Breath-Taking Photos of Global Glacial Regions Captured by Sebastião Salgado

Sebastião Salgado's photography highlights environmental issues and the beauty of untouched landscapes.

Stunning Photo of the South Sandwich Islands by Sebastião Salgado, 2009

Photo by Sebastião Salgado

Sebastião Salgado is renowned for his poignant portraits that depict humanity’s struggles in a tumultuous world. His impactful work covers significant events, from the assassination attempt on U.S. President Ronald Reagan to conflicts in Africa, the Balkans, and the Middle East, and also chronicles the lives of workers and immigrants around the globe.

After documenting the Rwandan genocide, Salgado faced a personal crisis and withdrew to his family’s Brazilian farm, disheartened by the environmental devastation. Motivated by what he observed, he dedicated himself to restoring the Atlantic rainforest, which reignited his passion for photography. His acclaimed project, Genesis, captures the planet’s “untouched and undestroyed” areas, from Alaska’s mountains to the Amazon’s indigenous communities. These journeys transformed him into a staunch environmental advocate, as expressed in a separate interview.

Glaciers is a newly released book posthumously showcasing 65 breathtaking black-and-white images of glaciers, taken during Salgado’s Genesis project. These captivating frames capture both grand and subtle movements within frigid landscapes. The main image features a parade of penguins leaping from an iceberg into the turbulent waters of the South Sandwich Islands, while another captures a seabird swooping near an ice tower within the same region.

Remarkable shot captured by Sebastião Salgado in 2009, between Bristol and Bellingshausen Islands.

Photo by Sebastião Salgado

However, these majestic images remind us that glaciers are rapidly vanishing, with approximately 1,000 disappearing each year. The situation is dire: current projections indicate that nearly 80% of glaciers may be lost by 2100, which includes vast regions in western Canada, the United States, and the Alps.

Incredible image of Kluane National Park and Reserve, captured by Sebastião Salgado in 2011

Photo by Sebastião Salgado

The above image showcases a grand glacier wending through the majestic landscapes of Canada’s Kluane National Park. The following image exhibits clouds swirling around the ice formations atop Cerro Torre in Patagonia.

Stunning photo of Cerro Torre, Patagonia, captured by Sebastião Salgado in 2007

Photo by Sebastião Salgado

The following image shows a glacier calving at the rocky shores of Chile’s Torres del Paine National Park, illustrating the profound effects of climate change, as both surfaces have been sculpted by the relentless flow of ice.

Calving glacier in Torres del Paine National Park, Chile, photographed by Sebastião Salgado in 2007

Photo by Sebastião Salgado

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Source: www.newscientist.com

Neanderthal and Early Human Interbreeding Across Wide Regions: What the Evidence Shows

Artist’s Impression of Neanderthal Life

Christian Jegou/Science Photo Library

Homo sapiens and Neanderthals likely interbred across a vast region, extending from Western Europe to Asia.

Modern humans (Homo sapiens) and Neanderthals (Homo neanderthalensis) exhibited mixed ancestry, with most non-Africans today possessing Neanderthal DNA, approximating 2% of their genome. Neanderthals also engaged in interbreeding, leading to a lineage shift in the Y chromosome influenced by Homo sapiens.

Despite increasing knowledge about the timing of this hybridization, the specific regions and scales of these interactions long remained a mystery. Ancestors of Neanderthals departed Africa around 600,000 years ago, migrating toward Europe and Western Asia. The first evidence of Homo sapiens moving from Africa includes skeletal remains from sites in modern-day Israel and Greece, dating to approximately 200,000 years ago.

Evidence suggests that Homo sapiens contributed genetically to the Neanderthal population in the Altai Mountains around 100,000 years ago. However, the primary wave of migration from Africa occurred over 60,000 years ago. Recent studies utilizing ancient genomic data indicate that significant gene flow between Homo sapiens and Neanderthals began around 50,000 years ago, with findings documented in studies of 4000 and 7000 gene transfers.

This interaction is thought to have primarily taken place in the eastern Mediterranean, although pinpointing the exact locations remains challenging.

To investigate, Matthias Karat and his team from the University of Geneva analyzed 4,147 ancient genetic samples from over 1,200 locations, with the oldest dating back approximately 44,000 years. They studied the frequency of genetic mutations (introgression alleles) originating from Neanderthal DNA that were passed down through hybridization.

“Our objective was to use Neanderthal DNA integration patterns in ancient human genomes to determine the sites of hybridization,” Carlat explains.

Findings revealed that the proportion of transferred DNA increased gradually as one moved away from the eastern Mediterranean region, plateauing approximately 3,900 kilometers westward into Europe and eastward into Asia.

“We were surprised to identify a distinct pattern of increasing introgression rates in the human genome, likely linked to human expansion from Africa,” Carlat notes. “This increase toward Europe and East Asia allows us to estimate the parameters of this hybrid zone.”

Computer simulations showed a hybrid zone potentially spanning much of Europe and the eastern Mediterranean, extending into western Asia.

Interbreeding Zone between Neanderthals and Homo sapiens

Lionel N. Di Santo et al. 2026

“Our findings suggest a continuous series of interbreeding events across both space and time,” notes Carlat. “However, the specifics of mating occurrences in this hybrid zone remain unknown.”

This hybrid zone encompasses nearly all known Neanderthal remains found across Western Eurasia, with the exception of the Altai region.

“The extensive geographical breadth of the putative hybrid zone suggests widespread interactions among populations,” states Leonard Yasi from the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology in Leipzig, Germany.

Notably, the Atlantic periphery—including western France and much of the Iberian Peninsula—was not part of the hybrid zone, despite the established presence of Neanderthals in these regions. Currat suggests that interbreeding may not have occurred here or may not be reflected in the analyzed genetic samples.

“This study reveals ongoing interactions between modern humans and Neanderthals over extensive geographical areas and extended periods,” adds Yasi. The hybrid zone may extend further, though limited ancient DNA sampling in regions like the Arabian Peninsula complicates assessment of its reach.

“This pivotal research challenges the notion that interbreeding occurred only in one area of West Asia with a singular Neanderthal population (not represented in existing genetic samples). Homo sapiens appear to have dispersed from Africa in increasing numbers across expanding territories, likely outcompeting smaller Neanderthal groups they encountered throughout most of the recognized Neanderthal range,” comments Chris Stringer from the Natural History Museum in London.

Topics:

  • Neanderthal Man/
  • Ancient Humans

Source: www.newscientist.com

Polar Bears Increasingly Thrive in the World’s Hottest Regions: A Study on Weight Gains

Polar bears in Svalbard

Researchers Monitor Polar Bears’ Body Condition in Svalbard

John Earls, Norsk Arctic Institute

In the Svalbard archipelago of Norway, a region known for its climatic extremes, polar bears are surprisingly gaining weight despite the alarming reduction of sea ice. However, scientists warn this trend may not be sustainable.

The northern Barents Sea, located between Svalbard and Russia’s Novaya Zemlya, is warming disproportionately—seven times faster than the global average. Over the past two decades, sea ice around Svalbard has diminished, disappearing two months earlier each year. Currently, polar bears must swim over 200 kilometers between their hunting grounds and birthing caves.

<p>Despite this challenging environment, the overall size and weight of Svalbard’s polar bears has increased since 2000, presenting a puzzling contradiction. <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Jon-Aars-2">Jon Aars</a>, who led the research at the Norwegian Polar Institute, claims it's positive news for Svalbard. However, he cautions that areas most affected by climate change show severe decline in polar bear populations.</p>

<p>This widely dispersed solitary predator counts among its many challenges the difficulty of accurate population estimates. The numbers <a href="https://www.iucn-pbsg.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/PBSG-Status-Criteria-and-Report_Final_2024Oct7.pdf">are declining</a> in some regions while stable or even increasing in parts of Alaska, Canada, and Greenland; for nine populations, data remains insufficient.</p>

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<p>Estimations suggest the Barents Sea bear population ranges from 1,900 to 3,600 individuals, and appears stable or potentially increasing. From 1995 onward, researchers used tranquilizers via helicopter to study 770 bears, measuring their body length and thorax circumference to approximate weight.</p>
<p>Analysis of trends demonstrated a decline in body condition until 2000, followed by a gradual increase leading up to the last assessments in 2019.</p>

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                <p class="ArticleImageCaption__Title">Crucial Role of Sea Ice in Polar Bear Survival</p>
                <p class="ArticleImageCaption__Credit">Trine Lise Sviggum Helgerud, Norsk Arctic Institute</p>
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<p>In spring, the birth of seal pups on sea ice provides a vital food source for polar bears, allowing them to build fat reserves for the warmer months. Researchers like Earls speculate that diminishing ice may actually assist bears in hunting seals more easily.</p>
<p>With the retreating ice, bears are adapting by exploring new food sources. The approximately 250 bears remaining on Svalbard may increasingly hunt bearded and harbor seals along the coast, while thriving walrus populations might offer additional sustenance.</p>
<p>These adaptable "local bears" are now raiding nesting colonies for bird eggs and chasing reindeer, showcasing a remarkable resilience. According to researchers, such flexibility may be delaying their extinction, says <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Jouke-Prop">Jouke Prop</a> of the University of Groningen.</p>
<p>"This is a desperate tribe. They're doing unique things," he notes. "While this adaptability may not apply universally, it could suffice for a while in Svalbard."</p>
<p>Although polar bears have not yet reached Svalbard's ecological limits, thanks to the prohibition of hunting since 1973, warming temperatures threaten to disrupt the delicate food chain that begins with algae on sea ice, according to Prop.</p>
<p>"Should the sea ice vanish, sustaining a significant number of polar bears will become incredibly challenging," he warns.</p>
<p>"There exists a threshold beyond which continuous sea ice loss will negatively impact polar bears in Svalbard," Aars adds.</p>

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            <h3 class="SpecialArticleUnit__Heading">Uncover the Beauty of Svalbard and Tromsø</h3>
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                <p>Embark on an adventurous journey to Norway's Arctic region. Discover the scientific marvels behind the Northern Lights, the unique Arctic ecosystem, and how humans adapt to the challenges of the Far North.</p>
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Source: www.newscientist.com

Explore Tanzania’s Remote Regions: Stunning Images Showcasing Rich Biodiversity

A yellow baboon is standing guard.

Photo by Frederic Noy/Panos

Observe a young yellow baboon (above) surveying Tanzania’s Udzungwa Mountains National Park. Despite being shrouded in lush rainforests, this remote area has only recently been explored by biologists, revealing its unique biodiversity.

The park is a sanctuary for six primate species, including the Udzungwa red colobus and the Sanje crested mangabey, marking it as their last refuge. The Kipunji monkey, recognized as a new species in 2003, represents the first new monkey species discovery in Africa since the 1980s with the Sanje crested mangabey.

“It felt magical,” reflects photographer Frédéric Noy, who has documented the wildlife and landscapes of this rich area. “The ongoing discoveries of new fish in the deep sea and tiny insects on land aren’t surprising. But mammals are truly remarkable!”

In 2021, the Kipunji was assigned a new genus, Rungwesevas, marking the first significant monkey genus discovery since 1923. Current estimates suggest that only about 2,000 Kipunji monkeys survive, with a population residing in Udzungwa and sparse groups scattered across Tanzania.

Other fascinating findings in Uzungwa include the giant tree species, Tesmania Princeps, capable of reaching heights of 40 meters. This species was described as new just last year.

A local initiative, the Uzungwa Corridor, is actively restoring deforested areas by planting native trees, effectively connecting Udzungwa Mountains National Park with adjacent protected zones.

Cultivating seedlings for reforestation efforts at the Udzungwa Corridor Project.

Photo by Frederic Noy/Panos

This project utilizes carbon credits to provide local residents with financial incentives for planting trees on their land. The photo above depicts a nursery where trees and other vegetation are cultivated for these essential environmental initiatives.

Many community members in the Uzungwa region also maintain beehives (see below), primarily as an additional source of income. This beekeeping practice is promoted to offset the reduced access to resources in Udzungwa Mountains National Park. Moreover, beehives are believed to discourage elephants from entering the area, as elephants sometimes migrate from nearby regions, even though they do not inhabit the park itself.

Beehives strategically placed along a fence to deter elephants.

Photo by Frederic Noy/Panos

Sugarcane stands as a primary agricultural crop in this vibrant region. The image below showcases a truck transporting freshly harvested sugarcane amidst the picturesque backdrop of the Uzungwa Mountains, with part of Mitsui Falls visible as well.

Trucks transporting sugarcane against the backdrop of the Uzungwa Mountains.

Photo by Frederic Noy/Panos

This rewrite focuses on enhancing SEO by integrating keywords associated with the Udzungwa Mountains National Park, biodiversity, conservation efforts, and local agricultural practices while maintaining the original structure and HTML tags.

Source: www.newscientist.com

The Sun’s Coldest Regions Are Surprisingly Warmer Than Anticipated – Fool

The sun serves as a fundamental source of heat and light in the solar system, with its energy generated in the core through the collision of hydrogen ions and helium. Nuclear Fusion. Consequently, while the surface temperature of the sun is extremely hot by Earth’s standards—approximately 10,000°F or 5,600°C—it is relatively cooler compared to the center, which reaches around 27,000,000°F or 15,000,000°C.

Heat and light travel from the sun’s center to its surface via two main processes: one is similar to how the sun heats the Earth, known as radiation. Here, energy moves outward through light particles, or photons. Conversely, heat transfer occurs on Earth through the process of convection, with cold gas descending while warm gas rises. This creates a swirling motion within the sun, where hot gases near the core move upward and cooler gases sink back down.

A diagram of the sun illustrating how convection and radiation influence heat movement at different depths. “Sun poster” by Kelvinsong is licensed under CC by-sa 3.0.

The interplay of radiation, convection, and the sun’s varying rotational speeds based on distance from the equator results in uneven heating of the solar surface, leading to both hot and cold areas. While scientists have a grasp of this general pattern, discrepancies exist between models predicting solar surface temperatures and observed data. The model estimates a temperature of around 2,000 Kelvin (k), translating to approximately 3,100°F or 1,700°C for the coldest sections, yet actual findings indicate these regions are around 4,000k, or about 6,700°F or 3,700°C.

This paradox highlights the challenges in understanding heat transfer within the sun. Several unknown factors may lead to the observed discrepancy of over 1,000k in the coldest spots. A team of researchers investigated one possible explanation for the missing heat by conducting both two-dimensional and three-dimensional simulations. They hypothesized that when convection separates neutral charged gases from the sun’s center, negatively charged electrons are driven by a magnetic field near the sun’s surface, generating additional heat. This phenomenon is referred to as Thermal Farley-Bnemann’s instability, or TFBI Turbulence.

The team employed two computer programs, ebysus and Epic, to simulate these cold bubbles in the outer layer of the sun, known as the Chrome area, over a span of 8-10 milliseconds. They incorporated variables such as material density, magnetic field strength, and collision frequency into their simulations. The TFBI turbulence was then integrated into the 2D ebysus model, which was compared with heating observed in the EPPIC simulations in both 2D and 3D.

The primary distinction between the programs lies in how they treat gas: ebysus models it as a swirling liquid, facilitating easier movement calculations, while Epic views it as a collection of bouncing particles that generate electromagnetic fields, complicating calculations. They conducted five simulations: one in 2D with EBYSUS, which was the fastest yet potentially the least accurate, one in 2D with Epic, which was slower but arguably more realistic, and two in 3D with EPPIC, which, while the slowest, yielded the most accurate outcomes.

The results from their 2D simulations indicated that turbulent heating could increase temperatures in cold regions by over 700,000. Similar findings were observed in the 3D simulations as well. The team contended that their simulations demonstrated how turbulence from the TFBI could augment heat in the sun’s cooler areas beyond what convection and radiation contribute. Nonetheless, they recommended that future research extend over longer time frames to fully grasp the implications of these processes. Additionally, comparisons between 2D and 3D simulations suggest that scientists can effectively investigate this phenomenon using quicker 2D fluid models, achieving results comparable to more complex and resource-intensive 3D particle models.


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Source: sciworthy.com

Research: Triassic Reptiles May Have Migrated Across Unfavored Tropical Regions

Paleontologists employing a novel method of geographic analysis have theorized about the dispersion of paleo-ausauromorphs following the Permian mass extinction, one of the most significant climate events in Earth’s history.

Benggwigingasuchus erimicarminis Pansarassan Ocean Coast. Image credit: Jorge Gonzalez.

The earliest pale aurauromorphs, akin to contemporary reptiles, are perceived by many synthetic biologists as existing in dead zones, believed to thrive only in select regions due to extreme heat prevalent in tropical zones.

In a recent study, paleontologist Joseph Flannery Sutherland from the University of Birmingham, along with his team, uncovered clues on how these reptiles traversed the globe during the Triassic period.

The researchers employed a novel modeling technique grounded in landscape reconstruction and evolutionary phylogenies.

Having survived the extinction event, Archosauromorphs became a crucial component of the Triassic Earth’s ecosystem, paving the way for the emergence of dinosaurs.

Current research indicates their later success can be attributed to their ability to traverse up to 16,000 km (10,000 miles) across tropical dead zones to explore new ecosystems.

“Despite being among the direst climatic events in Earth’s timeline, resulting in the death of more species than in any other epoch, life persisted,” remarked Dr. Flannery Sasherland.

“The group of Archosauromorphs emerged from this event and became key players in shaping life thereafter.”

“The gaps in their fossil records are beginning to reveal insights into aspects of these reptiles we previously overlooked.”

“By utilizing the modeling system, we created images representing the condition of Archosauromorphs amid these gaps and their dispersal across the ancient landscape.”

“This research examined topography and routes mapped through both spatial and temporal dimensions, which we have coined as our ‘Tardis’ approach.”

“Our findings suggest these reptiles exhibit remarkable resilience to the extreme climates of the Panguian tropical dead zone, enabling them to endure these harsh conditions and reach distant regions.”

“This capacity to thrive in inhospitable tropical environments likely gave them the edge necessary to prosper in the Triassic landscape.”

“While life has often been dictated by environmental factors, integrating the limited and uncertain knowledge of ancient terrains with the incomplete understanding of extinct species is challenging,” stated Professor Michael Benton from the University of Bristol.

“However, combining fossil data with reconstructed maps of the ancient world offers a means to address these challenges within the context of evolutionary trees.”

Study published in the journal Natural Ecology and Evolution.

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JT Flannery-Sutherland et al. The phylogeny, described as a landscape, illuminates the ecological radiation of early paleoasauromorph reptiles. Nat Ecol Evol Published online on June 11th, 2025. doi:10.1038/s41559-025-02739-y

Source: www.sci.news

Fossils from 73 Million Years Ago Reveal the Earliest Evidence of Bird Nesting in Polar Regions

Polar ecosystems are bolstered and enriched by birds that nest there seasonally, serving as keystone members of these ecosystems. Despite the significant ecological role of polar birds, the origins of high-center nests remain unclear due to limited fossil evidence. A recent study conducted by paleontologists explored an extensive collection of bird fossils from the late Cretaceous Purine Cream Formation in Alaska.

Illustration of Cretaceous birds alongside other dinosaurs from the same period. Image credit: Gabriel Ugueto.

“Birds have existed for 150 million years,” stated Lauren Wilson, a doctoral candidate at Princeton University.

“For a significant portion of that time, they constructed nests in the Arctic.”

In their research, Wilson and colleagues studied the bones and teeth of fossilized birds from the Alaska Prune Creek Formation, dating back 73 million years.

They identified various bird types, including land birds, seagull-like birds, and diving birds that bear similarities to some modern ducks and geese, all of which were nesting in the Arctic while dinosaurs roamed the same territory.

Before this research, the earliest known evidence of breeding birds in the Arctic or Antarctic was approximately 47 million years ago, following the asteroid impact that wiped out 75% of Earth’s species.

“This will extend the timeline by 25-30 million years for records of birds breeding in the polar regions,” remarked Dr. Pat Druckenmiller, director of the University of Alaska Museum.

“The Arctic is recognized as a modern nursery for birds.”

“Finding bird bones from the Cretaceous period is exceptionally rare,” Wilson noted.

“Discovering baby bird bones is almost unheard of, making these fossils particularly significant.”

“We conducted extensive mapping of Alaska for fossil birds—it wasn’t on anyone’s radar,” added Dr. Druckenmiller.

“Now, we are one of the premier locations in the country for bird fossils from the dinosaur age.”

“Given the richness of this information, these small bones and teeth offer exceptional insights into the fauna from that era.”

It remains uncertain whether these newly discovered specimens are the earliest recognized members of Neornithes, a category that encompasses all modern birds.

Some of the newly unearthed bones exhibit skeletal characteristics exclusive to this group. Additionally, like contemporary birds, some did not possess true teeth.

“If they belong to a modern bird lineage, they would represent the oldest fossils ever found,” explained Dr. Druckenmiller.

“Currently, the oldest such fossils are about 69 million years old.”

“However, establishing that requires the discovery of a partial or complete skeleton.”

Survey results I will be featured this week in the journal Science.

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Lauren N. Wilson et al. 2025. Evidence of bird nesting in the Arctic dates back to the Cretaceous period. Science 388 (6750): 974-978; doi: 10.1126/science.adt5189

Source: www.sci.news

Hubble zooms in on the starry regions of the upcoming galaxy

New images taken with the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope show a small area of the Small Magellanic Cloud, one of the closest galaxies to the Milky Way.



This Hubble image shows a small area of the Small Magellanic Cloud near the center of open cluster NGC 346. Image credits: NASA/ESA/Hubble/C. Murray.

Small Magellanic Cloud is an elongated dwarf galaxy known for its less prominent bars and eastern expansions.

Also known as the NGC 292 or LEDA 3085, it is about 200,000 light years away from Earth, extending 7,000 light years.

“Most of the Small Magellanic Cloud is found in the constellations of Tucana, but small sections cross the adjacent constellations of Hydos,” said Hubble astronomers.

“Thanks to its proximity, the Small Magellanic Cloud is one of the few galaxies that can be seen from Earth without the help of telescopes or binoculars.”

“For viewers in the Southern Hemisphere and some latitudes in the Northern Hemisphere, the Small Magellanic Cloud resembles parts of the broken Milky Way, but in reality, it is farther than any part of our own galaxy.”

The new Hubble image captures a small area of the Small Magellanic Cloud near the center of NGC 346.

Images were made from individual exposures taken with UV light. Hubble Wide Field Camera 3 (WFC3).

“With the 2.4m 'eyes' and sensitive instruments, Hubble's view of the Small Magellanic Cloud is much more detailed and clearer than what humans can see,” the astronomer said.

“I used a wide field camera 3 instruments from Hubble. Observe This scene is through four different filters. “

“Each filter recognizes light of different wavelengths and creates a multicolored view of dust clouds floating through the field of stars.”

“But Hubble's view is much zoomed in than our eyes, so it's better to observe objects that are very far away.”

Source: www.sci.news

Potential Massive Energy Sources Await Discovery in Earth’s Mountainous Regions

In the quest for clean energy and a shift away from fossil fuels, scientists may have uncovered new sources of power, potentially hidden in our mountains. A team of researchers from Germany has identified a vast reservoir of hydrogen gas, generated by rocks formed millions of years ago, through advanced simulations.

This discovery is significant as hydrogen (H2) as a power source does not emit greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, making it a more sustainable alternative to fossil fuels that contribute to climate change. Additionally, the production of hydrogen results in water instead of harmful emissions. However, the challenge lies in the fact that natural hydrogen production is rare, with the current synthetic production relying on fossil fuels.

The main hurdle in hydrogen production is sourcing it naturally. While geological processes can generate natural hydrogen without the need for fossil fuels, the availability of large accessible reserves remains uncertain. The recent study conducted by German researchers could potentially address this issue.

“We may be on the brink of a new era in natural hydrogen exploration,” said Dr. Frank Zworn, the lead author of the study published in the journal Advances in Science. “This could pave the way for a new natural hydrogen industry.”

https://c02.purpledshub.com/uploads/sites/41/2025/02/Earths-mantle.mp4
The rocks that produce hydrogen gas originate from the Earth’s mantle, constituting a significant portion beneath the Earth’s crust. Video Credits: Getty Images

Researchers at the GFZ Helmholtz Center for Geosciences in Germany utilized simulations of plate tectonic processes to identify a substantial reserve of natural hydrogen.

Natural hydrogen can be generated through various methods, such as bacterial transformation of organic matter or the splitting of water molecules due to radioactivity in the Earth’s crust. However, one of the most promising natural methods involves a geological process known as “serpentinization,” where rocks from the Earth’s mantle react with water to release H2 gas.

According to researchers, when these hydrogen-rich rocks are situated near the Earth’s surface, they can create potential zones for large-scale hydrogen production via excavation. These rocks are brought closer to the surface through processes such as continental rifting and mountain formation over millions of years.

As the crustal plates collide and create mountains, deep mantle rocks push up to the surface of the Earth. ‘Hot spots’ of hydrogen gas were identified where these rocks surfaced. – Image credit: CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 USGS/ESEU Frankswaan edition, GFZ

By analyzing two processes, researchers determined that mountain formation offers ideal conditions for hydrogen generation. The combination of cold environments in mountains and increased water circulation could enhance hydrogen levels significantly. Simulations showed that rocks emerging through mountain formations have 20 times the hydrogen capacity compared to those brought to the surface via continental rifting.

Signs of natural hydrogen production have already been observed in mountainous regions such as the Pyrenees, European Alps, and Balkans. The research team anticipates that their findings will inspire further exploration of natural hydrogen in these areas and other mountainous regions.

Professor Sasha Brune, the head of the geodynamic modeling section at GFZ, emphasized the economic prospects tied to natural hydrogen. He stated, “It is now crucial to delve deeper into the migration pathways of microbial ecosystems that consume hydrogen, both shallow and deep, and to gain a better understanding of where potential hydrogen reservoirs can be formed.”

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Source: www.sciencefocus.com

The Gondwana supercontinent likely originated dinosaurs in low latitude regions

Dinosaurs dominated the athletics ecosystem of middle-aged middle for about 160 million years, but their biological geographical origin is still well understood. The oldest clear dinosaur fossils appeared in southern South America and Africa, 230 million years ago, and most authors propose that the southern western Gondwana is likely to be the center of its origin. However, the high diversity of these early groups suggests the history of older evolution. A new study led by University College London shows that dinosaurs, and perhaps the closer species of the main dragon as a wider group of lords, may have spread radially in the low latitude area of Gondwana. I am.

Nyasaasaurus It may be the most known dinosaur, or it may be a close-related species of early dinosaurs. Image Credit: Mark Witton / London Natural History Museum Management Committee.

“The oldest, the oldest dinosaur fossils are about 230 million years ago and have been excavated in the south of Brazil, Argentina, and Zimbabwe,” said Dr. Universi College London. Student Joel Heath and his colleagues.

“However, the difference between these fossils suggests that dinosaurs had already evolved for a while, indicating that their origin was millions ago.”

The authors have discovered that the earliest dinosaurs appeared in hot equatorial areas of the Gondwana Super continent (currently Amazon, Congo Basin, and the Sahara Desert).

“Dinosaurs have been well studied, but I'm not sure where they came from. The fossil records have a big gap and cannot be received at face value,” said Heath.

“Our modeling suggests that the oldest dinosaurs may have originated on the low-latitude of Gondwana in the western part.”

“This is a hot and dry environment that has been considered so far, and is composed in areas like deserts and savannas.”

“So far, no dinosaur fossils have been found in Africa and South America, which once formed this area of Gondwana.”

“However, this is due to the difficulty of access and the lack of research efforts in these fields relatively due to the lack of research efforts, and that researchers have not yet met the right rock. There is a possibility.

In this study, we used dinosaurs and their nearly related reptiles, evolved systematics, and geography at the time.

It was not an area where fossils were not present, but by treating the area on the earth where fossils were not found as missing information, the gap of fossil records was supplemented.

Initially, the number of early dinosaurs was much larger than reptile relatives. These contained crocodile, fake nests, and the ancestors of wing dragons.

In contrast, the earliest dinosaurs were much smaller than their descendants, as large as chickens and dogs than humans. Diprodox

They walked on two legs (it was a bipedal), and most of them were miscellaneous animals.

210 million years ago, the eruption of volcanoes caused dinosaurs to be dominant after many of the reptiles, the relatives of dinosaurs, were extinct.

The new modeling result shows dinosaurs and other reptiles originated in low-latit Gondwana, later spread radially outside, and later in the southern part of Gondwana and later in Europe, Asia, and North America. It suggested that it could have spread to.

The background of this origin comes from the fact that the oldest dinosaurs were found in the southern part of the Gondwana continent and the intermediate point between the place where many fossils of the nearby species were found in the northern Lolacia. 。

Because it is uncertain about how the oldest dinosaurs are related to each other and how they were related to the closest species, researchers are models based on the three proposed evolutionary trees. Was executed.

They discovered the strongest background on dinosaur’s low-latit Gondovana, which was traditionally considered to be a dinosaur, but not a dinosaur itself, as the ancestor of the Title Dinosaur.

One of the three major dinosaur groups, including tsutos and later herbivorous animals Stegosaurus and TriceratopsStrangely, it does not exist in the early fossil record of the dinosaur era.

If the Sillesaurus is the ancestor of the tillage, this will help you fill this gap in the evolution genealogy.

“Our research has suggested that the early dinosaurs may have adapted well in hot and dry environments,” said Philip Manion, a professor of University College London.

“Of the three major dinosaur groups, one group is dragonodes, which includes the following: Bronto Saurus and DiprodoxIt seemed to maintain the low latitudes of the earth and prefer a warm climate. “

“The other two groups, beast legs and birds have developed the ability to generate their own body temperature in the Jurassic Million years later, and can prosper even in cold areas, including extreme areas. There is evidence to show.

of study Published in a magazine Current biology

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Joel A. Heath Other。 Considering the unevenness of the sampling, it suggests that the dinosaur origin has a low ancient latitude. Current biologyReleased online on January 23, 2025. Doi: 10.1016/J.Cub.2024.12.053

Source: www.sci.news

Mars’ polar regions covered in white due to carbon dioxide ice

Planetary scientists using ESA's Mars Express spacecraft's high-resolution stereo camera have captured stunning images of Earth's mysterious landscapes. Australe Scopri Region in the southern hemisphere of the red planet.

Frozen landscape of the Australe Skopli region on Mars' south pole. Image credit: ESA / DLR / FU Berlin.

“Here, a layer of carbon dioxide ice and dust envelops the site, turning Mars white,” ESA researchers said in a statement.

“The contrasting light and dark layers are especially striking on the exposed surfaces of hills and valleys.”

“They track the seasonal polar layered deposits characteristic of the region, which form when layers of ice freeze and trap varying amounts of dust within them. It is something that will be done.”

“It's probably better to take a sled ride, but either way, dress warmly, because it's -125 degrees Celsius (-193 Fahrenheit) outside so it's cold,” they added.

“Skiers and sledders on Mars will have to slalom around potentially hundreds of dust jets.”

“That's because ski season is almost over and it's starting to look like spring, or even summer. This image was taken on June 16, 2022, near the Antarctic summer solstice.”

If you zoom in on the image above, you can see numerous dark spots where the ice has already sublimated. This is a sure sign that the sun's warming rays have been hitting the area for some time.

“When sunlight hits the translucent upper layer of carbon dioxide ice, it warms the underlying surface,” the scientists explained.

“The ice at the bottom of the layer begins to sublimate, forming pockets of trapped gas.”

“As the pressure increases, the overlying ice suddenly cracks, causing gas to burst out from the surface.”

“These gas fountains carry black dust from below, which falls to the surface in a fan-shaped pattern depending on the prevailing wind direction.”

“Fan lengths range from tens of meters to hundreds of meters.”

“If you look more closely, it often appears that the fans follow the boundaries between polar layered deposits.”

“Perhaps these boundaries represent zones of weakness, from which escaping dust-laden jets can more easily break through the ice layer.”

“We may have missed the chance to create 'Frosty the Snowman,' but it's still a wonderful time of year on Mars.”

Source: www.sci.news

New fossil discovery suggests that Therapsids originated in the tropics, not temperate regions

Paleontologists have discovered a new species of early gorgonopsian therapsid that was part of the ancient summer humid biome of equatorial Pangea.



Recreating the life of the Gorgonopsians of Mallorca in a floodplain environment. Image credit: Henry Sutherland Sharpe.

Therapsids were a major component of Permian terrestrial ecosystems around the world, eventually giving rise to mammals in the early Mesozoic Era.

However, little is currently known about when and where it originated.

“Therapsids are a diverse and ecologically successful clade of tetrapods, of which the modern representatives are mammals,” says paleontologist at the Museum of Science and Nature in Barea and the Paleontological Institute of Catalonia. said Dr. Rafel Matamares and colleagues.

“The roots of this clade date back to the late Paleozoic era, when non-mammalian therapsids were important components of terrestrial ecosystems.”

“The oldest distinct therapsids known to date were Laranimus dashankoensisprobably from the Rhodian (Late Middle Permian) deposits of Central East Asia.

“However, phylogenetic analyzes consistently show that therapsids are a sister group to the pterosaur ‘perisaurian’ class monoapsids, which originated in Pennsylvania (about 320 million years ago). It suggests that

“This implies a long lineage of therapsid ghosts spanning about 40 million years.”

The newly discovered therapsid is the oldest of its kind, and possibly the oldest therapsid ever discovered.

This dog-like saber-toothed animal does not yet have a species name, but it belongs to a group of therapsids called gorgonopsids.

“Gorgonopsids are more closely related to mammals than to other modern animals,” said Dr. Ken Angielczyk, a paleontologist at the Field Museum.

“They have no modern descendants and are not our direct ancestors, but they are related to species that were our direct ancestors.”

“The oldest known gorgonopsids lived about 265 million years ago, but the newer fossils date from 270 to 280 million years ago.”

“This is probably the oldest chrysophyte on Earth,” said Dr. Josep Fortuny, a paleontologist at the Miquel Crusafont Catalan Institute of Paleontology.

This fossil was discovered on the Spanish island of Mallorca in the Mediterranean Sea. However, during the time of the Gorgonopsians, Mallorca was part of the supercontinent Pangea.

“The amount of bone remains is surprising,” Dr. Matamares said.

“We found everything from fragments of skulls, vertebrae and ribs to a very well-preserved femur.”

“In fact, when we started this excavation, we did not expect to find so many fossils of this type of animal in Mallorca.”

“If you saw this animal walking down the street, you would think it would look a little like a medium-sized dog, maybe about the size of a husky, but that’s not entirely true,” says Dr. Angielczyk.

“It didn’t have any fur, and it probably didn’t have dog ears.”

“But this is the oldest animal with long, blade-like canine teeth that scientists have ever discovered.”

“These saber-like teeth suggest that this gorgonopsid was the top predator of its time.”

The fact that this gorgonopsian is tens of millions of years older than its closest relatives has changed scientists’ understanding of the evolutionary time of therapsids, key milestones to the emergence of mammals, and, by extension, where we came from. It tells us something about Tanoka.

“Before the age of dinosaurs, there was the age of our ancient mammalian relatives,” Dr. Angielczyk said.

“Most of those ancient mammal relatives looked nothing like what we think of as mammals today.”

“But they were really diverse and had different ecological roles.”

“This new fossil discovery is another piece of the puzzle of how mammals evolved.”

This finding is reported in the following article: paper Published in a magazine nature communications.

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R. Matamares-Andrew others. 2024. Early-Middle Permian Mediterranean gorgonopsids suggest an equatorial origin for therapsids. Nat Commune 15, 10346; doi: 10.1038/s41467-024-54425-5

Source: www.sci.news

Unseasonably Warm Halloween Weather Sweeps Midwest and Northeastern Regions

overview

  • Halloween is expected to be much warmer than usual in many parts of the country this year.
  • More than 30 cities in the Northeast could set new temperature records on Thursday.
  • Unseasonably warm weather arrives in the midst of a warmer-than-usual fall in various parts of the United States

For trick-or-treaters in many parts of the country, that familiar chill may not be in the air this Halloween.

More than 30 cities in the Northeast, including Boston, New York, and Washington, D.C., could experience record high temperatures on Thursday. Many cities in the Midwest are also expected to see temperatures 10 to 30 degrees warmer than usual for this time of year.

High temperatures in Boston are expected to reach 80 degrees Fahrenheit, making it one of the warmest Halloweens in 80 years, said National Weather Service forecaster Caitlin Mensch. The city’s current high temperature of 81 degrees was set on October 31, 1946.

“We’re well above normal for this time of year,” Mensch said.

Given the unseasonably warm weather, she encouraged trick-or-treaters to stay hydrated and apply sunscreen if it’s still light.

The high temperature in New York City on Thursday is expected to be 78 degrees and in Washington, D.C., a high of 81 degrees.

Temperatures in the Midwest will be similarly mild in late October. Cleveland’s high temperature could reach 78 degrees, and St. Louis’ expected high of 68 degrees could make this year among the 30 hottest Halloweens in the region in the last 100 years, the National Weather Service says. said Jared Maples, a meteorologist with the St. Louis bureau. Louis.

Temperatures could reach up to 68 degrees in Chicago. If that happens, this year’s Halloween will be one of the 10 warmest days ever recorded, said Zachary Yack, a meteorologist with the National Weather Service’s Chicago office. The normal weather for Halloween in the area is 56 degrees.

“We’ve had a pretty warm pattern over the last few weeks across the Great Lakes and much of the Midwest,” Yack said. “We’re tracking this high-pressure system, and high-pressure systems tend to have clearer skies and warmer temperatures most of the time.”

Forecasters expect temperatures to drop by the end of the week.

Autumn is generally warmer than usual in some parts of the country. In early October, much of the western United States was hit by an unusual heatwave, with temperatures soaring into triple digits in cities such as Phoenix, Las Vegas, Napa, and San Jose, California. Dozens of new daily heat records were set across California, Arizona, and Nevada.

Last year was the hottest on record on Earth, and scientists say global temperature records are on track to be broken again in 2024.

Source: www.nbcnews.com

5,000 years ago, Cacao likely spread from the Amazon to other regions in Central and South America

Humans have a long history of transporting and trading plants, contributing to the evolution of cultivated plants. The cacao tree (Theobroma cacao), whose beans are used to make products such as chocolate, liqueurs, and cocoa butter, is native to the Neotropics of South America. However, little is known about its cultivation and use in these regions. In a new study, archaeologists analyzed ceramic residues from a large sample of pre-Columbian cultures in Central and South America. Their findings reveal that cacao was widely used in South America outside of its Amazonian region, going back 5,000 years.



Recent discoveries have recorded the domestication of cacao trees (Theobroma cacao) inhabited its native Amazon region of Ecuador by at least 5,300 years ago. Lanau other. This study shows that a large-scale landscape of domestication of cacao outside of its native region along the Pacific coast of South America occurred simultaneously during this same early period and later periods. Image credit: Fernando Granier.

The modern cacao tree (its scientific name means “food of the gods”) is one of the world’s most important crops.

Eleven genetic groups are known, including the widely used Criollo and Nacional strains.

Although it is well established that the cacao tree was originally domesticated in the upper Amazon basin, it has not been clear how the use of cacao by other cultures spread throughout Central and South America.

In a new study, AGAP Institute researcher Claire Lanau and colleagues found 352 ceramic remains from 19 pre-Columbian cultures dating back approximately 5,900 to 400 years, spanning Ecuador, Colombia, Peru, Mexico, Belize, and Panama. was analyzed.

Researchers tested ancient cacao’s DNA and the presence of three methylxanthine (mild stimulant) compounds (theobromine, theophylline, and caffeine) present in modern cacao tree lineages to determine the ancient cacao’s DNA. Identified the residue.

The authors also used genetic information from 76 modern cocoa samples to establish the ancient cocoa ancestry present in ceramic products. This could reveal how ancient cocoa strains diversified and spread.

The study results show that cacao was domesticated in the Amazon at least 5,000 years ago, and was soon cultivated extensively along the Pacific coast, with high diversity among ancient lineages likely due to genetic This shows that different populations were bred together.

The presence of cacao genotypes originating from the Peruvian Amazon in the Valdivia coastal region of Ecuador suggests that these cultures have been in contact for many years.

The Peruvian strain was also detected in artifacts from Colombia’s Caribbean coast.

“Taken together, these indicate that cocoa varieties spread widely across countries and were interbred to adapt to new environments as different cultures adopted the use of cocoa,” the researchers said.

“A better understanding of cocoa’s genetic history and diversity may help combat the threats facing modern cocoa varieties, such as disease and climate change.”

a paper The survey results were published in a magazine scientific report.

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C. Lanau other. 2024. Revisiting the history of pre-Columbian cacao cultivation revealed through an archaeogenomic approach. science officer 14, 2972; doi: 10.1038/s41598-024-53010-6

Source: www.sci.news

Surprising Images of Nearby Star-Forming Regions Captured by Hubble

astronomer using NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope We captured a vivid image of IRAS 16562-3959, a beautiful star-forming region in the constellation Scorpius.



This Hubble image shows IRAS 16562-3959, a star-forming region about 5,900 light-years away in the constellation Scorpius. Image credits: NASA / ESA / Hubble / R. Fedriani / J. Tan.

IRAS 16562-3959The star, also known as 2MASX J16594225-4003451, is located 5,900 light-years away in the constellation Scorpius.

“At the center of the image, IRAS 16562-3959 is thought to contain a massive star with a mass approximately 30 times that of the Sun, which is still in the process of formation,” Hubble team members said in a statement. Ta.

“At the near-infrared wavelengths that Hubble detects, the central region appears dark because there is so much dust in the way.”

“Near-infrared light, however, primarily leaks out from two sides, the top left and bottom right, where powerful jets from massive protostars are removing dust.”

“The multi-wavelength images containing this amazing Hubble scene will help us better understand how the largest and brightest stars in the Milky Way are born.”

The new image of IRAS 16562-3959 was created from separate exposures taken in the near-infrared region of the spectrum. Hubble's Wide Field Camera 3 (WFC3).

Four filters were used to sample different wavelengths. Color is obtained by assigning different hues to each monochromatic image associated with an individual filter.

“A filter is a thin piece of highly specialized material that only allows light at very specific wavelengths to pass through,” the astronomer explained.

“We can slide them in front of the light-sensing part of the telescope, allowing us to control which wavelengths of light the telescope collects for each observation.”

“This is useful not only for certain scientific studies, but also for creating images like this.”

“Regardless of which filter was used, raw telescopic observations are always monochrome,” they added.

“However, specially trained artists and image professionals can choose colors that match the wavelength range covered by individual filters.”

“Alternatively, if a direct match is not possible, for example the data used in this image is all in the infrared range, to which the human eye is not sensitive, so the artist has chosen colors that are wisely representative of what they are trying to represent.” You can. It’s happening.”

“For example, shorter wavelengths might be assigned a bluer color and longer wavelengths a redder color, as is the case with the visible light range.”

“The data from multiple filters can then be combined to build multicolor images that look beautiful and have scientific meaning.”

Source: www.sci.news