Tag Archives: structures

Archeopteryx’s Feeding Structures: Evidence of Evolving Flight Demands, Researchers Reveal

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A groundbreaking study by paleontologists at the Field Museum of Natural History reveals that Archeopteryx, the oldest known bird, has a feeding mechanism intricately shaped by the demands of early flight. This discovery implies a simultaneous evolution of diet and aerodynamics during the early history of birds. For detailed insights, check the full report, coming this week in Innovation.

Reconstruction of Archeopteryx, highlighting features such as an oral papilla, a beak tip organ, and a flexible tongue supported by an extra lingual bone. Image credit: Vir Shinkonen.

Flying demands a significant amount of energy compared to walking, swimming, or running, making it one of the most physically taxing forms of exercise. Birds have therefore evolved specialized strategies for efficient food intake and digestion.

Archeopteryx, the oldest known bird-like dinosaur, inhabited regions of present-day Germany around 150 million years ago during the Jurassic period.

Dr. Jingmai O’Connor, associate curator of fossil reptiles at the Field Museum, states, “For a long time, the characteristics defining the transition from land-based dinosaurs to avian dinosaurs were poorly understood.”

Dr. O’Connor notes, “The unique features found in Archeopteryx that are also present in modern birds provide new criteria for determining avian characteristics in dinosaur fossils.”

This research focused on the latest Archeopteryx specimen from Chicago, enhancing our scientific understanding of this ancient bird.

The team compared the preserved tissues of Archeopteryx to the oral papillae of contemporary birds, leading to the significant finding that they identified the first example of an oral papilla in Archeopteryx, as well as the first in the fossil record.

Additionally, the study uncovered several previously unseen features within the skull of Archeopteryx.

A small bone fragment, identified as a tongue bone, was discovered. While human tongues lack bones, many birds possess a series of bones that structure their tongues, allowing for greater flexibility and food manipulation.

“This tiny bone is one of the smallest in the body, yet it indicates that Archeopteryx had a highly mobile tongue, similar to many modern birds,” said Dr. O’Connor.

CT scans also revealed small tunnels at the tip of Archeopteryx’s beak, indicating the presence of nerve traces. Many birds possess a beak tip organ, a sensitive feature at the end of the beak that aids in food foraging.

These findings collectively suggest that Archeopteryx utilized oral papillae, lingual bones, and beak tip organs to develop advanced feeding mechanisms, reflecting their adaptive strategies for survival in flight.

“Our results indicate a significant transformation in feeding strategies as dinosaurs took to the air to meet the high-energy demands of flight,” Dr. O’Connor added.

“Birds possess incredibly efficient digestive systems, designed to maximize the energy extracted from food—a process that begins right in the mouth.”

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Jimmai K. O’Connor et al. 2026. Characteristics of Archeopteryx‘s feeding apparatus reveal the growing demands of flight. Innovation 7(2):101086; doi: 10.1016/j.xinn.2025.101086

Source: www.sci.news

Unveiling the Ultimate Dark Matter Map: Discovering Unprecedented Cosmic Structures

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dark matter distribution

Dark Matter Distribution: Hubble vs. James Webb

Credit: Dr. Gavin Leroy/Professor Richard Massey/COSMOS-Webb Collaboration

In a groundbreaking study, scientists leveraged subtle distortions in the shapes of over 250,000 galaxies to construct the most detailed dark matter map to date, paving the way for insights into some of the universe’s greatest enigmas.

Dark matter, elusive by nature, does not emit any detectable light. Its existence can only be inferred through its gravitational interactions with normal matter. Researchers, including Jacqueline McCreary from Northeastern University, utilized the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) to map a region of the sky larger than the full moon.

“This high-resolution image depicts the scaffold of a small segment of the universe,” noted McCreary. The new map boasts double the resolution of previous ones created by the Hubble Space Telescope, encompassing structures much farther away.

The researchers studied approximately 250,000 galaxies, noting that their shapes, while interesting, serve primarily as a backdrop for understanding gravitational distortions. As Liliya Williams from the University of Minnesota explained, “These galaxies merely act as the universe’s wallpaper.” The critical component is the way dark matter’s gravitational pull warps the light from these distant galaxies—a phenomenon known as gravitational lensing. The more distorted the shape of these galaxies is from a perfect circle, the greater the amount of dark matter situated between us and them.

By analyzing these optical distortions, the team was able to derive a map illustrating massive galaxy clusters and the cosmic web filaments linking them. Many of these newly identified structures deviate from prior observations of luminous matter, suggesting they are predominantly composed of dark matter. “Gravitational lensing is one of the few and most effective techniques for detecting these structures across vast regions,” Williams stated.

This research is significant, considering that dark matter constitutes about 85% of the universe’s total matter, crucial for the formation and evolution of galaxies and clusters. Understanding its distribution could shed light on its behavior and composition, according to Williams.

“This achievement is not just observational but also paves the way for various analyses, including constraints on cosmological parameters, the relationship between galaxies and their dark matter halos, and their growth and evolution over time,” McCreary highlighted. These parameters include the strength of dark energy, the enigmatic force driving the universe’s accelerating expansion.

While initial findings from the JWST map align with the Lambda CDM model of the universe, McCreary emphasizes that a thorough analysis of the data is still required to unearth new insights. “At first glance, it appears consistent with Lambda CDM, but I remain cautious. A final assessment will depend on complete results.”

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Source: www.newscientist.com

Researchers Say Europa’s Spider-Like Structures Mirror Earth’s Lake Stars

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Europa, Jupiter’s frigid moon, is an oceanic environment that stands out as a key player in the quest for extraterrestrial life. Its surface is characterized by various landforms believed to originate from salty water sources beneath its icy crust, potentially making it the most accessible body of liquid water in the solar system. Notably, the asterisk-shaped “spider” located in the center of Manannan Crater was identified during NASA’s Galileo mission. Planetary scientists have recently introduced a novel hypothesis regarding the formation of this spider-like structure, drawing on morphological analysis and initial analog modeling. They propose that it may have formed through a process akin to the creation of dendritic “lake stars,” a seasonal phenomenon observed in frozen terrestrial ponds and lakes.

Damkhan Alla topographic map of Manannan. Image credit: McCune et al., doi: 10.3847/PSJ/ae18a0.

“The spider-like feature may have resulted from an eruption of molten salt water following the Manannan impact,” explains Dr. Elodie Lesage from the Planetary Science Institute.

“This presents an opportunity to understand the subsurface characteristics and the salt water composition at the impact’s time.”

Dr. Lesage and colleagues are also researching similar “spiders” on Mars, which are tree-like formations in the regolith near the planet’s south pole.

Their findings on Mars have been applied to other celestial bodies, including Europa.

Martian spiders develop as a result of gases escaping beneath a seasonal dry ice layer; however, the Europa study speculates that the “asterisk-shaped” features could have emerged post-impact.

“Lake stars are radial branching designs that occur when snow accumulates on a frozen lake, creating holes in the ice due to the snow’s weight, allowing water to flow through and spread out energetically,” stated Dr. Lauren McCune from the University of Central Florida and NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory.

“We believe a similar process could have happened on Europa, with subsurface brine erupting after the impact and dispersing through the porous surface ice.”

The research team has informally designated the Europa feature as Damhan Alla, which translates to “spider” in Irish, differentiating it from Martian spider formations.

To validate their hypothesis, they studied lake stars in Breckenridge, Colorado, and conducted field as well as lab experiments using a cryogenic glovebox equipped with a Europa ice simulator cooled by liquid nitrogen.

“In our experiments where we passed water through these simulants at various temperatures, we observed similar star-like formations even at extremely low temperatures (-100 degrees Celsius or -148 degrees Fahrenheit), lending support to the idea that such mechanisms could occur on Europa after the impact,” Dr. McCune remarked.

Scientists also created models showing how the saltwater beneath Europa’s surface would react following an impact, including an animation illustrating the process.

While observations of Europa’s icy features are primarily reliant on images captured by the Galileo spacecraft in 1998, the researchers aim to explore this further with high-resolution images from NASA’s Europa Clipper mission, anticipated to arrive at the Jupiter system in April 2030.

“Although lake stars offer significant insights, terrestrial conditions differ vastly from those on Europa,” Dr. McCune notes.

“Earth possesses a nitrogen-rich atmosphere, while Europa’s environment features extremely low pressures and temperatures.”

“This investigation combined field data and laboratory trials to better simulate Europa’s surface conditions.”

The team will further examine how low-pressure systems affect the formation of these landforms and explore whether such structures can form beneath Europa’s icy crust, akin to how flowing lava generates smooth, rope-like textures known as pahoehoe on Earth.

While the primary focus was geomorphology, this discovery sheds light on subsurface activity and habitability, crucial for future astrobiological studies.

“By employing numerical modeling of saline reservoirs, we assessed the potential depth of the reservoir (up to 6 km, or 3.7 miles below the surface) and its longevity (potentially several thousand years post-impact),” Dr. Lesage stated.

“This data is invaluable for upcoming missions investigating viable ecosystems beneath ice shells.”

The team’s results were published in Planetary Science Journal.

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Lauren E. McCune et al. 2025. A lake star as an Earth analogue of Europa’s Manannan Crater Spider feature. Planet. Science. J 6,279; doi: 10.3847/PSJ/ae18a0

Source: www.sci.news

Earth Scientists Uncover the Mystery Behind Intriguing Structures in the Mantle

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For many years, researchers have been intrigued by two massive structures hidden deep beneath the Earth’s surface. These anomalies might possess geochemical characteristics that differ from the surrounding mantle, yet their source remains unclear. Geodynamicist Yoshinori Miyazaki from Rutgers University and his team offer an unexpected explanation regarding these anomalies and their significance in influencing Earth’s capacity to sustain life.

This diagram shows a cross-section that reveals the interior of the early Earth, featuring a hot molten layer situated above the core-mantle boundary. Image credit: Yoshinori Miyazaki/Rutgers University.

The two enigmatic structures, referred to as large low-shear velocity regions and ultra-low velocity regions, lie at the boundary between the Earth’s mantle and core, approximately 2,900 km (1,800 miles) beneath the Earth’s exterior.

Large low-shear velocity regions are vast, continent-sized masses of hot and dense rock.

One of these regions is located beneath Africa, while the other is situated beneath the Pacific Ocean.

The ultra-low velocity zone resembles a thin layer of melt that adheres to the core much like a puddle of molten rock.

Both structures significantly slow seismic waves and display unusual compositions.

“These are not random, odd phenomena,” Dr. Miyazaki, co-author of a related paper published in the journal Nature Earth Science, explained.

“They represent traces of Earth’s primordial history.”

“Understanding their existence could help us unravel how our planet formed and what made it habitable.”

“Billions of years in the past, the Earth was covered by an ocean of magma.”

“While scientists anticipated that as the mantle cooled, it would establish distinctive chemical layers—similar to how frozen juice separates into sweet concentrate and watery ice—seismic surveys have shown otherwise. Instead, large low-shear velocity regions and ultra-low velocity zones appear as irregular accumulations at the Earth’s depths.”

“This contradiction sparked our inquiry. When starting with a magma ocean and performing calculations, the outcome does not match the current observations in the Earth’s mantle. A critical factor was missing.”

The researchers propose that over billions of years, elements such as silicon and magnesium may have leached from the core into the mantle, mixing with it and hindering the development of pronounced chemical layers.

This process could clarify the bizarre structure of the large low-shear velocity and ultra-low velocity regions, potentially visibly representing the solidified remnants of a basal magma ocean tainted by core materials.

“What we hypothesized is that this material could be leaking from the core,” Dr. Miyazaki noted.

“Incorporating core components might account for our current observations.”

“This discovery goes beyond merely understanding the chemistry of the deep Earth.”

“Interactions between the core and mantle may have shaped the Earth’s cooling process, volcanic activity, and atmospheric evolution.”

“This could help clarify why Earth possesses oceans and life, while Venus is a frigid hothouse and Mars a frozen wasteland.”

“Earth has water, life, and a relatively stable atmosphere.”

“In contrast, Venus’ atmosphere is over a hundred times thicker than Earth’s and is mainly carbon dioxide, while Mars’ atmosphere is much thinner.”

“While we do not fully comprehend why this is the case, the processes occurring within the planet—its cooling and layer evolution—could be a significant part of the explanation.”

By synthesizing seismic data, mineral physics, and geodynamic modeling, the authors reaffirm that the extensive low-shear velocity regions and ultra-low velocity zones offer crucial insights into Earth’s formative processes.

These structures may also contribute to volcanic hotspots like those in Hawaii and Iceland, thereby connecting deep Earth dynamics to the planet’s surface.

“This study exemplifies how the integration of planetary science, geodynamics, and mineral physics can aid in unraveling some of Earth’s long-standing enigmas,” said co-author Dr. Jie Deng, a researcher at Princeton University.

“The notion that the deep mantle may still retain the chemical memory of ancient core-mantle interactions provides fresh perspectives on Earth’s unique evolution.”

“Every new piece of evidence contributes to piecing together Earth’s early narrative, transforming scattered hints into a more coherent picture of our planet’s development.”

“Despite the limited clues we have, we are gradually forming a significant narrative,” Dr. Miyazaki remarked.

“With this research, our confidence in understanding Earth’s evolution and its distinctiveness can now be bolstered.”

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J. Deng et al. 2025. Heterogeneity in the deep mantle formed through a basal magma ocean contaminated by core materials. Nature Earth Science 18, 1056-1062; doi: 10.1038/s41561-025-01797-y

Source: www.sci.news

Google Unveils Quantum Computers’ Ability to Unlock Molecular Structures

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Google’s Quantum Computing Willow Chip

Google Quantum AI

Researchers at Google Quantum AI have leveraged Willow quantum computers to enhance the interpretation of data sourced from nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy—an essential research method within chemistry and biology. This significant advancement may open new horizons for the application of quantum computing in various molecular technologies.

While quantum computers have been most effectively demonstrated in cryptographic contexts, current devices face limitations in scale and error rates that hinder their competence in decryption tasks. However, they show promise in expediting the discovery of new drugs and materials, which align with the fundamentally quantum nature of many scientific procedures. Hartmut Neven and colleagues at Google Quantum AI have showcased one instance where quantum computers can mimic the complex interactions found in natural processes.

The investigation centered on a computational method known as quantum echo and its application to NMR, a technique utilized to extract detailed information regarding molecular structures.

At its core, the concept of quantum echoes is akin to the butterfly effect. This phenomenon illustrates how minor perturbations—like the flap of a butterfly’s wings—can trigger substantial changes in broader systems. The researchers exploited a quantum approach within a system made up of 103 qubits in Willow.

During the experiment, the team executed a specific sequence of operations to alter the quantum state of a qubit in a manageable way. They then selected one qubit to disrupt, acting as a “quantum butterfly,” and employed the identical sequence of operations, effectively reversing time. Finally, the researchers evaluated the quantum characteristics of the qubits to extract insights regarding the entire system.

In a basic sense, the NMR technique applied in the lab also hinges on minor disturbances; it nudges actual molecules using electromagnetic waves and examines the system’s reactions to ascertain atomic positions—similar to using a molecular ruler. If the operations on qubits can replicate this process, the mathematical scrutiny of the qubits can likewise be translated into molecular structural details. This series of quantum computations could potentially enable the examination of atoms that are relatively distant from one another, said team member Tom O’Brien. “We’re constructing longer molecular rulers.”

The researchers believe that a protocol akin to quantum echoes would require approximately 13,000 times longer on a conventional supercomputer. Their tests indicated that two distinct quantum systems could successfully perform a quantum echo and yield identical outcomes—a notable achievement given the inconsistencies faced in previous quantum algorithms supported by the team. O’Brien noted that enhancements in the quality of Willow’s hardware and reduced qubit error rates have contributed to this success.

Nonetheless, there remains ample opportunity for refinement. In their utilization of Willow and quantum echoes for two organic molecules, the researchers operated with a mere 15 qubits at most, yielding results comparable to traditional non-quantum methods. In essence, the team has not yet demonstrated a definitive practical edge for Willow over conventional systems. This current exhibition of quantum echo remains foundational and has not been subjected to formal peer review.

“Addressing molecular structure determination is crucial and pertinent,” states Keith Fratus from HQS Quantum Simulations, a German company focused on quantum algorithms. He emphasizes that bridging established techniques such as NMR with calculations executed by quantum computers represents a significant milestone, though the technology’s immediate utility might be confined to specialized research in biology.

Doris Sels, a professor at New York University, remarked that their team’s experiments involve larger quantum computers and more complex NMR protocols and molecules than prior models. “Quantum simulation is often highlighted as a promising application for quantum computers, yet there are surprisingly few examples with industrial relevance. I believe model inference of spectroscopic data like NMR could prove beneficial,” she added. “We’re not quite there, but initiatives like this inspire continued investigation into this issue.”

O’Brien expressed optimism that the application of quantum echo to NMR will become increasingly beneficial as they refine qubit performance. Fewer errors mean a greater capability to execute more operations simultaneously and accommodate larger molecular structures.

Meanwhile, the quest for optimal applications of quantum computers is ongoing. While the experimental implementation of quantum echoes on Willow is remarkable, the mathematical analysis it facilitates may not achieve widespread adoption, according to Kurt von Keyserlingk at King’s College London. Until NMR specialists pivot away from traditional methods cultivated over decades, he suggests that its primary allure will lie with theoretical physicists focused on fundamental quantum system research. Furthermore, this protocol may face competitive challenges from conventional computing methods, as von Keyserlingk has already pondered how traditional computing might rival this approach.

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Source: www.newscientist.com

Novels with Distinctive Structures are Often Considered Classics

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The persistent appeal of books may hinge on more than their narratives

Tetra Images, LLC/Alamy

What causes certain novels to be forgotten over time while others achieve bestseller status upon release only to vanish later? This research suggests the answers may lie within the intricacies of their language and sentence structure.

Prior studies have delved into the attributes that elevate certain books to bestseller status. Charming male protagonists often dominate; however, we know little about the factors that sustain a novel’s popularity a century later.

For deeper insights, refer to Leyao Wang from York University in Toronto, Canada. She and her colleagues examined 300 English novels published between 1909 and 1923. Half of these titles have made it to the top 10 bestseller lists. Publishers weekly commenced its trade in 1872 with titles like Lucky Young Man by William John Locke and Black Cow by Gertrude Thurston.

However, these novels don’t appear in readers’ top 10 read lists—past, present, or future. This data reflects the publication year of the novels. The other half, which includes titles like The Mysterious Affair at Styles by Agatha Christie and Anne of Avonlea by Lucy Maud Montgomery, regardless of their bestseller status at the time, continue to gain traction on Goodreads today.

The research team employed AI models to classify these two categories based on 70% of the selected novels. When these models analyzed the full text for word patterns, it was observed that bestsellers were generally longer and incorporated more colloquial expressions like “yeah,” “oh,” and “okay.” These books also made greater use of punctuation.

Researchers assert these characteristics don’t carry the same weight in capturing today’s readers’ interest, yet they significantly enhance readability and overall appeal.

Notably, modern favorites tend to be concise yet feature more complex sentences and vocabulary. This prompted researchers to question whether this necessitates greater attention from readers.

When the AI models were evaluated against the remaining 30% of books, they successfully categorized them with approximately 70% accuracy.

“Numerous other factors likely influence longevity, such as themes, marketing strategies, and author recognition, yet our findings indicate that aspects of the text alone can potentially predict timelessness without considering these more apparent external factors,” the researchers noted. Gaining an understanding of what elements render literature both captivating and enduring “could prove crucial for both publishers and authors.”

However, Dorothy Hale at the University of California, Berkeley cautions that the impact of a novel should be assessed over a century before deeming it timeless. She highlights that the popularity of well-established classics also varies over time. “While many might regard Shakespeare as the quintessential timeless author in English literature, there’s a current trend in American institutions to drop Shakespeare requirements from English majors,” she observes.

Crafting Science Fiction: Immersive Writing Workshops, UK

Dive into the realm of science fiction and discover how to craft captivating sci-fi stories during this engaging weekend workshop.

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Source: www.newscientist.com

Webb Discovers Intricate Structures in Saturn’s Upper Atmosphere

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Astronomers utilizing the NASA/ESA James Webb Space Telescope have identified a series of dark, bead-like star formations within Saturn’s ionosphere and stratosphere.

Detection of near-infrared emissions in Saturn’s ionosphere (left) reveals dark bead-like features embedded in bright auroras. In the stratosphere (right), below 500 km, an asymmetric star pattern extends toward the equator. Image credit: NASA/ESA/CSA/WEBB/STALLARD et al.

“This was the first opportunity for me to make such detailed near-infrared observations of Saturn’s aurora and upper atmosphere,” said the researcher.

“We anticipated seeing emissions across various levels.”

“Instead, we observed intricate patterns of beads and stars, which might be interconnected despite their considerable height separation and could relate to the iconic hexagon within Saturn’s clouds.”

“These features were entirely unforeseen and remain unexplained.”

The research team concentrated on detecting infrared emissions from charged molecular hydrogen, which plays a significant role in Saturn’s atmospheric dynamics, offering valuable insights into the chemical and physical processes at work.

Using Webb’s near-infrared spectrograph, scientists observed H3+ ions at an altitude of 600 km, 1,100 km above Saturn’s nominal surface, alongside lower stratospheric methane molecules.

Within the ionosphere’s electrically charged plasma, a series of dark bead-like features intermingled within bright aurora halos were detected.

These structures maintained stability for several hours but seemed to drift slowly over time.

In the stratosphere of Saturn, researchers identified asymmetric star-shaped features, dropping approximately 500 km.

This remarkable formation extended from Saturn’s North Pole down toward the equator.

Only four of the star’s six arms were visible, with two mysteriously absent, resulting in a biased pattern.

“Studying Saturn’s atmosphere has always posed challenges due to the faint emissions from that region,” remarked Professor Stallard.

“Webb’s remarkable sensitivity transforms our capacity to observe these atmospheric layers, unveiling a wholly different structural configuration than previously noted.”

The authors meticulously mapped the precise locations of features, overlaying data for the same Saturn area, discovering that the arms of the star seem to emanate from a point just above the hexagonal structure at the Stormcloud level.

This implies that the mechanisms driving the pattern could influence structures penetrating through Saturn’s atmosphere.

“We believe the dark beads arise from the intricate interactions between Saturn’s magnetosphere and its dynamic atmosphere, potentially providing new insights into the energy exchanges that fuel Saturn’s auroras,” stated Professor Stallard.

“The asymmetric star formations suggest previously unknown atmospheric processes functioning within Saturn’s stratosphere and are likely connected to the hexagonal storm pattern observed deeper in Saturn’s atmosphere.”

“Interestingly, the dark beads in the ionosphere seem to align with the arms of the strongest stars in the stratosphere, though it’s unclear whether this connection is genuine or merely coincidental.”

Both phenomena may have significant implications for our comprehension of atmospheric dynamics within the gas giant, although further investigation is needed to elucidate their underlying causes.

The team aspires for additional time to conduct follow-up observations of Saturn using Webb to explore further features.

As planets align approximately every 15 years, the structure can undergo dramatic changes as Saturn’s orientation shifts toward the Sun, moving the Northern Hemisphere into autumn.

“The necessity for follow-up Webb observations during this pivotal phase of Saturn’s seasonal transition is evident, as neither atmospheric layer can be examined using ground-based telescopes.” Paper published in the journal Geophysical Research Book.

The findings were also presented as a result this month at the EPSC-DPS2025 Joint Meeting in Helsinki, Finland.

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Tom S. Stallard et al. 2025. JWST/NIRSPEC detects the complex structures of Saturn’s ionosphere and stratosphere. Geophysical Research Book 52 (17): E2025GL116491; doi: 10.1029/2025GL116491

Tom S. Stallard et al. 2025. Transformational observations of the ionosphere of the giant planet with JWST. EPSC Abstract 18: EPSC-DPS2025-817; doi: 10.5194/epsc-dps2025-1438

Source: www.sci.news

Paleontologists Uncover New Connective Tissue Structures in Dinosaurs

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Paleontologists have uncovered evidence of previously unrecognized soft tissue structures in the cheek areas of various dinosaur species. This discovery deepens our understanding of dinosaur anatomy and underscores the limitations of current methods for reconstructing anatomical features that are not well preserved.

Soft tissue visualization of Edmontosaurus created through photography, 3D modeling, digital painting, and histology of bones in the Alberta Dinosaur Park, Canada. Image credit: Henry Sharp.

“Such examples of soft anatomy in dinosaurs are rare due to the degradation of muscles and tissue over time,” remarked Henry Sharp, a paleontologist from the University of Alberta.

“While bones can be excavated and assembled into semi-complete skeletons, for a long time, there was no effective way to discern the muscles and tissues present in dinosaurs.”

“In the 1990s, existing systematic brackets utilized the closest living relatives of dinosaurs—alligators and birds—to gain insight into their ’tissues and muscles.’

“However, this approach has its shortcomings: the muscles reconstructed in dinosaurs are those found in alligators and birds.”

“What if dinosaurs possessed their own unique muscles that aren’t present in their modern relatives, or if birds have lost or adapted their original musculature?”

“While examining a skull of Edmontosaurus, affectionately named Gary, I noticed a distinctive flange structure atop the bone near its prominent cheek.”

“As I delved deeper, I struggled to find answers.”

“There were large, corrugated sections of the skull. In a mammalian skull, I would interpret that as cheek muscle attachment. Yet, reptiles are not supposed to exhibit such muscle structures.”

“This sparked intrigue. What if this finding contradicted existing models of dinosaur musculature?”

To gain a clearer understanding of this aspect of dinosaur anatomy, Sharp and his colleagues from the University of Alberta, the University of Toronto, the Royal Museum of Ontario, and the University of New England began investigating similar regions in the skulls of other dinosaur species, uncovering evidence of analogous structures.

“The findings were consistently located in the same area. This strongly suggests that it represents a muscle or ligament,” Sharp explained.

To validate their hypothesis regarding this bone area being a site for some type of soft tissue structure, researchers meticulously cut thin sections of dinosaur bone.

“Soft tissues, such as muscles and ligaments, are anchored to the bone via collagen fibers,” Sharp stated.

“These fibers help secure the muscle or ligament, preventing detachment and potential injury to the animal.”

Once the soft tissue deteriorates, what remains are the collagen fibers, which can be examined through thin slices of bone under polarized light.

“It appears as if someone has fractured a bone at the surface and then scraped it with an X-acto knife,” Sharp noted.

The researchers employed a technique called sleepy to analyze various angles of the zygomatic and mandibular bone slices, enabling them to investigate the 3D orientation of the collagen fibers.

“These collagen fibers don’t insert haphazardly; they align with the angles where muscles attach,” Sharp added.

In all examined dinosaur species, collagen fibers manifested connections between the cheek and lower jaw, reinforcing the idea that the soft tissue structure resembles cheek muscles and ligaments.

Variation in the size and attachment angles across different dinosaur species suggests that this newly identified soft tissue played specialized roles, such as stabilizing the jaw and influencing feeding behavior.

“While we don’t fully understand its precise functions, it is evident that these soft tissues significantly impacted how these dinosaurs chewed.”

“This discovery underscores the importance of comparing dinosaur fossils with those of modern relatives for a more nuanced and accurate comprehension of extinct anatomy.”

“Dinosaurs exhibit considerable diversity, yet we often overlook significant aspects by attempting to interpret the past solely through the lens of contemporary conditions.”

Survey results were published in Journal of Anatomy.

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Henry S. Sharp et al. Skull morphology and histology reveal previously unexpected cheek soft tissue structures in dinosaurs. Journal of Anatomy, published on March 21, 2025. doi:10.1111/joa.14242

This article is a rendition of a press release provided by the University of Alberta.

Source: www.sci.news

There could be billions of years old towering structures deep within the Earth

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A strange continent-sized structure (red) lurks beneath the planet's surface

Edward Garnero. SW French, BA Romanowicz, Geophys. J. Int. 199, 1303, 2014.

Two giant blobs deep within the Earth may remain stable for billions of years despite powerful internal fluctuations, according to an analysis of seismic waves reverberating across the planet.

“When a major earthquake occurs, the entire earth expands and contracts like a bell.” arwen Deus At Utrecht University in the Netherlands. “The earth becomes an instrument.”

Decades ago, measurements of such seismic waves identified two strange continent-sized structures, one under the Pacific Ocean and one under Africa. They extend for almost 1000 kilometers from the outer core to the lower mantle, the slowly moving layer between the Earth's crust and core.

Because seismic waves pass through these objects more slowly, they are called “large low shear velocity regions” or LLSVPs. However, little is known about its composition and origin.

To gain further information, Deus and her colleagues analyzed how these regions attenuate the energy of seismic waves, in addition to changes in wave speed. Such measurements reveal information about the temperature, composition, shape, and size of the LLSVP.

The researchers expected that the structure, which would be hotter than the surrounding area, would significantly attenuate seismic waves. “Lo and behold, we found the opposite,” says Deus.

To explain the lack of decay at high temperatures, the researchers propose that LLSVP must be composed of minerals with large crystals that are stable in heat. This also suggests that these regions are highly viscous and can maintain stability as the mantle moves around them.

This stability could mean that these objects are very old, dating back to the formation of planets at least 500 million years ago, and possibly more than 4 billion years ago, Deus said. They may act as repositories of primordial material, unchanged since the Earth formed, that sometimes reaches the surface via volcanoes.

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Source: www.newscientist.com

Heart-shaped mollusks with window-like structures that function as optical fibers

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Hazard monkeys come in a variety of colors and harbor photosynthetic algae in their shells.

dakota mccoy

Heart-shaped mollusks have evolved tiny windows that function like fiber optic cables, the first known examples in nature.

Heart monkey (Corculum Cardissa) are bivalves that look a bit like shellfish and have a symbiotic relationship with the photosynthetic algae that live inside them. Algae have a safe home, receive light, perform photosynthesis, and provide nutrients to their hosts.

Unlike other bivalves, cockles do not open their shells wide, but they somehow concentrate light inside even though they remain closed.

now, dakota mccoy Researchers at the University of Chicago discovered that cockles have transparent calcium carbonate crystal structures inside their shells that act like bundles of optical fibers, trapping light inside and showering it on the algae. “If you don't have to open it and you have a clear window, it's a very safe way to irradiate algae,” McCoy said.

The researchers examined shell fragments of various heart monkeys and the transparent structures within them, as well as the intensity and color of the light that passes through them. The researchers discovered that the windows are made of long, thin fibers of a mineral called aragonite, a type of calcium carbonate, which allows twice as much light, useful for photosynthesis, to pass through as it does harmful ultraviolet light. “We wear sunscreen because ultraviolet light can cause mutations and cancer, and the cockles use this window as a sunscreen,” McCoy said.

If you shine a light on the heart monkey's shell from inside, you'll see transparent windows shaped like small triangles (left) or stripes (right).

dakota mccoy

Aragonite threads are similar to manufactured optical fibers, but they transmit light just as effectively, although they lack a protective insulating sheath called a cladding. This could be an inspiration for cladding-free fiber optic cables that are cheaper to produce.

Shells' natural UV-blocking properties could also be used to protect corals. Like cockles, corals harbor photosynthetic algae inside, but McCoy said they are susceptible to environmental stresses such as light and heat.

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Source: www.newscientist.com

Neolithic architects utilized scientific understanding to construct massive megalithic structures.

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Inside the monument known as Mengadolmen in Spain

Miguel Angel Blanco de la Rubia

Neolithic people appear to have understood advanced concepts from sciences such as physics and geology, and used this knowledge to build megalithic monuments in southern Spain.

The dolmen, called Menga Dolmen, was built between 3600 and 3800 BC and is one of the oldest megalithic structures in Europe. The covered enclosure is made of 32 large stones, some of which are the largest ever used for such a structure. The heaviest stone weighs over 130 tonnes, more than three times the heaviest stone at Stonehenge in England, which was built more than 1000 years later.

“[In the Neolithic Period]”It must have been an impressive experience to experience these huge stone structures,” he said. Leonardo Garcia San Juan He studied at the University of Seville in Spain. “It still moves me. It still makes an impression on me.”

García Sanjuan and his colleagues are now conducting a detailed geological and archaeological analysis of the stones to deduce what knowledge Menga's builders needed to construct the monument in the city of Antequera.

Paradoxically, they found that the rock was a type of relatively brittle sandstone, meaning that it was at high risk of breaking, but the team found that they could compensate for that risk by shaping the rock, locking it into a very stable overall structure.

Neolithic people would have needed some way to make the stones fit together very snugly, Garcia-Sanjuan says. “It's like Tetris,” he says. “The precision, and how tightly each stone is fastened to each other, forces you to think they had some concept of angles, even if it was just rudimentary.”

The researchers also discovered that the 130-ton stone, laid horizontally on top to form part of the roof, has a raised surface in the middle and slopes down at the edges, which helps distribute forces in the same way an arch does and strengthens the roof, Garcia-Sanjuan says. “To our knowledge, this is the first time the principle of the arch has been documented in human history.”

The purpose of the mengas is unknown, but they were positioned to create unique light patterns inside them during the summer solstice, and the stones are protected from water damage by layers of carefully pounded clay, supporting evidence of their builders' knowledge of architecture and engineering.

“They knew about geology and the properties of the rocks they were working with,” Garcia San Juan says. “When you put all of this together — engineering, physics, geology, geometry, astronomy — you get what you call science.”

There are other Neolithic structures in France of a similar size to Menga, but less is known about how it was built, Garcia San Juan said. “To date, Menga is unique both in the Iberian peninsula and in Western Europe.”

“What's surprising is how sophisticated it is.” Susan Greaney “This architectural understanding of how weight is distributed is something I've never seen anywhere before,” says Professor David Schneider of the University of Exeter in the UK. But, she adds, this may be a testament to an understanding of architecture and engineering rather than an understanding of science.

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Source: www.newscientist.com

Research: How small structures in the wax coating of blue-pigmented fruit contribute to its blue color

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It is perhaps surprising that fruits with blue pigments are less common, since many visually guided fruit eaters have eyes highly adapted to blue sensitivity. However, some fruits do not contain blue pigment. In a new study, scientists from the University of Bristol and elsewhere investigated dark fruits with wax blooms, such as blueberries, plums and juniper cones, and found that structural color mechanisms are involved in their appearance. Did.

The structural color of the wax bloom gives the fruit a blue appearance across a wide range of accessions. (A) Undamaged highbush blueberries growing on the plant. (B) Blueberry (i) unmodified wax, (ii) mechanical wax removal, (iii) chloroform wax removal, (iv) surface application of (approximately) index-matched oil, (v) surface application of water; (vi) peeling off the outer skin to expose the pulp; (vii) the underside of the peeled skin; (C) Transmission light microscopy of a blueberry peel peeled from the inner edge showing red pigmentation of epidermal cells. Scale bar – 200 μm. (D) (i and ii) Plum selection (Plum) Fruits with different cell pigmentation, (i) with wax intact and (ii) with wax removed.Image credit: Middleton other., doi: 10.1126/sciadv.adk4219.

“You can't 'extract' the blue color from blueberries by crushing them, because blueberries are not present in the highly pigmented juice that can be squeezed from the fruit,” said lead author Dr Rocks Middleton, a researcher at the University of Bristol.

“That's why I knew there had to be something strange about this color.”

“So we removed the wax and recrystallized it on the card. In doing so, we were able to create a completely new blue UV coating.”

This ultra-thin colorant is about 2 microns thick, has a low reflectance, but looks blue and reflects UV well, potentially paving the way for new colorant methods.

“This shows that nature has evolved to use a very neat trick: an extremely thin layer of a vital colorant,” Dr Middleton said.

Most plants are covered with a thin layer of wax, which has multiple functions, many of which are still unknown to scientists.

They know that it is highly effective as a hydrophobic, self-cleaning coating, but only now have they realized how important this structure is for visible coloration.

Now Dr. Middleton and colleagues plan to look at easier ways to recreate and apply the coating.

This could lead to the development of more sustainable, biocompatible, and even edible UV- and blue-reflecting paints.

Additionally, these coatings may have multiple functions similar to natural biological coatings that protect plants.

“It was really interesting to discover that there was an unknown coloration mechanism just beneath the surface of the popular fruit that we grow and eat all the time,” Dr Middleton said.

“It was even more exciting to be able to recreate that color by taking wax and creating a new blue coating that no one had ever seen before.”

“Our dream is to incorporate all the functionality of this natural wax into a man-made material.”

of result It was published in the magazine scientific progress.

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Rocks Middleton other. 2024. Self-organized disordered structural colors from fruit wax blooms. scientific progress 10(6); doi: 10.1126/sciadv.adk4219

Source: www.sci.news