Solar Panel and Robotic Arm of NASA’s Phoenix Lander with Sample in Scoop
NASA/JPL-California Institute of Technology/University of Arizona/Texas A&M University
Mars might harbor a system of liquid water flowing beneath its icy surface. Similar to permafrost on Earth, which is theorized to have thin veins of liquid minerals, new models suggest these veins on Mars could be substantial enough to sustain life.
“For Mars, we’re constantly flirting with the edge of habitability. Initially, I theorized this study would reveal that adequate water wouldn’t exist, thus making microbial life impossible,” states Hannah Sizemore from the Planetary Science Institute in Arizona. “I was mistaken.”
Sizemore and her team analyzed Mars’ soil composition to estimate the amount of icy soil that might actually comprise liquid water and the dimensions of the channels through which it flows. Temperatures on Mars can plummet to -150°C (-240°F), challenging the existence of liquid water. While pure water freezes at 0°C, the presence of salts—widespread on Mars—can significantly lower the freezing point.
The research indicated that it is “surprisingly feasible” to find soil containing over 5 percent liquid water in channels exceeding 5 microns in diameter. This threshold was deemed necessary for a vein to be classified as habitable. “The largest veins we’re referencing are 10 times narrower than a fine human hair,” Sizemore elaborates. “Nonetheless, it’s a sufficiently expansive environment to host microorganisms, allowing for the transfer of nutrients and waste within the ecosystem.”
Based on soil data collected by NASA’s Phoenix spacecraft, which landed on Mars in 2008, these networks of waterways may be prevalent at latitudes above 50 degrees. Sizemore indicated that if life exists on Mars, liquid veins would be prime locations for investigation, proposing that “this is a site where one could land and excavate around 30 centimeters to collect samples.”
The primary concern regarding these veins as potential habitats is their temperature, which can be significantly below what most known life forms can endure. “However, we must exercise caution in applying the limits observed for terrestrial organisms to other life forms, as they do not necessarily define the survival limits for all life that could exist elsewhere,” states Bruce Jakosky from the University of Colorado Boulder. “Ultimately, this study and related research suggest that the existence of life near the Martian surface is not out of the question.”
Ice at 10 degrees Celsius releases iron from more abundant minerals compared to liquid water at 4 degrees Celsius, according to researchers from Umeå University, Chimiques de Rennes, and CNRS. This discovery sheds light on why many Arctic rivers are taking on a rusty orange hue as permafrost begins to thaw in warmer climates.
Schematic diagram of the iron mineral dissolution reaction of ice. Image credit: Sebaaly et al. , doi: 10.1073/pnas.2507588122.
“It may seem counterintuitive, but ice is not merely a static frozen mass,” stated Professor Jean François Boyley from Umeå University.
“Frozen states create microscopic pockets of liquid water between ice crystals.”
“These pockets function like chemical reactors, where compounds become concentrated and highly acidic.”
“This implies that even at temperatures as low as 30 degrees Celsius, they can engage with iron minerals.”
To investigate this phenomenon, Professor Boyley and his team examined goethite, a diverse array of iron oxide minerals, along with naturally occurring organic acids.
Through advanced microscopy and a series of experiments, they found that repeated freeze-thaw cycles enhance iron dissolution significantly.
When ice undergoes freezing and thawing, it releases organic compounds that were previously trapped, fostering additional chemical reactions.
Salt concentration also plays a critical role; fresh brackish waters promote iron dissolution, whereas seawater inhibits it.
The outcomes of this research are particularly relevant in acidic environments like mine drainage sites, frozen atmospheric dust, acid sulfate soils along the Baltic coast, or acidic freezing locales where iron minerals interact with organic matter.
“As global temperatures rise, the freeze-thaw cycles are becoming more frequent,” remarked Angelo Pio Severly, a doctoral candidate at Umeå University.
“Each cycle liberates iron from the soil and permafrost into the water, potentially impacting water quality and aquatic ecosystems over vast areas.”
“These findings emphasize that ice is an active participant, rather than a passive medium for storage.”
“It is crucial to recognize the growing impact of freeze and thaw processes in polar and mountainous regions on ecosystems and elemental cycling.”
The research team’s paper was published on August 26, 2025, in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.
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Angelo P. Severly et al. 2025. Ice as a kinetic and mechanical driver for iron oxide dissolution of oxalate oxide. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 122 (35): E2507588122; doi: 10.1073/pnas.2507588122
This water flow took place on ancient asteroids over a billion years after their formation, likely due to the heat generated by melting ice, which caused rock fractures that facilitated water movement. JAXA’s Hayabusa-2 Spacecraft.
This image of the asteroid was taken on June 26, 2018, by JAXA’s Hayabusa-2 Spacecraft optical navigation camera – telescopic (ONC-T). Image credits: JAXA / University of Tokyo / Kochi University / Ricchiho University / Nagoya University / Chiba University of Technology / Nishimura University / Aizu University / AIST.
Ryugu is a CG-type asteroid close to Earth and part of the Polana family of impact asteroids.
The diamond-shaped body, also known as 1999 JU3, was identified by astronomers in May 1999 during asteroid studies near Lincoln.
Its diameter measures about 900 m (0.56 miles), and it orbits the Sun at a distance of 0.96-1.41 Astronomical Units (AU) every 474 days.
“We have a relatively good understanding of how the solar system was formed, though many gaps remain,” said Shiyoshijima, a researcher at the University of Tokyo.
“One gap in our knowledge is how Earth acquired its water.”
“It has long been known that carbonaceous asteroids, originating from ice and dust in the outer solar system, have contributed water to Earth.”
“We discovered that Ryugu preserves an unaltered record of water activity, indicating that liquid water moved through the rock much later than previously anticipated,” added Dr. Ikemoto.
“This shifts our understanding of the long-term fate of water on asteroids. The water has remained for an extended period and hasn’t been depleted as quickly as we thought.”
In this study, the authors examined the isotopes of lutetium (Lu) and hafnium (HF), with the radioactive decay from lutetium-176 to hafnium-176 serving as a sort of clock to gauge geological processes.
The expected presence of these isotopes in the studied sample was hypothesized to correlate with the asteroid’s age in a predictable manner.
However, the ratio of Hafnium-176 to Lutetium-176 was significantly unexpected.
This strongly suggests to researchers that the liquid effectively washed away lutetium from the rocks containing it.
“We anticipated that Ryugu’s chemical signatures would align with certain meteorites currently under examination on Earth,” Dr. Iizuka stated.
“However, the results were strikingly different, necessitating the careful elimination of other possible explanations, ultimately concluding that the Lu-HF system was hindered by a delayed liquid flow.”
“The most probable triggers involved the parent body of Ryugu’s larger asteroid, which disrupted the rocks, melting the embedded ice and allowing liquid water to permeate the body.”
“It was truly surprising! This impact event could be the catalyst for the parent body disruption.”
One of the crucial implications is that carbon-rich asteroids may be a significant source of water for Earth, supplying far more than previously estimated.
Ryugu’s parent body seems to have retained ice for over a billion years. This suggests that similar bodies impacting the young Earth could have delivered 2-3 times more water than standard models predict, significantly influencing the planet’s early oceans and atmosphere.
“The notion that a Ryugu-like object has preserved ice for such an extended time is remarkable,” Dr. Ikemoto remarked.
“It implies that Earth’s components were far wetter than we had imagined.”
“This prompts a reevaluation of the initial conditions for the planetary water system.”
“It’s still early to draw definitive conclusions, but my team and others may build on this research to clarify various aspects, including how our planet became habitable.”
The findings will be published in the journal Nature.
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T. Iizuka et al. Late fluid flow of primitive asteroids revealed by Lu-HF isotopes of Lu. Nature. Published online on September 10th, 2025. doi:10.1038/s41586-025-09483-0
Apple is set to unveil major software updates for the iPhone, iPad, and Apple Watch this Monday, significantly altering the icons, lock screen, and overall system appearance, along with introducing features for compatible devices.
Unveiled during the company’s developer conference in June, iOS 26, iPadOS 26, watchOS 26, and macOS 26 Tahoe introduce a new liquid glass design, offering a softer, rounder look that enhances the overall user interface.
Here’s what you should know regarding the update:
When can I get it?
Updates for iOS, iPadOS, watchOS, and macOS typically become available around 6pm in the UK (1pm in New York and 3am in Sydney). Unlike other manufacturers, all eligible Apple devices can download and install these updates immediately upon release.
Which devices are supported?
All Apple smartphones starting from the 2019 iPhone 11 and newer can install iOS 26. The 2018 iPad Pro, 2019 iPad Air (3rd generation), iPad Mini (5th generation), and iPad (8th generation), along with all newer tablets, are also supported. Furthermore, iMacs from 2020, Mac Studios from 2022, and Mac Pros from 2019 onward can run macOS 26 Tahoe.
How can I install it?
To download, open the Settings app on your iPhone or iPad, navigate to General > Software Updates. If available, tap on Install, confirm, restart, and exit. You can also update using a Windows computer via iTunes or the Mac app.
For watchOS 26, ensure that your iPhone 11 or later is running iOS 26. Then, open the Watch app on your phone and go to General > Software Updates to start the installation. Ensure your smartwatch is on the charger to complete the update.
On your Mac, update through System Settings, going to General > Software Update.
What is the cost?
Apple updates are free of charge. If prompted to pay for an update, it is likely a scam.
What happened to iOS 19-25?
Apple has adopted a new year-based naming format for its software updates. Thus, iOS versions 18 and earlier released between September 2024 and 2025 are now replaced by iOS 26 and subsequent versions from 2025-2026. This is akin to sports season naming conventions.
Liquid glass design
Each operating system now sports a cohesive translucent design, reminiscent of frosted glass bubbles overlaid on a flat background, providing depth to your iPhone, Apple Watch, iPad, and Mac, influenced by the Vision Pro headset. Buttons, menus, icons, and notification banners are shiny and responsive, enabling translucence with wallpapers and content below them.
iOS 26
The liquid glass aesthetic on the home screen and icons is one of the most significant changes in iOS history. Composite: Apple
The liquid glass redesign alters the shape and appearance of home screen icons and widgets. Alongside redefined app icons, you have the option to make them translucent in color.
Notifications and other elements now bounce from the top of the screen. A widget appears on the bottom of the lock screen that dynamically scales the clock size based on the number of notifications displayed.
Dynamic and concealed buttons
Buttons will condense when not engaged. For instance, the camera app has been optimized to conceal extra modes behind sliders or larger pop-up menus. Safari’s address bar and navigation buttons shrink into a small button at the bottom while scrolling. You can access tabs and controls by swiping up or tapping the 3-dot button.
Easier spam filtering
Enhanced spam filtering is integrated into the phone and messaging applications. Composite: Apple
The phone app can automatically screen calls from unknown numbers by answering and asking why they are calling before your iPhone notifies you. Messages will screen texts from new senders to detect spam, organizing them into separate inboxes. The phone app also allows you to hold while waiting for customer service representatives.
Both the phone app, FaceTime, and Messages now feature live translation capabilities.
Game Center App
The new gaming app acts as a centralized hub on your iPhone, featuring a game library that showcases what your friends are playing, replacing the Arcade for tracking achievements, competitions, and gaming events.
iPadOS 26
iPadOS 26 features a significant upgrade for multitasking, aligning more closely with macOS. Composite: Apple
iPadOS shares the new visual redesign with the iPhone, featuring clear icons and hidden buttons. More importantly, it introduces an innovative multitasking feature tailored for users utilizing iPads as laptop substitutes.
Mac-like menu bar and full windowing
The familiar macOS menu bar is now available on the iPad. Composite: Apple
A key addition for the iPad is the introduction of the Mac-like menu bar and window management features. You can swipe down from the center at the top of the app screen to access a menu bar containing various functionalities including settings, files, views, and more as on a Mac.
It features the classic red, yellow, and green three-dot menu allowing you to close, minimize, and resize windows. Holding the button reveals tiling and movement options similar to macOS, or you can manually resize windows to your desired size. Swipe to expose, flick left or right to snap apps to the sides, or flick to make an app full-screen.
You can easily open and overlap multiple windows, tile them side by side, or transform your home screen into a desktop interface akin to a Mac.
Preview and Files Apps
The Files app has been enhanced to streamline document and file management on your iPad. You can designate a default app for certain file types, similar to a computer setup. Specific folders like Downloads and Documents can now be directly added to the dock for easier access.
The Preview app from Mac is now on your iPad, allowing the viewing, editing, and annotation of PDFs, images, and more with Apple Pencil.
watchOS 26
watchOS 26 enhances your fitness experience and includes many features from iOS 26. Composite: Apple
The liquid glass design of the iPhone is even more prominent on the Apple Watch, featuring notification bubbles overlaying the Watch Face, floating buttons within apps, and smart widget stacks for a softer aesthetics.
Workout Companion
Apple’s new Fitness for Fitness chatbot, named Workout Buddy, provides ongoing conversation and motivation during workouts similar to the guidance offered by an Apple Fitness+ Coach. It marks significant training achievements, such as reaching specific milestones or pacing goals and summarizes your workout afterward. This feature requires Bluetooth headphones connected to the watch and an iPhone 15 Pro or later nearby.
Sleep Score and Hypertension Alerts
The sleep app calculates a sleep score every morning, giving you an overview of your rest quality. For Series 9 or Ultra 2 and newer watches, a blood pressure monitoring feature will alert you if hypertension signs are detected over the past 30 days.
Wrist Flick
Apple has introduced innovative gestures to the touch-free capabilities of the new Watch. A simple wrist flick away from you will reject notifications, alarms, and alerts. Additionally, double-tap gestures offer an easy way to dismiss things or interact with the watch without touch.
New Watch Faces
A selection of new and improved watch faces is included with watchOS 26. Composite: Samuel Gibbs/Guardian
Three new clock faces have been introduced. Flow features a large digital display that utilizes a liquid glass design, changing colors in response to movement. Exactograph separates hours, minutes, and seconds into distinct analog dials available in various styles. Ultra-exclusive waypoints surround the time with live compasses pointing to landmarks and significant locations. Additionally, revamped photo faces feature floating numbers.
macOS 26 Tahoe
macOS 26 Tahoe incorporates the same liquid glass design elements as the other updates. Composite: Apple
macOS receives a majority of the new features and design updates seen in iOS and iPadOS, including rounded window corners and glass-like design elements.
Phone App
The Phone app allows you to initiate and manage calls seamlessly. Composite: Apple
Apple enhances the Phone app on Mac, enabling calls through Wi-Fi and connected iPhones. It shows recent calls, voicemail, contacts, includes new call screening features, and maintains iPhone assist functionality.
Live activities, such as sports scores and streaming updates, are now visible in the Mac’s menu bar.
Spotlight
Actions have been incorporated into the Spotlight search system. This allows you to send messages and emails, generate notes, and set reminders, all directly from the search bar. You can filter files by type, group them, find documentation from third-party cloud services, and explore apps, files, clipboard history, and other content instead of using traditional search methods.
A significant amount of water once cascaded along the surface of an asteroid, indicating that asteroids may have delivered more water to Earth than previously believed.
The source of Earth’s water remains somewhat enigmatic. Although incoming asteroids are considered potential contributors, skepticism exists regarding their ability to supply the vast quantities of water present on Earth today.
Carbonate asteroids develop from dust and ice in the outer solar system. In 2019, Japan’s Hayabusa 2 spacecraft landed on Ryugu and collected 5.4 grams of material, returning it to Earth in 2020.
Initial images of Ryugu suggested it was drier than anticipated, but further studies revealed the presence of cracks once filled with vital elements, including water.
Early dating of the samples indicated that the asteroid was among the oldest celestial objects, originating around 460 million years ago.
However, when Tsuyoshi Itsuka from the University of Tokyo and his team assessed its age using the radioactive decay of lutetium-176 in tiny asteroid samples, they found something intriguing.
“Our analysis estimates the age of the Ryugu sample at about 4.8 billion years, significantly predating the solar system,” notes Ikemoto. “This indicates the timing of Ryugu’s sample collection is critical.”
Instead, the researchers believe that roughly a billion years after its parent body was formed, Ryugu was warmed enough to convert ice into water, which in turn removed some lutetium-176, complicating dating techniques.
Solar radiation warms only the surface ice to about 40 centimeters, while the Ryugu samples were extracted from much deeper layers. Researchers suggest that collisions with other celestial objects may explain how the interior of the parent body was heated.
By estimating the volume of water required to alter the lutetium-176 levels in the Ryugu samples, the team concluded that the asteroid consists of roughly 20-30% water.
Ikemoto asserts that asteroids are believed to have delivered water to Earth in mineral form. “Our findings imply that they can actually provide water as both minerals and ice,” he adds.
The research highlights the value of sample-return missions, according to Jonti Horner from the University of South Queensland, who was not involved in this study. “By retrieving samples directly, we eliminate Earth’s interference, enhancing the validity of our findings,” Horner explains.
“This suggests that these bodies were wetter than previously thought, allowing us to better understand the origins of Earth’s oceans as we analyze early planetary formation,” he concludes.
Astronomy Capital of the World: Chile
Explore the astronomical wonders of Chile. Visit some of the world’s most advanced observatories and marvel at a star-studded sky amidst some of the clearest air on Earth.
Researchers can construct structures that mimic lab black holes
Science Photo Library/Alamy
By shaping light into a liquid-like form, researchers aim to deepen their grasp of black holes and other intriguing phenomena.
Though observing supermassive objects like black holes directly is a challenge, scientists have employed quantum effects to create valuable analogs in laboratory settings. For instance, they have previously simulated space-time with ultra-cold atoms to mimic a black hole’s material.
Now, Kevin Falk from the Kastler-Brossel Laboratory (LKB) in Paris and his team have utilized light to generate highly controlled analogs of space-time.
They achieved this by trapping light within small cavities made of reflective semiconductor materials, allowing it to bounce between layers and interact with the material’s charge. This quantum interaction ultimately converts light into a liquid-like state.
Researchers can manipulate this fluid with lasers to replicate the geometry of space-time, creating structures that correspond to a black hole’s event horizon. The object can fall but will not return.
Their light-based “space” is meticulously controlled, enabling Falk and his colleagues to visualize events and create sudden space-time structures.
They plan to use this unique simulation to investigate how Hawking radiation emitted from black holes varies with abrupt changes in the event horizon. However, achieving this requires cooling and isolating the experiment to amplify the quantum effects involved.
“This work represents a remarkable experimental achievement,” says Juan Ramon Muñoz de Nova from Complutense University in Madrid, who has contributed to initial measurements of Hawking radiation in black hole simulations involving ultracold atoms. He believes these new experiments present opportunities to observe various phenomena, such as how black holes vibrate and produce “ring” effects.
Friedrich Koenig from St Andrews University in the UK notes that this research offers “the most valuable platform” to explore new concepts related to gravity and the complex interplays between gravity and quantum effects.
One striking outcome of this study is the potential to reveal that the observed black holes might not be what they seem. Maxime Jacquet from LKB explains that the first image captured of a black hole by the Event Horizon Telescope may appear authentic, but the visual representation of a black hole may not equate to its true nature.
There could be sizable objects that distort light like black holes, creating a false appearance without an observable event horizon. Theoretical investigations suggest this is feasible, and light-based experiments may allow for further exploration of this possibility, according to Jacquet.
“We must exercise caution. While we have these analogs, fluids and black holes are fundamentally different entities,” warns Falk. “However, this experiment enables us to experiment with testing theories related to black holes.”
Recent measurements from NASA’s insight mission show that Mars’ core is less dense than previously believed planetary scientists. This shows that Mars has never developed a solid inner core at the earliest time in its history. in New research Published in the journal Geophysical Research BookResearchers at the University of Texas and elsewhere were hoping to understand the impact of this lack of a solid inner core.
Computer simulation of the unilateral magnetic field of early Mars. Image credits: Ankit Barik/Johns Hopkins University.
“Like Earth, Mars once had a strong magnetic field that protected the thick atmosphere from the solar wind,” said Dr. Chi Yang, a colleague at the University of Texas.
“But now only the magnetic imprint remains. But with a long, confused scientist, this imprint appears most strongly in the southern half of the red planet.”
The team’s new research will help explain the one-sided traces. We present evidence that the planet’s magnetic field covers only the southern half.
“The resulting biased magnetic field will match the traces we saw today,” Dr. Yang said.
“It will also make the Earth’s magnetic field that covers the entire Earth different from the Earth’s magnetic field.”
“If Mars’ inner core is liquid, a one-sided magnetic field can be generated.”
“The logic here is that it’s much easier to generate a hemispherical (one-sided) magnetic field because there is no solid inner core.”
“It could have influenced the ancient dynamos on Mars and perhaps could have maintained the atmosphere.”
In this study, researchers used computer simulations to model this scenario.
Until now, most early Mars studies relied on magnetic field models that gave the red planet an inner nucleus like Earth surrounded by solid, molten iron.
Scientists were urged to try to simulate a full liquid core after insights discovered that Mars’ core is made up of lighter than expected elements.
“That means there’s a very high chance that it’s melting because the core melts differently than Earth’s,” said Sabin Stanley, a professor at Johns Hopkins University.
“If Mars’ core was melting now, it would almost certainly have melted 4 billion years ago when it was known that Mars’ magnetic field was active.”
To test the idea, the author prepared an early Mars simulation with a liquid core and ran it dozens of times on a supercomputer.
With each run they made the northern half of the mantle planet a little hotter than the south.
Eventually, the temperature difference between the hotter mantle in the north and the colder mantle in the south began to escape from the core and only release at the southern tip of the planet.
The escape heat channeled in such a way was active enough to drive the dynamos and generate a powerful magnetic field focused on the Southern Hemisphere.
Planetary dynamos are self-supporting mechanisms that generate magnetic fields, usually through the movement of molten metal cores.
“We didn’t know if we’d explain the magnetic field, so it’s exciting to see that Mars’ interiors can create (single) hemispherical magnetic fields with an internal structure that fits insights as well as today,” Professor Stanley said.
This finding provides a compelling alternative theory for common assumptions that affect obliterating evidence of magnetic field elimination across rocky planets in the Northern Hemisphere.
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C. Yang et al. 2025. Mars hemispherical magnetic field from a full sphere dynamo. Geophysical Research Book 52(3): E2024GL113926; doi: 10.1029/2024GL113926
Mars is at the extreme of salt water stability. And only the combination of the most favorable environmental conditions and the salt with the lowest eutectic temperature could stabilize brine, at least temporarily, on the surface of Mars, one researcher says. new research Published in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.
This image of an impact crater in the Sirenum Fossai region of Mars was taken by NASA's Mars Reconnaissance rover on March 30, 2015. The crater is approximately 3,300 feet (1 km) wide and appears to be relatively recent due to its sharp edges and wells. -Stored emissions. The steep inner slopes are carved by canyons and contain slope lines that may recur on the equator-facing slopes. Image credit: NASA / JPL / University of Arizona / Alfred McEwen.
Liquid water is an important prerequisite for a habitable planet. However, the combination of Mars' low temperatures, atmospheric pressure, and water vapor pressure means that any liquid water found on Mars would likely freeze, boil, or evaporate quickly, making it unlikely that Mars exists. .
However, paleontologists continue to insist that liquid water exists on Mars.
Of particular interest is the discovery of seasonal black stripes called repeat slope lines.
These features appear in some places on Mars when temperatures rise above -23 degrees Celsius (-10 degrees Fahrenheit) and disappear when it gets colder.
They are often described as possibly being associated with liquid water.
The new study puts a damper on the idea that liquid water is likely to be found soon in Mars' recurring slopes, permafrost, or salt water.
“If we look closely at RSL, its behavior is consistent with a sand or dust flow, and water is not required for RSL formation,” said lead author Dr. Vincent Chevrier, a researcher at the University of Arkansas. said.
Other researchers believe that brine, a highly salty solution like Earth's oceans, may hold the key to finding liquid water on Mars.
Salt water can freeze at much lower temperatures, and Mars is rich in salt.
Among these salts, perchlorate appears to be the most promising because of its extremely low eutectic temperature (the temperature at which the melting point of the mixture is lower than that of the single components).
For example, calcium perchlorate brine freezes at -75 degrees Celsius (-14 degrees Fahrenheit), but the average surface temperature near the equator of Mars is -50 degrees Celsius (-58 degrees Fahrenheit), so theoretically This suggests that there may be zones where calcium coagulates. Perchlorate water can remain liquid, especially underground.
Dr. Chevrier and his colleague, Dr. Rachel Srank of the Lunar and Planetary Institute, then considered all the arguments for and against brine that could form a stable liquid.
“A variety of limiting factors, including the relatively small amount of most promising salts, water vapor pressure, and ice position, strongly limit the amount of brine present at the surface and in the shallow subsurface,” the researchers said. Ta.
“And even if saline waters formed, they would still remain uninhabitable by terrestrial standards.”
“Despite these drawbacks and limitations, there is always a possibility that Martian life adapted to these salt waters and some terrestrial life could survive in them. This is a planetary protection consideration because there is a possibility that
“Therefore, detecting brine in situ remains a key objective for Mars exploration.”
The next hurdles ahead, the authors say, are improving the equipment needed to detect small amounts of brine, better identifying the best places to look for brine, and conducting more experiments under Martian conditions. It is suggested that this is to enable room measurements to be carried out.
“Despite our best efforts to prove otherwise, Mars remains a cold, dry, and completely uninhabitable desert,” Chevrier said.
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Vincent F. Chevrier and Rachel A. Slank. 2024. The elusive nature of liquid brine on Mars. PNAS 121 (52): e2321067121;doi: 10.1073/pnas.2321067121
Using new data about the Martian crust collected by NASA’s InSight spacecraft, geophysicists from the University of California, San Diego and the University of California, Berkeley estimate that groundwater could cover the entire planet to a depth of one to two kilometers. Groundwater exists in tiny cracks and pores in rocks in the mid-crust, 11.5 to 20 kilometers below the surface.
A cross section of NASA’s InSight lander and the data it collected. Image courtesy of James Tuttle Keane / Aaron Rodriquez.
“Liquid water existed at least occasionally in Martian rivers, lakes, oceans, and aquifers during the Noachian and Hesperian periods more than 3 billion years ago,” said Dr Vashan Wright of the Scripps Institution of Oceanography at the University of California, San Diego, and his colleagues.
“During this time, Mars lost most of its atmosphere and therefore the ability to support liquid water on its surface for any sustained period of time.”
“Ancient surface water may have been incorporated into minerals, buried as ice, trapped as liquid in deep aquifers, or lost to space.”
For the study, Dr Wright and his colleagues used data collected by InSight during its four-year mission, which ends in 2022.
The lander collected information from the surface directly beneath it about variables such as the speed of Mars’ seismic waves, which allowed scientists to infer what materials exist beneath the surface.
The data was fed into a model based on mathematical theories of rock physics.
Based on this data, the researchers determined that the presence of liquid water in the Earth’s crust was the most plausible explanation.
“If we prove that there is a large reservoir of liquid water, it could give us insight into what the climate was or could be like at that time,” said Professor Michael Manga of the University of California, Berkeley.
“And water is essential for life as we know it. I don’t see why underground reservoirs wouldn’t be habitable environments. On Earth they certainly are. There is life in deep mines, there is life at the bottom of the ocean.”
“We still don’t have evidence of life on Mars, but we’ve identified places that could, at least in principle, support life.”
“A wealth of evidence, including rivers, deltas, lake deposits, and hydrologically altered rocks, supports the hypothesis that water once flowed on the planet’s surface.”
“But that wet period ended more than 3 billion years ago, when Mars lost its atmosphere.”
“Planetary scientists on Earth have sent many probes and landers to Mars to learn what happened to the Martian water (water frozen in the Martian polar ice caps does not explain the whole story), when this happened, and whether life exists or ever existed on Mars,” the authors said.
“The new findings indicate that much of the water has seeped into the crust rather than escaping into space.”
“The new paper analyzes the deeper crust and concludes that the available data are best explained by a water-saturated mid-crust beneath the InSight location.”
“Assuming the crust is similar across the planet, this mid-crustal zone should contain more water than would have filled the hypothetical ancient Martian ocean.”
of Survey results Appears in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.
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Vashan Wright others2024. Liquid water exists in the central crust of Mars. PNAS 121 (35): e2409983121; doi: 10.1073/pnas.2409983121
Denis Villeneuve's sci-fi masterpiece Dune: Part 2 The film hits theaters in the US in spring 2024. The movie follows the power struggles of the noble families of the desert planet Arrakis. But what if humanity had become an empire that spanned thousands of worlds in the distant future, as depicted in the film? Sand Dunes How common are desert planets or planets with no water at all in movies and novels?
In the search for these planets, a good place to start is with the most common stars: astronomers have observed what are called small, faint, cool, reddish stars. Red dwarf They make up most of the stars in the galaxy. Astronomers who study planets around stars other than the Sun estimate that every star has at least one planet. About half of the planets around red dwarfs are small, rocky planets with compositions similar to Earth. On the ground planet. Therefore, the most common type of terrestrial planet is thought to be around a red dwarf star.
For decades, astronomers have thought that red dwarfs are too cold for liquid water to exist on their surfaces. To reach the temperature range needed to support liquid water, planets around cooler stars need to orbit closer to their host stars than planets around hotter ones. But unlike stars like the Sun, which have a constant brightness, red dwarfs are born hotter and brighter than their final state for most of their lives.
The terrestrial planets formed with 15 to 70 times more water than Earth, most of it coming from drifting icy comets. But the heat of the young red dwarf star causes the water on these planets to evaporate, turning from liquid to gas in their atmospheres. In the planet's atmosphere, the intense starlight breaks down the water vapor into oxygen and hydrogen. Photolysis. The heavier oxygen stays on the planet while the lighter hydrogen drifts away, and astronomers estimate that as a result, planets around red dwarf stars lose tens of times as much water as Earth's oceans over their first billion years.
A team of Japanese scientists led by Hiroshi Kawamura challenged the paradigm that planets around red dwarfs should lose all their water in this way. They proposed that two factors could significantly reduce the initial water loss of planets orbiting dwarf stars. First, water is decomposed by the intense light in the planet's atmosphere, but some water is produced in the atmosphere when reactive free hydrogen mixes with hydrogen superoxide. Second, the decomposition of water in the atmosphere produces oxygen gas, which protects the water from further intense light.
Kawamura's team used software called the Photochemical and Radiation Transport Model to Proteus To test whether the planet would lose less water if these two factors were taken into account. The researchers calculated the water loss for an Earth-like planet with a water vapor-filled atmosphere and huge oceans. The planet orbits the dwarf star at a distance about 2% of the distance it orbits around the Sun, relative to TRAPPIST-1, shown in the featured image above. The researchers assumed that the only chemical reaction occurring in the planet's atmosphere is between hydrogen and oxygen. Kawamura and his team ran the model once to see if the results differed from previous studies and how they changed depending on the altitude of the planet's atmosphere.
The team found that the model planet's atmosphere turned out as expected: It had a very high layer of atmosphere, where starlight split water into free hydrogen and oxygen atoms, with the hydrogen escaping into space, and a layer of oxygen gas formed below, reducing the intensity of the starlight at lower altitudes, and the free hydrogen mixed with hydrogen superoxide in a chemical reaction to produce more water.
Ultimately, they calculated that the amount of water lost to space was only about seven times that of Earth's oceans. This means that even if a terrestrial planet started at the low end of the water content range, it could still have eight times as much water as Earth's oceans after its first billion years of existence. The researchers suggested that their findings imply that rather than a galaxy filled with planets with little water, like Earth, the universe could contain worlds with vast oceans orbiting dwarf stars. In other words, future humans are likely to discover Arrakis, but not Caladan. Still, they suggested that future researchers should test planetary water loss models with different atmospheric compositions, alternative cooling processes, and water trapped in the planet's rocks and magma.
Quantum light is generated when a laser is shone on certain crystals
Jaka Waxwing
The liquid crystals found in television screens have made it easy to produce quantum light.
Light, with its quantum properties, is important for many future technologies: such entangled particles in light could help build quantum communication networks that support an unhackable internet, as well as quantum imaging techniques for biomedical applications. Matyas Humar Despite these advanced applications, the method for generating quantum light has remained largely unchanged for 60 years, says a researcher at the Jozef Stefan Institute in Slovenia. He and his colleagues have devised a way to generate quantum light using liquid crystals.
Team Members Vitaly Sultanov Researchers at the Max Planck Institute in Germany say that traditionally, researchers shine a laser on special crystals to make them emit quantum light. In this technique, the structure of the crystal determines the properties of the light it emits, which in turn determines how it can be used. The only way to change these properties is to redo the experiment with new crystals, which is costly, time-consuming and impractical.
To get around this, the researchers used liquid crystals, a material made of rod-shaped molecules that can wobble like a liquid but adopt unusual arrangements like more conventional crystals. By exposing the liquid crystal to an electric field, they can tune its structure, and thus the properties of the quanta of light it emits when illuminated with a laser.
“In this respect, liquid crystals are the perfect material,” says Sultanov.
After several experiments, his team found that liquid crystals were much easier to tune than solid liquid crystals, and nearly as efficient at producing light filled with entangled particles.
“While the generated photons could conceivably have been produced using conventional crystals, the tunability of the entanglement could not,” he said. Miles Padgett “These advances are [quantum] “Imaging, Communication, Sensing”
Maria ChekhovaResearchers, also from the Max Planck Institute, say that using liquid crystals in quantum communication devices could make it easier to send information over multiple channels at once, because the liquid crystals can be tuned to produce quantum states of light that can encode large amounts of information in many of their properties.
A research team led by physicists at Argonne National Laboratory isolated the energetic motion of electrons while “freezing” the motion of the much larger atoms they orbit in a sample of liquid water.
Shuai other. Synchronized attosecond X-ray pulse pairs (pictured here in pink and green) from an X-ray free electron laser were used to study the energetic response of electrons (gold) in liquid water on the attosecond time scale. On the other hand, hydrogen (white) and oxygen (red) atoms are “frozen” over time. Image credit: Nathan Johnson, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory.
“The radiation-induced chemical reactions we want to study are the result of targeted electronic reactions that occur on the attosecond time scale,” said lead author of the study, Professor Linda Young, a researcher at Argonne National Laboratory. said.
Professor Young and colleagues combined experiment and theory to reveal the effects of ionizing radiation from an X-ray source when it hits material in real time.
Addressing the timescales over which actions occur will provide a deeper understanding of the complex radiation-induced chemistry.
In fact, researchers originally came together to develop the tools needed to understand the effects of long-term exposure to ionizing radiation on chemicals found in nuclear waste.
“Attosecond time-resolved experiments are one of the major R&D developments in linac coherent light sources,” said study co-author Dr. Ago Marinelli, a researcher at the SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory.
“It's exciting to see these developments applied to new types of experiments and moving attosecond science in new directions.”
Scientists have developed a technique called X-ray attosecond transient absorption spectroscopy in liquids that allows them to “watch” electrons energized by X-rays move into an excited state before larger nuclei move on. “We were able to.
“In principle, we have tools that allow us to track the movement of electrons and watch newly ionized molecules form in real time,” Professor Young said.
The discovery resolves a long-standing scientific debate about whether the X-ray signals observed in previous experiments are the result of different structural shapes or motifs in the mechanics of water or hydrogen atoms.
These experiments conclusively demonstrate that these signals are not evidence of two structural motifs in the surrounding liquid water.
“Essentially, what people were seeing in previous experiments was a blur caused by the movement of hydrogen atoms,” Professor Young explained.
“By recording everything before the atoms moved, we were able to eliminate that movement.”
To make this discovery, the authors used a technique developed at SLAC to spray an ultrathin sheet of pure water across the pulse path of an X-ray pump.
“We needed a clean, flat, thin sheet of water that could focus the X-rays,” said study co-author Dr. Emily Nienhaus, a chemist at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory.
Once the X-ray data was collected, the researchers applied their knowledge of interpreting X-ray signals to recreate the signals observed at SLAC.
They modeled the response of liquid water to attosecond X-rays and verified that the observed signal was indeed confined to the attosecond timescale.
“Using the Hyak supercomputer, we developed cutting-edge computational chemistry techniques that enable detailed characterization of transient high-energy quantum states in water,” study co-authors from the University of Washington said Xiaosong Li, a researcher at Pacific Northwest National University. Laboratory.
“This methodological breakthrough represents a pivotal advance in our quantum-level understanding of ultrafast chemical transformations, with extraordinary precision and atomic-level detail.”
The team worked together to peer into the real-time movement of electrons in liquid water.
“The methodology we have developed enables the study of the origin and evolution of reactive species produced by radiation-induced processes encountered in space travel, cancer treatment, nuclear reactors, legacy waste, etc.,” Professor Young said. Stated.
The team's results were published in a magazine science.
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L. Shuai other. 2024. Attosecond Pump Attosecond Probe X-ray Spectroscopy of Liquid Water. science, published online on February 15, 2024. doi: 10.1126/science.adn6059
Researchers are developing a hydrogen-based vehicle fuel system that uses catalytically converted liquids and has zero greenhouse gas emissions. Although this method is still being researched, it faces challenges such as catalyst durability and the environmental friendliness of hydrogen production, highlighting the need for political support for renewable energy.
Researchers at Sweden’s Lund University have developed an innovative vehicle fuel system that minimizes greenhouse gas emissions and operates in a circular manner. The system utilizes a unique liquid that, when combined with a solid catalyst, turns into hydrogen fuel for cars. After use, the used fluid is removed from the vehicle’s tank and refilled with hydrogen, making it available for reuse. This process forms a closed-loop system that significantly reduces environmental impact.
In two research papers, Lund researchers have demonstrated that the method works, and although it is still basic research, it has the potential to become an efficient energy storage system in the future.
“Our catalyst is one of the most efficient, at least according to published studies,” says one of the authors, Ola Wendt, professor in the Department of Chemistry at Lund University.
Addressing climate impacts and exploring hydrogen gas
Reducing our climate impact requires finding alternative ways to produce, store, and convert energy to reduce carbon emissions from fossil fuels. One method involves the hot topic of hydrogen gas, which many see as the future solution for energy storage. Nature stores energy through chemical bonds, and hydrogen contains the highest energy density relative to its weight.
“But gas can be difficult to handle, so we are looking at hydrogen-filled liquid fuels that can be delivered at the pump, in much the same way as is done at gas stations today.” Ola Wendt he says.
This concept is known as LOHC (Liquid Organic Hydrogen Carrier) and is not new in itself. The challenge is to find the most efficient catalyst possible to extract hydrogen from the liquid.
The system is designed to operate using a liquid “filled” with hydrogen. The liquid is pumped through a solid catalyst to extract the hydrogen. This can be used in fuel cells that convert chemical fuels into electricity, and the “spent” liquid is taken to a separate tank. Only water is expelled.
Refueling and large-scale production
Used fluid can be emptied at a filling station before being refilled with new fill fluid. This would likely mean large-scale production of materials comparable to today’s oil refineries.
“We converted more than 99 percent of the hydrogen gas present in the liquid,” says Ola Wendt.
Researchers are also calculating whether the fuel could be used in larger vehicles such as buses, trucks and airplanes.
“With the larger tanks they have, they might be able to cover about the same distance as a diesel tank. They would also convert about 50% more energy than compressed hydrogen,” says Ola. Wendt says.
Components and challenges
The liquids used are isopropanol (a common ingredient in screen wash) and 4-methylpiperidine.
Does this seem a little too good to be true? Yes, many challenges remain, at least for now. One is that catalysts have a fairly limited lifetime. Another reason is that iridium, which is the basis of the catalyst, is a precious metal.
“However, we estimate that each car requires about 2 grams of iridium. ,” says Ola Wendt.
This is a technical solution based on basic research. Ola Wendt believes that if the decision is made to develop a finished product, the concept could be completed within 10 years if it is economically viable and there is interest from society. I am.
Another issue is how hydrogen is produced. Today, most manufacturing is not climate friendly. Next, hydrogen needs to be stored and transported in an effective way, which is not so easy today. Compressed hydrogen refueling also has risks. Lund researchers hope to solve this problem in their own way.
“Ninety-eight percent of all hydrogen today is fossil-based, produced from natural gas. The byproduct is carbon dioxide. From an environmental perspective, the concept of producing hydrogen for steel, batteries, and fuels is “It makes no sense if it’s done using natural gas,” says Ola Wendt, but explains that a lot of research is being done on how to “produce hydrogen in an environmentally friendly way.” To do. “Hydrogen” can be produced by splitting water into hydrogen and oxygen with the help of renewable energy.
At the same time, Ola Wendt believes that political decisions are needed for renewable and climate-friendly alternatives to gain a proper foothold.
“It needs to be cheaper, and that will require a political decision. Renewable energy has the potential to compete with just digging it out of the ground, where transportation is almost the only cost, as is the case with fossil fuels. There is no gender,” he concludes.
Reference: “Acceptorless dehydrogenation of 4-methylpiperidine over supported pincer-bound iridium catalysts in continuous flow” Kaushik Chakrabarti, Alice Spangenberg, Vasudevan Subramaniyan, Andreas Hederstedt, Omar Y. Abdelaziz, Alexey V. Polukeev, Reine Wallenberg , by Christian P. Hulteberg and Ola F. Wendt, July 27, 2023. Catalyst science and technology. DOI: 10.1039/D3CY00881A
“Iridium-catalyzed dehydrogenation in a continuous flow reactor for practical on-board hydrogen production from liquid organic hydrogen carriers”, Alexey V. Polukeev, Reine Wallenberg, Jens Uhlig, Christian P. Hulteberg, Ola F. Wendt, March 9, 2022 chemsus chem. DOI: 10.1002/cssc.202200085
OKX a leading cryptocurrency exchange and Web3 technology company, today announced: futures spread trading volume Moreover liquid marketplace, a spot OTC, futures spread and options liquidity network, reached a monthly high of USD 1.54 billion in September 2023. This achievement is 62%* Institutional market share of futures spreads for the current month.
From July 2023 onwards launch OKX Accumulation of Nitro Spread, a venue for institutional investors to execute basis, futures spread, and funding rate arbitrage strategies under OKX’s Liquid Marketplace futures spread amount It led the market from August 28, 2023 to October 11, 2023.
OKX futures spread volume was also strong on the “high watermark” volume days, with OKX futures spread notional volume increasing four times within the date range (September 12th, September 19th). , September 28, and October 10) crossed the 100 million USDT mark. 2023).
These volume milestones solidify OKX’s position liquid marketplace The go-to place for institutional investors looking to take advantage of superior liquidity in a wide range of trades including futures spreads, spot OTC basis, options and more.
OKX Chief Commercial Officer Lennix Lai said: “The latest futures spread volume figures confirm that the OKX Liquid Marketplace is a diverse ecosystem of counterparties pursuing a variety of trading strategies, making it the trading venue of choice for institutional traders. We have worked hard to develop the products, liquidity, and intuitive trading features that traders demand in a highly competitive market environment. We will adapt it to the needs of customers and further expand our customer base.”
Since its launch in July 2023, OKX has announced on October 6th nitro spread Cumulative trading volume exceeded 2 billion USDT.
Nitro Spreads is a place for institutional investors to execute advanced strategies and efficiently drive delta rolls on OKX’s liquid marketplace. Nitro spreads allow both legs of a trade to be executed through a central order book, minimizing leg risk between markets and providing increased capital efficiency for institutional traders. Traders can also select a guaranteed spread for a trade before execution to reduce unexpected price slippage. The transaction is then matched and settled immediately.
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