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Neanderthal and Early Human Interbreeding Across Wide Regions: What the Evidence Shows

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Artist’s Impression of Neanderthal Life

Christian Jegou/Science Photo Library

Homo sapiens and Neanderthals likely interbred across a vast region, extending from Western Europe to Asia.

Modern humans (Homo sapiens) and Neanderthals (Homo neanderthalensis) exhibited mixed ancestry, with most non-Africans today possessing Neanderthal DNA, approximating 2% of their genome. Neanderthals also engaged in interbreeding, leading to a lineage shift in the Y chromosome influenced by Homo sapiens.

Despite increasing knowledge about the timing of this hybridization, the specific regions and scales of these interactions long remained a mystery. Ancestors of Neanderthals departed Africa around 600,000 years ago, migrating toward Europe and Western Asia. The first evidence of Homo sapiens moving from Africa includes skeletal remains from sites in modern-day Israel and Greece, dating to approximately 200,000 years ago.

Evidence suggests that Homo sapiens contributed genetically to the Neanderthal population in the Altai Mountains around 100,000 years ago. However, the primary wave of migration from Africa occurred over 60,000 years ago. Recent studies utilizing ancient genomic data indicate that significant gene flow between Homo sapiens and Neanderthals began around 50,000 years ago, with findings documented in studies of 4000 and 7000 gene transfers.

This interaction is thought to have primarily taken place in the eastern Mediterranean, although pinpointing the exact locations remains challenging.

To investigate, Matthias Karat and his team from the University of Geneva analyzed 4,147 ancient genetic samples from over 1,200 locations, with the oldest dating back approximately 44,000 years. They studied the frequency of genetic mutations (introgression alleles) originating from Neanderthal DNA that were passed down through hybridization.

“Our objective was to use Neanderthal DNA integration patterns in ancient human genomes to determine the sites of hybridization,” Carlat explains.

Findings revealed that the proportion of transferred DNA increased gradually as one moved away from the eastern Mediterranean region, plateauing approximately 3,900 kilometers westward into Europe and eastward into Asia.

“We were surprised to identify a distinct pattern of increasing introgression rates in the human genome, likely linked to human expansion from Africa,” Carlat notes. “This increase toward Europe and East Asia allows us to estimate the parameters of this hybrid zone.”

Computer simulations showed a hybrid zone potentially spanning much of Europe and the eastern Mediterranean, extending into western Asia.

Interbreeding Zone between Neanderthals and Homo sapiens

Lionel N. Di Santo et al. 2026

“Our findings suggest a continuous series of interbreeding events across both space and time,” notes Carlat. “However, the specifics of mating occurrences in this hybrid zone remain unknown.”

This hybrid zone encompasses nearly all known Neanderthal remains found across Western Eurasia, with the exception of the Altai region.

“The extensive geographical breadth of the putative hybrid zone suggests widespread interactions among populations,” states Leonard Yasi from the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology in Leipzig, Germany.

Notably, the Atlantic periphery—including western France and much of the Iberian Peninsula—was not part of the hybrid zone, despite the established presence of Neanderthals in these regions. Currat suggests that interbreeding may not have occurred here or may not be reflected in the analyzed genetic samples.

“This study reveals ongoing interactions between modern humans and Neanderthals over extensive geographical areas and extended periods,” adds Yasi. The hybrid zone may extend further, though limited ancient DNA sampling in regions like the Arabian Peninsula complicates assessment of its reach.

“This pivotal research challenges the notion that interbreeding occurred only in one area of West Asia with a singular Neanderthal population (not represented in existing genetic samples). Homo sapiens appear to have dispersed from Africa in increasing numbers across expanding territories, likely outcompeting smaller Neanderthal groups they encountered throughout most of the recognized Neanderthal range,” comments Chris Stringer from the Natural History Museum in London.

Topics:

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  • Ancient Humans

Source: www.newscientist.com

Researchers Examine Neanderthal DNA to Gain Insights into Human Facial Development and Evolution

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Research led by scientist Hannah Long at the University of Edinburgh has found that specific regions of Neanderthal DNA are more effective at activating genes responsible for jaw development than those in humans, potentially explaining why Neanderthals had larger lower jaws.

Neanderthal. Image credit: Natural History Museum Trustees.

“With the Neanderthal genome being 99.7% identical to that of modern humans, the variations between species are likely to account for differences in appearance,” Dr. Hanna stated.

“Both human and Neanderthal genomes consist of roughly 3 billion characters that code for proteins and regulate gene expression in cells. Identifying the regions that influence appearance is akin to searching for a needle in a haystack.”

Dr. Long and her team had a targeted approach, focusing on a genomic area linked to the Pierre Robin sequence, a condition marked by an unusually small mandible.

“Individuals with the Pierre Robin sequence often have significant deletions or rearrangements in this portion of the genome that affect facial development and restrict jaw formation,” Dr. Hanna explained.

“We hypothesized that minor differences in DNA could produce more nuanced effects on facial structure.”

Upon comparing human and Neanderthal genomes, researchers discovered that in this segment, approximately 3,000 letters long, there are only three one-letter variations between the species.

This DNA region doesn’t code for genes but regulates when and how certain genes, particularly SOX9, which plays a crucial role in facial development, are activated.

To confirm that these Neanderthal-specific differences were significant for facial development, scientists needed to demonstrate that the Neanderthal version could activate genes in the appropriate cells at the right developmental stage.

They introduced both Neanderthal and human versions of this region into zebrafish DNA and programmed the cells to emit different colors of fluorescent protein based on the activation of either region.

By monitoring zebrafish embryo development, researchers observed that cells responsible for forming the lower jaw were active in both human and Neanderthal regions, with the Neanderthal regions showing greater activity.

“It was thrilling when we first noticed the activity of specific cell populations in the developing zebrafish face, particularly near the forming jaw, and even more exhilarating to see how Neanderthal-specific variations could influence activity during development,” said Dr. Long.

“This led us to contemplate the implications of these differences and explore them through experimental means.”

Recognizing that Neanderthal sequences were more effective at activating genes, the authors questioned whether this would lead to enhanced target activity affecting the shape and function of the adult jaw, mediated by SOX9.

To validate this idea, they augmented zebrafish embryos with additional samples of SOX9 and discovered that cells involved in jaw formation occupied a larger area.

“Our lab aims to further investigate the effects of genetic differences using methods that simulate various aspects of facial development,” Dr. Long remarked.

“We aspire to deepen our understanding of genetic variations in individuals with facial disorders and improve diagnostic processes.”

“This study demonstrates how examining extinct species can enhance our knowledge of how our own DNA contributes to facial diversity, development, and evolution.”

The findings are published in the journal Development.

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Kirsty Utley et al. 2025: Neanderthal-derived variants enhance SOX9 enhancer activity in craniofacial progenitor cells, influencing jaw development. Development 152 (21): dev204779; doi: 10.1242/dev.204779

Source: www.sci.news

Researchers Explore Neanderthal DNA to Uncover Insights into Human Facial Development and Evolution

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Scientist Hannah Long and her team at the University of Edinburgh have discovered that specific regions of Neanderthal DNA are more effective at activating genes related to jaw formation compared to human DNA, which might explain why Neanderthals had larger lower jaws.

Neanderthal. Image credit: Natural History Museum Trustees.

“The Neanderthal genome shows a 99.7% similarity to the human genome, suggesting that the differences between the species contribute to variations in appearance,” explained Dr. Hanna.

“Both the human and Neanderthal genomes comprise around 3 billion characters that code for proteins and regulate gene usage in cells. Therefore, pinpointing regions that affect appearance is akin to finding a needle in a haystack.”

Dr. Long and her collaborators had a targeted hypothesis regarding where to initiate their search. They focused on a genomic area linked to the Pierre Robin sequence, a condition characterized by a notably small jaw.

“Some individuals with Pierre Robin sequence exhibit significant deletions or rearrangements in this genomic region that disrupt facial development and impede jaw formation,” stated Dr. Hanna.

“We speculated that minor variations in DNA could subtly influence facial shape.”

Through the comparison of human and Neanderthal genomes, researchers identified that in a segment approximately 3,000 letters long, there are just three one-letter differences between the two species.

This DNA segment lacks any specific genes but regulates the timing and manner in which genes, particularly SOX9, a crucial factor in facial development processes, are activated.

To demonstrate the significance of these Neanderthal-specific differences for facial development, researchers needed to confirm that the Neanderthal region could activate genes in the correct cells at the appropriate developmental stage.

They introduced both Neanderthal and human variants of this region into zebrafish DNA concurrently and programmed the cells to emit different colors of fluorescent protein based on whether the human or Neanderthal region was active.

By monitoring zebrafish embryo development, researchers observed that the cells crucial for lower jaw formation were active in both regions, with the Neanderthal regions showing greater activity than those of humans.

“We were thrilled when we first detected the activity in a specific group of cells within the developing zebrafish face, near the jaw, and even more so when we realized that Neanderthal-specific differences could modify this activity during development,” Dr. Long noted.

“This led us to ponder the potential implications of these differences and how we may explore them experimentally.”

Recognizing that Neanderthal sequences were more adept at activating genes, the authors inquired whether this would correlate with heightened activity in target cells, influencing the shape and function of the adult jaw as governed by SOX9.

To test this hypothesis, they administered additional samples to zebrafish embryos. They found that the cells involved in jaw formation occupied a larger area.

“In our lab, we aim to investigate the effects of additional DNA sequence differences using methods that replicate aspects of facial development,” Dr. Long said.

“We aspire to enhance our understanding of sequence alterations in individuals with facial disorders and assist with diagnostic efforts.”

“This research illustrates that by examining extinct species, we can gain insights into how our own DNA contributes to facial variation, development, and evolution.”

Findings are detailed in the journal Development here.

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Kirsty Utley et al. 2025: Variants derived from Neanderthals enhance SOX9 enhancer activity in craniofacial progenitor cells that shape jaw development. Development 152 (21): dev204779; doi: 10.1242/dev.204779

Source: www.sci.news

Ancient Crimean Neanderthal from 45,000 Years Ago Uncovers Extensive Eurasian Connections

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Recent discoveries by archaeologists in Ukraine’s Crimean Peninsula, home to significant Middle to Late Paleolithic sites like Starosele, include a 5-centimeter-long bone fragment from a Neanderthal man, dating between 46,000 and 44,000 years ago. Genetic analysis shows this individual to be closely related to Altai Neanderthals through mitochondrial DNA, indicating that Neanderthal populations traveled great distances across Eurasia. Under favorable climatic conditions, these migrations likely involved the spread of the Micocchia stone tool industry, highlighting cultural continuity and regional adaptability during the Late Pleistocene.

A group of Neanderthals in a cave. Image credit: Tyler B. Tretsven.

Crimea is rich in well-preserved layered Paleolithic sites, many reflecting the biocultural and human occupation transition that occurred approximately 47,000 to 42,000 years ago.

According to earlier radiocarbon dating studies, the peninsula has been recognized as a refuge for late Neanderthals who survived just before their extinction.

Starosele, a rock shelter located in a steep valley, features four distinct cultural layers and has been researched since 1952.

“The archaeological layers of this site are rich in cultural artifacts,” stated Emily Piggott, a PhD student at the University of Vienna, along with her colleagues.

“Levels 1, 2, and 4 are linked to stone tools from the Crimean Mikokian stone tool industry, associated with Neanderthals.”

This study aimed to identify potential human remains from the thousands of fragmented bones excavated from the Starosele site.

From the 150 bone fragments analyzed, 97.3% contained sufficient collagen for taxonomic identification.

Approximately 93% of the remains belonged to horses and deer, with fewer found from mammoths and wolves, indicating that Paleolithic humans in Crimea heavily relied on horse hunting.

Notably, one bone fragment, measuring 49.8 mm in length and 18.8 mm in width, was classified as hominin.

Radiocarbon dating indicated an age range of 46,000 to 45,000 years, coinciding with the transitional period before the extinction of Neanderthals and the emergence of Homo sapiens in Western Europe.

“Particularly the remains of humans before Starosele are from a much later era of Homo sapiens,” Piggott remarked.

“Upon receiving the radiocarbon results, we realized we had uncovered a true Paleolithic hominin.”

“Neanderthals went extinct across Eurasia, replaced by Homo sapiens, yet genetic information about these earlier human populations is scarce.”

Researchers then sequenced the mitochondrial genome from this bone, confirming the individual was part of the Neanderthal lineage.

The mitogenome of this individual aligns with other Neanderthal mitogenomes previously documented in the Altai region of Siberia.

“Surprisingly, this individual shared the closest genetic ties with Neanderthals from Altai, over 3,000 kilometers to the east, as well as with Neanderthals that once roamed areas of Europe such as Croatia,” highlighted the researchers.

“This finding reaffirms previous studies suggesting that Neanderthals migrated extensively across Eurasia, traversing from central Europe to central Eurasia during the late Pleistocene.”

“This research highlights Crimea as a crucial junction in the Neanderthal migration routes.”

The findings of this study will be published in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.

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Emily M. Piggott et al. 2025. A new late Neanderthal from Crimea reveals long-distance connections across Eurasia. PNAS 122 (45): e2518974122; doi: 10.1073/pnas.2518974122

Source: www.sci.news

Ancient Crayons Provide Insights into Neanderthal Art Creation

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Neanderthals may have used ocher crayons to draw on cave walls

Golodenkov/Getty Images

A fascinating yellow crayon discovered in Crimea remains sharp after over 40,000 years, indicating that marking objects was a component of Neanderthal culture. This finding serves as the most compelling evidence so far that certain Neanderthal groups utilized colored pigments symbolically, a behavior previously believed to be exclusive to humans.

“It’s truly remarkable. It expands our understanding of the symbolic application of color,” states Emma Pomeroy from the University of Cambridge, who was not part of the study.

The use of ocher, an iron-rich mineral displaying red, yellow, and orange shades, has deep roots in Europe and Africa, reaching back at least 400,000 years. Ocher fragments have been found in numerous Neanderthal sites and seem to have been utilized for practical activities like tanning skins and igniting fires, sometimes being applied to seashell beads.

Neanderthals might have also decorated their bodies, clothing, and surfaces with ocher, although such marks have long since vanished. To delve deeper, Francesco d’Errico and fellow researchers from the University of Bordeaux in France undertook a thorough examination of ocher fragments from Neanderthal sites in Crimea, Ukraine. By analyzing how Neanderthals modified these fragments and examining their wear using a microscope, they gained insights into their usage.

The most intriguing of these ocher artifacts, dating back at least 42,000 years, was yellow and shaped like a crayon, measuring about 5 to 6 centimeters long. In-depth analysis revealed that the tip had been worn down through use and then resharpened, suggesting that it was regularly reused as a marking implement.

“This is a tool that has been refined and reshaped multiple times, making it quite unique,” remarks D’Errico. “It’s not merely a standard crayon; it exists as a crayon because of its use as such. It may have been utilized for drawing lines on skin or stone, reflecting artistic endeavors.”

Ocher fragment tip utilized as a crayon and subsequently sharpened

D’Errico et al., Sci. Advances 11, eadx4722

April Nowell, a professor at Victoria University in Canada who was not part of the study, concurs. “I only retain the dot on the crayon when I aim to create precise lines or designs,” she comments.

The research team also uncovered an even older broken crayon made from red ocher, potentially as old as 70,000 years.

“A small piece of ocher can convey a wealth of information,” says Pomeroy. “It connects with our shared humanity in a deeply emotional way.”

This Crimean crayon discovery contributes to a growing array of evidence of Neanderthal artistic capacity, which includes a 57,000-year-old finger carving found on a cave wall in France, and a mysterious circle created from stalagmites 175,000 years ago in another French cave.

These findings support the notion that symbolic behavior is not merely a recent development but has deep-seated roots in our evolutionary trajectory. “The cognitive capabilities associated with symbolic actions were likely present in our last common ancestor, encompassing Homo sapiens, Denisovans, and Neanderthals over 700,000 years ago,” notes Nowell.

Ancient caves, the origins of humanity: Northern Spain

Explore some of the oldest cave paintings in this picturesque area of northern Spain. Journey back 40,000 years to discover how our ancestors lived, created, and built their lives. From ancient Paleolithic art to stunning geological formations, every cave tells a distinctive and timeless narrative.

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Source: www.newscientist.com

A Fascinating Exploration of Neanderthal Extinction: A True Literary Gem

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Ludovic Slimak contributed to revealing the remains of Thorin, a Neanderthal

Laure Metz

The Last Neanderthal
Ludovic Slimak (translated by Andrew Brown) (Polity Press (UK, September 26, US, November 24))

Chance findings of Neanderthal skeletons, hardened soot, and small arrowhead tools beneath leaves at the French Grotte Mandrin have reshaped not only our perception of Neanderthals but also our understanding of early Homo sapiens migrations into Europe.

More intriguingly, this cave has unveiled insights about the initial interactions between the two groups and the reasons behind the success of one species and the extinction of another. This pivotal issue is explored in The Last Neanderthal: Understanding How Humans Die, a new work by Ludovic Slimak, a paleontologist from the University of Toulouse who spearheaded the excavations at Grotte Mandrin.

The narrative focuses on Thorin, a Neanderthal fossil unearthed in 2015 at the cave’s entrance, which revealed five teeth during the excavation. The delicate recovery of this singular discovery required painstaking care, extracting each grain of sand with tweezers over seven years to uncover fragments of his skull and hand.

This investigation led to a riveting quest that spanned years, employing various dating methods that initially yielded starkly conflicting timelines for Thorin’s existence. Ultimately, it was determined that the fossils date between 42,000 and 50,000 years ago. The last known Neanderthal population went extinct around 40,000 years ago . Remarkably, Thorin’s genome was sequenced, revealing a previously unknown lineage that diverged from the primary Neanderthal population more than 50,000 years ago and later experienced extreme isolation.

The Last Neanderthal is a deeply introspective and philosophical work, evoking a vivid sense of what it would have meant to explore Thorin’s existence and the myriad groups that inhabited the cave over millennia. Slimak notes that the unique scent of Grotte Mandrin originates from ancient fire soot preserved within the calcite layers of its walls, forming a distinctive ‘barcode’. This barcode can be accurately dated, providing timelines for various occupations and indicating that Homo sapiens arrived just six months after the Neanderthals vacated the cave. The book reveals that Thorin appears unexpectedly, causing Slimak to express his astonishment, stating, “I did not expect to find a Neanderthal body lying by the roadside, walking through the forest like that. It’s astonishing.”

The jaw of Thorin, a Neanderthal fossil unearthed in 2015

Xavier Muth

This prompts further contemplation about the reasons behind the Neanderthals’ extinction. Although much discussion centers around their decline due to competition with Homo sapiens or climate shifts caused by volcanic eruptions and magnetic field reversals, Slimak offers a fresh perspective. He highlights that the evidence found at Grotte Mandrin points to a layer of small triangular stone points used as arrows by the earliest Homo sapiens, who arrived around 55,000 years ago.

These artifacts bear a striking resemblance to those produced by Homo sapiens at the Ksar Akil site in Lebanon, located nearly 4,000 km away and dating to a similar timeframe. This suggests that these early humans exhibited a far more sophisticated method of sustaining and standardizing practices across extensive social networks, leading Slimak to conclude they had a much more effective “way of life” compared to the Neanderthals, who lived in smaller, isolated groups lacking such consistency.

While one might envision a dramatic battle between Homo sapiens and Neanderthals, the reality was notably different. Slimak draws parallels with the collapse of numerous indigenous communities in post-colonial regions globally, asserting that Neanderthal groups gradually disintegrated when faced with others who possessed a more efficient existence. “The demise of humans reflects the disintegration of their worldview… not through overt violence, but through whispers,” he observes.

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The bones were painstakingly excavated using tweezers to remove one grain of sand at a time.
“

Although it is profoundly melancholic to ponder, immersing oneself in the realm of these vanished beings through The Last Neanderthal is a unique privilege.

Topic:

  • Ancient Humans/
  • Book Review

Source: www.newscientist.com

Neanderthal Footprints from 80,000 Years Ago Discovered in Portugal

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Archaeologists have unearthed two Neanderthal track sites across various regions in Europe. At Monte Clerigo, approximately 78,000 years ago, three distinct trackways illustrate how Neanderthals traversed the dune landscape. This behavior implies advanced route planning, as the dune environment may have been conducive for ambush hunting and stalking prey. Additionally, a solitary footprint found at the Praia do Telheiro site indicates the presence of Neanderthals in the Dune Ecosystem 82,000 years ago.

Following guidance, a reconfiguration scenario for Monte Clérigo TrackSite generated by AI tools. Image credit: JM Galán/ai.

“Footprints provide a snapshot of a specific moment, capturing events such as group movements, tracking, and interactions with particular landscapes.”

“The footprints reveal how Neanderthals utilized their environment, exploring coastal areas, forests, sand dunes, and riverbanks.

Neanderthal footprints have been identified at two distinct locations.

At Monte Clerrigo, five tracks and 26 footprints were left by both adults and children over a year old on the steep slopes of coastal sand dunes.

At Praia do Telheiro, isolated footprints were found, likely made by teenagers or adult women, alongside bird tracks typical for coastal and rocky environments.

“The quantity, size, and arrangement of footprints enable us to deduce the minimum number of individuals present, their age ranges (children, adolescents, adults), and even the specific activities (like a hunting party),” noted the researcher.

“Child and baby footprints, which seldom separate from archaeological traces, are identifiable due to their smaller size, offering insights into their social structure.”

“These footprints provide a unique perspective on daily life, serving as a snapshot from tens of thousands of years ago.”

A general view of the main truck site with the human trackway on the north cliffs of Monte Crerigo Beach, Portugal. Image credit: de Carvalho et al. , doi: 10.1038/s41598-025-06089-4.

The analyzed footprints reveal exercise strategies adapted to the landscape, suggesting planned routes, proximity to living areas, potential hunting activities, and coexistence with other species.

For instance, one track shows evidence of interactions with human footprints alongside newly formed deer tracks, supporting theories of pursuit or ambush tactics in the dune environment.

The findings confirm that Neanderthals primarily consumed deer, horses, and marine resources, exhibiting a varied dietary strategy.

“The consistent presence of these mammalian species underscores their role as reliable food sources, regardless of the varying environments occupied by Neanderthals,” stated the scientists.

“Additionally, the Neanderthal diet also included species from nearby coastal habitats, showing an extensive foraging strategy that utilized local biodiversity.”

The team’s research paper was published on July 3rd in Scientific Reports.

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Cn de Carvalho et al. 2025. The Neanderthal coast and the first Portuguese human track site. Sci Rep 15, 23785; doi:10.1038/s41598-025-06089-4

Source: www.sci.news

Neurological Disorders May Be Linked to Neanderthal DNA

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The intersection of anatomically modern Homo sapiens and Neanderthals thousands of years ago might contribute to Chiari malformation type 1, a serious neurological condition that affects an estimated 1% of today’s population.

Homo sapiens: Homo erectus, Homo heidelbergensis, and Homo neanderthalensis. Plomp et al. utilized 3D data and geometric morphometry to investigate this hypothesis. Image credit: Neanderthal Museum.” width=”580″ height=”618″ srcset=”https://cdn.sci.news/images/2014/04/image_1837-Neanderthal.jpg 580w, https://cdn.sci.news/images/2014/04/image_1837-Neanderthal-281×300.jpg 281w” sizes=”(max-width: 580px) 100vw, 580px”/>

In 2013, scientists surmised that Chiari malformation type 1 might arise from cranial development genes tracing back to three smaller extinct Homo species: Homo erectus, Homo heidelbergensis, and Homo neanderthalensis. Plomp et al. employed 3D data and geometric morphometry to evaluate this hypothesis. Image credit: Neanderthal Museum.

Chiari malformation type 1 occurs when the rear of the skull is insufficiently sized to accommodate the brain, causing a portion of the brain to protrude from the skull into the spinal canal.

This condition can compress the herniated brain tissue, resulting in symptoms such as headaches, neck pain, and dizziness. In severe instances, this can lead to life-threatening complications.

“In medicine, as in all sciences, clarifying the causal chain is vital.”

“The clearer the causal relationships, the greater the chances that the condition can be effectively managed or even resolved.”

“Further testing of the hypothesis is needed, but our study may bring us a step closer to understanding the causal chain that leads to Chiari malformation type 1.”

In 2010, genetic evidence emerged indicating that modern humans interbred with Neanderthals tens of thousands of years ago.

Individuals of non-African descent carry approximately 2-5% Neanderthal DNA, tracing back to these ancestral mating interactions.

The hypothesis suggesting that Chiari malformation type 1 may stem from ancient Homo genes entering the human gene pool through mating was first proposed by researcher Evens Barbosa Fernandez from the University of Campinas.

Dr. Fernandez hypothesized that the differences in skull structure between modern humans and other Homo species play a significant role in causing malformations.

In this study, Professor Mark Collado, PhD, Kimberly Promp at the University of the Philippines Diliman, and colleagues employed modern imaging techniques and advanced statistical shape analysis to compare 3D models of living humans with those of Homo sapiens, Neanderthals, Homo heidelbergensis, and Homo erectus.

The findings revealed that individuals with Chiari malformations exhibit more similar skull shapes to Neanderthals than those without such malformations.

Notably, all other fossil skulls align more closely with modern humans lacking Chiari malformation type 1, supporting the hypothesis that certain individuals today carry Neanderthal genes that influence skull shape, potentially leading to a mismatch between skull dimensions and the shape of the modern human brain.

This discrepancy could result in insufficient space within the skull, causing the brain to extend into the spinal cord, which is the only available outlet.

Given that various global populations possess different levels of Neanderthal DNA, this study suggests that certain European and Asian populations may be more susceptible to Chiari malformation type 1, although additional research is needed to validate this.

“The study of archaeology and human evolution is not merely fascinating,” Professor Collado remarked.

“It could offer insights into current health challenges.”

“In this instance, fossils have provided clarity about the condition, but numerous modern issues also help illuminate archaeological and paleontological findings.”

Study published in the journal Evolution, Medicine, Public Health.

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Kimberly Promp et al. 2025. An ancient hypothesis regarding Homo introduction and Chiari malformation type I Evolution, Medicine, Public Health 13(1):154-166; doi:10.1093/end/eoaf009

Source: www.sci.news

The Neanderthal Community Cultivated a Unique Food Culture

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Depiction of a Neanderthal group engaged in food preparation

Luis Montagna/Marta Montagna/Science Photo Library

Neanderthals likely developed distinct food preparation traditions that varied between groups. Excavations at two caves in what is now northern Israel indicate that these ancient inhabitants had unique methods for processing similar types of prey.

Contrary to popular belief, Homo sapiens were not the first to prepare and cook food. Evidence shows that Neanderthals, who thrived in Europe and Asia until approximately 40,000 years ago, hunted, cooked a diverse array of animals, and employed flint tools to enhance their meals with wild herbs.

For further insights into Neanderthal cuisine, see Analle Jaron from Hebrew University in Jerusalem and her team, who investigated findings at the Amdo and Kebara caves.

Located merely 70 km apart, these sites provide a unique lens through which to examine cultural differences among Neanderthals. The stone tools, remnants of food, and hearths uncovered at both locations suggest that these groups occupied the caves concurrently, possibly during winter months.

As Jaron remarks, “The same animal species were being hunted, set against a similar landscape. The weather conditions were alike, and both Neanderthal groups primarily feasted on gazelles and some fallow deer.”

However, notable differences were also present. For instance, bone evidence indicates that larger prey was favored in the Kebara cave, where more substantial animals were brought in and processed.

Jaron and her colleagues utilized microscopic analysis to study bone remnants from the sediments dated between 50,000 and 60,000 years ago, examining cut marks made by stone tools.

They discovered that while the flint tools were similar across both sites, the patterns of cut marks varied. “The cuts in Kebara displayed a greater fluctuation in width and depth, while in Amdo, they were concentrated in large clusters, often overlapping,” Jaron explains.

To determine whether these discrepancies influenced hunting practices, the researchers focused on the long bones of gazelles from both sites, which exhibited similar variations.

“We’re discussing two groups living in close proximity that both butchered the same type of meat, but it appears that at one site, the meat was processed closer to the bones.” says Ceren Kabukcu from the University of Liverpool, UK.

Past studies examining bone cut marks from later human societies indicate that the variations observed in Neanderthal butchery are not merely due to a lack of skills or difference in technique. It’s not a matter of expertise; it’s a difference in approach.

Jaron posits that these contrasts are likely a result of intentional choices regarding butchering methods. She suggests that Neanderthals in Amdo may have preferred to prepare their meat in ways that preserved it, such as drying or hanging before cooking.

“In the context of opportunistic behavior in slaughtering, one would expect the most efficient methods to be employed to maximize utility; nevertheless, it appears that cultural or social factors played a more significant role,” Jaron states. “This might relate to the group’s practices, passed down through learning and generations.”

“The existence of differences and the subtlety in technological usage in daily life isn’t entirely surprising,” notes Kabukcu. “As research deepens, we may uncover more nuances across various Paleolithic sites, even in China.”

It remains uncertain whether the caves were inhabited simultaneously or if different groups intermingled. “They could have been occupied at the same time or separated by hundreds of years. There’s no definitive way to ascertain that,” Jaron adds.

Nonetheless, she points out that the pronounced clustering of cut marks in Amdo is consistent across both the oldest and youngest sediment layers, suggesting that groups returning to the cave may have maintained similar butchering practices over centuries.

Source: www.newscientist.com

Hybrid Skull May Belong to Child of Neanderthal and Homo sapiens

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Homo sapiens parents” data-credit=”Israel Hershkovitz”/>

A skull of a young girl believed to be a descendant of Neanderthal Homo sapiens parents

Israel Hershkovitz

Skulls uncovered in Israel, dating back 140,000 years, likely belonged to hybrid children of Neanderthals and Homo sapiens. Anthropological analysis indicates that the ancient remains of a 5-year-old girl were found in one of the earliest known cemeteries, reshaping our understanding of organized burial practices and the people who partook in them.

The skull was initially unearthed in 1929 from Skhul Cave on Mount Carmel. This excavation ultimately revealed seven adults and three children, totaling 16 bones attributed to early humans classified as Homo sapiens.

However, the classification of the child’s skull has been disputed for nearly a century. It was originally thought to belong to a migrating lineage known as Paleoanthropus palestinensis, but later studies have suggested it is more likely a Homo sapiens specimen.

Anne Dambricourt Marasse, from the French Institute of Human Paleontology, is undertaking CT scans of the skull to compare it with other known Neanderthal juvenile remains.

“This study likely marks the first scientific assessment of Skhul’s child remains,” mentions John Hawks from the University of Wisconsin-Madison, who was not part of the research. “Previous efforts linked to antiquated reconstructions in plaster failed to comprehend the biology of this child in relation to similar specimens from a broader comparative framework.”

Malasse and her team found that the lower jaw presented notable Neanderthal traits, while the remainder of the skull was structurally aligned with Homo sapiens. They conclude that this blend of features suggests the child was of mixed ancestry.

“For a long time, I’ve questioned the viability of hybridization, suspecting that most cases resulted in miscarriages,” states Malasse. “The skeletal evidence indicates that this little girl, despite her youth at just five years, represents a different story.”

The new findings significantly enhance our understanding of the significant Skhul Child Skull, yet firmly identifying the child as a hybrid without recovering DNA is challenging, a task researchers have yet to achieve. “Human populations demonstrate substantial variability in appearance and physical form without interbreeding with ancient species like Neanderthals,” adds Malasse.

From research into both ancient and modern genomes, we know Homo sapiens and Neanderthals interchanged genes multiple times over the last 200,000 years. In 2018, bone fragments identified as Neanderthal and Denisovan hybrids, another ancient hominin species, were discovered in Russia, utilizing DNA analysis.

The Levant region emerges as a particularly significant area for human species intermingling due to its geographical positioning between Africa, Asia, and Europe. Some have termed it a “central bus stop” for Pleistocene humans, clarifies Dany Coutinho Nogueria at the University of Coimbra, Portugal.

Recent studies compel us to reevaluate our understanding of early burial practices among Homo sapiens, according to Malasse. Such ritualistic behaviors may have originated from Neanderthals, Homo sapiens, or resulted from interactions between the two.

“I cannot ascertain who performed the burial of this child, or whether the chosen burial ground belonged to a single community or one from another lineage that had established connections, shared rituals, and emotions,” reflects Malasse.

Topics:

  • Neanderthals/
  • Ancient humans

Source: www.newscientist.com

New Research Uncovers Insights into Neanderthal Migration from the Caucasus Mountains

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Genetic and archaeological findings indicate a significant Neanderthal migration from the western regions to central and eastern Eurasia during the late Pleistocene. Genetic evidence points to dispersion occurring between 120,000 and 80,000 years ago, while archaeological sites in Altai date back to as early as 60,000 years ago. The specifics of the migration route and its timing have been heavily debated due to the limited number of archaeological connections between these regions. Recent studies suggest that Neanderthals likely utilized river valleys as natural pathways, enabling them to traverse approximately 3,250 km (2,000 miles) through the Urals and South Siberia in under 2,000 years.

E. Coco & R. Iovita suggest that the Neanderthals could have quickly spread from Caucasus Mountains to Altai Mountains, running along the north route between MIS 3 and MIS 5e. Image credit: Abel Grau, CSIC Communications.

“Our research indicates that despite facing natural barriers like mountains and large rivers, Neanderthals may have traversed northern Eurasia much more swiftly than previously thought,” stated Dr. Emily Coco, PhD, who initiated this investigation as a PhD student at New York University and is currently a postdoctoral researcher at the University of Algarve.

“These findings offer valuable insights from archaeological records regarding ancient migration routes that remain underexplored and highlight the potential of computer simulations to unveil new information about ancient movements that have shaped human history.”

In creating a simulation of the two Millennial Journeys of Neanderthals, Dr. Coco and her colleague Dr. Radu Iovita from New York University analyzed topographic elevations, ancient river paths, glacial barriers, and temperature variations to model individual movement decisions.

The researchers identified two potential migration routes from ancient periods – during ocean isotope stage 5E (approximately 125,000 years ago during MIS 5E) and during ocean isotope stage 3 (from MIS 3, starting around 60,000 years ago) – both characterized by warmer temperatures making them conducive for movement.

Simulations indicated that Neanderthals could reach the Siberian Altai Mountains in Eurasia within 2,000 years in either MIS 5E or MIS 3, following the same general northern route through the Urals and southern Siberia, often intersecting with known archaeological sites from the same timeframe.

The authors believe this study enhances our understanding of Neanderthal interactions with other ancient human populations.

Specifically, their route would have led them to regions already inhabited by Denisovans, which aligns with existing evidence of interbreeding between the two species.

“The Neanderthals could have traveled thousands of kilometers from the Caucasus Mountains to Siberia in just 2,000 years by navigating river corridors,” said Dr. Iovita.

“While some researchers speculate about this type of rapid, long-distance travel based on genetic evidence, demonstrating it has been challenging due to the sparse archaeological record in the region.”

“Our detailed computer simulations suggest that this transition may have been a predictable outcome of the landscape conditions during prior warm climate periods.”

Survey results published online in the journal PLOS 1.

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E. Coco & R. Iovita. 2025. Agent-based simulations reveal the possibility of multiple rapid northern routes for the dispersion of the second Neanderthal from the West to East Eurasia. PLOS 1 20 (6): E0325693; doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0325693

Source: www.sci.news

  • Recent Research Indicates Gradual Bottleneck Events in Neanderthal Evolution

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According to a new study led by scientists at the University of Barcelona and Alcala, the bottleneck event took place between 130,000 and 50,000 years ago.

Neanderthal. Image credit: Trustee of the Museum of Natural History in London.

“Neanderthals are the most well-written humans in the fossil record in terms of morphology, genetics, behavior and culture,” said Dr. Alessandro Urciori, a colleague of a University of Barcelona.

“Recent molecular clock-based analyses, along with Denisovan, have divergences from 765,000-550,000 years old or older human lineages based on morphological data.”

“The Neanderthal lineage was differentiated soon after, and is testified by genetic and morphological evidence from the Simah delos Hussians of the Middle Pleistocene, which was previously thought to be expressed. . HOMO HEIDELBERGENSIS And now it is considered the early population of the Neanderthal lineage. ”

“Genetic divergence times are now well established for the entire clade, but also include relationships with the medieval Pleistocene populations of Europe, the medieval and late Pleistocene Neanderthal populations, and the evolution of the complete. There is a continuing debate over the connected evolutionary processes” Classic Neanderthal “Form of the late Neanderthal.”

“This is due to the mosaic form of the intermediate Pleistocene specimen, which is claimed to have evolved by the Neanderthals.”

In this study, the researchers measured the morphological diversity of semicircular canals, the structure of the inner ear that caused sense of balance.

They focus on two exceptional collections of fossils. One is from the site of Sima de los Husos in Spain, and dates 430,000 years old, making up the largest sample of pre-production available in the fossil record. Another location 130,000 to 120,000 years ago in Krapina, Croatia.

They calculated the amount of morphological diversity (i.e., disparity) in the semicircular canals in both samples, compared them to one another, and compared them with classic Neanderthal samples of different ages and geographical origins. .

The findings show that the morphological diversity of the semicircular canals of classical Neanderthals is clearly lower than the diversity of early Neanderthal morphologies before the Nianderthals, consistent with previous palaeogenesis results. It is revealed.

“The inclusion of fossils from a wide range of geographical and temporal ranges allowed us to capture a comprehensive photograph of the evolution of Neanderthal,” said Dr. Mercedes Conde Valvade, a researcher at Alcala University. .

“The reduced diversity observed between Krapina samples and classic Neanderthals is particularly impressive and clear, providing strong evidence of bottleneck events.”

“The results, on the other hand, challenge the previously accepted idea that Neanderthal origins are associated with a significant loss of genetic diversity and encourage the need to propose a new explanation of their origins.”

“We were surprised that pre-Neanderthal people in Sima de los Husos exhibited similar morphological diversity as early Neanderthals in Krapina,” Dr. Urshuuori said.

a paper The findings were published in the journal Natural Communication.

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A. Urushiuori et al. 2025. A semicircular canal that sheds light on bottleneck events in the evolution of the Neanderthal clade. Nut commune 16, 972; doi:10.1038/s41467-025-56155-8

Source: www.sci.news

Neanderthal Hearth Structure Unearthed in Gibraltar Dating Back 65,000 Years

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Archaeologists have announced the discovery of a new type of Neanderthal hearth in Gibraltar’s Vanguard Cave. This hearth structure is consistent with predictions from theoretical studies that require the use of heating structures to obtain birch tar commonly used in hafting. Researchers suggest that this hearth was used to burn herbs and shrubs over guano mixed with sand and heat rockrose without oxygen.

Neanderthal hearth structures may have been constructed according to the following steps: Image credit: Ochando others., doi: 10.1016/j.quascirev.2024.109025.

“The use and control of fire would have provided important adaptive benefits.” Homo and even shaped its evolution,” said Clive Finlayson of Gibraltar National Museum and colleagues.

“Manufacturing fire technology has been shown to be common from 400,000 years ago to the present, and it has probably been around for much longer.”

“A variety of studies have demonstrated the ability of Neanderthals to create, protect, and carry fire.”

“The main functions of the use of fire are related to providing heat, light and the possibility of cooking food.”

“But it could also lead to the development of new technological innovations,” they added.

“These include deliberate heat treatment of stone artifacts, durable wood, smoking purposes, and the use of distillation of birch bark and adhesives from coniferous resins to create stone flakes on wooden elements. This may include the production of hafting multi-component tools.”

“Other innovations by Neanderthals were the construction of pits and the diversification of the types of fuels used with a variety of commonly used plants, liquid hydrocarbons, and lignite.”

“However, plants are the most common type of fuel and are therefore expected to have been subject to a selection process by Neanderthals among available resources in the nearby, and perhaps even beyond, landscape.”

Special combustion structures discovered by the Vanguard Cave team have revealed previously unknown ways in which Neanderthals managed and used fire.

The structure is 68,000 to 61,000 years old and is adapted for steam distilling essential oils from rockrose to obtain tar, a hafting substance proven to have been used by Neanderthals.

The researchers tested that interpretation experimentally by building structures with similar morphological and compositional characteristics to those excavated in the cave.

Distilling a small bunch of young rockrose leaves in a closed, nearly anoxic environment for a reasonable period of time produces enough to hold two spearheads using only locally available tools and materials. of tar could be produced.

“Neanderthals had to go through a series of thought processes to choose which plants and find a way to extract the resin without burning them,” Dr Finlayson said.

“Our extinct cousins ​​were not the brutal humans of the popular imagination,” said Dr. Fernando Muñiz, an archaeologist at the University of Seville.

“This human species has been shown to have cognitive abilities, as reflected in studies showing mastery of the industrial process of making resin as an adhesive for attaching stone points to spear handles. ”

This finding is reported in the following article: paper in a diary Quaternary Science Review.

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Juan Ochando others. 2024. Neanderthals' special combustion structure adapted to the acquisition of tar. Quaternary Science Review 346: 109025;doi: 10.1016/j.quascirev.2024.109025

Source: www.sci.news

Study finds Neanderthal populations were genetically and socially isolated for tens of thousands of years

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In 2015, archaeologists discovered Neanderthal fossils. Grotte Mandolin is located on the Mediterranean coast of France, in the shadow of a rock overhanging directly into the Rhône River valley. Nicknamed Thorin, the fossil is one of the most similar Neanderthal remains found in France since its discovery in Saint-Césaire in 1979. Globe Institute researcher Martin Sikora and his colleagues combined archaeological, chronostratigraphic, isotopic, and genomic analyses to reveal that Thorin belonged to a Neanderthal population that remained genetically isolated for 50,000 years. Apart from Thorin’s lineage, they found evidence of gene flow in the genome of the Les Côtés Neanderthal from another lineage that diverged from the ancestral lineage of European Neanderthals more than 80,000 years ago. The findings suggest the existence of multiple isolated Neanderthal communities in Europe close to the time of extinction and shed light on their social organization. Despite the close geographical proximity of these populations, there was limited, if any, interaction between the different Neanderthal populations during the last millennium.

Neanderthal. Image courtesy of Abel Grau, CSIC Communication.

“When we look at the Neanderthal genome, we see that they were quite inbred and didn’t have a lot of genetic diversity,” Dr Sikora said.

“They’ve lived in small groups for generations.”

“Inbreeding is known to reduce the genetic diversity of populations, which if continued over long periods of time can have negative effects on the viability of the population.”

“The newly discovered Neanderthal genome is from a different lineage to other late Neanderthals studied so far.”

“This supports the idea that Neanderthal social organization was different from that of early modern humans, who appear to have been more connected.”

“In other words, compared to Neanderthals, early modern humans were more likely to connect with other groups, which was advantageous for their survival.”

“This is purely speculation, but the concept of being able to communicate more and exchange knowledge is something humans can do that Neanderthals, who were organized in small groups and lived isolated lives, may not have been able to do to some extent.”

“And that’s an important skill,” noted Dr Tarshika Vimala, a population geneticist at the University of Copenhagen.

“We see evidence that early modern humans in Siberia, living in small communities, formed so-called mating networks to avoid problems with inbreeding, something that wasn’t seen in Neanderthals.”

Thorin’s fossils were first discovered in Mandolin Cave in 2015. Mandolin Cave is a cave that is thought to have been the site of an early Homo sapiens But not at the same time, and he is still being slowly unearthed.

Based on Thorin’s location in the cave deposits, archaeologists have speculated that he may have lived approximately 45,000 to 40,000 years ago.

To determine his age and relationships to other Neanderthals, the team extracted DNA from his teeth and jaw and compared his entire genome sequence to previously sequenced Neanderthal genomes.

Surprisingly, initial genome analysis suggested that Thorin’s genome was very different from other late Neanderthals and very similar to the genomes of Neanderthals who lived more than 100,000 years ago, suggesting that Thorin is much older than archaeological estimates.

To solve the mystery, the researchers analyzed isotopes from Thorin’s bones and teeth to gain insight into the type of climate he lived in. Late Neanderthals lived during the Ice Age, while early Neanderthals enjoyed a much warmer climate.

Isotopic analysis showed that Thorin lived in a very cold climate and was identified as a late Neanderthal.

Compared to previously sequenced Neanderthal genomes, Thorin’s genome is most similar to the individual from Gibraltar, leading the authors to speculate that Thorin’s population may have migrated from Gibraltar to France.

“This means that a previously unknown Neanderthal population was present in the Mediterranean, stretching from the westernmost tip of Europe to the Rhône Valley in France,” said Dr Ludovic Slimac, researcher at Toulouse-Paul Sabatier University and CNRS.

Knowing that Neanderthal communities were small and isolated may hold the key to understanding their extinction, because isolation is generally thought to be detrimental to a population’s fitness.

“It’s always a good thing for one group to have contact with another,” Dr Vimala said.

“Prolonged isolation limits genetic diversity and reduces the ability to adapt to changes in climate and pathogens. It’s also socially limiting, as they don’t share knowledge or evolve as a group.”

But to truly understand how Neanderthal populations were structured and why they became extinct, researchers say many more Neanderthal genomes need to be sequenced.

“If we had had more genomes from other regions over the same time period, we probably would have found other deeply structured populations,” Dr Sikora said.

A paper on the results of this study was published today. journal Cell Genomics.

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Ludovic Slimak others2024. The long genetic and social isolation of Neanderthals before their extinction. Cell Genomics 4(9):100593;doi: 10.1016/j.xgen.2024.100593

Source: www.sci.news

Neanderthal fossil genome uncovers ancient tribe isolated for centuries

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The jawbone of a Neanderthal known as Thorin, thought to have belonged to an isolated group

Xavier Mus

Genetic analysis of Neanderthal fossils found in France has revealed that they are the remnants of a previously unknown lineage of ancient people that remained extremely isolated for more than 50,000 years, shedding new light on the final stages of the species' existence.

The fossil has been named Thorin, after a character from J.R.R. Tolkien's novels. The HobbitIt was discovered in 2015 in the Mandolin Cave in the Rhône Valley in southern France. Ludovic Slimak Researchers from the Centre for Human Biology and Genomics in Toulouse discovered a few teeth in the soil of the cave, and after nine years of painstaking excavation, they uncovered 31 teeth, a jawbone, part of a skull, and thousands of other bone fragments.

The discovery of so many fossils of Neanderthals, who lived in Eurasia from about 400,000 to 40,000 years ago and are now extinct, is extremely rare and a surprising find in itself.

Even more surprising, even though DNA doesn't normally preserve in warm climates, a fragment of Thorin's tooth yielded his genome, revealing that the fossil was male but solving a mystery that will take years to unravel.

Srimak and his colleagues compared Thorin's genome with those of other Neanderthals and estimated that he lived about 105,000 years ago, but archaeological evidence and isotope analysis of his bones clearly show that Thorin lived no more than 50,000 years ago, making him a “late Neanderthal” from the final stage of Neanderthal existence.

“We have been together for a long time [geneticists] “We were confident that Thorin was indeed an early Neanderthal precisely because his genetic lineage is very distantly related to modern Neanderthals from the same region,” the team said. Tarshika Vimala “On the one hand, archaeologists were convinced he was a late Neanderthal. It took years of work on both sides to arrive at the answer,” said a researcher from the University of Copenhagen.

Eventually, the researchers realized they must have discovered a previously unknown Neanderthal lineage: Thorin was part of a small group that lived between 42,000 and 50,000 years ago. This group was likely a remnant of a much older Neanderthal population that split off from the main Neanderthal population about 105,000 years ago and remained genetically isolated for more than 50,000 years afterwards.

Thorin's bones unearthed in the Mandolin Cave in France

Ludovic Slimak

Thorin's DNA showed no evidence of interbreeding between his lineage and the main Neanderthal population, despite their close proximity. “Thorin was completely different from other Neanderthals,” Slimak says.

This isolation may have made this population particularly vulnerable: “Prolonged isolation and inbreeding can reduce genetic diversity over time, which is detrimental to a population's survival, which in turn can negatively affect its ability to adapt to a changing environment,” Vimala says.

Srimak, Vimala and their colleagues then reanalyzed the genome of another Neanderthal who lived about 43,000 years ago at Les Côtés in France, and found traces in its DNA of a “ghost population” that interbred with another, previously unknown, Neanderthal group about 15,000 to 20,000 years ago.

“This means that there weren't just two populations among late Neanderthals, but possibly three,” says Slimak. Previously, it was thought that all Neanderthals before their extinction were part of a single genetically similar population.

“The evidence from Mandrin Cave is very exciting because it gives us fascinating insights into late Neanderthal populations and their movements.” Emma Pomeroy At Cambridge University.

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Source: www.newscientist.com

Newly discovered archaeological site illuminates Neanderthal hunting skills and adaptability

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Archaeological sequence Abrik Pissarro ruins The southeastern Pre-Pyrenees About MIS4 (about 71,000 years ago), a little-known period in Neanderthal history.

Iberian Neanderthals sampled wild mushrooms, pine nuts, and forest moss. Image by Abel Grau, CSIC Communication.

A team of archaeologists led by the Australian National University has collected hundreds of thousands of artefacts at the Abric Pizarro site, including stone tools, animal bones and other evidence, providing crucial data about Neanderthal lifestyles.

The discovery reveals that Neanderthals were able to adapt to their environment, calls into question archaic humans' reputation as slow-footed cavemen, and sheds light on their survival and hunting abilities.

“Our results show that Neanderthals knew how to best exploit their area and territory, and were able to withstand harsh climatic conditions,” said archaeologist Sophia Samper-Caro of the Australian National University.

“The amazing finds at Abric Pizarro show how adaptable the Neanderthals were. The animal bones we found show that they made good use of the fauna around them, hunting red deer, horses and bison, but also eating freshwater turtles and rabbits. This suggests a level of planning that is rarely associated with Neanderthals.”

“These new findings call into question the widely held belief that Neanderthals only hunted large animals such as horses and rhinos.”

“The bones we found contain cut marks, providing direct evidence that Neanderthals were able to hunt small animals.”

“The bones at this site are so well preserved that you can see traces of how the Neanderthals handled and butchered these animals.”

“Analysis of stone tools also shows a great deal of diversity in the types of tools made, indicating that Neanderthals were capable of exploiting the resources available in their region.”

By uncovering this critical transition period, archaeologists are one step closer to solving a mystery that has vexed researchers for decades: what caused the Neanderthals to go extinct?

“The discovery of sites like Abric Pizarro from this particular, poorly documented period gives us information about how Neanderthals lived and shows that they were thriving at a time when modern humans were not yet in the area,” Dr Samper-Caro said.

“The unique site of Abric Pissarro offers us a glimpse into the behaviour of Neanderthals in the landscape they roamed for hundreds of thousands of years.”

“The Neanderthals disappeared about 40,000 years ago. All of a sudden, we modern humans showed up in this part of the Pyrenees and the Neanderthals disappeared. But before that, the Neanderthals had been living in Europe for almost 300,000 years.”

“They obviously knew what they were doing. They knew the area and they knew how to survive for a long period of time.”

“One of the most fascinating aspects of this site is that it provides unique information about a time when Neanderthals lived alone in harsh conditions and how they thrived before the arrival of modern humans.”

Thanks to modern excavation techniques, Abric Pizarro and other nearby sites provide detailed data for understanding Neanderthal behavior.

“We make a 3D plot of each and every bone found that is larger than one or two centimetres,” Dr Sampar Karo said.

“This slows down the work – excavations at some sites have been going on for over 20 years – but the result is that the sites are documented with unparalleled accuracy.”

“We're interested in how all these different pieces of data, from stone tools to bones to hearths, relate to each other.”

“This more thorough excavation will provide archaeologists with information about how Neanderthals lived and how long they were in the area.”

“It's not just the individual item that gives us clues, but knowing where it is found in relation to other items at the site helps us understand how and when Neanderthals visited these sites. Did they settle there or were they just passing through?”

of result Appears in Journal of Archaeological Sciences.

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Sophia C. Samper-Caro others2024. Living dangerously: Abrik Pissarro, a MIS 4 Neanderthal site in the lowermost foothills of the southeastern Pre-Pyrenees (Lleida, Iberian Peninsula). Journal of Archaeological Sciences 169: 106038; doi: 10.1016/j.jas.2024.106038

Source: www.sci.news

Experimenting with Neanderthal cooking methods using birds and stone tools

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A researcher plucks the feathers of a bird as part of an experiment to investigate Neanderthal cooking techniques.

Mariana Navaiz

To learn more about Neanderthal culinary talents, archaeologists cooked five wild birds using only fire, their hands, and stone tools. The experiment shows that our ancient relatives needed significant manual skill to use a flint blade to butcher an animal without injuring themselves.

Neanderthals lived in Europe and Asia until about 40,000 years ago. Hearths have been found at many of their sites, and there is evidence that they hunted large animals such as elephants and cave lions.

Mariana Navaiz Researchers at the Catalan Institute of Human Palaeoecology and Social Evolution in Tarragona, Spain, say that by recreating ancient activities such as cooking and butchering using tools available at the time, scientists can gain insight into how prehistoric humans lived.

She and her colleagues wanted to better understand archaeological bird remains associated with Neanderthals that date back about 90,000 years ago and were found in deposits in Portugal.

The team selected five birds that had died at a wildlife rehabilitation center in Portugal and were similar in size and species to those found at the archaeological site.Crow), Turtledove(Columba Palumbus) and two European collared doves (Streptopelia decaoctoThe tools used in the experiment were pieces of flint prepared by students of stone tool technology.

All five birds were plucked by hand. The crow and pigeon were butchered raw, while the remaining three were roasted over charcoal. The cooked birds were easily butchered without stone tools, but the raw birds required considerable effort using a flint blade.

“Paleolithic knives were certainly very sharp and required careful handling,” Navais says. “The precision and effort required to use these tools without injuring oneself highlights the practical challenges Neanderthals would have faced in their everyday food processing activities.”

Once the dissection was complete, the researchers prepared the bones and analyzed them for distinctive marks caused by stone tools and fire, as well as identifying wear marks from flint tools.

The burn marks and tool marks were then compared to Neanderthal food remains found at the archaeological sites of Fighiera Brava and Oliveira in Portugal, where bird bones with burn marks and cut marks matched the team’s reconstruction, Navaís said.

“Our experimental studies demonstrate that flaked raw birds display characteristic cut marks, especially around tendons and joints, while roasted birds display burn marks and increased brittleness leading to fractures,” she says. “These findings help distinguish between human-induced modifications and those caused by natural processes or other animals, such as trampling or the activity of rodents, raptors and carnivores.”

Neanderthals were skilled enough to capture and prepare small, fast-moving animals like birds, Navais said. “This study highlights the cognitive capabilities of Neanderthals and demonstrates their ability to capture and prepare small, fast-moving prey like birds, challenging previous ideas that they were incapable of such complex tasks.”

Sam Lin Researchers at the University of Wollongong in Australia say experimental archaeology is like reverse engineering, comparing what happens in modern samples with archaeological material to try to interpret what happened in the past.

In this case, one of the main findings is that cooked birds don’t require tools to prepare them for eating, which means some bones may not necessarily bear tool marks. “They learned that you just need to tear apart a cooked wild bird, just like we do when we eat barbecued chicken,” Lin said.

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Source: www.newscientist.com

It is possible that Neanderthal children had Down syndrome

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Reconstruction of a Neanderthal man at the Natural History Museum in Vienna, Austria

Neanderthal/Alamy Stock Photo

If the interpretation of the fossilized ear bones is correct, Neanderthal children with Down’s syndrome lived to at least the age of 6. The discovery adds to evidence that, far from being savage and heartless, Neanderthals routinely showed consideration for other members of their society, although researchers disagree about the extent to which children might have needed special attention.

“Neanderthals clearly cared about the people in their group, and this is a really great example of how much they cared.” Penny Spikins He is a researcher at the University of York in the UK, but was not involved in the study.

The Neanderthal fossils were found in the Cova Negra cave near the town of Xativa in eastern Spain, which has been excavated intermittently since the 1920s and reveals that Neanderthals lived there between 273,000 and 146,000 years ago.

Researchers cataloguing the animal remains at Cova Negra Mercedes Conde Valverde Researchers from the University of Alcala in Spain have identified a hominid bone fragment, which cannot be dated precisely because it was found in disturbed sediments, that includes part of the temporal bone at the side and base of the skull, as well as part of the inner ear.

Conde-Valverde and her colleagues used CT scans to create a 3D model of the bone, which allowed them to determine that it was from a Neanderthal, not a modern human: Judging by the state of bone development, the bone belonged to a child at least 6 years old, and possibly no older than 10.

The team found several peculiarities in the development of the inner ear, particularly in the three canals called the semicircular canals that are involved in hearing and balance. One of the canals was abnormally wide. The other connected to an adjacent chamber called the vestibular aqueduct, which is normally separate. What’s more, the cochlea, which is crucial for hearing, was particularly small.

According to Conde Valverde, this combination of characteristics is only seen in people with Down syndrome, a genetic condition in which people have three copies of chromosome 21 instead of the usual two. The condition can cause learning disabilities, hearing and balance problems, and distinctive facial features.

It has probably been around for as long as humans, according to a study of ancient DNA published in February. 6 cases of Down Syndrome They are found in babies and young children, and one of them dates back nearly 5,000 years.

The newly identified child would have needed more care than other Neanderthal children, Conde Valverde said — for example, attacks of dizziness, a symptom of Down syndrome, may have made it difficult for him to get from place to place.

“Maybe mothers need help,” she says, because the increased time required for childcare can take away from other important activities, like finding food, not just for mothers but also for fathers.

Conde Valverde says that other Neanderthals in the group would not have expected the child to be of practical help, so they must have cared for him out of pure compassion.

Sarah Turner A Down syndrome researcher at Concordia University in Montreal, Canada, believes this low expectation isn’t necessarily true: “People with Down syndrome contribute in many different ways to modern human societies,” she says, “and I’m sure that was true in Neanderthal societies as well.”

Neanderthal temporal bone fossil discovered in Cova Negra, Spain

Julia Diez Valero

“There’s a lot of diversity in what counts as a disability and how disabled people are treated in different relationships,” Turner says. “Compassion may be one motivating factor, but without knowing someone’s life and how they were treated and behaved, I don’t think you can say much about how and why they survived.”

Turner has previously studied wild primates. Can survive for a long time Even if they are born with a disability or developmental disorder. This includes: What is thought to be Down SyndromeThe mother survived as long as her older daughter had her help, but died after the daughter gave birth to a baby and was no longer able to help.

This new study: Neanderthal care and compassionFor example, Spikins says, an adult male Neanderthal found in Iraq’s Shanidar Cave had atrophied arms and damaged legs and was “probably deaf and blind in one eye. He lived 10 to 15 years after these injuries, so “he must have been well cared for.”

Both Conde Valverde and Spikins reject the idea that caregiving was carried out in the hope that help would come when the children grew up.

“The idea of analytically thinking about whether someone is going to be productive comes from our society,” Spikins says. The reality is, we evolved to live in close-knit groups, The instinct to care for one another It was very important. People with Down syndrome “tend to be very loving and very outgoing,” she says, “and that’s very important in a small community like this.”

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Source: www.newscientist.com

The influence of ancient Neanderthal DNA on modern daily routines

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Recent research has revealed a link between Neanderthal genetics and the tendency of some modern humans to wake up early. The study traces back to the interbreeding of modern humans and Neanderthals in Eurasia and suggests that genetic variation in Neanderthals influences the circadian rhythms of modern human descendants. Credit: SciTechDaily.com

A new paper has been published in a magazine Genome biology and evolutionAccording to a paper published by Oxford University Press, genetic material from Neanderthal ancestors may have contributed to the tendency of some people today to be “early risers” – the type of people who find it easier to get up early and go to bed. I discovered that there is a possibility that

Human evolution and genetic adaptation

All anatomically modern humans trace their origins to Africa about 300,000 years ago, where environmental factors shaped many of their biological characteristics. About 70,000 years ago, the ancestors of modern Eurasian humans began migrating into Eurasia, where they encountered a variety of new environments, including high latitude regions with large seasonal fluctuations in sunlight and temperature.

But other hominins, such as Neanderthals and Denisovans, lived in Eurasia for more than 400,000 years. These archaic humans diverged from modern humans about 700,000 years ago, and as a result, our ancestors and archaic humans evolved under different environmental conditions. This led to the accumulation of strain-specific genetic variation and phenotypes. When humans came to Eurasia, they interbred with archaic humans from the continent. This created the possibility for humans to acquire genetic variations already adapted to these new environments.

Genes of ancient humans and characteristics of modern humans

Although previous studies have shown that many of the archaic ancestors of modern humans are not beneficial and have been removed by natural selection, some archaic hominin variants that remain in human populations has shown evidence of adaptation. For example, archaic genetic variation is thought to be associated with differences in hemoglobin levels, immune resistance to new pathogens, levels of skin pigmentation, and fat composition among Tibetans at high altitudes.

Changes in patterns and levels of light exposure have biological and behavioral effects that lead to evolutionary adaptations. Scientists have extensively studied the evolution of circadian adaptations in insects, plants, and fish, but humans have been less well studied. The Eurasian environment where Neanderthals and Denisovans lived for hundreds of thousands of years is located at higher latitudes and has more variable daylight hours than where modern humans evolved before leaving Africa. So the researchers investigated whether there was genetic evidence for differences in circadian clocks between Neanderthals and modern humans.

Research methods and findings

The researchers defined a set of 246 circadian genes using a combination of literature searches and expert knowledge. They found hundreds of genetic variations unique to each strain that can affect genes involved in the circadian clock. Using artificial intelligence techniques, they identified 28 circadian genes that contain mutations that could alter splicing in archaic humans and that may be differentially regulated between modern and archaic humans. identified 16 circadian genes.

This indicates that there may be functional differences between the circadian clocks of ancient and modern humans. Eurasian modern humans and Neanderthal ancestors interbred, so some humans may have acquired circadian variation from Neanderthals.

To test this, the researchers studied a large population of hundreds of thousands of people in the UK Biobank and found that introgressed genetic mutations (mutations that passed from Neanderthals to modern humans) could affect wakefulness and sleep. We investigated whether there is a relationship with physical preference for. They discovered a number of introgressed mutants that affected sleep preferences, and most surprisingly, they found that these mutants consistently increased morningness, or the tendency to rise early. This suggests a directional influence on this trait and is consistent with adaptations to high latitudes observed in other animals.

Increased morning time in humans is associated with a shortened circadian clock period. This may be beneficial at high latitudes, as it has been shown that sleep and wakefulness can be coordinated more quickly with external timing cues. Shortening of the circadian period is required to synchronize with the long summer light period at high latitudes in Drosophila, and selection for a shorter circadian period results in the latitudinal period decreasing with increasing latitude in natural Drosophila populations. There is a latitudinal gradient in which the

Therefore, the bias toward morningness in introgressed mutants may indicate selection for shortened circadian periods in populations living at high latitudes. The tendency to be a morning person may have been evolutionarily beneficial to our ancestors who lived in the high latitudes of Europe, and would have been a Neanderthal genetic trait worth preserving.

“By combining ancient times, DNA“After extensive genetic and artificial intelligence research in modern humans, we discovered substantial genetic differences in the circadian systems of Neanderthals and modern humans,” said John, lead author of the paper.・A. Capra said.

“And by analyzing Neanderthal DNA fragments that remain in the genomes of modern humans, we discovered surprising trends, many of which affect the regulation of circadian genes in modern humans. These effects are primarily in the consistent direction of increasing Neanderthal tendencies.” Morning people. This change is consistent with the effects of living at high latitudes on animals’ circadian clocks, which may allow them to adjust more quickly to changing seasonal light patterns.

“Our next steps include applying these analyzes to more diverse modern human populations and investigating the effects of the Neanderthal variants we identified on circadian clocks in model systems. and applying similar analyzes to other potentially adaptive traits.”

Reference: “Archaic Introgression Shaped Human Circadian Traits” by Keila Velazquez-Arcelay, Laura L Colbran, Evonne McArthur, Colin M Brand, David C Rinker, Justin K Siemann, Douglas G McMahon, John A Capra, December 14, 2023 , Genome biology and evolution.
DOI: 10.1093/gbe/evad203

Source: scitechdaily.com

“Study suggests Neanderthal DNA might be linked to being a morning person” – UK Researchers

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Have you ever wondered why your partner stays awake with a lark while you doze happily until noon?

According to new research, it could be thanks to Neanderthal genes.

The origins of modern humans can be traced back to Africa 300,000 years ago, but as these ancestors migrated north, they interbred with Neanderthals, and traces of their DNA can still be seen in people today. .

The study’s lead author, John Capra, an epidemiologist at the University of California, San Francisco, said scientists who compared ancient DNA to modern human genetics found “remarkable trends.”

They found that many of the remaining Neanderthal genes influence our body clocks and “increase our tendency to be morning people.”

Neanderthals lived at higher latitudes and farther from the equator than our African ancestors, experiencing longer days in the summer and shorter days in the winter.

Genes that make people wake up earlier “are likely able to adjust their circadian clocks more quickly to changing seasonal light patterns,” Dr. Capra said, which is why Neanderthals maximized daylight hours for hunting. He was able to utilize it to a limited extent.

Scientists have previously investigated how the circadian rhythms of insects, plants and fish have evolved with latitude. However, it has not been well studied in humans.

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Researchers wanted to see if there was a genetic reason for the differences in circadian rhythms between Neanderthals and modern humans, and found 16 mutations associated with greater “morningness”, or the tendency to rise early. .

They reasoned that because Neanderthals interbred with the ancestors of modern humans, modern humans may have inherited Neanderthal “circadian mutations.”

To test this, scientists analyzed the genes of hundreds of thousands of people in the UK Biobank and discovered a number of mutations that affect sleep preferences.

“Most surprisingly, we found that these mutants consistently increased morningness,” the researchers said.

This is consistent with what has been found in other animals that adapted to life at high latitudes, such as Neanderthals.

The study was published in Genome Biology and Evolution.

Source: news.sky.com