A groundbreaking study by paleontologists at the Field Museum of Natural History reveals that Archeopteryx, the oldest known bird, has a feeding mechanism intricately shaped by the demands of early flight. This discovery implies a simultaneous evolution of diet and aerodynamics during the early history of birds. For detailed insights, check the full report, coming this week in Innovation.
Reconstruction of Archeopteryx, highlighting features such as an oral papilla, a beak tip organ, and a flexible tongue supported by an extra lingual bone. Image credit: Vir Shinkonen.
Flying demands a significant amount of energy compared to walking, swimming, or running, making it one of the most physically taxing forms of exercise. Birds have therefore evolved specialized strategies for efficient food intake and digestion.
Archeopteryx, the oldest known bird-like dinosaur, inhabited regions of present-day Germany around 150 million years ago during the Jurassic period.
Dr. Jingmai O’Connor, associate curator of fossil reptiles at the Field Museum, states, “For a long time, the characteristics defining the transition from land-based dinosaurs to avian dinosaurs were poorly understood.”
Dr. O’Connor notes, “The unique features found in Archeopteryx that are also present in modern birds provide new criteria for determining avian characteristics in dinosaur fossils.”
This research focused on the latest Archeopteryx specimen from Chicago, enhancing our scientific understanding of this ancient bird.
The team compared the preserved tissues of Archeopteryx to the oral papillae of contemporary birds, leading to the significant finding that they identified the first example of an oral papilla in Archeopteryx, as well as the first in the fossil record.
Additionally, the study uncovered several previously unseen features within the skull of Archeopteryx.
A small bone fragment, identified as a tongue bone, was discovered. While human tongues lack bones, many birds possess a series of bones that structure their tongues, allowing for greater flexibility and food manipulation.
“This tiny bone is one of the smallest in the body, yet it indicates that Archeopteryx had a highly mobile tongue, similar to many modern birds,” said Dr. O’Connor.
CT scans also revealed small tunnels at the tip of Archeopteryx’s beak, indicating the presence of nerve traces. Many birds possess a beak tip organ, a sensitive feature at the end of the beak that aids in food foraging.
These findings collectively suggest that Archeopteryx utilized oral papillae, lingual bones, and beak tip organs to develop advanced feeding mechanisms, reflecting their adaptive strategies for survival in flight.
“Our results indicate a significant transformation in feeding strategies as dinosaurs took to the air to meet the high-energy demands of flight,” Dr. O’Connor added.
“Birds possess incredibly efficient digestive systems, designed to maximize the energy extracted from food—a process that begins right in the mouth.”
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Jimmai K. O’Connor et al. 2026. Characteristics of Archeopteryx‘s feeding apparatus reveal the growing demands of flight. Innovation 7(2):101086; doi: 10.1016/j.xinn.2025.101086
Homo sapiens and Neanderthals likely interbred across a vast region, extending from Western Europe to Asia.
Modern humans (Homo sapiens) and Neanderthals (Homo neanderthalensis) exhibited mixed ancestry, with most non-Africans today possessing Neanderthal DNA, approximating 2% of their genome. Neanderthals also engaged in interbreeding, leading to a lineage shift in the Y chromosome influenced by Homo sapiens.
Despite increasing knowledge about the timing of this hybridization, the specific regions and scales of these interactions long remained a mystery. Ancestors of Neanderthals departed Africa around 600,000 years ago, migrating toward Europe and Western Asia. The first evidence of Homo sapiens moving from Africa includes skeletal remains from sites in modern-day Israel and Greece, dating to approximately 200,000 years ago.
Evidence suggests that Homo sapiens contributed genetically to the Neanderthal population in the Altai Mountains around 100,000 years ago. However, the primary wave of migration from Africa occurred over 60,000 years ago. Recent studies utilizing ancient genomic data indicate that significant gene flow between Homo sapiens and Neanderthals began around 50,000 years ago, with findings documented in studies of 4000 and 7000 gene transfers.
This interaction is thought to have primarily taken place in the eastern Mediterranean, although pinpointing the exact locations remains challenging.
To investigate, Matthias Karat and his team from the University of Geneva analyzed 4,147 ancient genetic samples from over 1,200 locations, with the oldest dating back approximately 44,000 years. They studied the frequency of genetic mutations (introgression alleles) originating from Neanderthal DNA that were passed down through hybridization.
“Our objective was to use Neanderthal DNA integration patterns in ancient human genomes to determine the sites of hybridization,” Carlat explains.
Findings revealed that the proportion of transferred DNA increased gradually as one moved away from the eastern Mediterranean region, plateauing approximately 3,900 kilometers westward into Europe and eastward into Asia.
“We were surprised to identify a distinct pattern of increasing introgression rates in the human genome, likely linked to human expansion from Africa,” Carlat notes. “This increase toward Europe and East Asia allows us to estimate the parameters of this hybrid zone.”
Computer simulations showed a hybrid zone potentially spanning much of Europe and the eastern Mediterranean, extending into western Asia.
Interbreeding Zone between Neanderthals and Homo sapiens
Lionel N. Di Santo et al. 2026
“Our findings suggest a continuous series of interbreeding events across both space and time,” notes Carlat. “However, the specifics of mating occurrences in this hybrid zone remain unknown.”
This hybrid zone encompasses nearly all known Neanderthal remains found across Western Eurasia, with the exception of the Altai region.
“The extensive geographical breadth of the putative hybrid zone suggests widespread interactions among populations,” states Leonard Yasi from the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology in Leipzig, Germany.
Notably, the Atlantic periphery—including western France and much of the Iberian Peninsula—was not part of the hybrid zone, despite the established presence of Neanderthals in these regions. Currat suggests that interbreeding may not have occurred here or may not be reflected in the analyzed genetic samples.
“This study reveals ongoing interactions between modern humans and Neanderthals over extensive geographical areas and extended periods,” adds Yasi. The hybrid zone may extend further, though limited ancient DNA sampling in regions like the Arabian Peninsula complicates assessment of its reach.
“This pivotal research challenges the notion that interbreeding occurred only in one area of West Asia with a singular Neanderthal population (not represented in existing genetic samples). Homo sapiens appear to have dispersed from Africa in increasing numbers across expanding territories, likely outcompeting smaller Neanderthal groups they encountered throughout most of the recognized Neanderthal range,” comments Chris Stringer from the Natural History Museum in London.
Technological advancements in Africa and Western Europe during the late Middle Pleistocene highlight the intricate behaviors of hominin groups. Contrarily, East Asian human technology has long been perceived as lacking innovation. Recent archaeological findings at the Xigou site in Henan province, China, reveal remarkable evidence of technological innovations dating back between 160,000 and 72,000 years, illustrating over 90,000 years of sophisticated technological behavior through detailed technological, typological, and functional analyses.
Artist’s restoration of the Nishimizo utensil holder. Image credit: Hulk Yuan, IVPP.
“For decades, researchers have posited that, while Africa and Western Europe exhibited significant technological growth, East Asians relied on simpler and more traditional stone tool techniques,” noted Dr. Shisia Yang from the Institute of Vertebrate Paleontology and Paleoanthropology.
In recent findings, Dr. Yang and colleagues reveal that, during a time when numerous large-brained hominins coexisted in China, the hominins in this region displayed far greater inventiveness and adaptability than previously assumed, including species such as Homolonghi, Homo juruensis, and potentially Homo sapiens.
“The discovery at Xigou challenges the notion that early human populations in China were inherently conservative over time,” emphasized Professor Michael Petraglia from Griffith University.
“In-depth analyses indicate that the early inhabitants utilized advanced stone tool-making techniques to create small flakes and multifunctional tools,” he added.
Notably, the site revealed handled stone tools, marking the earliest known evidence of composite tools in East Asia.
These tools, which integrated stone components with handles and shafts, demonstrate exceptional planning, skilled craftsmanship, and knowledge of how to enhance tool functionality.
“Their existence underscores the behavioral flexibility and ingenuity of the Nishigou hominids,” Dr. Jiang Ping Yue, also affiliated with the Institute of Vertebrate Paleontology and Paleoanthropology, remarked.
The geological formations at Xigou, spanning 90,000 years, align with accumulating evidence of increasing hominin diversity across China.
Findings from Xujiaba and Lingjing confirm the presence of a large-brained hominin, Homo juruensis, providing a biological foundation for the behavioral complexity observed in the Xigou population.
“The advanced technological strategies evidenced in the stone tools likely played a crucial role in aiding humans to adapt to the fluctuating environments typical of East Asia over 90,000 years,” stated Professor Petraglia.
The discoveries at Xigou have transformed our understanding of human evolution in East Asia, revealing that early populations possessed cognitive and technological competencies comparable to their African and European counterparts.
“Emerging evidence from Xigou and other archaeological sites indicates that early Chinese technology featured prepared core methods, innovative retouching techniques, and substantial cutting tools, suggesting a more intricate and advanced technological landscape than previously acknowledged,” Dr. Yang concluded.
The research team’s paper is published in the latest edition of Nature Communications.
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JP. Yue et al. 2026. Technological Innovation and Patterned Technology in Central China from Approximately 160,000 to 72,000 Years Ago. Nat Commun 17,615; doi: 10.1038/s41467-025-67601-y
A groundbreaking study conducted by paleontologists from the University of Bristol, the University of Manchester, and the University of Melbourne has uncovered that the giant ancestors of modern kangaroos possessed robust hindlimb bony and tendon structures, enabling them to endure the stress of jumping. This challenges the previous assumption that body size strictly limited this iconic locomotion.
Currently, red kangaroos represent the largest living jumping animals, averaging a weight of approximately 90 kg.
However, during the Ice Age, some kangaroo species reached weights exceeding 250 kg—more than double the size of today’s largest kangaroos.
Historically, researchers speculated that these giant kangaroos must have ceased hopping, as early studies indicated that jumping became mechanically impractical beyond 150 kg.
“Earlier estimates relied on simplistic models of modern kangaroos, overlooking critical anatomical variations,” explained Dr. Megan Jones, a postgraduate researcher at the University of Manchester and the University of Melbourne.
“Our research indicates that these ancient animals weren’t simply larger versions of today’s kangaroos; their anatomy was specifically adapted to support their massive size.”
In this new study, Dr. Jones and her team examined the hind limbs of 94 modern and 40 fossil specimens from 63 species, including members of the extinct giant kangaroo group, Protemnodon, which thrived during the Pleistocene epoch, approximately 2.6 million to 11,700 years ago.
The researchers assessed body weight estimates and analyzed the fourth metatarsal length and diameter (a crucial elongated foot bone for jumping in modern kangaroos) to evaluate its capacity to endure jumping stresses.
Comparisons were drawn between the heel bone structures of giant kangaroos and their modern counterparts.
The team estimated the strength of tendons necessary for the jumping force of a giant kangaroo and determined whether the heel bones could accommodate such tendons.
The findings suggest that the metatarsals of all giant kangaroos were adequate to withstand jumping pressures, and the heel bones were sufficiently large to support the width of the required jump tendons.
These results imply that all giant kangaroo species had the physical capability to jump.
Nevertheless, the researchers caution that giant kangaroos likely did not rely solely on hopping for locomotion, given their large body sizes, which would hinder long-distance movement.
They highlight that sporadic hopping is observed in many smaller species today, such as hopping rodents and smaller marsupials.
Some giant kangaroo species may have used short, quick jumps to evade predators. Thylacoleo.
“Thicker tendons offer increased safety but store less elastic energy,” said Dr. Katrina Jones, a researcher at the University of Bristol.
“This trait may have rendered giant kangaroo hoppers slower and less efficient, making them more suited for short distances rather than extensive travel.”
“Even so, hopping doesn’t need to be maximally energy-efficient to be advantageous. These animals likely leveraged their hopping ability to rapidly navigate uneven terrain or evade threats.”
University of Manchester researcher Dr. Robert Nudds remarks: “Our findings enhance the understanding that prehistoric Australian kangaroos exhibited greater ecological diversity than seen today, with some large species functioning as herbivores, akin to modern kangaroos, while others filled ecological niches as browsers, a category absent among today’s large kangaroos.”
For more details, refer to the study results published in the journal Scientific Reports.
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M.E. Jones et al. 2026. Biomechanical Limits of Hindlimb Hopping in Extinct Giant Kangaroos. Scientific Reports 16/1309. doi: 10.1038/s41598-025-29939-7
Teens in Trial to Limit Social Media Use: A Shift Towards Real-life Interaction
Daniel de la Hoz/Getty Images
A groundbreaking study is exploring the effects of reduced social media usage on teens’ mental health and well-being. While results are not expected until mid-2027, ongoing discussions suggest that some governments might institute bans on social media for teenagers before the outcomes are known.
The merit of such a ban is still up for debate in the courts. Despite limited evidence, Australia has introduced regulations for minors under 16, and the UK government is considering similar measures.
This trial prioritizes young people’s voices by involving them in the planning process. Historically, children and adolescents have been excluded from critical discussions concerning social media design and management.
“Involving kids is crucial,” states Pete Etchells from Bath Spa University, UK, who is not directly involved in the study.
“There is ample evidence pointing to the potential harms of social media on young users, some of which can be severe,” notes Amy Orben, co-leader of the trial, emphasizing the uncertainty regarding the broader impact of social media time.
To obtain clearer answers, large-scale studies are necessary. The IRL trial takes place in Bradford, England, aiming to recruit around 4,000 participants aged 12 to 15 across 10 schools. A bespoke app will be used to monitor social media engagement.
Half of the participants will face specific time limits on certain apps like TikTok, Instagram, and YouTube, with no restrictions on messaging apps like WhatsApp. “Total usage will be capped at one hour a day, with a curfew from 9 PM to 7 AM,” explains Dan Lewar from the Bradford Health Data Science Center, who co-leads the trial. This is significant, considering that the average social media usage for this age group is about three hours daily.
Importantly, participants will be randomized by grade level, allowing 8th graders to serve as the control group while 9th graders undergo restrictions. The aim is to create similar circumstances for both groups. “If a child’s social media is restricted, but their friends are active online post-curfew, they may feel excluded,” Orben explains.
Lewar emphasizes that the trial was designed collaboratively with teens. “They opposed a blanket ban,” he notes.
The comprehensive study will span six weeks around October, with preliminary results anticipated in mid-2027.
Orben emphasizes that this trial will yield more precise data on teenage social media habits through app monitoring rather than relying on self-reported information. The team will also gather data on anxiety, sleep quality, socializing, happiness, body image, school absenteeism, and experiences of bullying.
Etchells asserts the necessity of understanding whether restrictions or bans are beneficial or detrimental to youth. “The honest answer is we don’t know. That’s why research like this is critical.”
This initiative is welcomed due to the absence of high-quality studies in this area. A recent report from the UK Department for Science, Innovation, and Technology highlighted the need for quality causal evidence linking young people’s mental health to digital technology use, especially concerning social media, smartphones, and AI chatbots.
As stated by Margarita Panayiotou from the University of Manchester, engaging with youth is essential in social media research. Her findings show that teens often find ways to circumvent outright bans, making testing restrictions a more viable option. This approach may also be more ethical, as the harm caused by a ban is not yet understood.
“Teens view social media as a space for self-discovery,” says Panayiotou, highlighting concerns about platform distrust, feelings of loss of control, and unintentional overuse. They also report struggles with online judgment, body comparisons, and cyberbullying.
According to Etchells and Panayiotou, the primary challenge for governments is to compel tech companies to ensure safer social media environments for youth.
The Online Safety Act 2023 (OSA) mandates that technology firms like TikTok, Facebook, WhatsApp, and Instagram (owned by Meta), as well as Google (which owns YouTube), enhance user safety. “Effective enforcement of OSA could address many existing issues,” asserts Etchells.
Mars’ geological features reveal that the planet once hosted rivers and extensive coastlines, indicating it may have had vast oceans in its history. This discovery offers the most substantial evidence yet of Mars’ once vibrant blue landscape.
According to Ezzat Heidari, a geochemist at Jackson State University in Mississippi (who was not part of the study), “The existence of liquid water on Mars encompasses a wide array of topics including rain, rivers, lakes, and oceans.” In his view, this research highlights a significant factor: the ocean.
The research team, featuring planetary geologists like Ignatius Indy and geoscientists such as Fritz Schlunegger from the University of Bern, made groundbreaking discoveries using data from numerous spacecraft. This includes NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter and the European Space Agency’s Mars Express and ExoMars Trace Gas Orbiter. The ExoMars spacecraft, equipped with a specialized Bernese Mars camera, has been instrumental in capturing high-resolution color images, which were crucial for this research.
“These sophisticated images help us identify subtle variations in surface materials that are invisible in black and white images,” Indy explains. Combined with topographical data from other orbiters, these tools transform into a “geological time machine,” providing a clearer glimpse of Mars’ geological evolution.
To explore Mars’ potential ancient water sources, the researchers scrutinized Valles Marineris, an extensive canyon system over 4,000 kilometers long that runs along the planet’s equator. Their focus particularly emphasized the southeast area, Koprates Chasma, with its features dating back around 3.3 billion years.
By merging the new images with geomorphological analyses, the researchers identified structures indicative of river flow into oceans and the formation of alpine lakes at mountain bases—similar to Earth’s geography.
“The Nile Delta serves as a classic illustration,” Schlunegger notes. “If you were to drain the Mediterranean just past the end of the Nile, you’d observe features remarkably akin to those found on Mars,” he states.
Silty Deposits Left by Ancient Water on Mars
Algadestia et al. 2026, CaSSIS
The new data allowed scientists to trace the ancient coastline of Mars’ former ocean, estimating its size to be comparable to Earth’s Arctic Ocean. This could represent the largest ocean that ever existed on Mars.
“Our research indicates that approximately 3 billion years ago, Mars may have sustained significant bodies of surface water within Valles Marineris, the largest canyon in our solar system,” Indy remarked. “What’s even more intriguing is that these water bodies might have been linked to a much larger ocean that once spanned parts of Mars’ northern lowlands.”
While past research suggested the presence of water on Mars, much of the evidence was indirect. A notable study revealed Martian minerals that may have interacted with water long ago. Additional investigations have indicated that an ancient asteroid impact could have triggered a massive tsunami on the planet. Yet, acquiring conclusive data has remained a challenge.
The notion that Mars once harbored a vast ocean remains debated; as Michael Manga, a geoscientist from the University of California, Berkeley (who wasn’t involved in this study), points out, “Even if the ocean did exist, the geological record is far too ancient to be clear.”
This discovery raises fascinating possibilities for the search for extraterrestrial life and serves as a cautionary reminder that Earth’s crucial resources may also one day diminish.
“This paper addresses a question that is paramount to those researching Mars’ evolution,” Heidari said. “Martian oceans would have operated similarly to Earth’s oceans, playing a vital role in the planet’s health.”
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Ancient Humans Hunting Elephants—Evidence of Slaughtering Animals 1.8 Million Years Ago
Natural History Museum/Scientific Photography Library
Hunting an elephant is a formidable challenge, necessitating advanced tools and teamwork, offering an abundant source of protein.
A research team led by Manuel Dominguez-Rodrigo from Rice University in Texas suggests that ancient humans may have accomplished this feat approximately 1.78 million years ago in Tanzania’s Olduvai Gorge.
“Around 2 million years ago, our ancestors consistently consumed smaller game like gazelles and waterbucks but did not target larger prey,” says Dominguez-Rodrigo.
Later findings from Olduvai Gorge indicate a significant shift. This valley, abundant with both animal and human fossils formed over the past 2 million to 17,000 years, shows a marked increase in elephant and hippopotamus remains around 1.8 million years ago. However, establishing conclusive evidence of human involvement in hunting remains elusive.
In June 2022, Dominguez-Rodrigo and his team discovered what may be an ancient elephant slaughterhouse at Olduvai.
The site, dubbed the EAK site, revealed partial remains of an extinct elephant species, Elephas reki, surrounded by an array of stone tools that were much larger and sturdier than those utilized by hominins 2 million years ago. Dominguez-Rodrigo posits these tools were likely crafted by the ancient hominin Homo erectus.
“These include Pleistocene knives, known for their sharpness even today,” he notes, emphasizing their potential for butchering tasks.
Dominguez-Rodrigo and his colleagues believe these stone tools facilitated elephant slaughter. Some limb bones appear to have fractured shortly after the elephant’s demise, indicating the bones were still fresh or “green.” Unlike scavengers like hyenas that can strip meat, they can’t shatter the dense bone shafts of mature elephants.
“We discovered numerous bones in the field with fresh fractures, pointing to human use of hammer stones for processing,” he states. “These ‘green’ fractured bones are widespread in the 1.7-million-year-old landscape and bear distinct impact marks.”
However, there is a scarcity of cut marks on bones, which typically indicate butchering practices to extract meat.
It remains uncertain whether humans actively hunted the elephants or merely scavenged existing carcasses.
“What we can confirm is that they disassembled the bones—or portions of them—leaving behind tools and bones as evidence,” affirms Dominguez-Rodrigo.
He adds that the transition to hunting elephants wasn’t merely due to advancements in stone tools, but also hinted at an increase in social structure and cultural development among hominin groups.
However, Michael Pante, a researcher at Colorado State University, remains skeptical of the findings.
Pante contends that the evidence for human exploitation of this individual elephant is weak. The interpretation relies heavily on the proximity of stone tools and elephant remains, as well as the inferred fractures created by human attempts to access bone marrow.
Pante asserts that the earliest definitive evidence of hippo, giraffe, and elephant hunting in Olduvai dates back to around 80,000 years ago, as shown in the research of the 1.7-million-year-old HWK EE site.
“In contrast to the EAK site, the bones at HWK EE exhibit cut marks and are associated with thousands of other bones and artifacts within an archaeological context,” he explains.
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For over 20 years, Sahelanthropus tchadensis, one of the earliest hominid species (dating back 6.7 to 7.2 million years), was discovered in Chad in 2001. This species is central to a heated debate: Did our earliest ancestors walk upright? A groundbreaking study by paleoanthropologists at New York University provides compelling evidence supporting this notion. The research indicates that Sahelanthropus tchadensis, an ape-like ancestor from Africa, showcases some of the earliest adaptations for bipedal terrestrial locomotion.
Reconstruction of Sahelanthropus tchadensis. Image credit: University of Silesia.
According to New York University, “Sahelanthropus tchadensis was essentially a bipedal ape with a brain size similar to that of a chimpanzee, likely spending considerable time foraging and finding safety in trees,” as noted by Dr. Scott Williams.
“Despite its ape-like appearance, Sahelanthropus tchadensis demonstrated adaptations for bipedal posture and movement on land,” Dr. Williams added.
The team focused on the femur and two partial forearm bones found at the Toros Menara site in Chad. Previous research had asserted that these bones were too ape-like to indicate upright walking; however, this latest study utilizes 3D shape modeling and anatomical analysis tailored to human locomotion.
“These characteristics suggest a similarity in hip and knee function between Sahelanthropus tchadensis and modern humans, possibly representing fundamental adaptations toward bipedalism in the human lineage,” the researchers concluded.
Although the external shape of the limb bones resembles that of chimpanzees, the proportions indicate a more human-like configuration.
The researchers found that the relationships between arm and leg lengths are comparable to modern bonobos and early human predecessors.
Notably, they discovered the femoral tubercle—a bony structure on the femur crucial for attaching the iliofemoral ligament, which stabilizes the human hip joint—unique to hominids.
Additionally, the femur exhibited significant internal torsion known as front twist (medial torsion of the femoral shaft), a feature linked to aligning the knee with the body’s center of gravity during walking, distinctly present in hominids compared to extant apes and extinct Miocene species.
These findings challenge long-held beliefs regarding the timeline and mechanics of upright walking evolution.
Scientists propose that bipedalism emerged gradually rather than as a sudden change. “We consider the evolution of bipedalism as an ongoing process,” researchers stated.
“Sahelanthropus tchadensis could represent an early form of habitual bipedalism.”
“In addition to terrestrial bipedalism, Sahelanthropus tchadensis likely engaged in various arboreal activities, including vertical climbing, forelimb suspension from branches, and both arboreal quadrupedal and bipedal locomotion.”
The study interprets this fossil as evidence of early human evolution from an ape-like ancestor, asserting that chimpanzee-like species are positioned near the root of the human family tree.
“Our analysis reveals that Sahelanthropus tchadensis demonstrates an early adaptation for bipedalism, suggesting that this trait evolved early in our lineage from ancestors closely related to present-day chimpanzees and bonobos,” Dr. Williams stated.
For further details, refer to the study published in this month’s issue of Scientific Advances.
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Scott A. Williams et al., 2026. The Earliest Evidence of Bipedalism in Humans: Sahelanthropus tchadensis. Scientific Advances 12(1); doi: 10.1126/sciadv.adv0130
In a newly published paper in this month’s iScience, researchers from the University of Tübingen and their collaborators present an interdisciplinary study of ancient stone and bone projectile points associated with Homo sapiens from the Lower Paleolithic era (40,000 to 35,000 years ago). This comprehensive research uses a blend of experimental ballistics, detailed measurements, and use-wear analysis, revealing that some of these prehistoric artifacts correspond not just to hand-thrown spears and javelin darts but also potentially to bow-propelled arrows.
Evidence suggests early humans may have used bows, arrows, and spear throwers in the Upper Paleolithic period. Image credit: sjs.org / CC BY-SA 3.0.
For decades, it was commonly believed that weapon technology evolved linearly, transitioning from hand-held spears to spear-throwing and eventually to bows and arrows.
However, lead researcher Keiko Kitagawa and her team at the University of Tübingen challenge this notion, arguing for a more complex evolution of weapon technology.
“Direct evidence of hunting weapons is rarely identified in the archaeological record,” they noted.
“Prehistoric hunting weapons encompassed a range from hand-held thrusting spears ideal for close-range hunting, to javelins and bow-headed arrows suitable for medium to long-range engagements.”
“The earliest known instances of such tools include wooden spears and throwing sticks, dating back 337,000 to 300,000 years in Europe.”
“Spear-throwing hooks first appeared during the Upper Solutrean period (around 24,500 to 21,000 years ago), gaining prominence in the Magdalenian culture of southwestern France (approximately 21,000 years ago), with nearly 100 specimens documented.”
Bows and arrows, however, have only surfaced from well-preserved sites like Mannheim-Vogelstang and Stermol in Germany, dated to about 12,000 years, and Lilla Roschulz-Mosse in Sweden, approximately 8,500 years, indicating they are significantly younger than other projectile technology.
Comparison of archaeological specimens from the Aurignac site with experimental examples from Vogelherd, Istritz, and Manot. Image credit: Kitagawa et al., doi: 10.1016/j.isci.2025.114270.
The authors propose that early modern humans may have concurrently experimented with various projectile technologies, adapting to diverse ecosystems and prey types.
The analysis reveals that the damage patterns on these ancient projectile points corresponded with what is expected from arrows shot from bows, as well as from spears and darts.
“We emphasize Upper Paleolithic bony projectiles, including split bases and megabases made from antler and bone, predominantly discovered in Aurignacian environments in Europe and the Levant, between 40,000 and 33,000 years ago,” the researchers explained.
“Our goal is to determine if the wear patterns and morphometry can identify the types of weapons associated with Aurignacian bone projectile tips.”
This discovery aligns with previous archaeological findings indicating that bows and arrows were utilized in Africa as far back as 54,000 years ago, predating earlier estimates and some of Europe’s archaeological record.
Importantly, the researchers do not assert that Homo sapiens invented the bow simultaneously across all regions, nor do they claim the bow was the only weapon used.
Instead, their findings suggest a rich technological diversity during the initial phases of human migration into new territories.
“Our study highlights the intricate nature of reconstructing launch technologies, which are often made from perishable materials,” the researchers stated.
“While it is impossible to account for all variables affecting the properties of the armature and resulting wear, we aspire to implement future experimental programs aimed at deepening our understanding of the projectiles that form a crucial component of hunter-gatherer economies.”
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Keiko Kitagawa et al. suggest that Homo sapiens may have utilized bows and arrows for hunting as early as the Upper Paleolithic period in Eurasia. iScience published online on December 18, 2025. doi: 10.1016/j.isci.2025.114270
NASA’s Perseverance Rover: Pioneering Exploration for Past Life on Mars
Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech
On the surface of Mars, minute details provide critical insights into the planet’s past. In 2025, new findings will shed light on possible microbial life that may have once thrived.
NASA’s Perseverance rover has gathered samples indicating the potential for ancient life. Specifically, it uncovered a rock featuring tiny specks, known as “leopard spots,” encircled by a distinctive dark ring. These geological features resemble those associated with microbial fossils on Earth.
This year, Joel Hurowitz and his team at Stony Brook University conducted a detailed analysis of the leopard spots and identified forms of iron and sulfur commonly linked to microbial activity. “This evidence is more promising than anything I’ve encountered in the last two decades,” stated Hannah Sizemore from the Planetary Science Institute in Arizona.
Previous indications of potential life on Mars included unexpected changes in methane levels and fossil-like structures in Martian meteorites. “I am more excited about these discoveries compared to earlier findings,” Sizemore added, emphasizing that the previous data lacked the correct physical scale for microbial evidence. In contrast, the leopard spots on Mars could directly indicate microbial activity.
The Perseverance rover has also detected other potential biosignatures, such as a small greenish mineral blob typically associated with microbial life on Earth. “Life on Mars is subtle. It’s not like seeing herds of wildlife,” remarked Andrew Steele, who was instrumental in formulating the rover’s scientific objectives. “Identifying signs of life will require the best technology we have available.”
Perseverance Rover Reveals Mars Rocks with Unique ‘Leopard Spots’
Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/MSSS
Equipped with advanced scientific tools, Perseverance is crucial for identifying whether these Martian rocks exhibit signs of ancient life. The mission involves caching samples for a future retrieval back to Earth for comprehensive testing.
“These samples could provide decisive evidence regarding the existence of life on Mars,” Steele remarked. “However, before we can confirm this, we need to return the samples to our laboratories.”
Unfortunately, the prospect of retrieving these samples is growing uncertain. The 2026 NASA budget proposal under the Trump administration raises concerns about the Mars Sample Return Project’s viability. If approved, it would eliminate plans to recover the meticulously gathered samples from Perseverance.
It’s possible that evidence of past life on Mars has already been discovered, yet we may never fully understand it. “While we are making strides, the understanding of Mars’ habitability remains fluid,” Sizemore said. “We’re on the edge of a potential breakthrough. However, we can neither ignore it nor prove it without further missions.”
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A New Discovery: Gas Balls with Black Holes at Their Centers
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The early universe is rich with enigmatic star-like gas balls powered by central black holes, a discovery that has astounded astronomers and may clarify some of the most significant mysteries unveiled by the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST).
Upon initiating its observations of the universe’s first billion years, JWST uncovered compact, red galaxies that exhibited extraordinary brightness—galaxies unlike those found in our local universe. Previous interpretations suggested that these “small red dots” (LRDs) were either supermassive black holes engulfed in dust or densely packed star galaxies; however, these theories inadequately explained the light signals detected by JWST.
Recently, astronomers suggested that LRDs might actually be dense gas clusters with a black hole at their core, termed “black hole stars.” According to Anna de Graaf from Harvard University, as matter falls into a black hole, it emits immense gravitational energy, causing the surrounding gas to radiate light like stars. While this energy is distinct from nuclear fusion typical in stars, it results in a luminous mass of dense gas potentially billions of times brighter than our sun, according to de Graaf.
Despite some early evidence supporting this idea, a consensus remained elusive. Now, de Graaf and colleagues have reviewed the most extensive sample of LRDs since JWST’s launch, encompassing over 100 galaxies, and propose that these entities are best classified as black hole stars. “Although the term black hole star is still debated, there’s growing agreement within the scientific community that we’re observing accreting black holes enveloped by dense gas,” de Graaf noted.
When examining the spectrum of light emitted by an LRD, the observed patterns more closely resemble those from a uniform surface (blackbody) characteristic of stars, contrasting with the intricate and varied spectra from galaxies emitting light produced by a combination of stars, dust, gas, and central black holes.
“The black hole star concept has intrigued scientists for a while and, despite initial skepticism, is proving to be a viable explanation,” states Gillian Bellovary of the American Museum of Natural History. “Using a star-like model simplifies the framework for interpreting observations without necessitating extraordinary physics.”
In September, de Graaf’s team also identified another single LRD displaying a striking peak in the light frequency spectrum, which they dubbed “the cliff.” “We discovered spectral characteristics unexplainable by existing models,” de Graaf explained. “This pushes us to reevaluate our understanding and explore alternative theories.”
Presently, many astronomers agree that LRDs likely operate like vast star formations; however, de Graaf cautions that substantiating the black hole hypothesis presents challenges. “The core is hidden within a dense, optically thick envelope, obscuring what’s inside,” de Graaf explains. “Their brightness leads us to suspect they harbor black holes.”
A potential method to affirm their nature as black holes involves studying the temporal changes in emitted light, observing whether they fluctuate akin to known black holes in our universe, as noted by Western Hanki from Cambridge University. “We note brightness variances over brief intervals, yet there’s scant evidence of such variations in most LRD cases.”
While JWST’s observational timeframe is limited, scrutinizing long-lived light fluctuations from LRDs may yield insights. A new study by Sun Fengwu and his team at Harvard recently uncovered a gravitational lens, an LRD that bends light around a massive galaxy between us and the object. This lens generated four distinct images of the original LRD, mimicking observations over 130 years and suggesting brightness variations similar to known pulsating stars, aligning with the hypothesis of black hole stars. Sun and his team opted not to comment for this article.
Although utilizing gravitational lenses to observe LRDs at different times is clever, Bellovary notes that other factors might account for brightness changes. “The data may not suffice to validate their conclusion. While I’m not dismissing their claims, I think there may be alternative explanations for the observed variations.”
If it turns out these galaxies are indeed black hole stars, de Graaf warns we’ll need to devise a new model addressing their origin and what they evolve into, given the absence of equivalent systems in our local universe. “This could represent a new growth phase for supermassive black holes,” she concludes. “The nature of these events and their significance to the final mass of black holes remains an open question.”
Explore the Mysteries of the Universe in Cheshire, England
Join leading scientists for an exciting weekend dedicated to uncovering the universe’s mysteries, including a tour of the iconic Lovell Telescope.
Bees exhibit an extraordinary range of species and behavior, from solitary types that nest in burrows to social variants that construct intricate nests. This nesting diversity is partially captured in the fossil record, with trace fossils dating from the Cretaceous to the Holocene. In a recent study, Field Museum paleontologist Lázaro Vignola López and his colleagues unveil novel nesting behaviors based on trace fossils unearthed from Late Quaternary cave deposits on the Caribbean island of Hispaniola. Osnidam Almontei was discovered within the cavity of a vertebrate corpse.
A reenactment of the life of bees with evidence of them building their nests in caves and using the bone cavities as housing chambers for several egg-laying cells. Image credit: Jorge Mario Macho.
“The initial descent into the cave isn’t very deep. You secure a rope to the side and rappel down,” Dr. Vignola López explained.
“Entering at night, you can spot the eyes of tarantulas residing there. As you navigate through the 10-meter-long underground tunnel, fossils start to emerge.”
Fossil layers were separated by carbonate deposits formed during rainy periods in antiquity.
Although rodents made up most of the fossils, remains of sloths, birds, and reptiles—over 50 species in total—were also found. Together, these fossils narrate a compelling story.
“We hypothesize this cave served as a home for owls over generations, potentially for hundreds or even thousands of years,” Dr. Vignola López remarked.
“The owl would venture out to hunt and return to the cave to regurgitate pellets.”
“We’ve collected fossils of the prey the owl consumed, its own remains, and even bones of turtles and crocodiles that may have inadvertently fallen into the cave.”
Dr. Vignola López and his colleagues observed that the sediments in empty tooth sockets of mammalian jaws didn’t accumulate randomly.
“The surface was notably smooth and slightly concave, which is unusual for sediment burial. I noticed this pattern across multiple specimens and thought to myself, ‘There’s something peculiar here.’ It reminded me of a hornet’s nest,” he noted.
Many well-known nests constructed by bees and wasps belong to social species that coexist in large colonies, raising their young together—like the bees in honeycombs or paper wasp nests.
“However, the majority of bee species are solitary. They deposit eggs in small cavities and leave pollen for their larvae’s nourishment,” Dr. Vignola López continued.
“Some bee species create nests in tree hollows, in the ground, or utilize vacant spaces. Certain species in Europe and Africa even nest within discarded snail shells.”
To investigate the possible insect nests within the cave fossils, the researchers conducted CT scans and X-rays of the bones, capturing 3D images of the compacted soil in the tooth sockets without damaging the fossils.
The shape and composition of the deposits bore similarities to mud nests created by some contemporary bee species. Some of these nests contained ancient pollen grains that mother bees had sealed for their larvae.
The researchers propose that bees combined saliva and soil to construct small nests for their eggs, smaller than the eraser on a pencil.
Nesting within larger animal bones provided protection for bee eggs from potential predators such as wasps.
While the bees themselves were not preserved, the unique characteristics of the nests allowed for a taxonomic classification.
They named the nests Osnidam Almontei, in honor of the scientist Juan Almonte Milan, who first discovered this cave.
“Since no bee remains were found, they may have belonged to a currently existing species. Our knowledge on the ecology of various bee species in these islands is limited,” Dr. Vignola López stated.
Scientists speculate that this behavior arises from a combination of factors. With little soil covering the limestone terrain in this region, bees may have opted for caves as their nesting sites, rather than digging into the ground like many other species.
Additionally, this cave had been home to generations of owls, with numerous owl pellets accumulating over the years, providing the bees with ample use of the bones the owls left behind.
“This finding illustrates the peculiarities of bees. They can be surprising, and it emphasizes the importance of meticulous examination when studying fossils,” Dr. Vignola López remarked.
of paper published today in Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences.
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Lazaro W. Vignola-Lopez and others. 2025. Fossil traces in mammal remains reveal a new nesting behavior for bees. R Soc Open Science 12(12):251748; doi: 10.1098/rsos.251748
Astronomers utilizing the NASA/ESA/CSA James Webb Space Telescope have identified the chemical signature of a protostar with a mass between 1,000 and 10,000 times that of the Sun in GS 3073, an early galaxy with a redshift of 5.55 (approximately 1 billion years post-Big Bang).
A primordial supermassive star in the early universe. Image credit: Gemini AI.
In 2022, it was suggested by astronomers that supermassive stars formed naturally within turbulent flows of rare cold gas during the early universe, thus accounting for the existence of quasars less than a billion years after the Big Bang.
“Our recent finding helps to unravel a cosmic enigma that has persisted for two decades,” stated Dr. Daniel Whalen of the University of Portsmouth.
“GS 3073 offers the first observational proof of these colossal stars.”
“These astronomical behemoths would have radiated intensely for a brief period before collapsing into enormous black holes, leaving behind chemical imprints detectable billions of years later.”
“Much like Earth’s dinosaurs, they were massive and rudimentary, with lifespans spanning just 250,000 years—an ephemeral moment in cosmic time.”
The cornerstone of this discovery involved assessing the nitrogen-to-oxygen ratio in the GS 3073 galaxy.
This galaxy presents a nitrogen-to-oxygen ratio of 0.46, significantly exceeding what can be accounted for by any known type of star or stellar explosion.
“Chemical abundances serve as the universe’s fingerprints, and the pattern from GS 3073 is unlike that produced by typical stars,” remarked Dr. Devesh Nandal, an astronomer at the University of Virginia, Harvard University, and the Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics.
“This unprecedented nitrogen concentration aligns with a single known source: protostars that are thousands of times more massive than the Sun.”
“This suggests that the first generation of stars included genuine supermassive objects that contributed to the creation of early galaxies and may have planted the seeds for contemporary supermassive black holes.”
The researchers performed modeling of stars with masses between 1,000 and 10,000 solar masses to predict their evolution and the elements they would produce.
They identified a specific mechanism for generating substantial nitrogen. (i) These colossal stars fuse helium, forming carbon in their cores. (ii) Carbon seeps into the outer shell, where hydrogen is undergoing fusion. (iii) Carbon merges with hydrogen, resulting in nitrogen through the carbon/nitrogen/oxygen (CNO) cycle. (iv) Convection disseminates nitrogen throughout the star. (v) Eventually, this nitrogen-rich material is expelled into space, enriching the surrounding gas.
This mechanism spans millions of years during the star’s helium burning phase, leading to the excess nitrogen observed in GS 3073.
The team’s models predict that upon demise, these massive stars do not explode. Instead, they collapse directly into gigantic black holes with masses reaching thousands of solar masses.
Interestingly, GS 3073 harbors an actively feeding black hole at its core, which could potentially be the remnant of one of these supermassive first stars.
If validated, this would simultaneously clarify two mysteries: the origin of nitrogen and the formation of black holes.
The study also revealed that this nitrogen signature is exclusive to specific mass ranges.
“Stars below 1,000 solar masses or above 10,000 solar masses do not generate chemical patterns suitable for this signature, indicating a ‘sweet spot’ for such enrichment,” scientists noted.
of study Published in Astrophysics Journal Letter.
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Devesh Nandal others. 2025. A protostar between 1000 and 10,000 MSun created a nitrogen surplus in GS 3073 at z = 5.55. APJL 994, L11; doi: 10.3847/2041-8213/ae1a63
Archaeologists have discovered a heated deposit that is 400,000 years old, along with a fire-cracked flint hatchet in Burnham, Suffolk, England, as well as two pieces of pyrite—a mineral historically used to create sparks from flint. This finding suggests that humans were capable of making fire approximately 350,000 years earlier than previously thought.
An artist’s impression of the Burnham fire some 400,000 years ago. Image credit: Craig Williams / British Museum Trustees.
The ability to start and control fire represents a significant milestone in human evolution. Fire provided essential warmth, protection from predators, and enabled cooking, thereby broadening the range of edible foods.
Evidence of fire in areas occupied by humans dates back over a million years.
Nonetheless, pinpointing when humans first learned to ignite fire remains challenging.
Fire likely began with early humans taking advantage of natural wildfires before they developed the skill to deliberately start their own fires.
Previously, indications of early fire use were found at Neanderthal locations in France dating back 50,000 years, where hand axes possibly used for striking pyrite to create sparks were discovered.
Recent findings by Professor Nick Ashton of the British Museum and the Institute of Archaeology at University College London, along with his team, indicate that fire-making might have been practiced at the Burnham site as far back as 400,000 years ago.
Archaeologists uncovered heated deposits in the ancient soil, along with a flint hatchet damaged by fire.
These indicators suggest that fires were maintained purposefully within human habitats, marking the third piece of evidence that fire-starting was intentional.
Two pyrite fragments were found at the site. Due to the mineral’s rarity in the area, researchers hypothesize that the pyrite may have been deliberately transported to the site for fire-starting purposes.
Together, these discoveries illustrate the sophisticated behaviors of early humans at the Burnham location.
For instance, these hominins may have comprehended the ignition properties of pyrite and incorporated it into their fire-starting techniques.
Mastering this skill would have offered numerous benefits, including cooking abilities and advancements in technology, such as the creation of adhesives for tools, potentially influencing significant developments in human behavior.
Professor Chris Stringer, a paleoanthropologist at the Natural History Museum in London, commented: “Based on the morphology of contemporary fossils from Swanscombe, Kent, and Atapuerca in Spain, we believe the individuals who ignited the Burnham fire 400,000 years ago were early Neanderthals, and early Neanderthal DNA has been preserved.”
“This represents the most astounding discovery of my career, and I take great pride in the collaborative effort that led to this groundbreaking conclusion,” said Professor Ashton.
“It’s astonishing that some of the oldest Neanderthal groups understood the characteristics of flint, pyrite, and tinder at such an early time.”
“The implications of this finding are immense,” stated Dr. Rob Davies, project curator at the British Museum.
“The capability to create and manage fire was one of the most crucial turning points in human history, offering practical and social advantages that significantly shaped human evolution.”
“This remarkable discovery shifts this pivotal moment back to about 350,000 years ago.”
The study detailing these findings is published in this paper in today’s edition of Nature.
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R. Davis et al. The earliest evidence of starting a fire. Nature, published online on December 10, 2025. doi: 10.1038/s41586-025-09855-6
Artistic representation of sparks from flint and pyrite
Craig Williams, Trustee of the British Museum
Approximately 400,000 years ago, Neanderthals or their ancestors in Britain struck flint with pyrite, repeatedly igniting fires in the same location. Archaeologists believe this is the earliest evidence of human fire-making discovered to date.
Early humans may have opportunistically utilized fire for around 1.5 million years, likely benefiting from naturally occurring fires caused by events like lightning strikes.
Starting around 400,000 years ago, signs of more extensive fire usage grew in Europe, yet direct evidence indicates that humans gained the ability to control fire only around 50,000 years ago.
Nick Ashton from The British Museum reported three crucial findings from the Burnham Quarry site in Suffolk: pyrite, charred deposits, and a heat-damaged hatchet.
Pyrite holds significant importance in humanity’s fire history, as striking it with flint can produce sparks capable of igniting dry materials. However, pyrite does not naturally occur near quarries, implying that early humans must have transported it. “Pyrite is crucial,” Ashton states.
Additionally, the reddish sediment left by these fires is vital, according to him. Combustion alters the iron minerals present in the deposits, consequently changing their magnetic characteristics. Laboratory tests indicate that the reddish clay layer may have experienced firing events more than a dozen times, suggesting that humans revisited and ignited fires in this area repeatedly.
Heating flint facilitates its shaping into sharp tools, but excessive heat can lead to its shattering, as evidenced by the hatchet discovered at Burnham. Tests indicated it exceeded 700 degrees Celsius, prompting Mr. Ashton to believe it had inadvertently been heated.
Excavations at a disused quarry in Burnham, UK
Jordan Mansfield, Road to Ancient Britain Project.
Ashton notes that there’s accumulating evidence suggesting humans half a million years ago possessed a range of cultural and technological abilities, including making and using fire.
“Early Neanderthals, along with other modern human species, were far more capable than we often acknowledge,” Ashton says. “Starting a fire is no simple task; it necessitates understanding pyrite’s origin, its properties when used with flint, and selecting the right tinder to create a flame.”
John Gowlett at The University of Liverpool has stated that recent findings make it “highly plausible” that individuals 400,000 years ago were not just aware of fire but likely utilized it daily.
“Early humans were indeed familiar with fire, but the mere discovery of a burnt object associated with a tool doesn’t automatically indicate human control over it,” he explains. “If a location shows signs of repeated human occupation accompanied by multiple indicators of fire, that presents compelling evidence of human control, as natural fires seldom occur in the same place repeatedly.”
A gentle walk through the origins of humanity and prehistoric times in south-west England
Join a gentle walking tour immersing yourself in early human eras, including the Neolithic, Bronze Age, and Iron Age.
“This site, dating back 400,000 years, represents the earliest known evidence of fire not just in Britain and Europe but across the globe,” stated Nick Ashton, co-author of the study and curator at the British Museum. He noted that this discovery pushes back the timeline of when our ancestors might have first harnessed fire by approximately 350,000 years.
Researchers are uncertain about the uses of fire by these hominin ancestors. They may have roasted meat, crafted tools, or shared narratives under its glow.
Understanding when our ancestors mastered the use of fire is crucial to unraveling the complexities of human evolution and behavior.
One hypothesis suggests that the ability to start fire contributed to the increase in brain size among early humans, as cooking facilitates easier digestion and boosts caloric intake. Another theory posits that controlling fire may have fostered social gathering spots at night, boosting social behavior and cognitive evolution.
“We know brain size was increasing towards its current capacity during this period,” remarked Chris Stringer, research head in human evolution at London’s Natural History Museum and another author of the Nature study. “The brain is energetically costly, consuming about 20 percent of the body’s energy. Thus, the ability to use fire enhances nutrient absorption from food, provides energy for the brain, and allows for the evolution of larger brains.”
Stringer emphasized that this finding does not signify the beginning of fire usage among humans but is merely the earliest instance researchers can confidently point to. Other early indications of fire use have been found in regions of South Africa, Israel, and Kenya, though these are contentious and open to interpretation.
From an archaeological standpoint, it’s challenging to ascertain the cause of wildfires or whether they were initiated by humans.
“The key question is whether they collected it from a natural source, managed it, or created it themselves. On the surface, this appears to be a robust case suggesting that the group knew how to start fires,” noted Dennis Sandogyas, a senior lecturer in the archaeology department at Simon Fraser University in Canada, who was not part of the study.
In the recent Nature study, researchers highlight the presence of deposits with fire residue, fire-cracked stone tools including a flint hatchet, and two small fragments of pyrite likely brought to the site by humans for fire-making, as indicated by geological analysis.
The prehistoric hatchet stone tool was discovered near a 400,000-year-old fire site that researchers believe was frequently used by Neanderthals. Road to Ancient Britain Project
Other outside researchers expressed skepticism.
Much of the evidence presented is “circumstantial,” wrote Will Loebloeks, a professor emeritus of paleolithic archaeology at Leiden University in the Netherlands, in an email.
Lowbrokes pointed out that later Neanderthal sites, dating to around 50,000 years ago, showed flint tools with wear signs indicating they had been struck against pyrite to produce sparks, an indication of humans creating fire. This evidence isn’t present in the current study.
“While the authors conducted thorough analysis of the Burnham data, they seem to be overstating claims by suggesting this is the ‘earliest evidence of a fire outbreak,'” Lobruks noted.
For our ancestors, fire was vital for warmth, nutrition, deterring predators, and even melting resins used in adhesives.
However, Sandgate emphasized that the evolution of fire-starting is not a straightforward path; it included sporadic adaptations and innovations. Evidence exists that early groups who learned to create fire sometimes lost that ability or ceased its use for cultural reasons.
“We must be cautious not to generalize any single instance … as proof that from this moment forward everyone will know how to start a fire,” Sandogyas remarked, referencing nearly 100 modern hunter-gatherer groups that have been meticulously observed. Some lacked the ability to generate fire.
“It’s probable that the art of fire-making was discovered, lost, rediscovered, and lost again across various groups over time. Its history is undoubtedly intricate.”
The ancient human foot bones have puzzled scientists since their discovery in 2009.
Johannes Haile-Selassie
The origins of a 3.4-million-year-old foot bone uncovered in Ethiopia may finally be elucidated, prompting a reevaluation of how various ancient human ancestors cohabited.
In 2009, Johannes Haile-Selassie and his team at Arizona State University unearthed eight hominin bones that previously constituted a right foot at a site known as Burtele in northeastern Ethiopia’s Afar region.
This discovery, dubbed Bartele’s foot, features opposable big toes akin to those of gorillas, indicating that any species could have had arboreal capabilities.
Another ancient human species, Australopithecus afarensis, was known to inhabit the vicinity, with the well-known fossil of Lucy—also discovered in the Afar region—but Bartele’s foot appeared to belong to a different species. “From the outset, we realized it was not part of Lucy’s lineage,” Haile Selassie states.
There were two primary hypotheses that intrigued Haile Selassie: whether the foot was associated with another species within the genus Australopithecus or perhaps an older, more primitive group known as Ardipithecus, which existed in Ethiopia more than a million years ago and also possessed opposable thumbs.
Meanwhile, in 2015, scientists announced the identification of a previously unknown hominid species, named Australopithecus deiremeda, after jaw and tooth remains were found in the same region. Initially, there was uncertainty about whether the enigmatic leg bone was part of A. deiremeda, as its age differed from that of the jaw and tooth remains.
However, in the subsequent year, researchers made a crucial discovery. The lower jaw of A. deiremeda was located within 300 meters of Bartele’s foot, and both sets of remains were dated to the same geological era. This led the research team to conclude that Bartele’s foot belonged to A. deiremeda.
Bartele’s foot (left) and bones shaped like a gorilla’s foot (right), similar to Australopithecus deiremeda
Johannes Haile-Selassie
In a separate part of the study, researchers analyzed Earth’s carbon isotopes. They found that A. deiremeda primarily consumed materials from trees and shrubs, while human teeth were more adapted for a diet rich in grasses than those of afarensis.
Haile Selassie noted that this finding suggests that both hominin species occupied the same ecological niche without competing for resources. He believes these groups could have coexisted harmoniously, engaging in separate activities. “They must have crossed paths and interacted within the same habitat, each doing their own thing,” he remarked. “While members of Australopithecus deiremeda may have spent time in trees, afarensis was likely wandering the adjacent grasslands.”
This revelation enhances our understanding of human evolution. “Historically, some have argued that only a single hominid species existed at any given time, with newer forms emerging eventually,” Haile Selassie explained. “We are now realizing that our evolutionary path was not straightforward. Multiple closely related hominid species coexisted at the same time, indicating that coexistence was a fundamental aspect of our ancestors’ lives.”
Carrie Mongul, a professor at Stony Brook University in New York, expressed enthusiasm about these developments. “Understanding more about the diversity of Pliocene hominins is truly exciting,” she stated. “This period, around 3 million years ago, was rich in evolutionary significance.”
For nearly a century, dark matter has posed a significant enigma. Although it outnumbers ordinary matter by a ratio of five to one, it remains invisible and undetectable by current technology.
A daring new analysis of 15 years of data from NASA’s Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope now claims to shed light on this mystery.
The latest research reveals the detection of a peculiar halo-like glow of gamma rays surrounding the Milky Way galaxy, with distinct peaks in energy that align closely with the signals predicted for a specific type of hypothetical dark matter particle.
These particles, referred to as weakly interacting massive particles (WIMPs), can generate gamma rays by annihilating one another.
“If this is validated, it would be the first instance where humanity has ‘seen’ dark matter,” stated Professor Tomonori Toya, an astronomer at the University of Tokyo and co-author of the study.
In an interview with BBC Science Focus, he expressed his initial skepticism: “When I first noticed what looked like a traffic light, I was doubtful, but after careful investigation, I became convinced it was accurate—it was an exhilarating moment,” he shared.
However, despite the excitement surrounding the new signals, independent experts caution that this discovery is far from conclusive.
This possible breakthrough emerges nearly a century after Swiss astronomer Fritz Zwicky first proposed dark matter’s existence, after observing that the galaxies in the Milky Way cluster were moving too swiftly for their visible mass.
Mr. Toya’s study, published in the Journal of Cosmology and Astroparticle Physics, scrutinized 15 years of data from the Fermi telescope, focusing on the regions above and below the Milky Way’s main disk—known as the galactic halo.
After modeling and accounting for known sources of gamma rays, such as interstellar gas interactions, cosmic rays, and massive bubbles of high-energy plasma at the galaxy’s center, he identified a leftover component that shouldn’t exist.
“We detected gamma rays with a photon energy measuring 20 giga-electron volts (or an impressive 20 billion electron volts), extending in a halo-like formation toward the Milky Way’s center,” Toya explained. “This gamma-ray-emitting component aligns with the expected shape of a dark matter halo.”
A gigaelectronvolt (GeV) represents a unit of energy utilized by physicists to quantify subatomic particles’ energy levels—approximately a billion times the energy that a single electron attains when traversing a 1-volt battery.
The potential dark matter signal identified by Toya sharply rises from a few GeV, peaks around 20 GeV, and subsequently declines, consistent with predictions for WIMPs, which possess about 500 times the mass of a proton.
This gamma-ray intensity map illustrates a signal that may originate from dark matter encircling the Milky Way halo. The gray horizontal bar in the central area represents the galactic plane, which was exempted from the analysis to avoid strong astrophysical radiation. – Photo credit: Tomonori Toya, University of Tokyo
In Totani’s perspective, this data significantly indicates the existence of dark matter. “This marks a crucial advancement in astronomy and physics,” he asserts.
Nevertheless, Jan Conrad, a professor of astroparticle physics at Stockholm University in Sweden and an independent expert in gamma-ray searches for dark matter, advises prudence.
“Making claims based on Fermi data is notoriously challenging,” he remarked to BBC Science Focus.
This isn’t the first instance of astronomers witnessing such phenomena; the story stretches back to 2009, shortly after the Fermi telescope’s launch. In that year, researchers identified an unexplained surplus of gamma rays emanating from the galactic center.
For years, this finding stood out as a compelling hint of dark matter. However, Conrad pointed out that even after 16 years, the scientific community has yet to arrive at a consensus about the signal’s dark matter roots.
“It’s believed to be related to dark matter,” he claims. “Despite accumulating data and enhanced methods since then, the question of dark matter’s existence remains unresolved.”
Even at this juncture, researchers who have spent over a decade working to disprove the galactic center excess are unable to definitively prove it is astrophysical in nature (originating from sources other than dark matter), nor can they confirm it is attributable to dark matter. The issue remains unsolved.
Conrad emphasized that the emerging signals from the halo are insufficiently studied and will likely necessitate many more years of investigation for verification. Both the new halo anomaly and the much-debated galactic center signal share a common challenge: noise interference.
In these regions, gamma rays potentially stemming from dark matter annihilation may also originate from numerous other, poorly understood sources—complicating efforts to reach definitive conclusions.
“The uncertainties surrounding astrophysical sources make it exceedingly difficult to assert strong claims,” Conrad stated.
Despite their differing confidence levels, both Totani and Conrad highlight the same forthcoming focus: dwarf galaxies.
These small, faint galaxies orbiting the Milky Way are believed to contain significant amounts of dark matter while exhibiting minimal astrophysical gamma-ray background, rendering them ideal for studying dark matter annihilation.
“If we detect a similar excess in dwarf galaxies, that would provide compelling evidence,” Conrad said. “Dwarf galaxies provide a much cleaner environment, allowing for potential confirmation.”
Dr. Toya concurred, noting, “If the results of this study are validated, it wouldn’t be surprising to observe gamma rays emitting from dwarf galaxies.”
The Cherenkov Telescope Array Observatory (CTAO) is the most sensitive ground-based gamma-ray observatory ever constructed, offering a powerful new approach to scrutinize whether this enigmatic signal is indeed dark matter. – Photo credit: Getty
Yet, the ultimate verification of Toya’s discovery might be closer to home. Experiments designed to detect dark matter are currently taking place in facilities situated deep underground around the world.
“If we were to observe a signal there that aligns with a WIMP of the same mass…that would present a robust argument, as it would be much cleaner,” Conrad pointed out.
In the coming years, the next-generation Cherenkov Telescope Array Observatory (CTAO) will significantly enhance sensitivity to high-energy gamma rays, enabling researchers to analyze halo signals with greater detail.
“Naturally, if this turns out to be true, it’s a significant discovery,” Conrad said. “The true nature of dark matter remains elusive. A clear signal indicating dark matter particles would be monumental. However, further research is essential to explore alternative explanations for this excess.”
“Plants lack ears and brains, so they can’t experience music like we do…”
Credit: Michele Cornelius/Alamy
Do you serenade your plants? As a botanist passionate about houseplants, I often get asked this. The idea of playing music for plants gained traction in the 1960s, alongside the rise of “music for plants” albums, and it’s making a comeback online. But what does current research reveal about this enduring topic?
Clearly, plants lack ears or brains, so they cannot enjoy music in the way humans do. However, recent studies, including one study, indicate that they can detect vibrations in their environment and adapt their behavior accordingly. For instance, mouse worms exposed to the sound of caterpillar chewing produced high levels of a defensive bitter toxin. Astonishingly, plants can differentiate between the vibrations caused by munching insects and those from wind or mating calls, activating their defenses only when threatened.
Moreover, plants react to the sounds of opportunity. Certain flowers, like tomatoes, blueberries, and kiwis, ignore the buzzing of non-pollinating bees and release pollen only when stimulated by the vibrations of specific pollinators. This response can be rapid; for example, evening primrose flowers show changes in nectar composition within three minutes of being played sounds of bees in flight: Rich in sweet rewards. Researchers even reported pea plants can shift their root growth toward the sound of flowing water.
Nonetheless, as anyone who’s heard a seven-year-old on a recorder can attest, there’s a significant distinction between noise and “music.” Experiments aimed at assessing music’s impact on plant growth yielded mixed results. A recent study found certain music tracks enhanced lettuce growth significantly, while alfalfa showed no improvement.
Another investigation into background noise discovered that sage and marigold plants exposed to 16 hours of continuous traffic noise daily exhibited notably reduced growth. Could this continual noise be obstructing plants’ ability to perceive vital sound cues? At this stage, that remains uncertain.
The takeaway? Recent studies reveal that plants are not entirely oblivious to sound; in fact, they are significantly impacted by it. Yet, much about the specifics remains unclear, so we can’t definitively predict which sounds, at what frequencies or volumes, will yield desired results. So before you consider blasting Katy Perry for your plants’ benefit, remember that they might not appreciate it—and neither will your neighbors.
James Wong is a botanist and science writer focused on food crops, conservation, and environmental issues. Trained at the Royal Botanic Gardens in Kew, London, he personally owns over 500 houseplants in his compact apartment. Follow him on X and Instagram @botanygeek.
Lupus can cause severe fatigue, rashes, and joint and muscle pain
Shahril Maulana/Alamy
The virus responsible for glandular fever, also referred to as mononucleosis or the kissing disease, has been shown to infect and modify the body’s immune cells, leading to the development of the autoimmune disease lupus in some individuals.
Lupus, or systemic lupus erythematosus, arises when the immune system becomes overly active, attacking healthy tissues due to the persistent activity of immune cells known as B cells and T cells. This can result in various symptoms such as muscle and joint pain, rashes, and profound fatigue. The exact cause of lupus remains unclear, though it likely involves a combination of genetic, hormonal, and environmental factors, including infections and microbiome imbalances.
To explore the connection, William Robinson and his team at Stanford University devised a single-cell RNA-seq technology called EBV-seq to identify which B cells (responsible for producing antibodies against pathogens) in lupus patients are infected with EBV and which genes are being expressed by those cells.
In their research, they found that in blood samples from 11 lupus patients, approximately 25 out of every 10,000 sequenced B cells were infected with EBV. Conversely, in 10 asymptomatic individuals, only up to 3 in every 10,000 sequenced B cells were found to carry the virus.
The majority of infected cells were identified as memory B cells, which retain information about previous pathogenic exposures to facilitate a quicker response upon re-exposure.
Robinson and his colleagues demonstrated that these infected memory B cells express genes such as ZEB2 and TBX21, initiating a chain reaction that activates another immune cell type known as helper T cells, subsequently recruiting uninfected B cells. This escalates immune activity in a harmful cycle, eventually beginning to target the body itself.
A significant finding affirming the causal role of EBV in lupus erythematosus was the observation that the virus seems to promote the activation of memory B cells via a protein called EBNA2. ZEB2 and TBX21 activate relevant genes and amplify their activity. “What we discovered essentially reveals how this very common virus, affecting 95% of us, the Epstein-Barr virus, leads to lupus,” says Robinson.
As for why most individuals infected with EBV do not go on to develop lupus, Robinson hypothesizes that some people have a genetic predisposition that causes their B cells to erroneously target healthy cells. “The genetic and environmental contexts of EBV infections predispose individuals to lupus, and these factors combine to provoke the disease,” he asserts.
“EBV may not be implicated in all lupus cases, due to the diverse mechanisms involved in the disease’s development. However, in specific patients, we maintain that EBV serves as a primary cause,” he explains. George Tsokos reports from Harvard Medical School: The virus instigated an abnormal T-cell response, noted in individuals with lupus over 40 years ago.
A strong correlation between EBV and multiple sclerosis, another autoimmune disorder, was identified in 2022, and Robinson suggests that these new insights highlight how the virus can trigger such conditions more broadly.
This may also clarify why certain CAR T-cell therapies have yielded promising results in lupus clinical trials. These treatments, which genetically modify a patient’s T cells to target specific antigens, were originally designed for blood cancers that arise when B cells proliferate uncontrollably and are often reduced in number. “These CAR T-cell therapies seem to result in lasting remissions. [lupus] Patients have been able to discontinue all medications, implying that the therapy might potentially even cure some individuals. We believe they may achieve this by removing [B cells] or depleting EBV-infected B cells,” Robinson suggests.
Nonetheless, Tsokos cautions that the efficacy of this therapy for lupus remains uncertain, partly because while B cell levels in the blood of patients treated with CAR T cells appear diminished, these cells can often conceal themselves in the bone marrow, and there is currently no evidence confirming that all of them are being eliminated.
The research also underscores the potential for developing a vaccine to combat the saliva-transmitted Epstein-Barr virus, which may help avert various autoimmune diseases. “Such a vaccine could be pivotal in preventing EBV infections and thereby lupus in the future,” Professor Robinson states, though he notes it would not mitigate symptoms for individuals already infected with EBV, as B cell reprogramming appears to occur shortly after infection.
Tsokos believes the broad adoption of the EBV vaccine will hinge on weighing its costs against benefits and side effects. He notes that preventing a single case of lupus might necessitate vaccinating over 1,000 individuals.
Caves in the Hebrus Valley of Mars may have been sculpted by ancient water flows
NASA Mars Earth Surveyor
Subsurface caves shaped by flowing water on Mars may have provided ideal conditions for life, with potential remnants still present today.
Throughout Mars, numerous openings resembling cave entrances are found, primarily near volcanic regions. This implies these features were likely formed by processes related to volcanic activity rather than water.
Earth is home to numerous karst caves, created by the dissolution of soluble rock by water. However, scientists have yet to find equivalent caves on Mars, despite evidence indicating the planet was once covered in water billions of years ago.
Currently, Ding Vermicelli, a professor at Shenzhen University in China, has identified eight caves that seem to have been formed by ancient water flows instead of volcanic activity. These caves are situated in the Hebrus Gorge, a northwestern region characterized by extensive valleys and depressions likely shaped by ancient floods.
Previous Mars missions, including NASA’s Mars Global Surveyor (which orbited Mars from 1997 to 2006), have mapped these caves. Ding and his team analyzed material near one cave entrance using spectroscopic data from that mission, revealing a notable presence of carbonate and sulfate minerals typically associated with water.
They also detected signs of an ancient stream ending near the cave entrance, similar to patterns seen near karst caves on Earth. James Baldini from Durham University, UK, noted, “On a map, you’d expect a river to emerge to the surface only to disappear suddenly, as the cave system absorbs its water.”
Daniel Le Corret from the University of Kent in the UK mentioned that while the mineralogical and geological data implies these may be water caves, they appear quite similar to other Martian caves of volcanic origin. “I’ve spent countless hours evaluating the global catalog of Martian caves and these resemble known volcanic formations,” he said.
If these caves are indeed formed by water, they might be excellent locations for searching for life. “For life to exist, water and a protective environment from Mars’ intense surface radiation are essential,” Baldini remarked. “Volcanic caves and lava tubes also present good avenues for potential life, though they don’t necessarily involve water.”
Mars’ water caves may contain stalagmites—bulbous rock formations generally found in Earth’s karst caves—and could act as time capsules of Mars’ ancient climate conditions, such as temperature.
However, stalagmites require thousands of years of sustained water flow to develop, and determining their formation timing could be challenging, even if rovers or drones succeed in collecting samples, according to Baldini.
Mysteries of the Universe: Cheshire, England
Join a weekend with some of science’s leading minds as you delve into the enigmas of the universe, featuring a tour of the renowned Lovell Telescope.
Paleontologists from China and Brazil have reported the discovery of 320 phytoliths (tiny mineral structures formed within plant cells) found in the fossilized stomach of a pterosaur species known as Synopterus atavismus.
Rebuilding the life of Synopterus atavismus. Image credit: Maurilio Oliveira / Science China Press.
Pterosaurs, a group of reptiles that went extinct during the Mesozoic Era, were the first vertebrates to develop powered flight.
However, their dietary habits remain largely enigmatic.
Various hypotheses have been proposed regarding pterosaur diets, including insectivorous, piscivorous, carnivorous, omnivorous, herbivorous/frugivorous, filter feeding, and generalized diets.
Though stomach contents provide compelling evidence, such finds are exceedingly rare.
In addition to scales associated with the thorax of Eudimorphodon, only five confirmed instances of pterosaur gastric contents have been documented since the Late Triassic in Italy, all related to Rhamphorhynchus from the Late Jurassic Solnhofen limestone in Germany.
These instances largely consist of remains like dead fish, along with some unidentified items.
In a recent study, Dr. Xiaolin Wang from the Institute of Vertebrate Paleontology and Paleoanthropology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, and colleagues investigated the contents of fossilized stomachs from Synopterus atavismus, which existed in China approximately 120 million years ago.
They identified numerous small gastroliths in the stomach contents, from which they extracted 320 phytoliths.
“Phytoliths are microscopic silica structures formed during plant growth, exhibiting diverse morphologies across different plant species and even within various parts of the same plant,” the paleontologists stated.
“This discovery marks the first extraction of phytoliths from a pterosaur and the second documented instance of a pterosaur featuring a gastrolith.”
Specimen of Synopterus atavismus. Image credit: Jiang et al., doi: 10.1016/j.scib.2025.06.040.
To determine whether Synopterus atavismus was indeed herbivorous, the researchers explored other possible interpretations.
“Initially, we confirmed that surrounding rocks did not contain the phytoliths found in the stomach, eliminating contamination as a factor,” the researchers commented.
“We also considered the possibility that the plant material could have originated from animals that consume plants.”
“However, Synopterus atavismus exhibited a rapid metabolism akin to that of birds. If it had consumed vertebrates or insects, traces like bones, scales, or hard insect shells would have been present in the stomach, but none were found.”
“The hypothesis of eating soft-bodied creatures like caterpillars was also insufficient. Why would it require so many gastroliths if hard food wasn’t part of its diet?”
“These stones typically assist in breaking down tough materials such as insect shells and plant matter, making them unneeded for softer prey.”
“Lastly, prior research suggested that Tapejara wellnhoferi, a close relative of Synopterus atavismus, had robust jaws adapted for consuming plants, reinforcing this conclusion.”
“Thus, phytoliths clearly indicate direct dietary intake, while gastroliths were utilized as tools for grinding plant material.”
The team’s paper is published in the October 15, 2025 issue of the journal Science Bulletin.
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Jiang Shunxin et al. 2025. First phytoliths discovered in pterosaurs – evidence of herbivory. Science Bulletin 70 (19): 3134-3138; doi: 10.1016/j.scib.2025.06.040
Researchers have uncovered new DNA evidence that challenges established theories regarding Napoleon’s ill-fated 1812 invasion of Russia. As his Grand Army, comprising around 500,000 soldiers, advanced toward Moscow, it encountered severe resistance, dwindling resources, and the harshness of winter.
As the troops began their retreat, starvation and disease were rampant. Analyzing the remains of soldiers now indicates that multiple infectious diseases may have caused the significant loss of life in the French emperor’s army, rather than typhus being the singular primary cause of devastation.
A recent study led by Dr. Nicholas Raskovan at the Pasteur Institute in Paris involved extracting genetic material from the teeth of 13 soldiers interred in a mass grave in Vilnius, Lithuania.
Through ancient DNA sequencing, no evidence of typhus was identified. Instead of the long-suspected bacteria rickettsia, the team pinpointed two distinct pathogens: salmonella enterica, which causes enteric fever (like typhoid), and Borrelia recurrentis, linked to recurring fever.
Raskovan mentioned, “Our research alters the understanding of pathogens previously unrecognized,” as reported in BBC Science Focus.
Previous research employed PCR tests, akin to those used in contemporary COVID-19 testing, to search solely for specific microorganisms. Currently available technology enables scientists to “cast a wider net,” allowing them to detect DNA fragments from all microorganisms present, Raskovan explained.
“Thanks to advancements in technology, we now have insights that were unimaginable a decade ago,” Raskovan noted.
“When we integrate our prior and current research, we discover that four different diseases affected just a small group of individuals. This implies that a single pathogen didn’t account for all the 3,000 deaths, but rather, these individuals were infected with various pathogens.”
In essence, the situation for Napoleon’s army during their retreat from Russia was dire, facilitating the spread of various diseases. It was almost inevitable that if one illness was avoided, another would take hold.
The research also highlighted the strain Borrelia recurrentis found at the site, which is genetically identical to those from Iron Age Britain, approximately 2,000 years ago, a lineage that has since vanished.
Raskovan stated, “This strain derives from an ancestor that either no longer exists or is currently unknown. This emphasizes the significant changes in sanitation over the past two centuries, particularly with the advent of antibiotics that have virtually eradicated this once prevalent disease.”
For Raskovan, these ancient microorganisms are more than peculiar findings; they are historical witnesses. “For those infected, it’s not surprising,” he remarked. “For me, it’s fulfilling to reconstruct history.”
“These pathogens provide us with a means to learn about past populations and their dynamics.”
No blue pigments have been found in Paleolithic art. This absence is attributed to the scarcity of naturally occurring blue pigments and the subtlety of these colors. However, archaeologists employed various methods to uncover traces of the lively blue mineral pigment azurite in Paleolithic adhesive stone artifacts from Mühlheim-Dietesheim, Germany, marking the earliest known use of blue pigments in Europe.
Three areas of blue residues found in the sandstone formations of stone artifacts at Muhlheim Dieschetim, Germany. Image credit: Wisher et al., doi: 10.15184/aqy.2025.10184.
Both Neanderthals and Homo sapiens utilized mineral and organic colors; however, their palette seems confined to black and red-yellow pigments sourced from charcoal, manganese dioxide, and various iron oxides.
These pigments are well documented across continents for numerous applications.
During the Paleolithic Age (300,000-40,000 years ago) in central Europe, Neanderthals are thought to have employed ochres and manganese dioxide, likely for purposes ranging from cave art to functional applications like adhesive compounds and fire extinguishing agents, as well as for symbolic practices.
In Homo sapiens, the use of pigments correlates with the onset of “behavioral modernity,” which emerged over 100,000 years ago and is acknowledged as a hallmark of cognitive complexity.
The prevalence of pigment use in the Upper Paleolithic raises intriguing questions about the absence of blue pigments in their artistic practices.
So far, only one instance of a copper-based turquolithic pigment has been documented, originating from decorated anthropomorphic figurines in parts of Malta, dating back 19,000-23,000 years.
The presence of blue pigments has not been recognized in the Paleolithic period in Europe until now.
“Our findings challenge the conventional understanding of the use of Paleolithic pigments,” stated Izzy Wisher, an archaeologist at Aarhus University.
In their investigation, Dr. Wisher and colleagues discovered blue pigments in stone artifacts with concave bowl-like features dating from 14,000 to 11,700 years ago on Mullheim Dieche Island, Germany.
This discovery signifies the first known utilization of blue pigments during the Upper Paleolithic in Europe.
“The detection of azurite suggests that Paleolithic individuals possessed a profound understanding of mineral pigments and had access to a broader color spectrum than previously recognized.
“Stones previously thought to be open circuit lamps now appear to have served as a mixed surface or palette for preparing blue pigments. This indicates an artistic or cosmetic practice that has largely gone unnoticed.”
These findings prompt a reconsideration of Paleolithic art and color usage, paving the way for exploring how early humans articulated their identities, status, and beliefs through a far more diverse and vibrant array of materials than was once imagined.
“We hypothesize that azurite was likely used more extensively than we had anticipated, based on its presence in Muhlheim Dietesheim and its potential availability within the landscape,” the researchers noted.
“The use of azurite might have been confined to activities that are not well-preserved in the archaeological record.”
“Blue pigments were evidently not employed to adorn Paleolithic cave walls or portable art objects in Europe, but they may have been utilized for body decoration instead.”
“Our results invite a critical examination of color usage in the Upper Paleolithic to ascertain why certain hues were favored or neglected in different artistic endeavors.”
The results were published this week in the journal Ancient.
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Izzy Wisher et al. The earliest evidence of the use of blue pigments in Europe. Ancient Published online on September 29th, 2025. doi:10.15184/aqy.2025.10184
The mantle of Mars houses ancient fragments measuring up to 4 km in width from its formation, as revealed by an analysis of seismic data gathered by NASA’s InSight Mission.
The immense collisions during early Mars’ history resulted in a global ocean of magma. Image credit: Vadim Sadovski / Imperial College London.
The planet’s mantle serves as a significant layer, located between the crust and core, preserving vital evidence about its formation and evolution.
In contrast to Earth, where active plate tectonics constantly mix the mantle, Mars functions as a smaller planet with a single plate surface.
This results in considerably less mixing of the Martian mantle, which may retain records of early internal history, providing valuable insights into the formation and evolution of rocky worlds.
Utilizing data from NASA’s InSight Lander, Dr. Constantinos Charalambous from Imperial College London and his colleagues analyzed the seismic signatures of Marsquakes to better understand the composition of the Martian mantle.
They studied eight recorded quakes, including those triggered by the impact of meteorites, discovering that the arrival of high-frequency P-waves is consistently delayed as they traverse deeper regions of the mantle.
The authors suggest that these delays indicate variations in the composition of the mantle stretching over kilometers.
Given that Mars lacks plate tectonics and large-scale recycling processes, these minor irregularities are likely remnants of its formative history.
Investigating the heterogeneity of the Martian mantle implies that it results from an intense and destructive process, reflecting the significant events of the planet’s early history that caused extensive interior disruption and mixed both foreign and crustal materials at a planetary scale.
Furthermore, additional variations might have arisen from the vast ocean of crystallized magma formed during this aftermath.
Rather than being erased, these features were preserved as the Martian crust cooled and mantle convection ceased.
“The seismic signals displayed clear signs of interference while traveling deep within Mars,” Dr. Charalambous noted.
“This coincides with a mantle composed of structures originating from various compositions, representing Mars’ early remnants.”
“What occurred on Mars is that following these initial events, the surface hardened into a stagnant lid.”
“It became isolated from the mantle, entrapping ancient, chaotic features like planetary time capsules.”
“Our observations reveal the distribution of fractals, where energy from violent collisions exceeds an object’s strength.”
“This mirrors the effect seen when glass falls onto a tiled floor, akin to meteorite impacts with a planet. It results in the formation of both large and small fragments.”
“It’s astonishing that we can still detect this distribution today.”
“The Jet Propulsion Research Institute” stated Dr. Mark Panning, a researcher at NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory.
“It’s exhilarating to witness scientists uncovering new findings through the earthquakes we observe!”
The team’s paper was published today in the journal Science.
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Constantinos Charalambous et al. 2025. Evidence of a highly uneven Mars mantle inferred from earthquake analysis. Science 389 (6763): 899-903; doi: 10.1126/science.adk4292
Researchers from University College London and other institutions have analyzed the molars of female Boss Torus (cattle) discovered at Stonehenge.
Stonehenge. Image credit: Regina Wolf.
In 1924, archaeologists restored the jawbone of an elderly cow found at the base of the groove surrounding Stonehenge Stage 1, constructed between 2995 and 2900 BC.
Professor Michael Parker Pearson from University College London and his team dated the find between 3350 and 2920 BC through isotopic analysis of a tooth, suggesting its origins in Wales.
“This offers even more intriguing evidence of Stonehenge’s connection to Southwest Wales, the source of Bluestone,” noted Professor Parker Pearson.
“It heightens the likelihood that these cows assisted in transporting the stones.”
Researchers recorded chemical signals from the second year of the animal’s life and sectioned its third molar into nine horizontal slices.
This enabled them to measure isotopes of carbon, oxygen, strontium, and lead, each shedding light on the cow’s diet, environment, and movements.
The varying concentrations and types found in the teeth offered insights into the cattle’s lifestyle.
Oxygen isotopes indicated that the teeth recorded about six months of growth spanning winter to summer, while carbon isotopes revealed seasonal dietary changes: forest feed in winter and pasture in summer.
Moreover, strontium isotopes suggested that these seasonal food sources came from different geological regions, implying that the cattle may have moved seasonally or that winter feed was transported.
Lead isotopes indicated a spike in composition between late winter and spring, suggesting older lead sources than the other dental leads.
The findings imply that the cattle originated from much older Paleozoic rock formations in the Pleshri hills of Pembrokeshire, Wales.
“This research revealed six months of unprecedented details about the life of this cow, presenting the first evidence of cattle movements from Wales and documenting dietary shifts and life events from around 5,000 years ago,” remarked Professor Jane Evans, an archaeologist at the National Environmental Isotope Facility at the British Geological Survey.
“One slice of cow tooth has conveyed an extraordinary narrative. I am hopeful that more revelations will emerge from her extensive journey as new scientific tools become available.”
Additionally, scientists concluded that unusual lead signals could not be attributed solely to local contamination or movement.
Rather, this lead, retained in the cow’s bones, was regenerating during the stress of pregnancy.
If accurate, this indicates that the cow was female during the formation of the teeth and was either pregnant or breastfeeding.
To validate this hypothesis, the authors employed peptide-based sex determination techniques, suggesting that the animal was likely a female.
“This study offers significant new insights into the life history of this enigmatic cow, whose remains were deposited at such a pivotal location at the entrance to Stonehenge,” said Professor Richard Majwick of Cardiff University.
“It provides unparalleled details regarding the animal’s distant origins and the arduous journey it undertook.”
“Often, grand narratives dominate research on major archaeological sites, but this detailed biographical examination of individual animals brings a fresh perspective to Stonehenge’s story.”
The team’s findings were published on June 17th, 2025, in the Journal of Archaeological Science.
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J. Evans et al. 2025 Boss Torus Evaluating the comparative sources and uptake times of teeth, strontium and lead from Stonehenge. Journal of Archaeological Science 180:106269; doi:10.1016/j.jas.2025.106269
Cut marks on the foot bone from El Mirador cave, Spain
iphes-cerca
The discovery of human remains in caves in northern Spain indicates that Neolithic people may have resorted to cannibalism after battles.
Francesc Marginedas from the Catalan Institute of Human Paleoecology and Social Evolution (IPHES) in Tarragona, along with his team, examined fragments from 650 human remains found in El Mirador cave on Mount Atapuerca. These remains date back approximately 5,700 years and belong to 11 individuals.
All examined bones displayed evidence that these individuals had been consumed by other humans. Some exhibited chop markings made by a stone tool, while others showed translucent portions with gently rounded edges. Some of the long bones were fractured open with stones to access the bone marrow, and smaller bones like metatarsals and ribs had clear human bite marks.
This research supports the notion that cannibalistic practices were more prevalent in human history than previously believed.
El Mirador marks at least the fifth significant site in Spain with notable evidence of cannibalism during the Neolithic era, a shift period from foraging to agriculture, according to Margida. “There’s a growing understanding that such behavior was more frequent than we anticipated.”
The motives behind these cannibalistic acts remain unclear. Some archaeological sites show skull cups indicating a ritualistic aspect to cannibalism, while others hint at survival strategies during dire circumstances.
However, Marsidas and his team propose that the findings at El Mirador suggest these acts were linked to warfare. There was a significant amount of animal remains, and no signs of nutritional stress among the humans involved, indicating this early agricultural community was not struggling with food scarcity. Their findings offer no indication of ritualistic behavior, as human bones were found alongside animal remains.
The ages of the individuals ranged from under seven to over fifty, implying that an entire family unit may have been lost to conflict. Radiocarbon dating indicated that all 11 individuals were killed and consumed within a few days.
This evidence reflects patterns of conflict and cannibalism, which have also been noted at two other Neolithic sites: the Von Bregore Caves in France and Helxheim in Germany. This period appears marked by instability and violence due to community clashes with neighboring groups and newcomers.
While Margida and his colleagues are uncertain about the reasons behind these cannibalistic practices, historical ethnographic studies suggest that such acts during warfare can serve as a method of “ultimate exclusion.” “We believe that one group attacking and consuming another serves as a humiliating statement,” states Merseydus.
“The thoroughness of the body’s treatment and consumption is remarkable.” Paul Pettitt from Durham University, UK, comments, “The aggressive nature shown in these artifacts, regardless of whether the consumed were relatives or adversaries, mirrors a dehumanization process during consumption.”
Sylvia Bello from the Museum of Natural History in London concurs that this evidence of death likely ties back to conflicts but remains skeptical about the notion of consumption as humiliation. She suggests that cannibalism may stem from aggression and animosity rather than ritualized farewell practices, implying a more complex interpretation. “It could carry ritual significance, even amid warfare,” she asserts.
Neanderthals, Ancient Humans, and Cave Art in France
Join new scientist Kate Douglas on an enthralling exploration of the key Neanderthal and Upper Paleolithic sites in southern France, spanning from Bordeaux to Montpellier.
Paleontologists have uncovered footprints that are 76 million years old, belonging to a dominant group of Ceratopsian dinosaurs, in Dinosaur Provincial Park, Alberta, Canada. This remarkable finding is the first indication of herd behavior among mixed dinosaur species, reminiscent of how modern wildebeests and zebras flock together on the African savannas.
Salatopsian herd (Styracosaurus albertensis) accompanied by ankylosaurus (Euplocephalus tutus) walking through old river channels under the watchful eyes of two Tyrannosaurus (Golgosaurus libratus). Image credit: Julius Csotonyi.
Dinosaur Provincial Park, located in southern Alberta, Canada, is one of the premier regions in the world for studying late Cretaceous terrestrial ecosystems.
The park yields hundreds of dinosaur skeletal remains and a vast array of bones and teeth, making it a prime location for exploring dinosaur evolution, behavior, biological introduction, and paleoecology.
Despite the wealth of skeletal remains, dinosaur footprints and trackways are surprisingly uncommon.
“In 2024, we discovered a new track site, a skyline track site containing ‘typical’ natural mold tracks that had not been identified in the park before,” stated Dr. Phil Bell and his colleagues at the University of New England.
At this site, paleontologists uncovered 13 Seratopsia (horned dinosaurs) tracks, showing at least five animals walking side by side, along with an ankylosaurus (armored dinosaur) that might have been walking among them.
They were also intrigued to find two large Tyrannosaurus tracks alongside the group. Additionally, a footprint from a smaller meat-eating dinosaur was also discovered.
View of the Skyline Track Site immediately after its discovery (a) and during excavation (b). Image credits: Bell et al., doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0324913.
“I have been collecting dinosaur bones in Dinosaur Provincial Park for nearly two decades, but I had never given much thought to footprints,” remarked Dr. Bell.
“The edge of this rock had a mud-like appearance that caught between my toes, which immediately intrigued me.”
“The Tyrannosaurus tracks give the impression that they are truly observing the herd.”
“It was thrilling to see them walking in the footprints of dinosaurs 76 million years after they went extinct,” said Dr. Brian Pickles from Reading College.
“Using innovative search techniques, we were able to locate several additional track sites throughout the park’s diverse terrain. We will provide further details on how these captivating creatures interacted and behaved in their ecosystems.”
“This discovery highlights the vast amount left to uncover in dinosaur paleontology,” noted Dr. Caleb Brown, PhD, from the Royal Tyrrell Museum of Paleontology.
“Dinosaur Park boasts one of the world’s most comprehensive dinosaur collections and studies, with over a century of dedicated research. Only now are we beginning to fully explore the potential of dinosaur trackways.”
The findings are published in a paper in the journal PLOS 1.
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PR Bell et al. 2025. A track site controlled by Ceratopsids from the Campanian in Dinosaur Provincial Park, Alberta, Canada. PLOS 1 20(7): E0324913; doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0324913
Generates brain cells from the hippocampus that proliferate in culture
Arthur Chien/Science Photo Library
The ongoing debate about whether adults can produce new brain cells takes a new turn, as evidence increasingly supports that they indeed can. This revelation addresses one of neuroscience’s most disputed questions and raises hopes that this knowledge could be used in treating conditions like depression and Alzheimer’s disease.
Neurons are produced via a process known as neurogenesis, which occurs in both children and adults, as shown in research on mice and macaques. This involves stem cells generating progenitor cells, which multiply and eventually develop into immature neurons that mature over time.
Earlier studies have indicated the presence of stem cells and immature neurons in the hippocampus of adult humans. This brain area, crucial for learning and memory, is a primary site for neurogenesis in younger humans and some adult animals. However, progenitor cells have not yet been detected in adult human brains. “This link was overlooked. It forms a central argument for the emergence of new neurons in the adult human brain,” states Evgenia Salta from the Netherlands Institute of Neuroscience, who was not involved in the latest research.
To establish this link, Jonas Frisen and his team at the Karolinska Institute in Sweden developed a machine learning model capable of accurately identifying progenitor cells. They used hippocampal samples from six young children, donated by their parents for research post-mortem.
The researchers trained an AI model to recognize progenitor cells based on the activity of about 10,000 genes. “In childhood, these cells’ behavior closely resembles that of precursor cells in mice, facilitating their identification,” explains Frisen. “[The idea is] to use molecular fingerprints of childhood progenitor cells to find equivalents in adults.”
To validate the model, the team identified progenitor cells in hippocampal samples from young mice. The model correctly identified 83% of the progenitor cells and misclassified other cell types as progenitor cells in less than 1% of cases. In a further test, the model accurately predicted that progenitor cells were nearly absent in adult human cortical samples, a brain area devoid of evidence supporting neurogenesis in humans.
“They validated their models effectively by transitioning from data on human children to mice and then to adult humans,” says Sandrine Thuret from King’s College London.
With this validation in hand, the researchers can check for neurogenesis in human adults by identifying 14 hippocampal progenitor cells from individuals aged 20 to 78 at the time of their passing.
Crucially, the researchers first introduced a method to enhance the likelihood of detecting progenitor cells. Previous studies have indicated that these cells are extremely rare in adults. The team utilized antibodies to select brain cells that were actively dividing at the time of death, including non-neuronal cells such as immune cells and progenitor cells. This helped filter out common cell types that do not divide, like mature neurons, making rare progenitor cells easier to identify.
Subsequently, they organized the genetic activity data related to these dividing cells into models. “They were enriched due to the selected cells,” remarks Kaoru Song at the University of Pennsylvania. Previous research lacked this approach, he adds.
The team successfully identified progenitor cells in nine donors. “It is well established that environmental and genetic factors in rodents affect how neurogenesis occurs, so I suspect variations in humans may also be attributed to these factors,” Frisen notes.
The findings strongly indicate the presence of adult neurogenesis, according to Thuret, Song, and Salta. “We are adding this missing piece, which significantly advances the field,” Salta states.
“Neurons originate from cell division occurring in adulthood, and that is what this study definitively establishes,” Thuret comments.
Thuret suggests the possibility of examining variations in neurogenesis among adults with brain-affecting conditions such as depression or Alzheimer’s disease. She speculates that medications promoting this process could alleviate symptoms.
However, John Arellano from Yale University cautions that even if adults produce new brain cells, they may be too few in number to be therapeutically beneficial. Thuret, however, believes this is unlikely to create issues. “In mice, a small number of new neurons can significantly impact learning and memory,” she asserts.
In collaboration with the Chicago-Carnegie Hubble program, astronomers utilizing the NASA/ESA/CSA James Webb Space Telescope have conducted new measurements of the Hubble constant. The findings align with the prevailing Lambda Cold Dark Matter (λCDM) model without necessitating the introduction of additional new physics.
This artist’s illustration depicts the universe’s evolution, starting with the Big Bang on the left. Following this, you can see the microwave background of the universe. The formation of the first stars ends the universe’s dark ages, leading to the creation of galaxies. Image credit: M. Weiss/Harvard – Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics.
“Emerging evidence indicates that standard models of the cosmos remain robust,” stated Professor Wendy Friedman from the University of Chicago.
“While this doesn’t rule out potential inconsistencies with the model in the future, it currently appears consistent concerning the Hubble constant.”
Presently, there are two primary methods for calculating the rate of the universe’s expansion.
The first method involves measuring the residual light from the Big Bang, which still permeates the universe.
This radiation, referred to as the cosmic microwave background, provides astronomers with insights into the universe’s early conditions.
Professor Friedman and her colleagues focus on the second method, which assesses the current rate of expansion in our local astronomical context.
Ironically, this approach poses more challenges than retracing cosmic history due to the difficulty of accurately measuring distances.
Over the last fifty years, scientists have developed several techniques to measure relatively nearby distances.
One method relies on detecting the light from a specific category of stars at their brightest moment when they explode as supernovae at the end of their lifecycle.
By knowing the peak brightness of these supernovae, astronomers can gauge their apparent luminosity and determine the distance.
Further observations reveal how fast the galaxy that the supernova originated from is moving away from us.
Images of CMB radiation captured by the Atacama cosmological telescope, where orange and blue signify differing radiation strengths. Image credit: ACT collaboration.
Professor Friedman has advanced two additional techniques utilizing knowledge from other star types: giant red stars and carbon stars.
However, considerable adjustments are necessary before finalizing these distance measurements.
Astronomers first need to account for cosmic dust that dims the light coming from these distant stars within our galaxy.
It is also critical to verify and correct for any luminosity variations that may occur over time and space.
Lastly, correction for any subtle measurement errors from the instruments utilized is essential.
Fortunately, technological advancements, such as the launch of the more powerful Webb telescope in 2021, have enabled scientists to refine these measurements significantly.
“We have more than doubled the sample of galaxies used to calibrate supernovae,” Professor Friedman noted.
“Statistical enhancements are valuable and will greatly improve the findings.”
The latest calculations from the team, which incorporate data from both the Hubble and Webb telescopes, yield a value of 70.4 km per second, with a margin of error of 3% per megaparsec.
This brings the value into statistical alignment with recent measurements from cosmic microwave background observations at 67.4 km per megaparsec, with an accuracy of plus or minus 0.7%.
The Webb telescope, with four times the resolution of Hubble, allows for the identification of individual stars that were previously recorded as blurry groupings.
It also offers enhanced precision and is approximately ten times more sensitive, enabling the detection of significant objects.
“We’re truly witnessing how remarkable the Webb telescope is for accurately measuring distances to galaxies,” stated Dr. Taylor Hoyt, a researcher at Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory.
“Its infrared detectors can penetrate the dust that has historically impeded precise distance measurements, enabling much more accurate brightness assessments of stars.”
“Astrophysicists are striving to formulate a theory that might elucidate varying rates of expansion as the universe ages,” Professor Friedman remarked.
“There are over a thousand scholarly papers addressing this issue, and it proves to be exceptionally challenging.”
The team’s research paper was published on May 27th in the Astrophysical Journal.
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Wendy L. Friedman et al. 2025. Status Report on the Chicago Carnegie Hubble Program (CCHP): Measurement of Hubble constants using Hubble and James Webb’s Space Telescopes. APJ 985, 203; doi:10.3847/1538-4357/adce78
Polar ecosystems are bolstered and enriched by birds that nest there seasonally, serving as keystone members of these ecosystems. Despite the significant ecological role of polar birds, the origins of high-center nests remain unclear due to limited fossil evidence. A recent study conducted by paleontologists explored an extensive collection of bird fossils from the late Cretaceous Purine Cream Formation in Alaska.
Illustration of Cretaceous birds alongside other dinosaurs from the same period. Image credit: Gabriel Ugueto.
“Birds have existed for 150 million years,” stated Lauren Wilson, a doctoral candidate at Princeton University.
“For a significant portion of that time, they constructed nests in the Arctic.”
In their research, Wilson and colleagues studied the bones and teeth of fossilized birds from the Alaska Prune Creek Formation, dating back 73 million years.
They identified various bird types, including land birds, seagull-like birds, and diving birds that bear similarities to some modern ducks and geese, all of which were nesting in the Arctic while dinosaurs roamed the same territory.
Before this research, the earliest known evidence of breeding birds in the Arctic or Antarctic was approximately 47 million years ago, following the asteroid impact that wiped out 75% of Earth’s species.
“This will extend the timeline by 25-30 million years for records of birds breeding in the polar regions,” remarked Dr. Pat Druckenmiller, director of the University of Alaska Museum.
“The Arctic is recognized as a modern nursery for birds.”
“Finding bird bones from the Cretaceous period is exceptionally rare,” Wilson noted.
“Discovering baby bird bones is almost unheard of, making these fossils particularly significant.”
“We conducted extensive mapping of Alaska for fossil birds—it wasn’t on anyone’s radar,” added Dr. Druckenmiller.
“Now, we are one of the premier locations in the country for bird fossils from the dinosaur age.”
“Given the richness of this information, these small bones and teeth offer exceptional insights into the fauna from that era.”
It remains uncertain whether these newly discovered specimens are the earliest recognized members of Neornithes, a category that encompasses all modern birds.
Some of the newly unearthed bones exhibit skeletal characteristics exclusive to this group. Additionally, like contemporary birds, some did not possess true teeth.
“If they belong to a modern bird lineage, they would represent the oldest fossils ever found,” explained Dr. Druckenmiller.
“Currently, the oldest such fossils are about 69 million years old.”
“However, establishing that requires the discovery of a partial or complete skeleton.”
Survey results I will be featured this week in the journal Science.
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Lauren N. Wilson et al. 2025. Evidence of bird nesting in the Arctic dates back to the Cretaceous period. Science 388 (6750): 974-978; doi: 10.1126/science.adt5189
Illustration of an ancient bird nesting above the Arctic Circle
Gabriel Ugueto
Recent findings of bone fragments from Alaska indicate that birds have been nesting and breeding in the Arctic for at least 73 million years.
“It’s quite unusual, as raising a newborn in the Arctic is challenging,” explains study author Lauren Wilson from Princeton University.
Currently, around 250 bird species can thrive at the poles. Some migrate great distances to enjoy continuous daylight in summer, while others brave the winter, enduring extreme cold and long periods of darkness. However, knowledge about how these birds first adapted to the highest latitudes remains limited.
Wilson and her team searched for ancient avian traces within the Princreek Formation in northern Alaska, which formed on coastal floodplains about 73 million years ago. At that time, northern Alaska was approximately 1,000-1,600 kilometers closer to the Arctic than it is today.
The researchers retrieved ancient soil samples from several narrow rock layers, encountering temperatures of -30°C (-22°F) in a makeshift tent. “This has definitely been the most demanding fieldwork I’ve undertaken,” Wilson admits.
Back at the lab, they spent hours peering through microscopes at sediments smaller than two millimeters, hunting for tiny fossil bone fragments.
The team uncovered over 50 fossil fragments belonging to ancient birds, primarily from chicks and even embryos. The fossilized bones of these young birds exhibit a sponge-like texture, indicative of rapid bone growth.
Although birds likely began nesting in the Arctic Circle 73 million years ago, these fossils represent the earliest evidence of such behavior, extending the timeline of avian presence back by 30 million years.
However, many fossils are fragmented and do not clarify whether these birds remained year-round or only in the warm summer months.
“The Arctic’s food web, which supports life in extreme cold and darkness, couldn’t exist without the plethora of birds that inhabit high latitudes,” says Steve Brusatte from the University of Edinburgh, who wasn’t involved in the study. “These fossils illustrate that birds have been a vital part of these high-latitude ecosystems for tens of millions of years.”
Wilson’s team identified three major bird groups represented among the fossil fragments: extinct tooth-like birds similar to ducks, extinct tooth-like birds reminiscent of gulls, and various species that may be related to modern birds.
Conversely, the samples did not include bones from older bird groups known as enantiornithines, or “opposite birds.” Gerald Mayle from the Senckenberg Institute in Germany, who also wasn’t part of the study, noted that this finding suggests that more advanced bird ancestors could survive the harsh Arctic conditions due to certain evolutionary advantages that older birds lacked.
The ecosystems that shaped the Princreek Formation existed when non-avian dinosaurs dominated the planet, with evidence that ancient birds coexisted with species like tyrannosaurs and horned ceratopsians in these Arctic environments. Some dinosaurs even nested within the Arctic Circle.
Locally referred to as Makarahi, meaning “big rock,” this boulder was displaced over 200 m inland by a tsunami approximately 7,000 years ago.
Limestone rock Makarahi. Image credits: Kohler et al. , doi: 10.1016/j.margeo.2025.107567.
The Makarahi boulder measures 14 x 12 x 6.7 m and weighs nearly 1,200 tons, making it the largest known boulder located atop a cliff and one of the largest vibration-transport boulders globally.
This limestone formation is situated 200 meters away from the coastline on the southern shore of Tongatapu, Tonga.
“Our research focused on the southern part of Tongatapu Island, examining coastal cliffs that show signs of past tsunamis,” stated Martin Kohler, a Ph.D. candidate at the University of Queensland.
“At the end of our fieldwork day, while conversing with some local farmers, they pointed us toward this rock.”
“I was truly astonished. It was found inland, outside our designated research area, indicating it must have been moved there by a massive tsunami.”
“It was remarkable to witness this large boulder enveloped in lush vegetation.”
“We created a 3D model before returning to the coast to identify a location from which boulders could be dislodged from cliffs over 30 meters high.”
Through numerical modeling, the researchers determined that a wave height of roughly 50 m lasting about 90 seconds would be required to transport the Makarahi boulder from its original cliff edge to its new location.
“The University of Queensland has provided a fantastic opportunity to explore the forces shaping our world,” remarked Dr. Annie Lau, a coastal geomorphologist at the institution.
“The recent tsunami in Tonga in 2022 resulted in six fatalities and extensive damage.”
“Gaining insights into extreme past events is crucial for preparing and assessing risks related to current and future hazards.”
“The findings concerning the Makarahi boulder offer evidence of Holocene Pacific tsunamis that have occurred since about 11,700 years ago.”
“This analysis will enhance our understanding of rock wave transport and improve coastal hazard assessments in tsunami-affected regions worldwide.”
The team’s study is published in the journal Marine Geology.
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Martin Kohler et al. 2025. Investigating the world’s highest boulder atop a cliff: preliminary insights and numerical simulations of transport on cliffs ranging from 30-40 m in Tongatapu (Tonga). Marine Geology 487, 107567; doi:10.1016/j.margeo.2025.107567
Often referred to as the Earth’s “twin planet,” Venus presents a stark contrast in surface conditions, atmospheric composition, and structural characteristics. Gaining insight into the internal mechanisms that shape Venus’s surface remains a key objective in planetary science.
An artist’s impression of a volcanic eruption on Venus. Image credit: ESA/AOES Mediaab.
The Earth’s surface is perpetually reshaped through the continual movement and recycling of vast sections of the crust, known as tectonic plates, which float above the viscous mantle.
Unlike Earth, Venus lacks tectonic plates, but its surface is still influenced by molten material rising from beneath.
To better comprehend the processes underlying these transformations, scientists have examined structures known as corona.
With sizes ranging from dozens to hundreds of kilometers, coronae are primarily formed where hot, buoyant mantle material ascends and pushes against the lithosphere above.
These features generally exhibit an oval shape and are surrounded by a concentric fracturing pattern.
Researchers estimate that hundreds of coronae are present on Venus.
Utilizing archival data from NASA’s Magellan mission, Dr. Gael Cascioli from the University of Maryland and colleagues identified signs of surface or subsurface activity that significantly shaped many of Venus’s coronae.
“Coronae are not observable on Earth today. However, it is conceivable that our planet’s early history included formations before the advent of plate tectonics,” stated a recent paper published in the journal Advances in Science.
“By integrating gravity and topographical data, this research has provided critical new insights into the subterranean processes that likely continue to influence Venus’s surface today.”
Launched in 1989, Magellan employed a radar system to penetrate Venus’s dense atmosphere and create detailed maps of its mountainous and plain terrains.
Among the various geological features mapped, coronae were notably enigmatic, with their formation remaining initially unclear.
Since then, planetary scientists have detected numerous coronae in regions where the lithosphere is thin and geothermal activity is high.
“Coronae are plentiful on Venus, representing significant features, and over the years, multiple theories have been proposed concerning their formation,” remarked Dr. Anna Gürcher, a researcher at the University of Bern.
“The exciting aspect of our research is that we can now assert that ongoing activity processes driving their formation are highly probable.”
“We hypothesize that similar processes may have also taken place early in Earth’s history.”
Researchers have developed advanced 3D geodynamic models illustrating different scenarios for the formation of plume-induced coronae, which were then compared with Magellan’s gravity and topographic data.
Gravity data has proven instrumental in enabling researchers to detect low-density regions below the surface and identify buoyant structures at elevated temperatures, something that topographical data alone cannot reveal.
Of the 75 coronae analyzed, 52 exhibited buoyant mantle materials beneath them, suggesting potential for significant structural processes.
One critical process is subduction. On Earth, this occurs when one tectonic plate is pushed beneath another.
Friction between plates can induce earthquakes, and as older rocky material descends into the hotter mantle, those rocks melt and re-emerge at the surface through volcanic activity.
On Venus, various forms of subduction are suspected to happen around several coronae.
In this context, hot rock buoyancy within the mantle forces material into the lithosphere, resulting in surface material rising and spreading outward, colliding with surrounding areas and pushing some material back down into the mantle.
Additionally, another structural process known as lithosphere drip may exist, with denser cold materials sinking from the lithosphere into the heated mantle below.
Several locations have also been identified where a third process might be occurring, where molten rock plumes beneath thicker areas of the lithosphere could potentially drive volcanic activity above.
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Frog Casioli et al. 2025. Spectra of structural processes in Venus’ coronae revealed by gravity and topography. Advances in Science 11 (20); doi:10.1126/sciadv.adt5932
Significant amber deposits found in northern Japan may have been propelled from the forest into the sea by tsunamis occurring between 116 million and 114 million years ago during the early Cretaceous period. This is according to a recent study conducted by geological surveys at Japan and Chuo University.
Amber deposits from Sichuan Quarry in Hokkaido, northern Japan. Image credit: Kubota et al. , doi: 10.1038/s41598-025-96498-2.
Identifying traces of ancient tsunamis can be challenging, as the powerful waves tend to reshape coastlines. The sediment left behind often resembles deposits created by other high-energy events, like storms.
Nevertheless, amber, which originates on land and is then transported to the sea, acts as a historical record of tsunami occurrences, illuminating the physical processes influencing sediment movement during these events.
“A tsunami is a destructive ocean wave primarily caused by significant changes in submarine or coastal crust, as well as impacts from asteroids,” explains Dr. Aya Kubota, a researcher at geological surveys at Japan and Chuo University.
“They have been extensively studied during the Holocene (the last 11,700 years) due to their relevance in disaster prevention.”
“Aside from asteroid sediments, accurately identifying ancient tsunamis before major vegetation growth is extremely difficult for two key reasons.”
“First, coastal tsunami deposits are easily eroded in their dynamic environments. Second, well-defined criteria for identifying tsunami deposits have not been established, as they can be difficult to differentiate from other high-energy coastal events, such as cyclones.”
In their research, Dr. Kubota and colleagues examined amber-rich silica deposits from the Shiko River Quarry in northern Hokkaido, which formed during the early Cretaceous period around 115 million years ago.
Using fluorescence imaging, the authors discovered that the amber samples exhibited clear deformation in what is known as the flame structure. This occurs when the amber is still pliable at the time of deposition, allowing it to change shape before solidifying.
This suggests that a substantial quantity of amber was swiftly transported from land into the open ocean due to the backwash from one or more tsunamis, experiencing minimal exposure to air.
The amber then settled at the seabed, becoming covered with a layer of silt, which helped to preserve it.
“Other terrestrial sediments carried into open water could be instrumental in studying significant ancient catastrophic events, such as tsunamis,” the researchers concluded.
Their study was published in the journal Scientific Reports on May 15th.
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A. Kubota et al. 2025. Amber, a deep-sea sediment from the Cretaceous period, reveals a massive tsunami. Sci Rep 15, 14298; doi:10.1038/s41598-025-96498-2
Stepping into the Royal Society of London, the UK’s foremost National Academy of Sciences, you’ll encounter a three-word phrase: Nullius in Verba. This motto, held for over 350 years, translates to “I accept no one’s word.” Essentially, trust in science must be based on empirical evidence.
But what qualifies as evidence? This aspect becomes a bit more nuanced. The assertion that the sky is blue can be easily substantiated by anyone who can see it; therefore, little further proof is necessary. However, if someone claims the sky is purple, we’d need a robust explanation for our apparent oversight.
Another famous saying, attributed to astronomer Carl Sagan, encapsulates the demand for solid evidence: “Extraordinary claims require extraordinary evidence.” This issue highlights several notable recent examples that fall short of that standard.
The first example resonates strongly with Sagan’s perspective. Recently, astronomers proposed they detected gases potentially indicative of extraterrestrial life in distant exoplanets, but subsequent analysis suggests they may have found nothing. There’s also a significant backlash from biotechnology firm Colossal against the International Union for Conservation of Nature, alleging it “clears” threats to the wolf population.
The work of science is, as always, to dig deeper in hopes of revealing the truth.
There is considerable excitement surrounding these claims, with many hoping they prove true, but unfortunately, they do not hold up. We are committed to accurately reporting substantial claims, as seen in our discussion about the assertion that light is not subject to wave-particle duality, but consists solely of quantum particles.
This is indeed an extraordinary claim, challenging a century of established physics. As we explore, the evidence to substantiate this notion is currently lacking, though physicists remain intrigued enough to pursue further investigation. Without clear evidence disproving the claim, the essence of scientific inquiry remains: to dig deeper in hopes of uncovering the truth or, at the very least, our best approximation.
In Roman arenas, gladiators fought lions and other wildlife. Despite the tales of epic battles found in ancient texts, sculptures, mosaics, and portrayed in modern media, physical evidence of gladiators with animal-inflicted wounds has never been discovered by archaeologists.
Recently, skeletal remains from Roman settlements in the UK provided the first direct evidence of gladiators who were injured by lions.
The discovery was made during excavations in York, where a couple was planning to renovate their garden. The cemetery found at the site halted construction plans and revealed a rich Roman archaeological history in the region.
Tim Thompson, an anthropologist from Maynooth University and author of a paper published in the journal PLOS One, highlighted the significance of this discovery in shedding light on ancient Roman practices.
The site in York contained the remains of over 80 individuals, mostly young men with signs of trauma on their bodies. The demographics, injuries, and burial practices suggest that these individuals were gladiators who fought in the area nearly 1,800 years ago.
One particular skeleton, identified as 6DT19, displayed a unique wound on its hip bone that resembled bite marks from a large animal, possibly a lion.
Further analysis indicated that the injuries on the skeletons could indeed be bite marks from large animals like lions. This finding challenged previous beliefs about the absence of physical evidence of gladiators fighting animals.
Dr. Thompson and his team collaborated with British zoos to study animal bite marks and compare them to the skeletal injuries found on the ancient remains.
Through meticulous analysis and comparison, they concluded that the injuries on the gladiators matched those inflicted by lions. While the bite on 6DT19 likely did not cause death, it provided valuable insights into the practices and culture of the Roman Empire.
This discovery not only sheds light on individual lives from the past but also reveals the extent of Roman influence and entertainment involving gladiator battles with animals.
Dr. Marklein, an anthropologist from the University of Louisville, emphasized the significance of these findings in understanding Roman society and its use of violence as entertainment and political display.
Gladiator games served not only as spectacles of power but also as warnings and demonstrations of Roman citizenship and virtue.
This discovery underscores the complex relationship between humans, animals, and culture in ancient Rome.
Impressions of the artists of Planet K2-18B and its host star
ESA/Hubble, M. Kornmesser
Astronomers claim they have seen the most powerful evidence ever for living on another planet. However, other astronomers are cautioning until the findings are verified by other groups, allowing alternative, nonbiological explanations to be excluded.
“These are the first hints we see about the alien world we probably live in.” Nick Madhusdan We held a press conference at Cambridge University on March 15th.
Astronomers first discovered the Exoplanet K2-18B in 2015, quickly establishing it as a promising place for searching for life. Planets orbiting stars about eight times more than Earth, 124 light years away from us, sit in a habitable zone of stars where liquid water is present. Further observations in 2019 found evidence of water vapor. This led to the suggestion that, although not all astronomers agreed, the planet could be covered in oceans sitting under a hydrogen-rich atmosphere.
In 2023, Madhusudhan and his colleagues used James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) instruments to examine the atmosphere of the near-infrared light K2-18B, again finding evidence of water vapor and methane. However, they also found appetizing hints for dimethyl sulfide (DMS), a molecule that is produced exclusively by organisms on Earth, primarily by marine phytoplankton. However, the signs of DMS were very weak and many The astronomers argued Stronger evidence is needed to be certain about the existence of molecules.
Currently, Madhusudhan and his colleagues use different instruments to observe the K2-18b than the mid-infrared camera JWST. They discovered a much stronger signal against DMS and a molecule that could be called dimethyldisulfide (DMDS).
“What we’re finding is a line of independent evidence in different wavelength ranges with different equipment that can potentially biological activity on the planet,” Madhusdan said.
The team argues that detection of DMS and DMD is at three sigma levels of statistical significance. This corresponds to a 1/100 chance that a pattern of data like this will become absorption. In physics, the standard threshold for accepting something as a true discovery is five sigmas, which corresponds to 1-3.5 million chances that data is a coincidence.
Nicholas Wargan The NASA Ames Research Center in California says the evidence is more convincing than the 2023 results, but it should be verified by other groups. When data is published next week, other researchers can begin to review the findings, but this could take weeks or months as JWST data is difficult to interpret. “It’s not just about downloading data and checking if there’s a DMS. It’s this extremely complicated process,” says Wogan.
Other scientists are more skeptical of the findings. “These new JWST observations do not provide compelling evidence that DMS or DMD exists in the atmosphere of K2-18B.” Ryan McDonald At the University of Michigan. “We have a juvenile chase wolf situation in the K2-18B, where multiple previous 3-sigma detections have completely disappeared when subjected to closer scrutiny.
Madhusudhan and his team estimate that further 16 to 24 hours of further observations at the JWST will help reach 5-sigma levels, but observing the planet’s atmosphere means that this cannot be guaranteed.
“The relative size of the atmosphere compared to the planet’s size is pretty close to the thickness of the apple’s skin on top of the apple, which is what we’re trying to measure.” Thomas Beatty At the University of Wisconsin-Madison, where I was not part of the learning team. Wogan adds that reaching five sigmas may be fundamentally impossible due to the amount of noise in the data.
But if further observations prove that this is a real discovery, it would be a “risqué progress,” says Beatty. “Ignoring whether it was actually being produced for a moment, I said that ten years ago it is evidence of life in a planetary atmosphere that can certainly host it.”
Madhusudhan and his colleagues calculate that the potential concentration of DMS and DMD in K2-18B appears to be over ten parts, thousands of times more than the concentrations in the Earth’s atmosphere. This could show far more biological activity than Earth if the signal turns out to be correct, but establishing that chemicals have biological origins requires more work, he says.
“We need to be very careful,” Madhusdan said. “At this stage, when you detect DMS and DMD, you can’t claim it’s for life. Let’s be very clear about that.
It could take some time to eliminate another mechanism, Wogan says. “This kind of thing hasn’t been studied in practice. In a hydrogen-rich atmosphere, DM doesn’t know tons about it. It requires a lot of work.”
The difficulty in proving that it has no nonbiological explanations is that it could potentially put K2-18B in the category of viable biosignature candidates over a long period of time. Sarah Seager At Massachusetts Institute of Technology. “It could remain in that category for decades, because the problem will not be completely solved by providing limited data deplanets,” she says.
However, Madhusudhan says this discovery is important whether it comes from life or not. “This was a revolutionary moment, and we were able to come from a single cell life, not just as astronomers, but also for our species, from a single cell life billions of years ago, to a highly technological civilization where we could peer into the atmosphere of another planet and find evidence of actual biological activity,” he said.
The Mystery of the Universe: Cheshire, England
Spend a weekend with some of the brightest minds of science. Explore the mystery of the universe in an exciting program that includes an excursion to see the iconic Lovell telescope.
Congressional speeches have shifted to not based on evidence
volodymyr tverdokhlib/alamy
The language used by US Congress members in the debate has increasingly included words like “fake,” and “suspectful” for words like “proof,” and “reason.”
This linguistic trend, away from evidence in support of intuition, was revealed in an artificial intelligence analysis of millions of Congress speech transcripts. It also says it coincides with both the larger political polarization in Congress and the decline in the number of laws enacted through Congress. Stephen Lewandowski At the University of Bristol, UK.
“We can think of the truth as something that can be achieved based on an analysis of evidence, or we can think of it as the result of intuition or “gut sensation,” says Lewandowsky. “The concepts of integrity and truth are expressed in how we use everyday language.”
Adapting the ready-made AI language model, Lewandowsky and his colleagues analyzed the words used in the transcripts of eight million council speeches given between 1879 and 2022. They then calculated scores indicating whether a particular parliamentary speech was leaning towards evidence or intuition.
They found that since the 1970s, Congress has increasingly supported languages based on intuition rather than evidence-based languages. Before that, in the golden age of 1899-1901, and in the Great Repression of 1933-1935, intuitive language also skyrocketed.
“The findings fit the other impressions of anti-intellectualism, populism and rejection of science experts over the last decades.” John Jost At New York University.
The specific strength of the research is not only tracking frequency, but also assessing the context in which the words are displayed, he says Renata Nemet At the University of Eötvös Loránd, Hungary. “These models can capture deeper and often subtle connections between words, even reflecting cultural meanings and social relationships,” she says.
Second, Lewandowsky and his colleagues will look for similar language shifts for individual lawmakers in both Congress speeches and social media posts. They also seek to compare similar trends among other parliaments throughout history, including speeches from lawmakers from Italy and Germany.
Enjoy the beautiful scene of Music sounds as Maria and von Trapp’s children sing about the lonely Jasteld Jodel in the Austrian Alps (lay-ee-odl-lay-ee-odl-lay-hee-hoo).
Despite the picturesque moment, I was unfamiliar with these characters. Comparing their yodeling to that of monkeys in the rainforest of Latin America, it seems somewhat embarrassing.
Recent research conducted by Anglia Ruskin University (ARU) and the University of Vienna in collaboration with experts from Japan, Sweden, and Bolivia sheds light on this topic.
Through recordings and analysis of black and gold Howler monkeys, tufted capuchins, black-cap squirrel monkeys, and Peruvian spider monkeys at Randa Verde Wildlife Reserve in Bolivia, scientists discovered that these primates can jump three or more musical octaves at once, unlike human yodelers who span sub-octaves.
Dr. Jacob Dunn, an associate professor of evolutionary biology at ARU, highlighted how these voice leaps contribute to the primates’ communication abilities in complex social settings.
The unique vocalizations known as “ultra yodels” are made possible by the distinct anatomy of the monkey’s throat, specifically the vocal membrane. This thin tissue ribbon allows for extended pitch ranges, enhancing the monkeys’ vocal repertoire.
The evolution of monkeys’ vocal membranes contrasts with human vocal abilities, as they enhance pitch range but may lead to voice instability.
Capuchin Monkeys are known for their intelligence and tool use
While humans yodel by shifting between voice registers, monkeys utilize vocal membranes to produce complex vocal patterns without the need for intricate neural control.
Not all monkeys excel at yodeling, with Latin American monkeys displaying a particular proficiency due to their vocal membranes. This suggests the importance of these calls for certain species.
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