, Dennis Bodewits (Australia)
Comets consist of primordial ice from the early solar system, yet their surfaces erode over time due to solar radiation and other cosmic effects. To uncover this primordial ice and gain insights into planetary formation, we must delve beneath the surface—a task that shattered comets facilitate.
As a comet disintegrates, it releases ice that transitions into gas, diffusing into space. “These extremely cold ice remnants are suddenly exposed to warmth for the first time in billions of years and should rapidly subliminate,” Noonan explained. Surprisingly, in the case of K1, it took about two days post-fragmentation for brightness to emerge, typically indicating sunlight interacting with sublimated gases and dust.
The reason for this unexpected delay remains unclear. Noonan and his team are currently analyzing the remaining data from K1, which is anticipated to clarify the delay in brightening and reveal the comet’s internal composition. “We are poised to embark on groundbreaking research regarding this comet and early solar system dynamics,” he stated.
Recent findings on L 98-59d, part of the five-planet system L 98-59, indicate that this intriguing exoplanet may host an extensive global magma ocean, effectively trapping sulfur deep within its interior. This discovery introduces a previously unidentified category of extraterrestrial worlds.
Artist’s impression of planetary system L 98-59. Image credit: Mark A. Garlick / markgarlick.com.
The distant L 98-59 system lies approximately 34.5 light-years away in the southern constellation Bootes.
Known as TOI-175 or TIC 307210830, this bright M dwarf star has a mass roughly one-third that of the Sun.
This intriguing planetary system features at least three transiting planets and two non-transiting planets: L 98-59b, L 98-59c, L 98-59d, L 98-59e, and L 98-59f.
L 98-59d completes an orbit around its parent star every 7.5 days and is about 1.6 times larger than Earth, receiving approximately four times the radiant energy of our planet.
A recent study led by astronomer Harrison Nichols from the University of Oxford aimed to reconstruct the planetary history of this super-Earth, tracing its evolution from its formation nearly 5 billion years ago.
By correlating telescope observations with comprehensive physical models of the planet’s interior and atmosphere, the research team gained insights into the planet’s deep geological processes.
The findings suggest that L 98-59d possesses a mantle of molten silicate similar to Earth’s lava, underpinned by a vast global magma ocean that extends for thousands of kilometers.
This massive molten reservoir enables L 98-59d to store significant amounts of sulfur within its interior over geological timescales.
Moreover, the magma ocean assists in retaining a hydrogen-rich atmosphere laden with sulfur compounds like hydrogen sulfide, which is typically lost to space due to X-ray radiation emitted by the host star.
Over billions of years, the interplay between its molten interior and atmosphere has sculpted L 98-59d into the striking world observed today.
Researchers propose that L 98-59d may represent the inaugural example of a newly identified category of gas-rich sulfur exoplanets that sustain long-lived magma oceans. If validated, this could greatly expand our understanding of planetary diversity in the galaxy.
“This discovery highlights that the current classifications of small planets may be overly simplistic,” remarked Dr. Nichols.
“While this molten world is unlikely to support life, it showcases the vast array of planets beyond our solar system. What other types of celestial bodies remain undiscovered?”
For more details, refer to the study published in today’s edition of Nature Astronomy.
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H. Nichols et al. Evolution of a volatile-rich molten super-Earth L 98-59d. Nat Astron, published online March 16, 2026. doi: 10.1038/s41550-026-02815-8
The ice deep beneath Greenland’s surface is beginning to show intriguing signs of movement, manifesting as unusual plume-like swirls. According to recent studies, understanding this phenomenon is crucial for scientists aiming to predict the behavior of Greenland’s ice as it rapidly melts into the ocean.
The initial discovery of this formation was made in 2014 through radar imaging, although the underlying mechanism remained unclear.
Recent research indicates that thermal convection, a process driving movements within Earth’s molten mantle, may explain these unique formations.
“People often consider ice as a rigid, cold substance,” stated Professor Andreas Birth from the University of Bergen, Norway. “Finding that certain areas of the Greenland ice sheet experience heat convection—similar to boiling pasta—is remarkable and intriguing.”
Convection reflects a gradual, cyclical movement where warmer sections of a material rise while cooler sections descend.
In this instance, researchers believe the plume has formed from solid ice over millennia due to heat emanating from deep within the Earth.
“It’s counterintuitive to think that thermal convection could happen within ice sheets,” remarked Dr. Robert Law, a glaciologist at ETH Zurich in Switzerland. “But since ice is significantly softer than Earth’s mantle, these physical principles actually hold up.”
To explore whether convection could lead to the creation of these enigmatic plumes, Dr. Law and his research team constructed a digital model of the Greenland ice sheet, employing a simulation typically used for Earth’s mantle convection.
After adjusting parameters like ice thickness, softness, and movement, the model successfully generated rising ice columns that mirrored the shapes observed in Greenland.
Law elaborated to BBC Science Focus that the relatively stable, low-snow environment in northern Greenland likely provides the perfect insulation, fostering the creation of these structures over thousands of years.
Greenland’s ice is melting at an alarming rate. Research from the University of Barcelona indicates water production has surged more than sixfold since 1990, escalating from 12.7 gigatons per decade to 82.4 gigatons per decade – Credit: Getty
This study enhances scientists’ understanding of ice properties that are challenging to measure directly.
“Acquiring data on ice properties, especially within deep ice sheets, is exceptionally difficult,” Dr. Law explained.
“This innovative approach yields invaluable insights that are not accessible through other means. Our findings suggest that ice is softer and more sensitive to stress than previously assumed. However, further exploration is necessary to confirm these conclusions.”
This discovery is critical because Greenland’s ice sheet, spanning over 1.7 million square kilometers (approximately 650,000 square miles), holds significant implications for global sea levels. If it were to melt entirely, sea levels could rise by as much as 7.4 meters (24 feet), according to estimates from the U.S. National Snow and Ice Data Center.
In another recent study, the University of Barcelona revealed that the ice is melting at an unprecedented pace.
Dr. Josep Bonsams, a geography researcher from Barcelona, stated in BBC Science Focus, “The Greenland Ice Sheet is experiencing more frequent, larger, and more intense extreme melt events than in previous decades. Most of the top 10 extreme melt years have occurred since 2000. Melting in Greenland, one of the largest reservoirs of frozen water on Earth, significantly contributes to global sea level rise, making urgent international climate action essential.”
Dr. Law mentioned to BBC Science Focus that his research insights will influence the future outlook for both Greenland and global climate patterns.
“The plume itself does not indicate that we should expect the ice sheet to collapse sooner than current predictions suggest,” he clarified.
“These formations resemble ancient artifacts: thicker, colder, and more stable ice sheets that originated from the last ice age. Nonetheless, the physics of ice remains poorly understood. With every advancement in physical comprehension, we can better forecast the rate of ice sheet melting and the implications for sea level rise.”
Dr. Law expressed his hope that those who engage with his research will share the same wonder for nature and the Greenland ice sheet that inspired his team during their studies.
Your brain might contain a previously unknown network of blood vessels that assist in the elimination of metabolic waste. If further research substantiates this finding, it could transform our understanding of brain function and lead to novel treatments for conditions like Alzheimer’s disease.
“If this is confirmed, it’s a game-changer,” states Per Christian Eide from the University of Oslo, who was not part of the study. “This could signify a paradigm shift in our grasp of all neurodegenerative disorders, including stroke and traumatic brain injury, as well as our normal brain functions.”
The brain has its mechanisms for self-cleaning, utilizing the glymphatic system—a network of channels surrounding the brain’s blood vessels that integrates with the lymphatic system, which serves as the body’s drainage and filtration system.
Traditional imaging techniques have primarily focused on the protective outer layer of the brain without revealing lymphatic vessels. However, new research from Harvard University may have uncovered a concealed network of blood vessel-like structures akin to lymphatic vessels that connect to the glymphatic system. “This could be the most significant discovery of my three-decade career,” shares Lunn. “It’s a scientist’s ultimate dream.”
Researchers from Siju Gu‘s team at Harvard stumbled upon these structures while investigating beta-amyloid proteins in brain sections from mice exhibiting Alzheimer’s-like symptoms. Beta-amyloid is essential for neuronal function but can aggregate into toxic clumps associated with Alzheimer’s disease, often due to inadequate waste clearance.
Repeating their experiments in both mice with Alzheimer’s-like conditions and those without revealed consistent blood vessel-like structures across every brain region analyzed—highlighting areas like the hippocampus, crucial for memory formation, and the hypothalamus, which regulates sleep and body temperature.
These structures appear to envelope the brain’s blood vessels and meningeal lymphatic vessels, indicating they may play a role in waste removal via the glymphatic and lymphatic systems, according to Lunn.
Moreover, the research team identified similar tube-like formations in post-mortem samples from individuals who succumbed to Alzheimer’s disease, suggesting these structures are also present in asymptomatic individuals, Lunn adds.
The team postulates that these formations could be either a new type of lymphatic vessel lined with beta-amyloid or a protein that evolves into solid fibers relevant to Alzheimer’s pathology. These structures have also been documented in healthy brains.
To investigate further, they utilized protein markers specific to lymphatic vessels on mouse brain slices, resulting in consistent staining of the tubular structures, although not as prominent as recognized lymphatic vessels. Consequently, they coined the term nanoscale lymphatic vessels (NLVs) for these formations and determined they are unlikely to be beta-amyloid.
However, NLV markers may also attach to non-lymphoid tissues, suggesting that the faint staining might imply these NLVs are not traditional lymphatic vessels, as noted by Eide. “This is a completely new type of structure that was previously unknown. The question remains: what exactly are these?”
One theory posits that these formations could be artifacts resulting from the imaging method employed. According to Christopher Brown from the University of Southampton, UK, uneven swelling of tissue samples may introduce cracks that mimic blood vessels.
This could potentially clarify why prior brain imaging research utilizing more dependable methods, like electron microscopy, has not previously identified NLVs, Brown suggests. The research team aims to employ these techniques in the near future; Gu supports this notion, indicating that past studies may have misidentified NLVs as axons, which are long projections from similar-looking neurons.
“We’re approximately 90% confident in our findings,” Lunn confirms, referencing other research conducted by his team demonstrating that fluorescently tagged beta-amyloid in mouse brains appears to infiltrate nearby NLVs, indicating that NLVs may aid in waste fluid transport.
If further validations by other research teams confirm these results, it could enhance comprehension of Alzheimer’s disease and other protein misfolding conditions, such as Parkinson’s disease. For instance, if dilation of blood vessels aids waste clearance, it might pave the way for developing therapeutic drugs for these neurological disorders, Brown concludes.
Astronomers utilizing the NASA/ESA/CSA James Webb Space Telescope have identified an extraordinary presence of small gas-phase hydrocarbons—such as benzene, triacetylene, diacetylene, acetylene, methane, and methyl radicals—within the concealed core of the ultra-bright infrared galaxy IRAS 07251-0248.
Hydrocarbons are influential in shaping the chemistry of the interstellar medium. However, definite observational constraints on their enrichment and relationship with carbonaceous particles and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons remain elusive. García Bernete et al. report Webb infrared observations of the Local Ultraluminous Infrared Galaxy (ULIRG) IRAS 07251-0248, revealing extragalactic detections of small gas-phase hydrocarbons. Image credit: García-Bernete et al., doi: 10.1038/s41550-025-02750-0.
The core of IRAS 07251-0248 (also known as 2MASS J07273756-0254540) is obscured by significant amounts of gas and dust.
This dense material absorbs most radiation emitted by the central supermassive black hole, complicating studies with traditional telescopes.
However, the infrared spectrum can penetrate this dust, providing unique insights about these regions and illuminating vital chemical processes in this heavily obscured core.
Dr. Ismael García Bernete and his team employed spectroscopic observations using Webb’s NIRSpec and MIRI instruments, covering wavelengths from 3 to 28 microns.
These observations reveal chemical signatures of gas-phase molecules alongside signatures from ice and dust particles.
These data empowered astronomers to characterize the abundance and temperature of various chemical species within the core of this concealed galaxy.
Remarkably, they discovered an exceptionally high abundance of small organic molecules such as benzene, methane, acetylene, diacetylene, and triacetylene—the first such detections outside our Milky Way, including the methyl radical.
Additionally, substantial amounts of solid molecular materials, including carbonaceous particles and water ice, were identified.
“We uncovered unexpected chemical complexity, showcasing abundances far exceeding current theoretical models,” stated Dr. García Bernete, an astronomer at the Astrobiology Center.
“This suggests a continuous source of carbon within these galactic nuclei, fueling this rich chemical network.”
“These molecules may serve as vital building blocks for complex organic chemistry, relevant to processes that pertain to life.”
Professor Dimitra Rigopoulou from the University of Oxford remarked, “Small organic molecules may not exist in living cells, yet they could play a pivotal role in prebiotic chemistry—a crucial step toward forming amino acids and nucleotides.”
These findings were published in a recent issue of Nature Astronomy.
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I. Garcia-Bernete et al. Abundant hydrocarbons within buried galactic nuclei with evidence of processing of carbonaceous particles and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Nat Astron, published online on February 8, 2026. doi: 10.1038/s41550-025-02750-0
Illustration of a Failed Supernova Explosion Forming a Black Hole
NASA, ESA, and P. Jeffries (STScI)
A massive star in the Andromeda galaxy has seemingly vanished instead of exploding, resulting in the formation of a black hole in a peculiar manner.
Typically, black holes originate from stars that explode as supernovas. However, they can also emerge from stars that collapse due to their own gravity, directly creating black holes without the explosive phase.
In 2024, Kisharai De from Columbia University, along with his team, investigated the case of M31-2014-DS1, an exceptionally bright star located in the Andromeda galaxy, approximately 20 times the mass of our Sun. The star exhibited an initial brightening in 2014, followed by a significant dimming from 2017 to 2020. This behavior aligned with predictions for a supernova that would fail to result in a black hole, yet no direct evidence of the black hole was observed, such as X-ray emissions.
Currently, De and his colleagues are utilizing the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) and Chandra X-ray Observatory to study M31-2014-DS1. They have detected a faint red object at the star’s previous location, which is only about 8% brighter than the original star and enveloped in rapidly expanding dust. This finding aligns with the expected characteristics of a supernova that fails to produce a black hole. However, De and his team have refrained from commenting further, as their research has not yet undergone peer review.
Another group studying the same JWST data, including Emma Beasor from Liverpool John Moores University, UK, suggested that the case for M31-2014-DS1 failing to explode may also indicate a stellar merger, which could result in small explosions followed by dimming and dust formation.
“Predictions for the appearance of a failed supernova significantly overlap with what we might expect from a collision of two stars creating vast amounts of dust,” Beasor explained.
However, both scenarios are rare, she noted, as it is uncommon to observe such drastic color changes in a star.
“No matter the explanation, it’s fascinating that the visible star has essentially vanished,” stated Gerald Gilmore from Cambridge University. “For years, the search for extinct massive stars has produced ambiguous outcomes, but now, advancements in multi-wavelength time-domain astronomy are paving the way for clarity.”
The definitive method for confirming black hole formation is through the identification of X-ray emissions, Gilmore noted, which are currently absent at the M31-2014-DS1 location. Nevertheless, if advanced telescopes like JWST can analyze the remnants of dimmed stars, we could soon uncover what occurred. “We are on the verge of discovering at least one of the ultimate fates of a massive star, which is intriguingly akin to the Cheshire Cat’s disappearance,” he remarked.
Astronomers utilizing the WHT Extended Area Velocity Explorer (WEAVE), a cutting-edge instrument aboard the William Herschel Telescope on La Palma Island, have uncovered an intriguing elongated structure of ionized iron within the renowned Ring Nebula.
A composite image of the Ring Nebula featuring four WEAVE/LIFU emission line images. Image credit: Wesson et al., doi: 10.1093/mnras/staf2139.
The Ring Nebula, also known as Messier 57, M57, or NGC 6720, is a classic planetary nebula located approximately 2,000 light-years away in the constellation Lyra.
This nebula was first discovered by the French astronomer Charles Messier in January 1779 while he was on a mission to find comets.
Messier’s report about the discovery of Comet Bode reached fellow astronomer Antoine d’Alquier de Perpois shortly afterward, who subsequently rediscovered the Ring Nebula during his comet observations.
The newly identified rod-shaped cloud of iron atoms resides within the inner layer of this elliptical nebula.
Measuring about 500 times the length of Pluto’s orbit around the sun, this cloud’s atomic mass of iron is comparable to that of Mars.
This iron cloud was detected using the Large Integral Field Unit (LIFU) mode of the innovative WEAVE instrument on the 4.2-meter William Herschel Telescope, part of the Isaac Newton Group.
According to Dr. Roger Wesson, an astronomer from University College London and Cardiff University: “While the Ring Nebula has been extensively studied with various telescopes, WEAVE enables us to observe it in unprecedented detail, providing much richer information than previously available.”
“By continuously collecting spectra across the nebula, we can image it at any wavelength and analyze its chemical composition at any given location.”
“As we process the data and examine the images, we discover a never-before-seen ‘rod’ of ionized iron atoms at the heart of this iconic ring.”
The exact nature of the iron “rods” within the Ring Nebula remains uncertain.
Two potential scenarios emerge: the bar may offer new insights into the nebula’s formation and ejection by its parent star, or (more intriguingly) it could represent an arc of plasma from a rocky planet evaporating during the star’s initial expansion.
Professor Janet Drew, also from University College London, noted: “We need to investigate further, particularly to determine if the newly detected iron coexists with other elements. This could guide us toward the appropriate models to explore.”
“Currently, this crucial information is lacking.”
For more in-depth details, check out the findings published today in the Royal Astronomical Society Monthly Notices.
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R. Wesson et al. 2026. WEAVE Imaging Spectroscopy of NGC 6720: Iron Rods in the Ring. MNRAS 546 (1): staf2139; doi: 10.1093/mnras/staf2139
This galaxy cluster must be much, much colder than it actually is.
Lingxiao Yuan
Recent discoveries about young galaxy clusters, such as SPT2349-56, are transforming our understanding of how these colossal structures formed and evolved in the early universe. Interestingly, the gas within SPT2349-56 is significantly hotter and denser than anticipated, posing intriguing questions for researchers.
Zhou Daizhi and their team at the University of British Columbia utilized the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA) in Chile to investigate this galaxy cluster. Their findings revealed that the gas at the cluster’s center reaches temperatures of tens of millions of degrees Celsius.
“The sun’s surface temperature is just a few thousand degrees Celsius, making this region much hotter,” Zhou notes. “Our conservative estimates indicate temperatures five to ten times higher than expected based on simulations, which is surprising since such hot gas was thought to exist only in clusters billions of years old.”
Located in the early universe, approximately 1.4 billion years after the Big Bang, SPT2349-56 is unlike any other known cluster of its age. Zhou explains, “This gas should still be relatively cold and in small quantities, as these nascent clusters are still in the process of accumulating gas and heating up.” However, SPT2349-56 seems to be more mature than anticipated.
The unusual heating could stem from the presence of particularly active galaxies within the cluster, with at least three galaxies emitting massive jets of energy. These jets, combined with intermittent star formation bursts, might be heating the gas rapidly, challenging previous assumptions.
“This discovery opens a new window into understanding stages of cluster evolution that we have not observed before,” Zhou emphasizes. The research team plans additional observations to locate more hot young clusters like SPT2349-56, with the hope of unraveling the complexities of galaxy formation.
In a recent breakthrough regarding human evolution, researchers have unveiled that a peculiar foot unearthed in Ethiopia is from a yet-to-be-identified ancient relative.
The findings, released on Wednesday in the journal Nature, indicate the foot dates back approximately 3.4 million years and likely bears similarities to Lucy, another ancient human relative who inhabited the region around the same period.
However, scientists have revealed that Burtele’s foot, named after the site in northeastern Ethiopia where it was discovered in 2009, is distinctly different.
The fossil of Bartel’s foot has an opposable thumb akin to that of humans, suggesting its owner was a proficient climber, likely spending more time in trees compared to Lucy, according to the study.
Elements of Brutere’s foot discovered in Ethiopia in 2009. Johannes Haile Selassie/Arizona Institute of Human Origins (via AFP)
For many years, Lucy’s species was believed to be the common ancestor of all subsequent hominids, serving as a more ancient relative to humans, including Homo sapiens, in contrast to chimpanzees.
Researchers were unable to confirm that the foot belonged to a novel species until they examined additional fossils found in the same vicinity, including a jawbone with twelve teeth.
After identifying these remains as Australopithecus deiremeda, they determined that Bartele’s feet were from the same species.
John Rowan, an assistant professor of human evolution at the University of Cambridge, expressed that their conclusions were “very reasonable.”
“We now have stronger evidence that closely related, yet adaptively distinct species coexisted,” Rowan, who was not part of the study, communicated in an email to NBC News on Thursday.
The research also examined how these species interacted within the same environment. The team, led by Johannes Haile Selassie of Arizona State University, suggested that the newly identified species spent considerable time in wooded areas.
The study proposed that Lucy, or Australopithecus afarensis, was likely traversing the open land, positing that the two species probably had divergent diets and utilized their habitats in distinct ways.
Various analyses of the newly found tooth revealed that A. deiremeda was more primitive than Lucy and likely fed on leaves, fruits, and nuts, the study indicated.
“These distinctions suggest they are less likely to directly compete for identical resources,” remarked Ashley Los Angeles-Wiseman, an assistant professor at the Macdonald Institute of Archaeology at the University of Cambridge.
In an email on Thursday, Wiseman highlighted the significant implications of this discovery for our understanding of evolution, stating that it “reminds us that human evolution is not a linear progression of one species evolving into the next.”
Instead, she asserted, it should be viewed as a branching family tree with numerous so-called “cousins” existing simultaneously, each adopting various survival strategies. “Did they interact? We may never know the answer to that,” she concluded.
Rowan also noted that as the number of well-documented species related to humans increases, so do the inquiries concerning our ancestry. “Which species were our direct ancestors? Which species were our close relatives? That’s the challenge,” he remarked. “As species diversity ascends, so too do the avenues for plausible reconstructions of how human evolution unfolded.”
Wiseman cautioned that definitive species classifications should rely on well-preserved skulls and fossil fragments belonging to multiple related individuals. While the new study bolsters the case for A. deiremeda, it “does not dismiss all other alternative interpretations,” she stated.
For nearly a century, dark matter has posed a significant enigma. Although it outnumbers ordinary matter by a ratio of five to one, it remains invisible and undetectable by current technology.
A daring new analysis of 15 years of data from NASA’s Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope now claims to shed light on this mystery.
The latest research reveals the detection of a peculiar halo-like glow of gamma rays surrounding the Milky Way galaxy, with distinct peaks in energy that align closely with the signals predicted for a specific type of hypothetical dark matter particle.
These particles, referred to as weakly interacting massive particles (WIMPs), can generate gamma rays by annihilating one another.
“If this is validated, it would be the first instance where humanity has ‘seen’ dark matter,” stated Professor Tomonori Toya, an astronomer at the University of Tokyo and co-author of the study.
In an interview with BBC Science Focus, he expressed his initial skepticism: “When I first noticed what looked like a traffic light, I was doubtful, but after careful investigation, I became convinced it was accurate—it was an exhilarating moment,” he shared.
However, despite the excitement surrounding the new signals, independent experts caution that this discovery is far from conclusive.
This possible breakthrough emerges nearly a century after Swiss astronomer Fritz Zwicky first proposed dark matter’s existence, after observing that the galaxies in the Milky Way cluster were moving too swiftly for their visible mass.
Mr. Toya’s study, published in the Journal of Cosmology and Astroparticle Physics, scrutinized 15 years of data from the Fermi telescope, focusing on the regions above and below the Milky Way’s main disk—known as the galactic halo.
After modeling and accounting for known sources of gamma rays, such as interstellar gas interactions, cosmic rays, and massive bubbles of high-energy plasma at the galaxy’s center, he identified a leftover component that shouldn’t exist.
“We detected gamma rays with a photon energy measuring 20 giga-electron volts (or an impressive 20 billion electron volts), extending in a halo-like formation toward the Milky Way’s center,” Toya explained. “This gamma-ray-emitting component aligns with the expected shape of a dark matter halo.”
A gigaelectronvolt (GeV) represents a unit of energy utilized by physicists to quantify subatomic particles’ energy levels—approximately a billion times the energy that a single electron attains when traversing a 1-volt battery.
The potential dark matter signal identified by Toya sharply rises from a few GeV, peaks around 20 GeV, and subsequently declines, consistent with predictions for WIMPs, which possess about 500 times the mass of a proton.
This gamma-ray intensity map illustrates a signal that may originate from dark matter encircling the Milky Way halo. The gray horizontal bar in the central area represents the galactic plane, which was exempted from the analysis to avoid strong astrophysical radiation. – Photo credit: Tomonori Toya, University of Tokyo
In Totani’s perspective, this data significantly indicates the existence of dark matter. “This marks a crucial advancement in astronomy and physics,” he asserts.
Nevertheless, Jan Conrad, a professor of astroparticle physics at Stockholm University in Sweden and an independent expert in gamma-ray searches for dark matter, advises prudence.
“Making claims based on Fermi data is notoriously challenging,” he remarked to BBC Science Focus.
This isn’t the first instance of astronomers witnessing such phenomena; the story stretches back to 2009, shortly after the Fermi telescope’s launch. In that year, researchers identified an unexplained surplus of gamma rays emanating from the galactic center.
For years, this finding stood out as a compelling hint of dark matter. However, Conrad pointed out that even after 16 years, the scientific community has yet to arrive at a consensus about the signal’s dark matter roots.
“It’s believed to be related to dark matter,” he claims. “Despite accumulating data and enhanced methods since then, the question of dark matter’s existence remains unresolved.”
Even at this juncture, researchers who have spent over a decade working to disprove the galactic center excess are unable to definitively prove it is astrophysical in nature (originating from sources other than dark matter), nor can they confirm it is attributable to dark matter. The issue remains unsolved.
Conrad emphasized that the emerging signals from the halo are insufficiently studied and will likely necessitate many more years of investigation for verification. Both the new halo anomaly and the much-debated galactic center signal share a common challenge: noise interference.
In these regions, gamma rays potentially stemming from dark matter annihilation may also originate from numerous other, poorly understood sources—complicating efforts to reach definitive conclusions.
“The uncertainties surrounding astrophysical sources make it exceedingly difficult to assert strong claims,” Conrad stated.
Despite their differing confidence levels, both Totani and Conrad highlight the same forthcoming focus: dwarf galaxies.
These small, faint galaxies orbiting the Milky Way are believed to contain significant amounts of dark matter while exhibiting minimal astrophysical gamma-ray background, rendering them ideal for studying dark matter annihilation.
“If we detect a similar excess in dwarf galaxies, that would provide compelling evidence,” Conrad said. “Dwarf galaxies provide a much cleaner environment, allowing for potential confirmation.”
Dr. Toya concurred, noting, “If the results of this study are validated, it wouldn’t be surprising to observe gamma rays emitting from dwarf galaxies.”
The Cherenkov Telescope Array Observatory (CTAO) is the most sensitive ground-based gamma-ray observatory ever constructed, offering a powerful new approach to scrutinize whether this enigmatic signal is indeed dark matter. – Photo credit: Getty
Yet, the ultimate verification of Toya’s discovery might be closer to home. Experiments designed to detect dark matter are currently taking place in facilities situated deep underground around the world.
“If we were to observe a signal there that aligns with a WIMP of the same mass…that would present a robust argument, as it would be much cleaner,” Conrad pointed out.
In the coming years, the next-generation Cherenkov Telescope Array Observatory (CTAO) will significantly enhance sensitivity to high-energy gamma rays, enabling researchers to analyze halo signals with greater detail.
“Naturally, if this turns out to be true, it’s a significant discovery,” Conrad said. “The true nature of dark matter remains elusive. A clear signal indicating dark matter particles would be monumental. However, further research is essential to explore alternative explanations for this excess.”
Monte Sierpe, meaning “Mountain of the Serpent” and informally referred to as the “Zone of Holes,” is situated in the Pisco Valley of southern Peru. It comprises around 5,200 meticulously aligned holes. Recent studies indicate that the site may have originally functioned as a barter market, bringing together a variety of people for trade.
Aerial view of Monte Sierpe looking northeast. Image credit: Jacob Bongers, University of Sydney.
Stretching over 1.5 km in the Pisco Valley of the southern Peruvian Andes, Monte Sierpe features approximately 5,200 carefully aligned holes (ranging from 1–2 m in width and 0.5–1 m in depth) arranged in distinct sections.
This extraordinary structure likely dates back to at least the Late Middle Period (1000-1400 AD) and was actively used by the Incas (1400-1532 AD).
Initially brought to modern attention in 1933 following an aerial photo published in National Geographic, the specific purpose of the monument remains a mystery.
Speculations about its function include various roles such as defense, storage, accounting, water collection, fog capture, and horticulture, but the actual intent continues to elude researchers.
“What led ancient people to excavate over 5,000 holes in the hills of southern Peru? Were they used for gardens? Did they provide water? Did they serve agricultural purposes?” inquires Dr. Jacob Bongers, a digital archaeologist from the University of Sydney.
“While we cannot ascertain their purpose, our new data offers significant clues and supports emerging theories regarding the site’s utilization.”
Utilizing drone technology, Dr. Bongers and his team mapped the site, uncovering numerical patterns in its layout that indicate intentional organization.
Interestingly, the archaeologists also found that the configuration of Monte Sierpe resembles that of at least one Inca quipu (an ancient knotted string for accounting) discovered in the same valley.
“This discovery significantly enhances our understanding of the origins and variety of indigenous accounting practices both within and outside the Andes,” noted Dr. Bongers.
Soil samples taken from the holes revealed ancient maize pollen, one of the Andes’ key staple crops, along with reeds traditionally utilized for basket making for millennia.
These surprising findings indicate that ancient people likely planted crops in the holes, using woven baskets and bundles for transport.
“This is quite intriguing. Perhaps this area functioned as a pre-Inca market, akin to a flea market,” remarked Dr. Bongers.
“We estimate that the pre-Hispanic population in this region was around 100,000. It likely served as a meeting point for traveling merchants, including llama caravan traders, as well as local professionals like farmers and fishermen to trade goods like corn and cotton.”
“Fundamentally, I believe these holes served as a form of social technology that unified individuals and later evolved into a comprehensive accounting system under the Inca Empire.”
“Numerous questions remain: Why is this monument unique to this location and not found throughout the Andes?”
“Was Monte Sierpe a type of ‘landscape’? – Nevertheless, we are gradually moving closer to unraveling the mysteries of this fascinating site. It’s genuinely exciting.”
Refer to the study published in the Journal on November 10, 2025 ancient.
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Jacob L. Bongers et al. Indigenous accounting and interaction at Monte Sierpe (“Band of Holes”), Pisco Valley, Peru. ancient published online on November 10, 2025. doi: 10.15184/aqy.2025.10237
Paleontologists have discovered a specimen dating back 410 million years: cavernous cavernosa nanum. This lichen is one of the oldest and most extensively distributed in the fossil record and was found in Brazil’s Paraná Basin, specifically within the Ponta Grossa Formation.
Artistically reconstructed cavernous cavernosa nanum from the Early Devonian, depicting high-latitude sedimentary systems of the Paraná Basin. Image credit: J. Lacerda.
The colonization of land and the evolution of complex terrestrial ecosystems rank among the most significant evolutionary milestones in the history of life.
This phenomenon greatly affected terrestrial and marine ecosystems, leading to the sequestration of atmospheric carbon dioxide, enhanced weathering, nutrient absorption in oceans, soil formation, and the emergence of major groups of terrestrial animals.
It is well-established that early plants played a crucial role in land colonization, particularly in establishing the first plant communities.
The earliest records of ancient land plants appear in the form of cryptospores from the Middle Ordovician, around 460 million years ago. The first macrofossils of vascular plants are found in Silurian deposits dating from approximately 443 to 420 million years ago.
Despite this, the specific role and presence of lichens during various stages of terrestrialization remain uncertain.
“cavernous cavernosa nanum displays a partnership of fungi and algae akin to modern lichens,” noted Dr. Bruno Becker Kerber from Harvard University.
“Our research illustrates that lichens are not merely peripheral organisms; they were vital pioneers in reshaping Earth’s terrain.”
“They contributed to the soil formation that enabled the colonization and diversification of plants and animals on land.”
Morphology and internal structure of cavernous cavernosa nanum. Image credit: Becker-Kerber et al., doi: 10.1126/sciadv.adw7879.
Findings indicate that ancient lichens originated in the cold polar regions of the Gondwana supercontinent, now known as parts of modern-day South America and Africa.
“cavernous cavernosa nanum is a remarkable fossil, preserved in an incredible state. Essentially, they are mummified with their organic matter intact,” remarked Professor Jochen Brocks from the Australian National University.
“In simple plants, the tough component is cellulose. In contrast, lichens are unique; they consist of chitin, the same material that gives insects like beetles their strength.”
“Chitin contains nitrogen. In our analyses, cavernous cavernosa nanum yielded an unprecedented nitrogen signal.”
“Such clear results are rare. It was a true Eureka moment.”
“Today, lichens continue to be vital in soil creation, nutrient recycling, and carbon capture in extreme environments spanning from deserts to the polar regions.”
“Yet, due to their delicate structure and infrequent fossil records, their origins remain elusive.”
“This research underscores the necessity of blending traditional techniques with innovative technology,” explained Dr. Nathalie L. Alchira, a researcher at the Synchrotron Light Institute in Brazil.
“Preliminary measurements enabled us to identify crucial areas of interest and collect 3D nanometer imaging for the first time, unveiling the intricate fungal and algal networks that define cavernous cavernosa nanum as a true lichen.”
The team’s study was published in this week’s edition of Scientific Advances.
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Bruno Becker-Kerber et al. 2025. The role of lichens in the colonization of terrestrial environments. Scientific Advances 11(44); doi: 10.1126/sciadv.adw7879
The asymmetry in the average temperature of the cosmic microwave background is inconsistent with the standard model of cosmology
ESA/Planck Collaboration
Cosmic anomalies have puzzled scientists for years, and recent examinations of data from various radio telescopes further complicate the understanding of their origins.
This peculiar fluctuation appears in the afterglow of the Big Bang, representing radiation that has journeyed toward us since the dawn of time, referred to as the cosmic microwave background (CMB). Physicists generally expect this radiation to be uniform in all directions; therefore, significant deviations are perplexing. Current measurements indicate a gradient in CMB temperatures, resulting in colder and hotter areas known as a dipole, as explained by Lucas Behme. His team at Bielefeld University in Germany utilized data from radio telescopes to delve deeply into these anomalies.
Böhme notes that while the presence of the CMB dipole isn’t surprising, its magnitude defies the expectations of our prevailing cosmological models. Radiation emitted from moving sources—and perceived by observers who are also in motion—appears warmer or colder due to the Doppler effect and other relativistic effects. Yet, the dipole observed is approximately ten times more intense than anticipated.
To analyze this discrepancy, Böhme and his colleagues examined data from six radio telescopes and meticulously narrowed their focus to the three most precise measurements. Böhme describes their method as dividing the sky into pixels to determine the number of radiation sources within each. Nevertheless, despite their exhaustive adjustments, the dipole mystery endured.
Dragan Huterer from the University of Michigan finds the team’s thorough analysis noteworthy. He emphasizes that this is crucial for establishing the dipole as an undeniable feature of the CMB. “This is a significant insight, indicating that we fundamentally misunderstand our spatial context within the universe, or that our most accurate theories fail to align with the evidence,” he states. However, Huterer also points out the challenges inherent in accurately measuring radio astronomical data, which may result in systematic errors.
Part of the difficulty lies in the faintness of the radio signals collected, Böhme explains. “We aim to measure extremely subtle phenomena. Fine-tuning this measurement is challenging,” he notes. Yet, this is not the only evidence supporting the existence of the dipole. Infrared radiation from quasars tends to reinforce the findings from radio wave measurements, and forthcoming telescopes may enhance precision in observations, potentially resolving some of the dipole’s enigmas.
The NASA DART probe, depicted on the upper right, is on a trajectory to collide with the asteroid Dimorphos, shown on the left.
Steve Gribben/Johns Hopkins APL/NASA/AP/ALAMY
Following the collision of NASA’s spacecraft with an asteroid, its orbit is expected to change gradually next month, leaving astronomers puzzled.
In 2022, the Double Asteroid Redirect Test (DART) sent a nearly 600-kilometer spacecraft towards a small asteroid known as Dimorphos.
Prior to the collision, Dimorphos completed an orbit every 11 hours and 55 minutes. Observations soon indicated that the impact shortened this orbital period by approximately 30 minutes, although in the following weeks and months, the orbital period diminished by an additional 30 seconds.
Astronomers have proposed that this phenomenon might be due to the release of small debris during the impact, which could gradually cause energy loss and result in a reduced orbital path.
Recently, Harrison Agrusa and Camille Chattanette from the University of Côte d’Azur in Nice, France, asserted that debris ejection cannot solely explain the observations.
“The boulders can be flung by Dimorphos, leading to a wider dispersion. This momentum will eventually revert and be transferred back to Dimorphos,” Agrusa explains.
Agrusa theorizes that a more plausible reason for Dimorphos’ shifting trajectory is that its impact affects its rotation in a complex manner, causing rocks on its surface to shift. The friction generated by these rocks could lead to heat production from their collisions. The resultant energy loss as heat might clarify the decrease in the asteroid’s orbital path, although this study has not modeled that aspect.
“When you rearrange materials on a surface, you’re altering the gravitational potential energy of Dimorphos itself,” Agrusa states. “This adjustment could feasibly slow down the orbital period within a month, as this would be a prolonged process.”
This highlights the challenges in predicting how asteroid orbits will alter post-impact, yet according to Agrusa, this phenomenon is less concerning when deflecting an asteroid heading towards Earth. This is because binary asteroid systems like Didymos and Dimorphos are quite uncommon, making it unlikely that similar effects will occur for a solitary asteroid orbiting the Sun.
The Yunxian 2 skull, although deformed, has been reconstructed to resemble an early Denisovan.
Gary Todd (CC0)
Our species’ origins may extend further back than previously believed, and the same could hold true for both our extinct Neanderthal and Denisovan relatives. A recent analysis of fossil remains suggests that the common ancestors of these groups emerged over a million years ago.
“If these ancient divergences are accurate, we might be overlooking significant details about the early history of these lineages,” states Chris Stringer from the Natural History Museum in London.
This finding could clarify the search for “ancestor X,” the lineage from which modern humans, Neanderthals, and the population that produced the Denisovans descended. It also may imply that the Denisovans were our closest relatives, potentially even closer than Neanderthals—a point that remains debated.
Stringer and his research team, which includes Xijun Ni from the Institute for Vertebrate Paleontology and Paleoanthropology in Beijing, revisited the Yunxian fossil collection located in central China.
Two partial skulls were unearthed on a terrace above the Han River in 1989 and 1990; reported in 1992. Both skulls were crushed during their discovery, although the YUNXIAN 2 specimen sustained less damage.
Using advanced techniques, Stringer, Ni, and their colleagues reconstructed the Yunxian 2 skull. These methods include CT scans that digitally separate individual bone fragments from the surrounding sediment. “The skull is elongated and has a prominent brow ridge,” Stringer notes. “Additionally, it features a slight beak-like nose, small third molars, and larger teeth.”
The Yunxian 2 skull dates back between 940,000 and 1.1 million years. Specimens of this age are often classified as Homo erectus, which appeared around 2 million years ago in Africa before dispersing to South Asia and Indonesia approximately 108,000 years ago. However, Stringer asserts that Yunxian 2 doesn’t conform to this profile; many of its features are characteristic of later specimens, including Neanderthals.
To better understand the Yunxian 2, the research team compared it with 56 other fossils of the same group. They constructed a family tree based on the morphology, grouping related fossils together. This analysis revealed three significant lineages, encompassing most fossils from the past million years.
One lineage consists of modern humans (Homo sapiens), another includes Neanderthals (Homo neanderthalensis) who lived in Europe and Asia for several hundred thousand years before disappearing around 40,000 years ago, and the third represents the Denisovans from East Asia.
Denisovans were first identified in 2010 through DNA from a bone fragment, and it took 15 years to connect this lineage with larger fossils. Stringer was involved in interpreting the Harbin skull from China, which was identified as Denisovan in June based on molecular evidence. Yunxian 2 appears to fall into the early Denisovan category, much like several other Asian fossils.
This discovery provides important links among these fossils in the Denisovan lineage, according to geneticist Aylwyn Scally at Cambridge University: “This allows us to form better hypotheses about the Denisovans’ whereabouts, lifestyle, and species characteristics.”
Recognizing that Yunxian 2 is a Denisovan reshapes our recent understanding of human evolution in two significant ways. First, it appears to alter the timeline of the emergence of these three groups. Traditional genetic narratives suggest that the common ancestor, “ancestor X,” diverged into two branches. However, the reconstruction indicates that Neanderthals separated first about 1.38 million years ago, before the divergence of modern humans and Denisovans around 1.32 million years ago.
If validated, this hypothesis posits that Denisovans were indeed more closely related to us than Neanderthals, challenging established genetic theories. Nonetheless, Scally expresses caution, noting the complexities of inter-group histories: “In reality, straightforward phylogenetic trees don’t provide a complete picture.” The research relies more on “entangled networks” than traditional models. Furthermore, Scally suggests that genetics may provide clearer insights into these relationships than morphology, especially with only partial skeletal evidence available.
The second significant change is that all three groups appear to have emerged much earlier than previously thought. Genetic evidence generally indicates that modern humans split from their Neanderthal and Denisovan relatives around 500,000-700,000 years ago. However, Yunxian 2 suggests that the Denisovan lineage was already distinct one million years ago.
Scally adds that there may not be a single definitive date for these splits; instead, they likely occurred over extended periods with intermittent separations and reunions. In this case, Stringer and his colleagues may be correct that divergence began over a million years ago, stretching across hundreds of thousands of years.
This extended timeline raises new questions. The oldest known fossils of modern humans date to around 300,000 years ago. So where are the earlier ancestors from millions of years ago? “We either lack those fossils, or they’re present but unrecognized,” Stringer comments.
We also know little about “ancestor X”—its appearance and habitat remain a mystery. “Ten years ago, I would have stated that the likely origin of most of these groups was Africa,” Stringer reflects. “It now seems plausible that their forebears lived outside Africa, potentially in regions of Western Asia. This suggests that ancient sapiens ancestors likely migrated to Africa, evolving there for a large portion of that million-year timeline.”
Stringer highlights the scarcity of known fossils from Western Asia dating back a million years, noting that even India has limited evidence. Only one human fossil from that period exists. “There are numerous regions where our fossil record is strikingly thin,” he asserts.
A significant source of information is the Yunxian site. In 2022, a third skull was uncovered that seems to be in better condition, although it has yet to be analyzed.
Neanderthals, Ancient Humans, Cave Art: France
Join New Scientist’s Kate Douglas on an enthralling journey through time as she delves into significant Neanderthal and Upper Paleolithic sites across southern France, from Bordeaux to Montpellier.
The unusual “leopard spot” markings on Mars’ rocks might finally indicate that alien microbes could have existed on the Red Planet.
A comprehensive analysis of these rocks has shown that the intricate patterns are “the clearest signs ever found on Mars,” as stated by Sean Duffy, a NASA representative.
These rocks, estimated to be about 3.5 billion years old, were discovered in July 2024 by NASA’s Perseverance rover. Since then, planetary scientists have been exploring various hypotheses to explain these markings.
Recent information from a Nature paper suggests that while the patterns may have a geological origin, the prevailing theory now points toward ancient Martian microbes as the likely culprits.
Perseverance collected rock samples, hoping to yield a more definitive answer. If all goes well, these samples will eventually return to Earth for a thorough examination of potential signs of past life.
Leopard Spots on Bright Angel
Currently, Mars is a barren, lifeless world, but this hasn’t always been the case. Until around 3 billion years ago, Mars’ surface was rich with flowing rivers and expansive lakes.
Wherever there is water on Earth, signs of life typically follow. For two decades, NASA’s rovers have been scouring Mars for evidence suggesting that the Red Planet could have once supported life.
The Perseverance rover is exploring a site known as Jezero Crater, which was a lake in Mars’ ancient history. Similar environments on Earth often serve as habitats for microorganisms.
Within rock formations referred to as the Bright Angel formation, Perseverance uncovered stunning patterns resembling leopard spots.
“We conducted extensive observations of the entire rock formation at Bright Angel,” said Professor Joel Hurowitz of Stony Brook University in the US, in an interview with BBC Science Focus.
While Perseverance’s cameras captured detailed images of the patterns, a spectrometer analyzed the mineral composition. The rover even utilized radar to map the structure of the subsurface outcrop.
“Essentially, we used every tool available on these rocks except for the kitchen sink,” Hurowitz remarked.
The analysis indicated that the patterns were formed by iron-rich minerals called vivianite and greygite. On Earth, these minerals typically arise from “redox reactions,” a process in which microorganisms exchange electrons with their environment.
“On Earth, these reactions are often facilitated by microorganisms residing in sediments, which derive energy from them for metabolic activity,” Hurowitz explained. The residuals from these processes create distinctive patterns in sedimentary rocks.
However, this doesn’t mean we should rush to celebrate the discovery of alien life just yet. There are other mechanisms that could account for the leopard spot patterns without any biological influence.
For instance, heat could have driven reactions between mud and organic matter, resulting in new minerals.
Yet, the research team did not find evidence indicating that the rocks were subjected to heat. Additionally, other methods they investigated also did not seem viable. Nonetheless, Hurowitz cautioned, “We cannot dismiss these entirely.”
One of the most surprising findings is the relatively young age of these rocks. At only 3.5 billion years old, the patterns formed while Mars was already entering a phase of decline, suggesting that the planet may have been habitable for much longer than previously assumed.
Unfortunately, Perseverance has an entire planet to explore and we continue our quest to find life beyond Earth.
Perseverance drilling and photographing rock samples – Credit: NASA/JPL -CALTECH/MSSS
“If I could revisit Jezero in the future, I would have follow-up questions that I would like to address using the rover’s instruments,” Hurowitz remarked.
“However, these follow-up analyses may not necessarily provide a more conclusive answer regarding whether these features were shaped by life.”
“Ultimately, determining whether life was involved will necessitate laboratory analysis back on Earth.”
Bringing Mars to Earth
Fortunately, Perseverance is part of the initial phase of Mars’ sample return mission. Not only is it studying the rocks on Mars, but it’s also preparing to bring samples back to Earth.
Before departing from Bright Angel, the rover collected and stored samples from the rocks along with numerous similar fragments obtained during its mission on Mars.
NASA aims to collaborate with the European Space Agency on follow-up missions to retrieve these samples and return them to Earth where they can be analyzed in top-tier laboratories.
After 3.5 billion years, finding definitive evidence is challenging. Instead, researchers will seek additional signs that microbes may have left behind.
“The first logical step is to analyze the isotopic composition of iron, sulfur, and carbon in the various mineral and organic components of the rock,” Hurowitz stated.
Isotopes can be thought of as different variants of the same element. Microorganisms tend to retain particular isotopes more than their non-biological counterparts, enabling researchers to narrow down their search for evidence of life.
“These variations in isotopic composition are essential tools for investigating biological signals in ancient rocks on Earth, and we aim to apply similar methods to this Martian sample,” Hurowitz noted.
The return mission is tentatively scheduled for the 2030s, although there is a risk of cancellation due to cuts to NASA’s planetary exploration budget during the Trump administration.
“NASA is examining strategies for retrieving these samples and others,” a NASA spokesperson told BBC Science Focus. “Having explored Mars for 60 years, we will continue to look into budgetary and timing considerations for a quick and cost-effective return of these samples.”
“We hope these findings will further motivate the sample return mission,” Hurowitz added. “This will allow us to scrutinize the sample with the detail necessary to determine its historical record of life on Mars.”
“If it’s indeed life, that would suggest our planet is not the only one where life has evolved,” Frowitz concluded. “If life originated twice, how many other places might it have occurred?”
About Our Experts
Joel Hurowitz is an associate professor in the Department of Geoscience at Stony Brook University in New York, USA. He investigates the early history of Mars through measurements taken from planetary studies and Earth’s similar topographies.
Stone circles are remnants of ancient rituals and druidic lore. Most people recognize the stone rings at Stonehenge, located near Amesbury, England; which dates back to 2500 BC (around 4,525 years ago). However, numerous examples of “menhills” (standing stones) and other ancient stone arrangements can be found globally.
In fact, some of these stone monuments predate Stonehenge. For instance, the Oyyu Stone Circle in Northern Japan is estimated to be about 3,500 years old, having been discovered in 1931. Additionally, there are various Aboriginal stone circles throughout Australia; some of which may be nearly 10,000 years old.
Conversely, stone monuments are uncommon in America. Thus, in 2007, archaeologists were thrilled to uncover what seems to be a human-made stone arrangement at the bottom of Lake Michigan.
One archaeologist, Mark Holly, has since been seeking funds to drill at the site while keeping its exact location confidential to prevent disturbances.
Currently, the origin of these stones remains unclear. One theory suggests that they may indicate “driving lanes” for caribou hunting, reflecting a different study. 9,000-year-old stone arrangements found on Lake Huron would have been visible when the lanes were marked.
Lake Michigan remained dry until approximately 15,000 years ago. Therefore, these stones might have been arranged significantly earlier than those found at Lake Huron or Stonehenge.
This article addresses the inquiry by John McPherson from Ripon: “Are there any other stoneworks?”
For further questions, please email us at Question @sciencefocus.com or reach out viaFacebook, Twitter, or Instagram. (Make sure to include your name and location.)
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A peculiar fossil skull discovered in a Greek cave over six decades ago may finally reveal some of its mysteries. Recent analysis indicates that at least 300,000 years ago, the early Homo sapiens coexisted with the first Neanderthals in Africa and Europe.
Unearthed in northern Greece in 1960, the Petrarona skull has long puzzled paleontologists, who are challenged to place it within the human lineage.
The fossil includes traits from Neanderthals and Homo erectus, yet it was found completely isolated, lacking artifacts or animal bones that could provide context for dating.
“The moment I examined and measured it, I realized it wasn’t a Neanderthal or Homo erectus,” stated Professor Chris Stringer, a paleontologist and co-researcher at the Museum of Natural History in London, in an interview with BBC Science Focus. “It was something unique.”
Stringer has long believed that the specimen belonged to our relative, Homo heidelbergensis, a robust human species that existed hundreds of thousands of years ago across Africa, Europe, and possibly Asia.
However, without a reliable date for the skull, understanding its place in the human narrative remained difficult.
A recent study utilized uranium series dating on the fossil’s calcite coating.
Calcite, one of the most common mineral forms of calcium carbonate, forms as water seeps into the pores and cavities, resulting in new mineral structures. This uranium series dating method estimates fossil ages by analyzing the calcite and measuring the decay level of uranium within it.
The findings suggest an age of approximately 286,000 years. Nevertheless, the methodology raises questions about the skull’s actual age.
“If fossil calcite forms swiftly after deposition in the cave, an age of around 288,000 to 290,000 years is plausible for the fossil,” Stringer noted.
“However, if the fossil was in the cave before the calcite developed, that age is a minimum estimate.”
The Petrarona skull, partially coated with calcite, is now estimated to be nearly 300,000 years old – Credit: Chris Stringer
Despite this caution, the timeline for Petrarona now closely aligns with another well-known Homo heidelbergensis skull from Kabwe, Zambia, which dates back about 300,000 years.
“Morphologically, they are similar and seem to be converging in their dating,” Stringer remarked.
This discovery underscores the idea that Homo heidelbergensis had a broad geographic presence and an extensive time span, overlapping rather than directly giving rise to other human species.
In simpler terms, contrary to earlier beliefs, they are not the common ancestors of modern humans and Neanderthals; Homo heidelbergensis was likely our contemporary for at least some time.
Stringer emphasized that this enriches our understanding of human evolution.
Unusual clouds form on the Arcia Mon, a volcano on Mars every year.
ESA/DLR/FU Berlin/J. Cowart CC by-sa 3.0 Igo
The delicate clouds that appear on Mars annually have intrigued astronomers since their initial discovery, likely stemming from a water-rich atmosphere that seems implausible.
Each winter, clouds spanning 1,800 kilometers form near the Arsia Mons, located in the southern hemisphere of Mars, emerging and dissipating daily for nearly three months. The atmospheric conditions on Mars vastly differ from Earth’s, notably with an abundance of fine dust particles that can cause water vapor in the atmosphere to condense into cloud particles. This results in cloud patterns unique to Mars, yet simulations accounting for these high dust levels do not replicate the distinct features of the Arsia Mons Cloud.
Now, Jorge Hernandez Bernal from the University of Sorbonne in France and his team propose that an exceptionally high amount of water vapor in the atmosphere could recreate these cloud characteristics. Elevated levels of water vapor aid in cloud particle formation through alternative dust-free processes known as homogeneous nucleation.
When researchers conducted atmospheric simulations around Arsia Mons that featured increased water content, the resulting cloud formations bore a striking resemblance to the actual clouds.
“Uniform nucleation necessitates much greater water levels on Mars. [Water] saturation is required. Initially, I believed this to be improbable or extremely unlikely on Mars,” said Hernandez Bernal at the Europlanet Science Congress (EPSC) on September 10th, held in Helsinki, Finland. “However, over the last decade, we’ve discovered that Mars can indeed exhibit supersaturation.”
Small, toothed mammals represent the most unusual of all whales. If they were still around today, they would be as symbolically Australian as kangaroos. A new paper published this week in The Linnaean Society’s Journal of Zoology details a recently identified species named Janjucetus lullardi, derived from a 25 million-year-old specimen unearthed in Victoria, Australia.
Janjucetus lullardi — 25 million years ago, a calf and its mother swam in the shallow waters off the coast of Victoria. Image credit: Ruairidh Duncan.
“Currently, some of the most iconic species of whales, including blue and humpback whales, are whale veil.” I noted, said LeAilid Duncan, a paleontologist from Monash University.
“These marine giants utilize a hairy filter in their mouths called Baleen to sift through plankton.
“In contrast, these mammals had bodies measuring less than 3 meters, with large eyes and short jaws filled with teeth.”
“Despite this description, we know that mammalian whales lacked Baleen.”
“They appeared to be derived from the major evolutionary lines leading to today’s toothless giants.”
All known mammalian species thrived during the late Oligocene epoch, approximately 27 to 23 million years ago.
Interestingly, three of the four identified species were found along the Victoria Surf Coast, southeast of Melbourne.
“The first mammal was uncovered in 1932 and was named in 1939 Mammalian Coraliber,” the paleontologist remarked.
“It featured a blunt jaw bone with a rich supply of blood and nerves for its facial and lip muscles.”
“Notably, the teeth show signs of wear on the gums, indicating they foraged for abrasive prey (along with gritty substances) from the seafloor.”
“In 2006, a local naturalist discovered the first fossil of a species named after him, Janjucetus hunderi.
“This whale had a sturdy triangular snout with sharp teeth and strong muscles to close its powerful jaw.”
“However, the exact differences in the lifestyle of Mammalian Coraliber and Janjucetus hunderi compared to other whales remain largely unclear, hinting at a diverse range of behaviors.”
The fossilized remains of Janjucetus lullardi, dating back 25 million years, were found in 2019 by school principal Ross Dallard along the coast of Yang JUC in Victoria.
“Janjucetus lullardi measured about 2 meters in length. It’s compact enough to fit in a standard single bed,” the researcher noted.
“This may be the first fossilized whale discovered in Australia, and potentially the first fossils of a juvenile whale found in this region.”
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Ruairidh J. Duncan et al. 2025. Insights into the mystiology of immature teeth from the Australian Oligocene and mammals (Cetacea: Mysticeti) morphology, phylogenetics, and ontogeny. The Linnaean Society’s Journal of Zoology 204 (4): ZLAF090; doi: 10.1093/zoolinnean/zlaf090
This excerpt is from our human stories newsletter, focused on the archaeological revolution—sign up to receive it monthly.
In human stories, I aim to address common questions about human evolution. In February 2021, I tackled a query that many find perplexing—whether Neanderthals and modern humans are distinct species (short answer: species boundaries are ambiguous).
This month, we confront another frequently asked question: Do Denisovans, the extinct human group once prevalent in Asia, have a designated species name? If so, what should that name be?
The debate regarding the “official” name of the Denisovans has been lively since their discovery in 2010. Notably, in June, the skull of Harbin, dubbed the Dragon Man from northern China, was classified as Denisovan through molecular evidence. This marked the first acquisition of a Denisovan skull, giving us insights into their facial features.
While participating in New Scientist discussions, host Rowan Hooper asked why Denisovans lack a species name. Why can’t we refer to them as Homo Denisovanensis, similar to how Neanderthals are called Homo Neanderthalensis?
I preferred a straightforward explanation: insufficient information has hindered a definitive classification of Denisovans. Their DNA shows significant divergence from Neanderthal DNA; yet, we require detailed insights into their anatomy and skeletal structure.
However, this inquiry is multifaceted. First, we must identify which fossils unequivocally belong to Denisovans. This involves analyzing numerous specimens and decades of research, complicating the resolution. Secondly, we need to determine which of the assigned names should take precedence under our classification norms—a legal question that adds to the complexity.
Who’s Included and Who’s Excluded?
A brief reminder about Denisovans: they are an enigmatic group of humans initially identified in 2010 from fragments of a finger bone discovered in the Denisova Cave in Siberia’s Altai Mountains. Genetic analysis revealed they were distinct from both modern humans and Neanderthals. Moreover, many contemporary individuals, especially in Southeast Asia and Melanesia, carry Denisovan DNA.
This suggests that Denisovans were quite widespread in East Asia over the past several hundred thousand years. So, where are the Denisovan fossils?
Fifteen years later, a handful of Denisovan fossils have been actively categorized. For example, mandibles discovered on the Tibetan Plateau were identified through fossil proteins and sediment DNA. Similarly, a jawbone retrieved from the Pengle waterway off the coast of Taiwan was confirmed as Denisovan in April.
Nonetheless, we still lack a complete skeleton. Identifying the Harbin skull as Denisovan brought us closer to understanding their appearance, yet many more discoveries are necessary.
Numerous human fossils in East Asia potentially belong to Denisovans. However, categorizing these remains has proven challenging, as they often do not resemble established species like modern humans, Neanderthals, or even Homo Erectus. If adequate specimens surface, thus confirming their Denisovan identity, our understanding could significantly improve, leading to a formal classification.
But how do we determine which fossils are Denisovan? Ideally, we seek molecular evidence of preserved DNA or protein for comparison with the original Denisovan remnants. However, many fossils remain unanalyzed or inaccessible.
One notable effort to address this issue was a preliminary study submitted by a team led by Xijun Ni from the Chinese Academy of Sciences in March 2024. By comparing 57 human fossils for various physical traits, they constructed familial relationships between these findings.
The team found three primary groups among Eurasian hominins: Modern Humans, Neanderthals, and a third group composed of the original Denisovan fossil, the Tibetan cave jawbone, the Pengle jawbone, and the Harbin skull. This third category appears to represent those we refer to as Denisovans.
This is an intriguing proposition, but others disagree.
A collection of contentious fossils from Hualongdong, southern China, offers a wealth of material: an almost complete skull, 14 teeth, an upper jaw, six isolated teeth, and additional fragments dating back around 300,000 years.
While the NI team classified the Hualongdong specimens as part of the Denisovan group, a study led by Xiujie Wu in July suggested that these teeth did not show clear correlations, proposing instead that they may belong to a different hominin group. Another interpretation could be that the Denisovans at Hualongdong were somewhat disparate from those in other regions.
In the meantime, other intriguing fossils from Asia continue to emerge. Among them are specimens from Dariscal and Jinniushan, both around 260,000 years old, which Ni’s team has suggested might also belong to the Denisovan lineage.
As the list of contending Denisovan fossils grows, we must decide how to categorize them.
The Harbin Skull
Hebei Geo University
Homo — What Does It Mean?
Interestingly, I was part of the team that described the Harbin skull in 2021, and we named it Homo Longhi. So, could that be the name we assign to Denisovans?
However, last year a competing proposition was put forth by Woo and Christopher Beh from the University of Hawaii, who suggested that we should center around fossils from Xujiayao in northern China, proposing to call this new species Homo Jurensis—fossils that would include the original Denisovan findings.
This idea’s strength lies in the resemblance of Xujiayao fossils to Denisovan remains, a point also observed by the NI team. However, Bae and Wu aimed to designate the Xujiayao fossils as “type specimens.”
This raises two issues: the classification of fossils and the naming protocols. Let’s examine each aspect separately.
In classification, the Homo Jurensis proposal faces challenges. Bae and Wu classify the Harbin skull as Homo Jurensis or Denisovan, yet it lacks sufficient resemblance to warrant such designation. A study published in June demonstrated molecular evidence clearly linking the Harbin skull to Denisovans. Hence, identifying those fossils as Denisovan would contravene objective realities, making Homo Jurensis seem unfounded.
What about taxonomy? This area is intricate. A crucial factor is the concept of priority, where the first proposed name tends to gain precedence. Hence, Homo Longhi might likely take precedence over Homo Jurensis as it was suggested three years earlier.
Are there alternative names for Denisovans?
The excavators of Denisova Cave never formally classified Denisovans as a distinct species. Anatoly Derebianco, part of that team, suggested the name Homo Sapiens Altaiensis, implying they would serve as a modern human subspecies—yet this proposal lacked formal status, rendering it typically insignificant.
This year, Derebianco has published a series of papers discussing what Denisovans could be. His references include locations in Mongolia, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, and Iran, referring to them collectively as Homo sapiens denisovan. I remain unsure if formal explanations were provided, as only abstracts were published, and if completed, it occurred post the naming of Homo Longhi.
Lastly, it’s possible that one of the names was assigned to an Asian human fossil within an obscure publication decades ago. If the fossil is ultimately identified as Denisovan, the name takes precedence (assuming it was adequately introduced). Nevertheless, Wu, Bae, Ni, and others assessed this notion in 2023 and concluded that many crucial fossils were not appropriately named. For instance, there was a suggestion to label Dali’s skull as Homo Dariensis, yet such ideas amounted to informal statements rather than formally recognized classifications.
Your head might be swirling from this cascade of names and species classifications, so let’s recap: the critical takeaway is our evolving understanding of Denisovans, which brings us closer to officially designating their name.
Given our comprehension of taxonomic norms and their significance, Homo Longhi could emerge as the official designation. Although I can’t influence the decision, they will always remain Denisovans in my mind.
Could the gravitational wave signal be from a black hole or something more peculiar?
Titoonz / Alamy
Exotic viscous stars might emulate signals from black holes, mirroring the ripples in spacetime.
Since 2015, scientists have been uncovering the universe’s secrets by monitoring both light waves and gravitational waves, the ripples in the cosmos. Jaime Redondo-Yuste from the Neals Bohr Institute in Denmark and his team found that they can reflect gravitational waves, similar to light waves, but only from unusually viscous celestial objects.
The researchers began exploring the possibility of creating a gravitational wave mirror. While earlier studies hinted at its feasibility, developing equations that adhere to physical laws proved challenging. They eventually understood that reflectors don’t need to be flat.
“We can have a spherical mirror, and we need stars,” explains Redondo-Yuste. However, these stars must possess an extraordinarily high viscosity akin to molasses. Their calculations indicated that such stars could indeed reflect gravitational waves, as they are too rigid to be disturbed by passing waves.
Daniel Kennefick from the University of Arkansas highlights that this behavior is rare since most materials are transparent to gravitational waves, just as glass is to light. “Even when we are very near sources of powerful gravitational waves, they pass through us without any noticeable effect,” he remarks.
In addition to their strangeness, stars capable of deflecting gravitational waves must be compact and on the brink of collapsing into black holes. Redondo-Yuste notes that black holes themselves are very viscous. Therefore, when gravitational wave signals reach Earth, other highly viscous objects could be misidentified as black holes, with subtle differences in their signals. For instance, collisions between viscous stars and black holes would yield slightly distinct gravitational wave signatures due to tidal influences.
Researchers have previously detected celestial bodies believed to have heightened viscosity, such as extremely hot neutron stars formed from the merger of others. However, it’s still uncertain whether these stars possess sufficient viscosity to align with the team’s mathematical model, according to Paolopani from the University of Sapienza in Rome, Italy.
He suggests that forthcoming gravitational wave detectors will enhance our understanding of the viscosity of known objects and assist in discovering new ones. “This serves as a prelude to what we should be searching for,” Kennefick says.
To date, observational data hasn’t provided strong evidence for classifying what scientists identify as a black hole as an exotic star. All three researchers agree that the likelihood of observing these viscous stars has been minimal thus far.
“However, it’s our responsibility to continue these investigations,” insists Redondo-Yuste. “Only in this way can we compile a complete catalog of the entities populating our universe.”
Mars may appear spherical, yet it is actually a triaxial ellipsoid. Unlike the other rocky planets in our solar system, which resemble rugby balls, Mars varies in size along all three axes.
This is most apparent in the notable bulge of the Tharsis rise region and the contrasting region known as Sirtis Major.
Astronomer Dr. Michael Efroysky of the US Navy Observatory recently proposed that this peculiar shape may be attributed to the absence of an ancient moon on Mars.
The moon, named Nerio after the Roman goddess of war, who was associated with Mars, influenced the shape of the planet through tidal forces, similar to the oceans here on Earth.
However, once Mars cooled down, its deformed shape became permanently fixed.
Mars is roughly half the size of Earth, with a diameter of 6,790km (4,219 miles) compared to Earth’s 12,750km (7,922 miles) – Credit: Mark Garlic via Getty/Science Photo Library
Nerio’s tidal stress weakened the elevated regions of Mars, facilitating the impact of geological processes such as internal convection, structural shifts, and volcanic activity, all of which contributed to Mars’ asymmetrical shape.
Researchers propose that, in synchronous orbit around Mars, Nerio—being less than a third of Earth’s mass—could easily have formed the planet’s initial triaxial shape. The equatorial bulge would have been even more pronounced if Nerio had existed during the planet’s magma ocean phase.
Currently, Mars lacks such a moon, having only the small moons Deimos and Phobos. At some point, Nerio was either destroyed by another large body or pulled away by gravitational forces.
This article answers the question posed by Otto Sykes in an email: “Why does Mars have such a strange shape?”
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Researchers have found that endangered species of killer whales in the Pacific Northwest utilize tools crafted from kelp for mutual care.
A new study published in Current Biology reveals that scientists observed the Southern resident whales producing tools by tearing bull kelp and rolling it between each other during social interactions.
Drone footage captured the kelp being pushed against a companion, revealing a whale engaged in an extended grooming session.
“What’s particularly remarkable is that although this behavior appears to be common, despite the regular drone observations over these whales for nearly 50 years, it has never been documented.” stated Lead author Dr. Michael Weiss from the Whale Research Center in Friday Harbor, Washington.
The endangered Southern resident population has fewer than 80 individuals residing in the Salish Sea, situated between British Columbia and Washington.
While tool use is well recognized among primates, elephants, and birds, it remains scarce in marine species.
Weiss and her team observed this behavior across various age groups and social units, noting that whales are more inclined to groom relatives or older companions.
Two whales interact by rubbing against each other. These scrubs may serve hygienic functions. – Whale Research Center, NMFS NOAA permit 27038
Whales with greater amounts of dead skin participated more frequently in this behavior, suggesting a connection to hygiene.
The findings underscore the cultural identity of Southern residents and emphasize the necessity of conservation efforts. It remains uncertain whether this tool-assisted grooming is exclusive to this group or if it occurs in other whale populations.
Weiss remarked, “It was incredibly thrilling to discover that whales are not just utilizing tools but employing them in ways previously unreported in marine mammals.”
The lines of galaxies that emerged after the collision of the two dwarf galaxies, which tore gases from one another.
Keim et al./Decals
A curious dwarf galaxy may have originated from a bullet-like collision in the universe.
Michael Keim from Yale University and his team employed the Keck Observatory in Hawaii to examine the distinctive trails of 12 small dwarf galaxies located approximately 75 million light-years from the Milky Way.
The orientation and velocity of the galaxies indicate that they resulted from a head-on impact between two galaxies known as NGC 1052-DF2 and NGC 1052-DF4. This collision expelled gas, which eventually coalesced into a group of stars due to gravitational attraction.
“They’re exceptionally unique,” states Kayme. “This is the only known system of its kind.”
Keim and his colleagues named this system after a similar cluster of large galaxies referred to as Bullet Clusters.
It is believed that the two galaxies collided at a speed of 350 kilometers per second around 9 billion years ago. As they passed through one another, gas was stripped from each galaxy. “While it’s improbable for two stars to collide,” notes Kayme, “the same does not apply to gas clouds.”
Interestingly, the remnants of stars left after the collision appear to lack dark matter. This is quite unusual, as most galaxies contain a substantial amount of dark matter, often comprising over 90% of their total mass.
Keim and his team theorize that this anomaly may stem from dark matter’s inability to interact with regular matter during the gas stripping process or because it remained unaffected by the interaction.
This finding may challenge alternative theories regarding dark matter, which posit that discrepancies in stellar and galactic behavior stem from gravitational effects rather than the existence of dark matter particles. “This suggests that dark matter is indeed a particle that can be separated from a galaxy,” explains Kayme.
Fast Radio Bursts (FRBs) represent one of the greatest mysteries of the universe in our time. Initially identified in 2007, these transient radio wave phenomena have perplexed astronomers ever since.
Although we have detected thousands of them, the precise causes, origins, and unpredictable behaviors of FRBs remain elusive.
Just when scientists thought they were starting to unravel the mysteries, two new studies published in January 2025 added twists to the ongoing FRB enigma, challenging earlier theories.
“The FRB is one of those cosmic mysteries that deserves to be solved,” states Dr. Tarraneh Eftekhari, a radio astronomer at Northwestern University, in reference to the first new paper published in Astrophysics Letter.
Though the solution may be a long way off, the universe continues to guard its secrets.
What Makes the FRB Mysterious?
While it may not be entirely accurate to say that FRBs were discovered purely by chance, their initial detection happened within data collected for an entirely different purpose.
Pulsars, or “pulsating radio sources,” are far better understood cosmic phenomena, having been discovered in 1967 by Professor Jocelyn Bell Burnell, arising from neutron stars. These are incredibly dense remnants of giant stars boasting magnetic fields far stronger than Earth’s.
These rapidly spinning stellar remnants emit regular pulses of radio waves akin to cosmic beacons.
The consistency of these pulses and their emissions at specific frequencies initially led to the hypothesis that they could be of natural origin, which earned the first pulsar the nickname “Little Green Man 1.”
While pulsars quickly found their rightful place in astrophysics, FRBs tell a different story.
Jump forward to 2007 when they emerged unexpectedly from data gathered by the Parkes Multibeam Pulsar Survey, an international collaboration involving Jodrell Bank Observatory, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Bologna Astronomical Observatory, and Australia’s National Facilities.
The emission from this event was so powerful that it overshadowed all other known sources at the time by a substantial margin.
“In terms of energy output, a 1-millisecond-long FRB can emit as much energy as the Sun produces over three days,” says Dr. Fabian Djankowski, an astrophysicist at the French National Centre for Science and Technology specializing in FRBs.
However, for over five years after the initial detection, no similar events were recorded. Skepticism faded as more FRBs began to emerge.
Thousands have been detected since then, and astronomers estimate that two or three FRBs may blaze across the sky every minute.
These enigmatic signals release immense energy from deep space, illuminating the sky with their mysterious nature. And the strangeness does not end there.
Initially, FRBs were believed to be one-off occurrences, cosmic anomalies. This assumption seemed valid, as follow-up observations failed to reveal any repeating sources.
That changed in 2016 when FRB 121102 was found to emit repeated bursts. Currently, between 3% and 10% of FRBs are classified as “repeaters.”
Why do some FRBs remain silent after a single burst, while others emit multiple bursts? This is yet another mystery awaiting resolution.
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What Causes FRBs?
Numerous hypotheses have been proposed regarding the cause of FRBs, ranging from chaotic black hole collisions to extraterrestrial signals. Many explanations have emerged, including the unlikely scenario of a microwave being accidentally detected. However, one candidate seems to rise above the rest.
“When massive stars collapse and go supernova, they leave behind highly magnetized neutron stars, or ‘magnetars,'” notes Eftekhari. “The reason magnetars are a compelling candidate for FRBs is that we have observed similar events emanating from known magnetars within our Milky Way.”
Neutron stars already possess strong magnetic fields, but magnetars are in a category of their own, with magnetic fields thousands of times stronger than those of typical neutron stars.
Furthermore, a higher frequency of FRBs has been detected in galaxies with rapid star formation. As Eftekhari explains, “To produce a supernova that results in a magnetar, a massive star is required, and these giant stars are found in star-forming galaxies.”
So, is the case settled? Not quite.
The Canadian CHIME radio telescope detected FRB 20240209A, potentially originating from a globular cluster. – Photo Credit: CHIME Experiment
This is where the two new studies published in January 2025 come into play, both examining the recurring FRB known as 20240209A.
“The first exciting aspect of this FRB is that it originates outside our galaxy,” says Vishwangi Shah, a doctoral student at McGill University, referencing the second study.
“There is only one other FRB detected outside our galaxy. In terms of its repeaters, I believe it originates from a globular cluster.”
Both Eftekhari and Shah suggest that 20240209A is also associated with globular clusters (dense groups of ancient stars existing on the outskirts of galaxies).
“This is remarkable,” Eftekhari comments. “The notion of magnetar progenitors poses a challenge since they typically require a group of young stars to form magnetars.”
So what does this mean for FRBs? One possibility is that magnetars are still the culprits, but they may be generated through entirely different mechanisms.
For instance, within these stellar graveyards, two normal neutron stars might combine to form magnetars. Alternatively, a white dwarf—a stellar remnant too small to evolve into a neutron star—could gather material from a nearby companion, culminating in a massive explosion that results in a magnetar.
Ultimately, the exact origin of these outlier events remains unknown. “It’s thrilling to contemplate that we might be dealing with a subpopulation of FRBs,” Eftekhari remarks. “This case isn’t as clear as it appears.”
Can We Determine the Origins of FRBs?
Despite nearly two decades of research, many questions regarding FRBs linger. Which objects are responsible? What processes drive these phenomena? And why do some FRBs repeat while others do not?
Thanks to advances in FRB detection technology, answers may be nearer than anticipated.
CHIME is currently undergoing enhancements aimed at pinpointing bursts with unprecedented precision.
This advancement in FRB detection represents great progress in unraveling their mysteries. While many FRBs have been observed, accurately identifying their environments has left several key questions regarding their origins unanswered.
Jankowski believes that in the near future, many cases like 20240209A could be unlocked, revealing their underlying mechanisms. “I anticipate significant progress in the coming years,” he adds.
The Square Kilometer Array (SKA), a massive observatory spanning Australia and South Africa, aims to join the search for FRBs shortly.
Eftekhari and Shah have also proposed utilizing the James Webb Space Telescope to explore the region where 20240209A was detected.
“It’s an incredibly exciting time for FRB research,” highlights Jankowski. “We are poised to make remarkable discoveries in the next few years.”
Meet Our Experts
Dr. Tarraneh Eftekhari is a radio astronomer at Northwestern University, USA, with contributions to various scientific journals including Astrophysics Letter, Nature Astronomy, and Astrophysical Journal.
Dr. Fabian Djankowski is an astrophysicist at the French National Centre for Science and Technology who specializes in FRBs. His work has appeared in Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, Astrophysics Letter, and Astronomy and Astrophysics.
Vishwangi Shah is a doctoral student at McGill University in the USA and a researcher focusing on radio astronomy and FRBs. She has been published in Astrophysics Letter and Astronomy Journal.
We have confirmation that a strange planet orbits between two stars
Aaron Alien/Shutterstock
Following extensive observation, scientists are on the verge of unraveling how pairs of stars engage in stable orbital dynamics surrounding elusive planets.
In 2004, David Lamb from the University of Canterbury, New Zealand, identified a puzzling repeating signal while monitoring the motion of a star pair in the Nu Octantis system. This initiated an ongoing discussion about whether planets twice the size of Jupiter exist in that system. Now, along with Ram Mann Whiley from the University of Hong Kong and his colleagues, they present strong evidence suggesting that Nu Octantis is a trio rather than a binary system.
A significant discovery was that the Nu Octantis planet is moving in reverse. The planet and one star orbit the second star in opposite directions, with the planet maintaining a close orbit around the latter. Lee observes that this is an unusual occurrence, but the system is stable. His team reached this conclusion thanks to enhanced measurement tools, like the HARPS spectrometer on the 3.6-meter telescope at the European Southern Observatory in Chile. The persistence of the planetary signal across years of observation reinforced their findings. “We’re pretty sure [the planet] is genuine. If it were related to stellar activity, it shouldn’t exhibit such consistency over years of data,” remarks Lee.
Nonetheless, this retrograde planet is not an uncommon feature of Nu Octantis. Researchers utilized a large telescope at the Southern European Observatory to determine that one of the stars is a white dwarf. Lee explains this complicates the history of Nu Octantis, as it suggests that the planet’s current orbit was impossible when it was younger, larger, and brighter.
Thus, the planet initially orbited both stars simultaneously but fundamentally changed its trajectory when one of the stars became a white dwarf, or it formed from a mass expelled when the stars transitioned to white dwarfs. Continued observations and mathematical modeling may clarify which scenario occurred, but both possibilities are novel, notes Lee.
For centuries, astronomers believed that all planets orbit the central star in the same direction, with regular intervals governing the orbital arrangement. However, Nu Octantis challenges these conventions, according to Manfred Kunz from the University of Texas at Arlington. “Scientists are urging us to broaden our understanding of star and planetary scenarios, in terms of both formation and evolution,” he states.
One in five people (an estimated 64 million people in the US) has increased levels of small particles in their blood. It can significantly increase the risk of heart attacks and strokes.
But few people knew about it and there was not much to do, so little doctors would have checked it. Dieting is useless. I don’t even exercise. There were no medicines.
But that may change in the near future.
On Sunday, the cardiologist announced that the experimental drug created by Eli Lily of Repodisilan can lower particle levels by 94% with a single injection. The effect lasted for 6 months and there were no serious side effects.
However, it has not yet been confirmed that lowering LP(a) levels reduces the risk of heart attacks and strokes. It awaits a massive clinical trial currently underway.
Lily’s research was presented on Sunday at the American Society of Cardiology’s Annual Meeting and was presented simultaneously Published New England Journal of Medicine. At least four companies are also testing innovative drugs that block the production of the body of LP(A) and the mixing of lipids and proteins.
Dr. David Maron, a preventive cardiologist at Stanford University who is not involved in Lily’s research, said evidence of a severe and long-term reduction in lipoprotein levels by repodisilans is “thrilling.”
Dr. Martha Gulati, a preventive psychologist at Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, was also not involved in the exam, saying the study was “really elegant.”
Eli Lilly is currently conducting large clinical trials asking whether the drug can prevent heart attacks, strokes or cardiovascular death. It will end in 2029. Clinical trials of other drugs targeting LP(a) end more quickly. The first is a study of Novartis drugs that are injected monthly, with results expected in 2026.
However, cardiologists warn that there is no guarantee that medicine will protect people. They remember too well the lessons they learned, assuming that changing risk factors could change risk. Cardiologists were once keen on drugs that raise HDL levels known as “good cholesterol.” People with naturally higher HDL levels had a lower incidence of heart disease. These HDL raming drugs did not help.
Dr. Daniel Rader, a preventive psychologist at the University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, says LP(A)-lowering “is a huge new frontier in cardiovascular medicine.” Dr. Radar is a member of Novartis’ Scientific Advisory Committee and has written editorials to accompany new papers.
Treatments targeting LP(a) took a long time.
Lipoprotein was identified as a in 1974 Risk factors for heart disease This is controlled by genes rather than lifestyle or environment.
People with slightly higher than normal LP(a) levels have an approximately 25% increase in their risk of heart attacks and stroke. And very high levels can double the risk, as seen in 10% of the population.
Cardiologists say patients with no obvious reason for heart attacks or stroke (with normal cholesterol levels and blood pressure and not smoking) often know that their LP levels are high. Usually, it is found that they have a family history of heart disease of unknown cause.
The same applies to people who are experiencing heart attacks at a young age, says Dr. Stephen Nissen, a preventive psychologist at Cleveland Clinic, is an academic leader in the Lilly drug trials, and for clinical trials of three other new drugs.
“If you go to the coronary care unit and see a 40-year-old with an acute myocardial infarction, you need to know your LP(a) level,” he said, referring to a heart attack. Often they said their levels were 250 nanomoles or even higher per liter. The normal limit is 75.
Dr. Maron said his clinic is full of people who don’t know why they developed heart disease until they learn that they have high levels of LP.
One is Montewood, a 71-year-old retired firefighter who lives in Reading, California. His LDL cholesterol levels rose to moderately. His blood pressure was normal. He didn’t smoke. However, he had his first heart attack in 2006 while taking cholesterol-lowering statins.
It appeared that almost all of Mr. Kisae’s family had died of heart disease.
His paternal grandmother had her first heart attack when she was in her 40s. She died of a heart attack at the age of 63. His father and his father’s brother died of heart disease. Mr. Kisae’s brother died of a heart attack.
When Dr. Maron tested Wood’s LP level, it was above 400.
Dr. Maron and other preventive psychologists say they regularly test LP(a) levels in all patients, like Dr. Grati, Dr. Nissen and Dr. Radar. Because LP(a) levels are gene-controlled, patients should only test once.
Dr. Nissen is dull with LP(a) patients.
“We say: You have a disability that has serious meaning. I want to take all the risk factors you’ve been off the table,” he said.
But Dr. Grati said that a study found it. 0.3% The US population is receiving insurance-paid LP(a) tests, with only 3% of heart disease patients being tested.
She and other preventive cardiologists say that all adults should take the LP(a) test. If the level is high, your doctor should actively treat all other risk factors.
For Kisei, it meant taking Repatha, a powerful cholesterol-lowering drug that lowered his LDL cholesterol levels to 30.
However, Mr. Kisae’s case did not end there. Dr. Maron led one of the new drugs that lower LP(a) levels to clinical trial testing.
During the exam, Kisae had no symptoms of heart disease. I had no chest pain or shortness of breath. When the exam was finished, his symptoms returned, leading to a square bypass operation.
“It’s anecdotal,” Dr. Maron said. “But these drugs can prevent heart attacks.”
Entomologists describe a new species of the Tiger swallow (genus genus) Papirio) From eastern North America.
Papilio Sorstian: (a) male, holotype and (b) female, arotype. Scale bar – 10 mm. Image credit: Derotler et al. , doi: 10.3897/zookeys.1228.142202.
Papirio It is a large genus of swallowtail butterflies within the family Papillonidae.
The only representative of the Papillionini family, the genus contains about 200 scientifically recognized species.
Newly identified members of the genus Papilio Sorstianbelongs to North America Papilio Glaucus Species group.
” Papilio Glaucus The group is a model research system for insect evolutionary biology. ” Dr. B. Christian Schmidt Arknides, nematodes and colleagues wrote on paper from the Canadian National Insect Collection.
“Recognition and boundaries” Papilio Glaucus and Papilio canadensis Three decades of study in speciation, host plant adaptation, hybridization, and molecular evolution have been conducted as a pair of classical sibling species. ”
“Recently, we have discovered a third species. Papilio appalachiansisprovided unprecedented insights into speciation by hybridization. ”
” Papilio Glaucus The group is primarily part of the clades of the subgenos of the New World clades on a large scale Pterourussometimes recognized as a distinct genus,” they added.
“The various within the group demonstrate adaptation to a variety of thermal niches that are warmly characterized (Papilio Glaucus), intermediate (Papilio appalachiansis), and cool (Papilio canadensis) Climate region; all have a wide larval host plant diet and are not limited by its distribution. ”
Papilio Sorstian It is closely related to these three species, but unlike all of the series of characters.
“The most important differences are evident in developmental biology and biology,” the researchers wrote.
“Papilio Sorstian Compared to May for all other species, it is unique during long delays in appearance after adult escape, starting from late June to early July to late June to early July. ”
Papilio Sorstian'The geographical range is Papilio Glaucus The southern end of Papilio canadensis.
“Core Range Papilio Sorstian It includes eastern and south-central Ontario, northern and central New York, and adjacent Vermont, New Hampshire and Pennsylvania.2The scientist wrote in his paper.
“In New York Papilio Sorstian He lives in most of the states except the Southeast and New York City metropolitan areas. ”
“In Canada, Papilio Sorstian It extends westward from Montreal, Quebec, to the Bruce Peninsula in Ontario and south to the Niagara region. ”
“The western limits seem to be on the east coast of Lake Huron. We haven’t seen any verifiable specimens of the west there.”
“Current evidence is consistent with the possibility Papilio Sorstian There is a recombinant evolutionary origin of Papilio appalachiansisThey added.
“However, the evolutionary origin of this kind, Papilio Glaucus-complex, I still can’t answer. ”
“Recognizing and defining the taxonomic identity of this unique evolutionary lineage is our hope to provide a staging point on the fertile grounds for future research.”
CJ Derotler et al. 2025. A mysterious new species of the tiger swallow (Capidae, Papillonidae) in eastern North America. Zookeys 1228:69-97; doi:10.3897/zookeys.1228.142202
Being a physicist, I have a deep appreciation for all small particles. Each particle plays a crucial role in the universe, and by studying them, we gain a better understanding of the fundamental laws of nature that govern our existence. However, as a researcher in the field of Dark Matter, I must confess that Neutrinos present a unique challenge.
Neutrinos are elusive little particles. From their inception, they defied all expectations.
Confronted with this dilemma, physicists had two unsatisfactory options: either abandon the conservation of energy or posit the existence of invisible particles that could not be detected by conventional means. They opted for the latter, eventually coining the term “Little Neutral” for these new particles, which possessed no charge and were abundant in quantity.
The absence of charge was the defining feature – without charge, the particles do not interact at all through electromagnetic force. This led physicist Wolfgang Pauli to famously remark, “I have done a terrible thing. I have postulated a particle that cannot be detected.”
Fortunately, Pauli’s skepticism about detectability was proven wrong in the end. Neutrinos, though notoriously resistant to interactions with other particles, do pass through our planet on a daily basis without our notice. It took a truly heroic effort to develop instruments capable of detecting them.
Even now, we are still struggling to capture neutrinos. The standard detection method involves constructing large water tanks deep underground or filled with other liquids (to shield them from cosmic rays). Each day, researchers anxiously wait for one of the four neutrinos that pass through the Earth to directly collide with an atom underwater.
If such a collision occurs, a flash of light is produced as the charged particles in the water move quickly. This light flash acts like an electromagnetic version of the Sonic boom, encoding information about neutrinos and providing insights into these invisible particles that constantly permeate the Earth.
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Most of the neutrinos detected on Earth come from the solar nucleus. When hydrogen fuses with helium, neutrinos are produced as by-products. They emanate in all directions as soon as they are generated, mostly unaffected by the sun’s mass, and escape into space.
The reason neutrinos pose a specific challenge to dark matter detectors is their similarity to the hypothetical dark matter particles we seek known as Weakly Interacting Massive Particles (WIMPs). Like neutrinos, these “weakly interacting massive particles” have no charge and can traverse the Earth unnoticed.
If they do interact with other matter, it is through weak nuclear force – the same force that may (albeit rarely) cause neutrinos to interact with the underwater particles in the neutrinoscope. Similar to neutrino detectors, dark matter detectors are situated deep underground to shield them from cosmic rays, designed to register any interactions occurring within the detector with these invisible particles.
The challenge arises from the fact that the dark matter detector has become incredibly sensitive, picking up signals caused by neutrinos. Both types of detectors have now produced evidence of solar neutrinos colliding with target materials. The amount of rock cover cannot adequately shield experiments from neutrinos.
Our estimated 27% of the universe consists of dark matter – Photo Credit: Getty
It may take several decades for a dark matter signal detector unaffected by solar neutrino interference to achieve total clarity. Currently, most detectors are only sensitive to high-energy solar neutrinos, which have been causing complications thus far.
Some physicists are intrigued by the phenomenon of “coherent neutrino scattering” and see it as an opportunity to overcome the challenges of both dark matter detection and neutrino interference. Ultimately, dark matter may be composed of an entirely different substance.
Nevertheless, if dark matter does indeed comprise WIMPs, we will need to think outside the box in our experiments. For those of us delving into the mysteries of the universe’s dark side, the seemingly bright future of neutrinos may blind us to the realities of dark matter.
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