An Artist’s Impression of Star Formation in the Early Universe
Adolf Schaller STScI/NASA
Astronomers have gained an unprecedented insight into some of the universe’s first stars, known as “Population III” stars. These primordial stars could significantly enhance our understanding of the early universe, including their mass and influence on subsequent star formation.
Predicted to be composed almost entirely of hydrogen and helium, these ancient stars were colossal—hundreds of times the size of our Sun—and reached scorching temperatures of tens of thousands of degrees.
Despite their crucial role in cosmic history, most Population III stars had short lifespans, leading to their explosions, and astronomers have not conclusively identified galaxies rich in these stars due to their extremely early existence.
Recently, Roberto Maiorino and researchers at the University of Cambridge uncovered that the Hebe Galaxy, which formed just 400 million years post-Big Bang, aligns perfectly with characteristics of a Population III galaxy.
It contains no detectable elements heavier than hydrogen or helium, and the emitted light concentrates around specific frequencies tied to helium, a signature only achievable through extremely hot stars like the Population III. “As we understand it, a Population III star seems to be the most plausible explanation,” stated Maiorino. “Any other explanations fall short.”
The Hebe Galaxy was initially identified in 2024 through observations made with the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST). While its spectrum initially suggested lines of ionized helium indicative of a Population III star, doubt lingered regarding the reality of these lines or the presence of heavier metals.
Further JWST observations revealed a second line linked to ionized hydrogen from the same source, confirming the presence of helium.
“We invested significant time analyzing the data to validate this line detection,” said Hannah Uebler from Ludwig-Maximilians-University, Munich. “Discovering the peak in ionized hydrogen without additional detection was a pleasant surprise, confirming our previous claims of helium and hydrogen indicating a Population III scenario.”
The compelling results suggest we are witnessing a very hot object, consistent with expectations for a Population III star. Daniel Whalen, studying at the University of Portsmouth, UK, notes that while findings are promising, precision remains insufficient to exclude heavy elements typical of more mature Population II stars.
A galaxy populated predominantly by Population III stars, as anticipated by Maiorino and his team, poses challenges even in existing simulations of early universe conditions. These simulations indicate that initial stars typically formed in isolated, sparse clusters.
“This is not merely a quest to claim we found Population III stars,” said Maiorino. “We have gained significant insights already.” If Hebe’s stars are confirmed as Population III, it could yield vital knowledge about the universe’s infancy.
Maiorino and his team have leveraged early observations from Hebe to infer that most of the original stars had masses between 10 to 100 times that of the Sun, with significantly fewer being smaller.
Astronomers utilizing the Immersion Grating Infrared Spectrometer (IGRINS) at the International Gemini Observatory’s Gemini South Telescope have made groundbreaking discoveries regarding WASP-189b’s atmospheric composition. Their findings indicate that the planet’s elemental composition closely aligns with that of its host star, offering compelling evidence that the planet inherits its chemical makeup from the protoplanetary disk from which it formed.
Artist’s impression of super-hot Jupiter. Image credit: Sci.News.
WASP-189, classified as a 730-million-year-old A-type star, is located 322 light-years away in the constellation Libra.
Also known as HD 133112, this star is significantly larger than our Sun and boasts a temperature exceeding 2,000 degrees Celsius.
First discovered in 2018, WASP-189b is a gas giant that orbits its star at a distance roughly 1.6 times that of Jupiter.
This exotic planet lies about 20 times closer to its star than Earth is to the Sun, completing an orbit in a mere 2.7 days.
According to Arizona State University graduate student Jorge Antonio Sanchez and colleagues, “Superhot Jupiter has temperatures sufficient to vaporize rock-forming elements, such as magnesium, silicon, and iron. This presents a unique opportunity to observe these elements through spectroscopy, a technique that identifies chemicals by analyzing light spectra.”
The astronomers harnessed the IGRINS instrument to capture high-resolution thermal emission spectra of WASP-189b.
They successfully identified neutral iron, magnesium, silicon, water, carbon monoxide, and hydroxyl groups within the exoplanet’s atmosphere.
“The IGRINS data reveals that WASP-189b exhibits a magnesium to silicon ratio identical to that of its host star,” they noted.
This pivotal finding offers the first observational evidence supporting a commonly held hypothesis regarding planetary formation, paving the way for deeper insights into exoplanet creation and evolution.
Gas giants like WASP-189b are believed to possess outer gas layers whose chemical makeup is heavily influenced by the protoplanetary disk from which they originated.
Researchers suspect that the ratio of rock-forming elements in the protoplanetary disk mirrors that of the host star, as they formed from the same primordial matter cloud.
This inferred chemical connection between a star and its surrounding planets is frequently utilized to model the composition of rocky exoplanets.
Previously observed only within our solar system, this link has now been directly documented on distant planets.
“WASP-189b represents a critical observational milestone in understanding terrestrial planet formation, as it allows for measurable quantities to confirm the similarities in stellar composition and the proportion of rocky materials that form alongside planets,” Sanchez stated.
Dr. Michael Rhine, an astronomer at Arizona State University, added, “Our study showcases the capabilities of ground-based, high-resolution spectrometers to analyze key species like magnesium and silicon, two essential elements in rocky planet formation. This advancement opens a new frontier in exoplanet atmospheric studies.”
The findings of this research were published in a paper in the journal Nature Communications on February 18, 2026.
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JA Sanchez et al. 2026. The magnesium to silicon ratio in the exoplanet’s atmosphere. Nat Commune 17, 2902; doi: 10.1038/s41467-026-69610-x
Discover PicII-503: A Protostar in the Ancient Pictor II Dwarf Galaxy
This striking image of PicII-503 highlights a second-generation star with the lowest iron content ever recorded outside our Milky Way galaxy. Image credits: CTIO / NOIRLab / DOE / NSF / AURA / University of Alaska Anchorage TA Chancellor and NSF NOIRLab / M. Zamani and D. de Martin, NSF NOIRLab / Anirudh Chiti / Alex Drlica-Wagner.
“This marks the first definitive detection of element formation in protogalaxies,” stated Dr. Aniru Chitty, a postdoctoral researcher at the University of Chicago, now at Stanford University.
“This discovery fills a crucial gap in understanding the origin of elements during the universe’s formative years.”
In the primordial epochs following the Big Bang, the cosmos was relatively simple, comprised almost entirely of hydrogen, helium, and lithium, giving rise to giant stars primarily formed by these elements.
More complex elements, like calcium and gold, were scarce since they had to be synthesized within stars themselves.
At the cores of these massive stars, nuclear fusion processes created increasingly heavier elements.
When these stars eventually exploded, they contributed to the formation of new stars, perpetuating this cycle until a diverse array of elements emerged, forming the universe we know today.
“To track elemental formation, we must search for stars with minimal heavy elements, as these accumulate over time,” explained University of Chicago astronomer Alexander Gee.
Using the Magellan Telescope at Las Campanas Observatory and ESO’s Very Large Telescope, astronomers identified a significant candidate star within the ultrafaint dwarf galaxy Pictor II.
This star, identified as PicIII-503, exhibits a remarkable structure, with an iron content approximately 1/100,000 times lower than that of our Sun.
This extraordinary finding not only generates excitement but also offers insights into the enigmatic origins of these early stars.
Consequently, since PicIII-503 remains within its original protogalaxy, astronomers have uncovered vital information regarding its formation theory, particularly related to the star’s explosive death.
“Upon the demise of a massive star, it possesses an ‘onion-skin’ structure: lighter elements like carbon reside in outer layers while heavier elements are found inside,” Gee noted.
“A weak explosion may only eject the outer layers, allowing the heavier inner materials to coalesce with neighboring gas and dust, which can form future generations of stars.”
“However, a vigorous explosion could propel these materials far beyond the small galaxies that existed during that era,” he added.
This exciting discovery provides context for the abundance of carbon-rich stars observed in our Milky Way, illuminating their origin, Dr. Chitty emphasized.
For more on the discovery of PicIII-503, refer to the research paper published in Nature Astronomy.
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A. Chitty et al. Enrichment by the first stars of relic dwarf galaxies. Nat Astron published online on March 16, 2026. doi: 10.1038/s41550-026-02802-z
The universe contains space waiting to be explored. When we shift our focus from Earth and the Milky Way to intergalactic space, we find an average density of 1 atom per cubic meter, or roughly 35 cubic feet of emptiness. Yet, the universe holds more than mere emptiness; it conceals a wealth of material on smaller scales.
Inside galaxies, regions between stars harbor gatherings of matter at different temperatures and densities, collectively known as the multiphase interstellar medium (ISM). This cosmic material primarily consists of hydrogen and helium, supplemented by trace amounts of heavier elements, referred to by astronomers as metals. It is from this material that new stars are born.
A recent study by a team of astronomers examined how variable metallic content affects star formation within the ISM. By simulating ISM clouds with varying metallicities across seven regions of the nearby universe, including areas near the Sun, random patches of the Milky Way, the Large and Small Magellanic Clouds, Sextans A, the globular cluster NGC 1904, and the blue compact dwarf galaxy I Zwicky 18, the team employed the SILCC project, a collaborative effort among European research institutions focused on simulating the lifecycle of star-forming gas clouds.
Using a sophisticated simulation code, the researchers modeled gas dynamics and magnetic field interactions within a massive cuboid measuring 500 parsecs on each side. This giant box, equivalent to 15 quintillion kilometers per side, contained gas molecules influenced by the gravitational attractions of star clusters and dark matter present within and around the cloud. To maintain cloud stability, gas molecules were initially set to move at an average speed of 10 kilometers per second during the first 20 million years.
Post-initiation, the simulation examined how magnetic fields and fluid dynamics evolved, including the effects of high-energy protons, referred to as cosmic rays. Over a simulated timeframe of 200 million years, the researchers tracked cloud interactions, star formation, lifecycle events, and the chemistry of residual molecules. By isolating metallicity effects across the seven different simulations, it was found that the solar neighborhood had the highest metallicity, while I Zwicky 18 displayed a mere 2% metallicity.
The findings revealed that low-metallicity regions of the ISM tend to be warmer on average compared to high-metallicity areas. The results indicated that metals possess superior heat-releasing properties compared to hydrogen or helium. In contrast, colder regions rich in metals fostered star birth, whereas warmer, low-metallicity environments produced fewer stars, perpetuating a cycle of thermal dynamics until temperatures soared to around 1 million Kelvin (or 2 million °F).
The research team acknowledged several simplifications in their study. Due to time constraints, only metallicity was varied across simulations, despite differing spatial parameters. Additionally, the team underestimated common metals like carbon, oxygen, and silicon, which are formed at higher rates through stellar nuclear fusion. Lastly, it was assumed that all massive stars culminated their lifespans via supernovae, excluding the possibility of black hole formation.
Utilizing the Highly Sensitive Wide-Field K-Band Imager (HAWK-I) on ESO’s Very Large Telescope (VLT), astronomers have captured stunning new images of the emission nebula RCW 36. These images reveal the vibrant cradles of newly formed stars and intriguing substellar entities known as brown dwarfs.
This captivating VLT/HAWK-I image of emission nebula RCW 36 features dark clouds forming the head and body of a bird of prey, with filaments extending as wings. Below, a fascinating blue nebula hosts a newly formed giant star, illuminating the surrounding gas. Image credit: ESO / de Brito de Vale et al.
Situated approximately 2,300 light-years away in the constellation Hera, RCW 36—also known as Gum 20—is one of the nearest massive star-forming regions to our solar system.
This nebula is part of the expansive star-forming complex known as the Vera Molecular Ridge.
RCW 36 houses a star cluster that dates back around 1.1 million years.
The most massive stars in this young cluster are two O-type stars, alongside several hundred lower-mass stars.
“Embedded star clusters are active sites of very recent star formation located within dense molecular gas clouds in the Milky Way,” explained Dr. Afonso de Brito de Vale, a student and researcher at the Spanish Institute of Astronomical Sciences and the Bordeaux Institute of Astrophysics.
“Within these clouds, stellar and substellar nuclei emerge from local gravitational instabilities, evolving through accretion and contraction processes that expel surrounding gas and dust.”
The hawk-like nebula RCW 36 has been vividly captured by the VLT’s HAWK-I instrument.
“While the most obvious star in this image may be a bright young star, our primary interest lies in the hidden, faint stars known as brown dwarfs—objects that cannot undergo hydrogen fusion in their cores,” Dr. de Brito de Vale noted.
“HAWK-I is perfectly designed for this task, as it operates in infrared wavelengths, where these cold, failed stars are more easily detectable and can correct for atmospheric turbulence using adaptive optics, resulting in exceptionally sharp images.”
“Beyond providing essential data on the formation of brown dwarfs, we have captured a stunning image of a massive star seemingly ‘pushing aside’ clouds of gas and dust, reminiscent of an animal breaking free from an egg.”
“Perhaps a space hawk is watching over the baby star as it ‘hatches’.”
The team’s findings have been published in the journal Astronomy and Astrophysics.
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ARG de Brito de Vale et al. 2026. A substar group of Vera’s young massive star cluster RCW 36. A&A 706, A149; doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/202557493
Exploring Bella Junior’s Supernova, also referred to as RX J0852.0-4622 or G266.2-1.2, scientists have revealed the mysteries surrounding its explosive past. This ancient nebula, once a brilliant supernova, has perplexed researchers regarding its distance and the magnitude of its explosion. Recently, however, groundbreaking discoveries linked a newly formed star, Ve 7-27, with the remnants of Bella Junior. By utilizing the Multi-Unit Spectroscopic Explorer (MUSE) on the ESO’s Very Large Telescope, astronomers have captured unprecedented detailed images of Ve 7-27.
VLT/MUSE image of Ve 7-27. Image credit: ESO / Suherli et al.
“This is the first evidence ever connecting a newborn star to the remnants of a supernova,” stated Dr. Samar Safi Harb, an astrophysicist from the University of Manitoba.
“This discovery resolves a decades-long debate, enabling us to calculate the distance of Bella Junior, its size, and the true power of the explosion.”
By examining the gas emissions from Ve 7-27, Dr. Safi Harb and his team confirmed that it shares the same chemical signature as materials from the Vela Junior supernova.
This correlation established a physical connection between the two celestial bodies, allowing astronomers to accurately determine Bella Junior’s distance.
Both Ve 7-27 and Vela Junior are approximately 4,500 light-years away.
“The gas present in this young star mirrors the chemical composition of stars that exploded in the past,” remarked Dr. Safi Harb.
“Isn’t it poetic? Those same elements eventually contributed to Earth and now play a role in forming new stars.”
Recent findings indicate that Bella Junior is larger, more energetic, and expanding at a rate quicker than previously thought, marking it as one of the most potent supernova remnants in our galaxy.
“Stars are constructed in layers, much like onions,” Dr. Safi Harb explained. “When they explode, these layers are propelled into space.”
“Our research indicates that these layers are now becoming visible in the jets of nearby young stars.”
“This study not only solves an enduring astronomical enigma but also sheds light on stellar evolution, the enrichment of galaxies with elements, and how extreme cosmic events continue to shape our universe.”
This research was published today in a study featured in the Astrophysics Journal Letters.
Astronomers utilizing the NASA/ESA/CSA James Webb Space Telescope have identified the chemical signature of a protostar with a mass between 1,000 and 10,000 times that of the Sun in GS 3073, an early galaxy with a redshift of 5.55 (approximately 1 billion years post-Big Bang).
A primordial supermassive star in the early universe. Image credit: Gemini AI.
In 2022, it was suggested by astronomers that supermassive stars formed naturally within turbulent flows of rare cold gas during the early universe, thus accounting for the existence of quasars less than a billion years after the Big Bang.
“Our recent finding helps to unravel a cosmic enigma that has persisted for two decades,” stated Dr. Daniel Whalen of the University of Portsmouth.
“GS 3073 offers the first observational proof of these colossal stars.”
“These astronomical behemoths would have radiated intensely for a brief period before collapsing into enormous black holes, leaving behind chemical imprints detectable billions of years later.”
“Much like Earth’s dinosaurs, they were massive and rudimentary, with lifespans spanning just 250,000 years—an ephemeral moment in cosmic time.”
The cornerstone of this discovery involved assessing the nitrogen-to-oxygen ratio in the GS 3073 galaxy.
This galaxy presents a nitrogen-to-oxygen ratio of 0.46, significantly exceeding what can be accounted for by any known type of star or stellar explosion.
“Chemical abundances serve as the universe’s fingerprints, and the pattern from GS 3073 is unlike that produced by typical stars,” remarked Dr. Devesh Nandal, an astronomer at the University of Virginia, Harvard University, and the Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics.
“This unprecedented nitrogen concentration aligns with a single known source: protostars that are thousands of times more massive than the Sun.”
“This suggests that the first generation of stars included genuine supermassive objects that contributed to the creation of early galaxies and may have planted the seeds for contemporary supermassive black holes.”
The researchers performed modeling of stars with masses between 1,000 and 10,000 solar masses to predict their evolution and the elements they would produce.
They identified a specific mechanism for generating substantial nitrogen. (i) These colossal stars fuse helium, forming carbon in their cores. (ii) Carbon seeps into the outer shell, where hydrogen is undergoing fusion. (iii) Carbon merges with hydrogen, resulting in nitrogen through the carbon/nitrogen/oxygen (CNO) cycle. (iv) Convection disseminates nitrogen throughout the star. (v) Eventually, this nitrogen-rich material is expelled into space, enriching the surrounding gas.
This mechanism spans millions of years during the star’s helium burning phase, leading to the excess nitrogen observed in GS 3073.
The team’s models predict that upon demise, these massive stars do not explode. Instead, they collapse directly into gigantic black holes with masses reaching thousands of solar masses.
Interestingly, GS 3073 harbors an actively feeding black hole at its core, which could potentially be the remnant of one of these supermassive first stars.
If validated, this would simultaneously clarify two mysteries: the origin of nitrogen and the formation of black holes.
The study also revealed that this nitrogen signature is exclusive to specific mass ranges.
“Stars below 1,000 solar masses or above 10,000 solar masses do not generate chemical patterns suitable for this signature, indicating a ‘sweet spot’ for such enrichment,” scientists noted.
of study Published in Astrophysics Journal Letter.
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Devesh Nandal others. 2025. A protostar between 1000 and 10,000 MSun created a nitrogen surplus in GS 3073 at z = 5.55. APJL 994, L11; doi: 10.3847/2041-8213/ae1a63
At its core, a star is formed when gravity gathers matter tightly enough to facilitate nuclear fusion in its center while also ensuring it doesn’t generate enough energy to disintegrate. The equilibrium between the gravitational forces pulling inward and the radiative forces pushing outward is referred to as: hydrostatic equilibrium. This balance constrains the size that stars can attain. This limit is known as the Eddington mass limit, which is believed to range between 150 and 300 solar masses.
When stars rotate, they have an enhanced ability to maintain their structure because a rotating body generates a force directed inward from its outer edges. This force is called centripetal force. As the star spins, it applies a centripetal force that acts alongside gravity, balancing the radiation pressure. Recently, a group of scientists investigated how the rotation of giant stars impacts their lifetimes throughout cosmic history. Massive stars contribute significantly to key cosmic phenomena, and understanding their end stages can shed light on the universe’s formation, including the creation of black holes and supernovae.
The researchers employed grid-based modeling software called the Geneva Stellar Evolution Code, also known as Genec. This tool helped simulate stellar behavior and long-term evolution based on initial characteristics. GENEC treats a star as a multi-layered system and tracks the movement of matter across these layers over time.
Two primary variables in their simulations were the star’s rotation status and its initial mass, which ranged from 9 to 500 solar masses. The researchers indicated that current science portrays very massive stars, those exceeding 100 solar masses, as inherently unstable and unpredictable. To clarify this, the team analyzed results for these colossal stars, utilizing 2other models.
To understand how the fates of giant rotating stars have evolved, the researchers examined the ratio of stars containing elements heavier than hydrogen and helium ( metallic). They argued that since the early universe after the Big Bang had few metals, the modern universe must contain significantly more, allowing metallicity to serve as a proxy for stellar evolution. By analyzing spinning stars with low metallicity, they sought insights into the lifespan of the early universe’s rotating stars.
Following the GENEC simulations, the researchers observed distinct differences in the fates of rotating versus non-rotating stars. Spinning massive stars were more likely to collapse into black holes while being less prone to massive supernova eruptions or transitioning into dense neutron stars. The research indicated that very massive, non-rotating stars with low metallicity tend to explode as supernovae, whereas those with high metallicity collapse into black holes.
The researchers proposed that this intricate relationship arises because rotating stars tend to have more of their material mixed, increasing the fusion potential in their cores. However, this rotational dynamic can also lead to the ejection of more outer material, ultimately reducing the fusion resources available in the core.
An additional complicating factor arises from the frequent occurrence of multiple massive stars in close proximity, forming a binary system. In these scenarios, stars can exchange mass, either gaining or losing material. The researchers suggest that because massive stars in binary systems may shed mass before their lifetimes conclude, their model could underestimate the frequency of massive stars evolving into neutron stars rather than exploding or collapsing into black holes.
In summary, the team concluded that rotation intricately influences star evolution. While rotation increases the likelihood of a massive star undergoing certain outcomes, such as collapsing into a black hole, factors like composition and initial mass significantly affect its destiny. Acknowledging the multitude of variables, the researchers emphasized that the next phase in understanding massive stars’ fates should focus on identifying stars in binary systems.
SNR 0519, the remnants of a supernova that erupted around 600 years ago
Claude Coenen/ESA/Hubble & NASA
Our planet may owe some of its characteristics to a neighboring star that met its end as a supernova during the formation period of the solar system. This notion of a supernova bubble enveloping the sun and inundating it with cosmic rays might be a common phenomenon across the galaxy, implying that there could be many more Earth-like planets than we ever imagined.
Thanks to ancient data, we understand from a meteorite sample that the early solar system was rich in radioactive materials that generated significant heat and quickly decayed. The heat produced by these elements was crucial for releasing substantial amounts of water from the colliding space rocks and comets that coalesced to form Earth, ensuring there was enough water for life to eventually thrive.
However, the origin of these elements remains a mystery. While many are commonly produced in supernovae, simulations of nearby supernovae have faced challenges in replicating the exact ratios of radioactive elements observed in meteorite specimens from the early Solar System. A significant issue is that these explosive events were incredibly forceful and might have obliterated the delicate early solar system before planetary formation could take place.
Recently, Ryo Sawada and fellow researchers at the University of Tokyo have discovered that if a supernova occurs at an adequate distance, it could supply Earth with the necessary radioactive components without interfering with the planet-forming process.
In their theoretical framework, a supernova located approximately three light-years from our solar system could initiate a two-step process to generate the essential radioactive elements. Certain radioactive substances, like aluminum and manganese, are directly created during supernova explosions and might reach the solar system propelled by shock waves from the explosion.
Subsequently, the high-energy particles known as cosmic rays released by the supernova travel along these shock waves, colliding with other atoms in the gaseous, dusty, and rocky disk still in its formative phase, birthing the remaining radioactive elements such as beryllium and calcium. “We realized that prior models of solar system formation primarily concentrated on the injection of matter, neglecting the role of high-energy particles,” stated Sawada. “We contemplated, ‘What if our nascent solar system was simply engulfed in this particle bath?'”
Due to the occurrence of this process in more distant supernovae than previously explored, Sawada and his team estimate that between 10 and 50 percent of Sun-like stars and planetary systems might have been enriched with radioactive elements in this manner, leading to the formation of water-abundant planets that resemble Earth. Earlier theories posited that the proximity of the supernova would have made such an event exceedingly rare, akin to “winning the lottery,” as Sawada described. The fact that the supernova is further positioned indicates that “Earth’s creation is probably not an unusual occurrence, but a widespread phenomenon that transpires throughout the galaxy,” he adds.
“This is exceedingly clever because it strikes a harmonious balance between destruction and creation,” remarks Cosimo Insera from Cardiff University in the UK. “The right elements and the correct distance are essential.”
If this theory holds true, Inserra mentioned that upcoming telescopes like NASA’s Habitable World Observatory could significantly aid in the search for Earth-like planets by identifying remnants of ancient supernovae and locating systems that were within proximity to supernovae during their formation stages.
Europa, Jupiter’s frigid moon, is an oceanic environment that stands out as a key player in the quest for extraterrestrial life. Its surface is characterized by various landforms believed to originate from salty water sources beneath its icy crust, potentially making it the most accessible body of liquid water in the solar system. Notably, the asterisk-shaped “spider” located in the center of Manannan Crater was identified during NASA’s Galileo mission. Planetary scientists have recently introduced a novel hypothesis regarding the formation of this spider-like structure, drawing on morphological analysis and initial analog modeling. They propose that it may have formed through a process akin to the creation of dendritic “lake stars,” a seasonal phenomenon observed in frozen terrestrial ponds and lakes.
Damkhan Alla topographic map of Manannan. Image credit: McCune et al., doi: 10.3847/PSJ/ae18a0.
“The spider-like feature may have resulted from an eruption of molten salt water following the Manannan impact,” explains Dr. Elodie Lesage from the Planetary Science Institute.
“This presents an opportunity to understand the subsurface characteristics and the salt water composition at the impact’s time.”
Dr. Lesage and colleagues are also researching similar “spiders” on Mars, which are tree-like formations in the regolith near the planet’s south pole.
Their findings on Mars have been applied to other celestial bodies, including Europa.
Martian spiders develop as a result of gases escaping beneath a seasonal dry ice layer; however, the Europa study speculates that the “asterisk-shaped” features could have emerged post-impact.
“Lake stars are radial branching designs that occur when snow accumulates on a frozen lake, creating holes in the ice due to the snow’s weight, allowing water to flow through and spread out energetically,” stated Dr. Lauren McCune from the University of Central Florida and NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory.
“We believe a similar process could have happened on Europa, with subsurface brine erupting after the impact and dispersing through the porous surface ice.”
The research team has informally designated the Europa feature as Damhan Alla, which translates to “spider” in Irish, differentiating it from Martian spider formations.
To validate their hypothesis, they studied lake stars in Breckenridge, Colorado, and conducted field as well as lab experiments using a cryogenic glovebox equipped with a Europa ice simulator cooled by liquid nitrogen.
“In our experiments where we passed water through these simulants at various temperatures, we observed similar star-like formations even at extremely low temperatures (-100 degrees Celsius or -148 degrees Fahrenheit), lending support to the idea that such mechanisms could occur on Europa after the impact,” Dr. McCune remarked.
Scientists also created models showing how the saltwater beneath Europa’s surface would react following an impact, including an animation illustrating the process.
While observations of Europa’s icy features are primarily reliant on images captured by the Galileo spacecraft in 1998, the researchers aim to explore this further with high-resolution images from NASA’s Europa Clipper mission, anticipated to arrive at the Jupiter system in April 2030.
“Although lake stars offer significant insights, terrestrial conditions differ vastly from those on Europa,” Dr. McCune notes.
“Earth possesses a nitrogen-rich atmosphere, while Europa’s environment features extremely low pressures and temperatures.”
“This investigation combined field data and laboratory trials to better simulate Europa’s surface conditions.”
The team will further examine how low-pressure systems affect the formation of these landforms and explore whether such structures can form beneath Europa’s icy crust, akin to how flowing lava generates smooth, rope-like textures known as pahoehoe on Earth.
While the primary focus was geomorphology, this discovery sheds light on subsurface activity and habitability, crucial for future astrobiological studies.
“By employing numerical modeling of saline reservoirs, we assessed the potential depth of the reservoir (up to 6 km, or 3.7 miles below the surface) and its longevity (potentially several thousand years post-impact),” Dr. Lesage stated.
“This data is invaluable for upcoming missions investigating viable ecosystems beneath ice shells.”
The team’s results were published in Planetary Science Journal.
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Lauren E. McCune et al. 2025. A lake star as an Earth analogue of Europa’s Manannan Crater Spider feature. Planet. Science. J 6,279; doi: 10.3847/PSJ/ae18a0
We might be observing the earliest indications of peculiar stars that harness dark matter. These dark stars could provide explanations for some of the universe’s most enigmatic entities, and offer insights into the actual nature of dark matter itself.
Standard stars are birthed when a gas cloud collapses, leading to a core dense enough to initiate nuclear fusion. This fusion generates significant heat and energy, radiating into the surrounding gas and plasma.
Dark stars could have emerged in a similar fashion during the universe’s infancy, a period of higher density which also saw a notably concentrated presence of dark matter. If a gas cloud collapsing into a star contains substantial dark matter, it may begin to collide and dissipate prior to nuclear fusion, generating enough energy to illuminate the dark star and halt further collapse.
The process leading to the formation of dark stars is relatively straightforward, and currently, a team led by Katherine Freese from the University of Texas at Austin is exploring its potential outcome.
In an ordinary large star, once the hydrogen and helium are depleted, it continues fusing heavier elements until it runs out of energy and collapses into a black hole. The more mass the star contains, the quicker this transition occurs.
However, the same is not true for dark stars. “By incorporating dark matter into a star roughly the mass of the Sun, and sustaining it through dark matter decay rather than nuclear means, you can continuously nourish the star. Provided it receives enough dark matter, it won’t undergo the nuclear transformations that lead to complications,” explains George Fuller, a collaborator with Freese at the University of California, San Diego.
Despite this, general relativity imposes a limit on how long dark matter can preserve these unusual giants. Albert Einstein’s theory suggests that an object’s gravitational field does not increase linearly with mass; instead, gravity intensifies the gravitational force. Ultimately, an object may reach a mass at which it becomes unstable, with minor variations overpowering its gravitational pull and resulting in a collapse into a black hole. Researchers estimate this threshold for a dark star is between 1,000 and 10 million times the Sun’s mass.
This mass range makes supermassive dark stars prime candidates for addressing one of the early universe’s profound mysteries: the existence of supermassive black holes. These giants were spotted relatively early in the universe’s history, but their rapid formation remains a puzzle. One prevailing theory posits that they didn’t arise from typical stars, but rather from some colossal “seed.”
“If a black hole weighs 100 solar masses, how could it possibly grow to a billion solar masses in just a few hundred million years? This is implausible if black holes were formed solely from standard stars,” asserts Freese. “Conversely, this situation changes significantly if the origin is a relatively large seed.” Such faint stars could serve as those seeds.
Yet, the enigmas of the early universe extend beyond supermassive black holes that dark stars could elucidate. The James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) has unveiled two other unforeseen object types, referred to as the little red dot and the blue monster, both appearing at substantial distances. The immediate hypothesis for these is that they are compact galaxies.
However, like supermassive black holes, these objects exist too far away and too early in universal history for simple formation explanations. Based on observations, Freese and her associates propose that both the little red dot and the blue monster may represent individual, immensely massive dark stars.
If they indeed are dark stars, they would display particular clues in their light. This aspect pertains to specific wavelengths that dark stars should ostensibly absorb. Normal stars and galaxies dense with them are too hot to capture that light.
Freese and colleagues have found possible indicators of this absorption in initial JWST observations of several distant entities; however, the data is too inconclusive to confirm its existence. “Currently, of all our candidates, two could potentially fit the spectrum: a solitary supermassive dark star or an entire galaxy of regular stars,” Freese notes. “Examining this dip in the spectrum, we’re convinced it points to a dark star rather than a conventional star-filled galaxy. But for now, we only possess a faint hint.”
While it remains uncertain if we have definitively detected a dark star, this development marks progress. “It isn’t a definitive finding, but it certainly fuels motivation for ongoing inquiries, and some aspects of what JWST has been examining seem to align with that direction,” remarks Dan Hooper from the University of Wisconsin-Madison.
Establishing whether these entities are genuinely dark stars necessitates numerous more observations, ideally with enhanced sensitivity; however, it remains ambiguous whether JWST can achieve the level of detail required for such distant galaxies or dark stars.
“Confirming the existence of dark stars would be a remarkable breakthrough,” emphasizes Volodymyr Takistov from the High Energy Accelerator Research Organization in Japan. This could facilitate new observational avenues into foundational physics. This is particularly true if dark stars are recognized as seeds for supermassive black holes. Freese, Fuller, and their team deduced that the mass at which a black hole collapses correlates with the mass of the dark matter particle annihilating at its center, implying that supermassive black holes could serve as metrics to evaluate or at least restrict dark matter properties. Of course, validating the existence of dark stars is the first priority. “Even if these entities exist, their occurrence is rare,” Hooper states. “They are uncommon, yet significant.”
Exploring the Mysteries of the Universe: Cheshire, England
Join some of the brightest minds in science for a weekend dedicated to unraveling the universe’s mysteries, featuring a tour of the legendary Lovell Telescope.
By utilizing data from the NASA/ESA/CSA James Webb Space Telescope along with ESO’s Very Large Telescope (VLT), two separate teams of astronomers have captured mid-infrared images of a system featuring four intricate spirals of dust encircling a pair of aging Wolf-Rayet stars located in a system known as Apep (2XMM J160050.7-514245).
Webb’s mid-infrared images reveal four coiled dust shells surrounding two Wolf-Rayet stars known as Apep. Image credits: NASA / ESA / CSA / STScI / California Institute of Technology Yeahuo Han / Macquarie University Ryan White / Alyssa Pagan, STScI.
Wolf-Rayet stars represent a rare class of massive binary stars where the universe’s earliest carbon is formed.
There are estimated to be only around 1,000 of these stars in the Milky Way galaxy, which contains hundreds of billions of stars in total.
Among the multiple Wolf-Rayet binaries observed so far, the Apep system stands out as the sole example of having two such Wolf-Rayet stars within our galaxy.
In a recent study, astronomer Ryan White from Macquarie University and his team set out to refine the orbital characteristics of the Wolf-Rayet stars in the Apep system.
They integrated precise ring position measurements from the Webb images with the shell’s expansion rate obtained over eight years of VLT observations.
“This is a unique system with a very extended orbital period,” White mentioned.
“The next longest orbit for a dusty Wolf-Rayet binary is roughly 30 years, while most orbits tend to span between 2 and 10 years.”
One of the team’s papers was published concurrently in the Astrophysical Journal alongside another study led by astronomer Yinuo Han from the California Institute of Technology.
“Observing the new Webb data felt like stepping into a dark room and flipping on a light switch. Everything became visible,” Dr. Han remarked.
“Dust is abundant throughout the Webb image, and telescope observations indicate that much of it is fragmenting into repeating and predictable structures.”
Webb’s observations yielded unprecedented images. It produced a clear mid-infrared image revealing a system of four swirling spirals of dust, each expanding in a consistent pattern. Ground-based telescopes had only identified one shell prior to Webb’s discoveries.
By merging Webb imagery with several years of VLT data, they refined the orbital frequency of the star pairs to every 190 years.
Within this remarkably lengthy orbit, the star approaches closely for 25 years, enabling dust formation.
Additionally, Webb’s observations confirmed the existence of three stars that are gravitationally bound to each other in this system.
The dust expelled by the two Wolf-Rayet stars is being cleaved by a third star, a massive supergiant, which creates holes in the dust cloud emanating from its expansive orbit.
“Dr. Webb has provided us with the ‘smoking gun’ evidence to confirm that a third star is gravitationally linked to this system,” Dr. Han noted.
Researchers were aware of this third star since VLT observed its brightest inner shell in 2018, but Webb’s findings helped refine the geometric model and reinforced the connection.
“We unraveled several mysteries with Webb,” Dr. Han added.
“The lingering mystery remains the precise distance from Earth to the star, which will necessitate further observations.”
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Ryan MT White et al. 2025. Snake eating its own tail: Dust destruction of the Apep impact wind nebula. APJ 994, 121; doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/adfbe1
Han Yinuo et al. 2025. JWST reveals the formation and evolution of dust in APEP, a binary star with colliding winds. APJ 994, 122; doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/ae12e5
The galaxy NGC 6789 viewed through a 2-meter twin telescope
Ignacio Trujillo et al. 2025
Approximately 12 million light years from Earth lies an unusual galaxy. Its center has consistently formed new stars over the past 600 million years, yet the exact source of the fuel driving this star formation remains elusive.
The galaxy known as NGC 6789 was first identified in 1883, but it has only been in recent years that evidence of ongoing star formation has emerged. NGC 6789 is situated in a region dubbed the Local Void, located towards the Draco constellation, which is notably sparse in cosmic matter. It stands out as one of the few galaxies existing within this void, making it highly isolated compared to the majority of galaxies in the universe.
This isolation contributes to the enigma surrounding its star creation. Galaxies typically require gas to produce new stars, yet local voids contain very little gas. Being at least a billion years old, NGC 6789 should have depleted its initial reserves of gas; however, it has managed to generate approximately 100 million solar masses, equating to about 4% of its total mass, over the last 600 million years.
Ignacio Trujillo and researchers from the Canary Islands Institute of Astrophysics utilized the 2-meter twin telescope at the Teide Observatory in Tenerife to capture deeper images of galaxies than previously possible, aiming to uncover signs of events that might have introduced gas. If a merger with another galaxy or a previously undetected gas flow had occurred, it might have distorted the shape of NGC 6789.
However, the new images did not reveal any distortions. It is possible that NGC 6789’s formation left behind a substantial amount of gas or that there exists a faint gas pocket nearby that did not alter the galaxy’s shape at all. For now, the mystery remains unsolved.
Video Games have faced ongoing challenges with diversity and inclusion, making it unsurprising when Game Awards host and producer Geoff Keighley unveiled the Future Class program in 2020. The initiative aimed to spotlight individuals in gaming as part of a “bright, bold, and inclusive future” for the industry.
Considering the vast audience of the annual Keighley-led show, which garnered around 154 million livestream views last year, Future Class appeared to be a sincere attempt at fostering change. Hall of Fame inductees were invited to the prestigious December ceremony, often referred to as the “Oscars of Gaming,” and featured prominently on the official Game Awards website, with promises of networking and career development. However, reports indicate that the program faced difficulties from the outset, with support waning in recent years. It now appears that the Game Awards Future Class may have been entirely abandoned.
This marks the second consecutive year without any new Future Class members being announced. Typically, the program sees 50 inductees from various sectors of the gaming world, including writing, development, journalism, and community management. According to a report by a game developer, organizer Emily Weir stated, “We’re not planning a new Future Class.” [2025] There are currently no active plans for Future Classes.
Former Future Class inductees express that this outcome follows years of advocacy to enhance the program. As the video game industry navigates a cultural clash surrounding Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion Initiatives (DEI), some Future Class members feel they were leveraged for positive portrayals and then abandoned when DEI initiatives lost momentum.
The 2024 Game Awards Ceremony. Photo: Frank Micelotta/Picturegroup/Shutterstock
“We were essentially props,” game producer Deanna Lora, who joined the inaugural Future Class in 2020, recounted during a video call. “At the Game Awards, most people had come from far away due to the costs, and I felt sidelined. I later learned that Casely was hosting a party in another room with influencers and industry leaders. Do you know where the Future Class gathered that day? At Starbucks.”
“No one from the official leadership attended until the meet and greet was nearly over,” said Future Class member and Retcon Games creative director Jess Negron, reflecting on the Starbucks gathering. “We felt quite let down.”
At the 2021 ceremony, Lora, community manager Natalie Czech, podcast host Kalief Adams, and other Future Class members found themselves seated behind a camera riser, effectively blocking their view of the event.
Future Class inductees receive program benefits for a year, including tickets to the Game Awards (alumni were offered discounts on ticket purchases) and access to career advancement opportunities. Many noted that the early-career-focused event primarily featured discussions with notable industry figures like former Nintendo president Reggie Fils-Aimé and Xbox head Phil Spencer, rather than a comprehensive mentorship program.
“It felt like Keighley gathered some friends for a Zoom call,” Lora remarked. “While those conversations were thrilling, that was pretty much the extent of it.”
Lora was among several Future Class members who urged Keighley and Weir to enhance the program.
Writer Emma Kidwell at the 2022 Game Awards. Photo: Scott Kirkland/PictureGroup for The Game Awards/Shutterstock
“They had everything the 2023 class received: a Future Class mixer;” commented Emma Kidwell, a writer who joined in 2023, about past inductees. “All the benefits we’ve gained are due to our previous classmates. They arranged for hotel stays and covered our flights… Everything we’ve received is thanks to our former peers.”
However, 2023 also saw a significant conflict between Future Class and Casely, which members believe may have hastened the program’s decline. In November, over 70 Future Class members signed an open letter advocating for a statement supporting Palestinians and calling for a ceasefire, given the heightened media focus on the humanitarian crisis in Gaza. The letter requested this statement be read at a December ceremony. Despite receiving media attention, the letter shared on the Future Class Discord, which both Keighley and Weir are part of, was ignored.
Shortly after, several Future Class members presented a virtual address to Keighley and Weir, acknowledging the program’s significance but voicing concerns about its “goals, structure, and sustainability.” They provided suggestions for enhancing both the program and the awards ceremony, such as incorporating more female presenters, improving accessibility, and recognizing recent mass layoffs in the industry. Younes Rabi, a Hall of Fame inductee from 2022, reported that Keighley appeared visibly frustrated during the discussion, while another member described him as “furious.”
Keighley and Weir did not respond to requests for comments.
All interviewed Future Class members expressed various levels of dissatisfaction with the program’s abrupt conclusion. Accessibility consultant Steve Thaler lamented, “It’s unfortunate that it was part of something meaningful with great individuals and was left in limbo.” He continued, “I’m not angry; I’m just disappointed.” Many speculated that the program’s disbandment was a result of inductees advocating for a superior Future Class. “You have influence, you can drive changes,” Lora highlighted. “However, since we challenged the status quo, it seems the sentiment became, ‘This is too challenging; it would be better to keep the peace.’” Czech added, “Due to our advocacy for ourselves—given that we were inducted—we faced repercussions for pushing for the same changes the organization publicly commended us for.”
Geoff Keighley is also the host of the annual Summer Game Fest showcase. Photo: Frank Micelotta/PictureGroup/Shutterstock
Several members pondered whether sponsorships linked to the program (a video introducing the 2023 Hall of Fame inductees was sponsored by Old Spice) meant they were effectively being “tokenized” to boost revenue. (The cost of a one-minute trailer for Keighley’s 2024 Summer Games Showcase was reportedly $250,000, with sources estimating the Game Awards will incur even higher costs.) “They didn’t acknowledge us at the 2022 Game Awards, and while we’re not well-known, we certainly didn’t receive financial support, other than the sponsorship they supposedly secured under the Future Class name,” Negron said.
At one point, the Future Class page disappeared from the Game Awards site. This action eliminated any official record of members. “Not only did they cancel the program, but they also erased our means to claim the honor we were previously awarded,” Czech said.
“Marginalized voices need recognition because it brings them at least to the same starting point as others,” Kidwell pointed out. “Now, you can’t even list that on your resume,” Negron noted, questioning the rationale behind such decisions. “Don’t assemble the leading advocates in the industry, treat us poorly, and then expect us to remain silent.”
The decline of the Future Class serves as a poignant reminder that alliances lacking genuine support are often mere performative gestures. Yet, for some, not all hope is lost. Midnight Hour founder Elaine Gómez emphasized that the most valuable aspect was “the camaraderie and community fostered by uniting nearly 200 developers and creators from underrepresented backgrounds.” Meanwhile, the official Future Class Discord remains operational and even more vibrant than in the past year.
During the concluding phase of their main sequence life, stars with mass comparable to the Sun experience a transformative evolution. This evolutionary process is likely to affect the surrounding planetary systems. As the star expands in its post-main-sequence stage, astronomers anticipate that most exoplanets detected to date may be engulfed by the growing star.
An artist’s impression of a sun-like star engulfing a giant exoplanet. Image credits: International Gemini Observatory / NOIRLab / NSF / AURA / M. Garlick / M. Zamani
Utilizing data from NASA’s Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite (TESS), astronomers Edward Bryant and Vincent Van Eylen studied 456,941 stars that have just commenced their post-main sequence phase.
By employing a computer algorithm, they targeted giant planets with short orbital periods (those that complete an orbit in less than 12 days) and searched for consistent dips in brightness that would indicate these planets transiting in front of their host stars.
They discovered 130 planets and planet candidates, including 33 previously unknown, closely orbiting these stars.
The researchers observed that such planets are less likely to exist around stars that have expanded and cooled sufficiently to be categorized as red giants (more evolved stars), implying that many of these planets might have already been destroyed.
Dr. Bryant, an astronomer at University College London and the University of Warwick, stated: “This provides compelling evidence that as stars progress beyond the main sequence, planets can rapidly spiral out of existence.”
“This topic has been debated and theorized for some time, but we can now observe this phenomenon directly and quantify it at the level of stellar populations.”
“We expected to observe this phenomenon, but we were still astonished by how effectively these stars can consume nearby planets.”
“This destruction is believed to stem from a gravitational tug-of-war between the planet and the star, known as tidal interactions.”
“As the star evolves and expands, these interactions intensify.”
“Just as the moon influences the Earth’s oceans, creating tides, planets also exert a pull on their stars.”
“These interactions decelerate the planet, reducing its orbit and causing it to spiral inward, ultimately resulting in its disintegration or absorption by the star.”
“In the coming billions of years, our sun will expand and transform into a red giant,” mentioned Dr. Van Eylen, an astronomer at University College London.
“Will the planets in our solar system endure this transformation? Our findings suggest that, in some instances, planets do not survive.”
“Earth may be better off than the giant planets much closer to the stars we examine.”
“However, we only analyzed the initial part of the post-main-sequence phase, spanning the first one or two million years. There is still ample opportunity for stellar evolution.”
“Unlike the giant planets lost in our investigation, Earth has the potential to endure the Sun’s red giant phase. However, life on Earth is likely to be extinguished.”
The team’s paper was published on October 15, 2025, in Royal Astronomical Society Monthly Notices.
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Edward M. Bryant and Vincent Van Eylen. 2025. Determine the impact of post-main sequence stellar evolution on the population of passing giant planets. MNRAS 544 (1): 1186-1214; doi: 10.1093/mnras/staf1771
The Orionid meteor shower will soon light up the night sky once again.
This year’s event is anticipated to be particularly stunning, as the peak of the Orionid meteor shower in 2025 aligns with the new moon night, making the sky notably darker.
You don’t require any special gear to observe meteor showers, making it an excellent introduction to stargazing. All you need are your eyes and a clear, dark sky.
Here’s all the essential information to enhance your viewing experience.
When is the Orionid meteor shower tonight?
The 2025 Orionid meteor shower will reach its peak during the night of October 21-22 in the US and UK, but you can catch glimpses of it from October to November.
This meteor shower is relatively prominent. Under optimal conditions, you might see 10 to 20 meteors each hour, though realistically you may spot one roughly every 10 minutes.
What makes the 2025 Orionids especially remarkable is the coincidence with the new moon, allowing for darker skies and visibility of fainter meteors.
Meteors can be seen throughout the night, but many fade below the horizon in the evening. For a better view, wait until after midnight when they will be higher in the sky.
However, the key factor in your viewing experience will be the weather. Keep an eye on the forecast for any breaks in the cloud cover. Even if conditions aren’t ideal, you might catch some meteors if the sky is partly clear.
Don’t fret if the weather doesn’t seem promising on the peak night. You should still see plenty of meteors around October 21st.
How can you see the Orionid meteor shower in 2025?
Meteor showers provide a wonderful shared experience—invite your friends and family! – Credit: Getty
The ideal way to observe a meteor shower is to venture to the darkest location available. Escaping the light pollution of urban areas is your best bet (ensure you have permission and stay in a safe area after dark).
If you can’t get out of the city, try to avoid any direct light sources, whether that’s at your local park or a corner of your garden shielded from streetlights by a fence.
Instead of focusing on one specific direction, aim to take in as much of the sky as possible. Sun loungers make it comfortable to lie back and gaze upwards without straining your neck. Remember to dress warmly and bring along some snacks.
Leave your telescope at home; for meteor watching, your eyes are the best tool you have.
Give your eyes about 20 minutes to adjust to the darkness. Be cautious—any brief exposure to bright light, including your phone, can reset this adjustment.
Now, keep looking up and be patient. Eventually, you should start to see meteors streaking across the sky.
What is a meteor shower?
The Orionid meteor shower is a result of Halley’s Comet, which orbits the inner Solar System approximately every 75 years (its next visit is slated for 2061). As the comet passes, it leaves behind a trail of dust and debris.
Every year, Earth passes through this debris stream, causing tiny particles to collide with our atmosphere at incredible speeds of 70 km (41 miles) per second. This collision heats up the air, creating bright flashes of light known as meteors or shooting stars.
Why are they called the Orionid meteor shower?
Orion is one of the brightest constellations visible in the northern sky – Credit: Getty
The shower derives its name from the fact that all meteors appear to radiate from the constellation Orion.
If you track an Orionid meteor’s path, you’ll find it leads back to this particular constellation.
Orion can be easily recognized by the three bright stars that form its well-known belt in the southern sky. If you’re unsure of what to look for, consider downloading a stargazing or astronomy app to assist you.
Additionally, you might spot meteors that do not originate from the Orion constellation. If so, congratulations! You’ve encountered a stray meteor that coincidentally entered Earth’s atmosphere during the shower.
The findings of 1I/Oumuamua, 2I/Borisov, and 3I/ATLAS have revealed a substantial number of interstellar objects in the cosmos. Their widespread presence suggests that such objects are also found in protoplanetary disks, essential sites for planet formation. In these disks, interstellar objects could potentially bypass the 1-meter (3.3-foot) barrier in the traditional model of planet formation, initiating the creation of giant exoplanets.
This colorized image was taken by the CaSSIS instrument aboard ESA’s Trace Gas Orbiter on October 3, 2025, and displays the interstellar comet 3I/ATLAS. Image credit: ESA/TGO/CaSSIS.
Interstellar objects, including asteroids and comets, are those that have been expelled from their original star systems and are now traversing interstellar space, occasionally intersecting with other star systems.
Since 2017, astronomers have identified three interstellar objects passing through our solar system: 1I/’Oumuamua, 2I/Borisov, and the latest, 3I/ATLAS.
“Nevertheless, interstellar objects may exert a more significant influence than it appears at first glance,” states Professor Susanne Falzner, an astronomer at Jülich National Park.
“Interstellar objects could potentially incite planet formation, particularly around high-mass stars.”
Planets are formed from dusty disks that surround young stars through a process known as accretion. This theory posits that smaller particles gradually coalesce into larger objects, culminating in the formation of planet-sized bodies.
However, researchers have faced challenges in explaining how accretion can create objects larger than a meter amidst the chaotic collisions of planet-forming disks surrounding young stars. In simulations, the rocks tend to either bounce off each other or break apart upon collision, rather than adhering together.
Interstellar objects might help circumvent this issue. The researchers’ model illustrates how the dust-laden disks surrounding young stars can gravitationally capture millions of interstellar objects akin to 1I/’Oumuamua, which is estimated to be around 100 meters (328 feet) long.
“Interstellar space will supply ready-made seeds for the next phase of planet formation,” said Professor Falzner.
If interstellar objects could act as seeds for planets, it would also resolve another enigma.
Gas giant planets like Jupiter are scarce around smaller and colder stars, referred to as M dwarfs, but are more frequently found around larger stars similar to the Sun.
However, the lifespan of a planet-forming disk around a Sun-like star lasts only about 2 million years before dissipating, complicating the formation of gas giant planets in such a brief time frame.
That said, if captured interstellar objects serve as seeds for accretion, the planet-forming process could hasten, allowing giant planets to form within the lifetime of the disk.
“The more massive a star is, the more effectively it can capture interstellar objects in its disk,” Professor Falzner explained.
“As a result, planet formation seeded with interstellar objects should proceed more efficiently around these stars, offering a rapid pathway to forming giant planets.”
“And their swift formation is precisely what we’ve observed.”
Large Magellanic Cloud, Milky Way Satellite Galaxy, nearby star SDSS J0715-7334 discovered
Josh Lake/NASA/ESA
A star relatively close to us appears to be almost devoid of heavy elements produced by supernovae and may be a direct descendant of the universe’s first star.
Astronomers postulate that the initial stars consisted solely of hydrogen and helium, remnants from the Big Bang. It was only after these stars exhausted their fuel and exploded as supernovae that heavier elements could disperse beyond helium. The gas enriched with these new elements formed the subsequent generation of stars, with this cycle continuing, ultimately producing the elements we see in today’s stars and planets.
Most stars observed in our galaxy belong to multiple generations and are excluded from this early star population. However, “star archaeologists” have discovered nearly untouched stars believed to be from the “second generation,” born from the remnants of the early stellar explosions.
Recently, Alexander Z from the University of Chicago and his team identified the star with the lowest total amount of “metals,” referring to all elements besides hydrogen or helium, in the known universe. Named SDSS J0715-7334, this star resides in the Large Magellanic Cloud, a satellite galaxy of the Milky Way, and has a metal content approximately 0.8 times that of our Sun, making it about 20,000 times less metallic.
After initially detecting the star in data from the Sloan Digital Sky Survey, due to its notably low metallicity, JI and his colleagues conducted observations with the Magellan telescope at the Las Campanas Observatory in Chile. They confirmed that while the star has minimal iron, comparable to other nearly untouched stars, it also exhibits very low carbon levels, which are not typical for Milky Way stars.
“It’s quite an exciting discovery regarding iron levels. This is even more extreme than some of the other examples we have previously found,” said Anke Ardern-Arentsen from Cambridge University. “However, most interestingly, this star has significantly less carbon compared to natural stars we know about.” This observation might imply that it formed in a distinctly different manner than stars found in the Milky Way, according to Anna Frebel from MIT.
To form a star like SDSS J0715-7334, a relatively small and cool gas mass is required. Typically, this process necessitates heavier elements with high-energy electrons, such as carbon, which aid in cooling the gas effectively. The scarcity of carbon in this star complicates this process.
One potential alternative explanation is the presence of a cloud of cosmic dust made up of heavier elements. This dust may contribute to cooling, a mechanism not observed early in the universe’s history, at least within our own galaxies.
“There’s an issue here. Do varying environments across different regions of the universe cool gas at different rates during the early formation epochs?” Frebel questions. “We can raise the question of why different cooling rates occur, but we lack a satisfactory answer.”
World Capital of Astronomy: Chile
Discover the astronomical wonders of Chile. Visit some of the globe’s most advanced observatories and gaze upon the stars in one of the clearest night skies on Earth.
Astronomers utilizing the NASA/ESA/CSA James Webb Space Telescope captured stunning new images of the Star Cluster Pismis 24, located in the heart of the nearby Lobster Nebula.
This web image showcases Pismith 24, with young stars clustering around the 5,500 light-year-old star in the Psycholpius constellation. Image credits: NASA/ESA/CSA/STSCI/A. PAGAN, STSCI.
Pismis 24 is located roughly 5,500 light years away from the Scorpius constellation.
This cluster, part of the Lobster Nebula, is the largest known star cluster to date.
“As a vibrant stellar nursery and one of the closest locales for the birth of a massive star, Pismith 24 provides unusual insights into the characteristics of large-scale stars,” Webb astronomers noted in a statement.
“This region serves as an excellent venue for exploring the traits of hot, young stars and their evolutionary paths.”
“It’s remarkable to be at the center of this dazzling cluster Pismith 24-1.”
“Within a mass of stars towering above the jagged orange peak, the tallest spire points directly at it.”
“Initially appearing as a massive single star, Pismis 24-1 was once considered the largest known star.”
“In reality, it comprises at least two stars, which cannot be resolved in a Webb image.”
“With respective masses of 74 and 66 solar masses, the two known stars rank among the largest and brightest ever observed.”
This latest image from Webb’s Nircam (near-infrared camera) reveals thousands of gem-like stars of varying sizes and colors.
“The largest and most astonishing, with six diffraction spikes, is the biggest star in the cluster,” an astronomer commented.
“The numerous small members of the cluster appear as white, yellow, or red, differing by star type and surrounding dust levels.”
Webb also highlights tens of thousands of stars positioned behind clusters that belong to the Milky Way galaxy.
A very hot infant star—almost eight times the temperature of the Sun—creates powerful winds and radiation, shaping a cavity in the walls of the star-forming nebulae.
The nebula far exceeds what Nilkham can observe.
Only a few of these are visible at the bottom right and top right of the image.
“Streams of hot ionized gas from the nebula ridge and a faint veil of star-lit gas and dust surround the towering peak,” the researchers explained.
“A dramatic spire protrudes from the glowing gas walls, resisting the relentless radiation and winds.”
“These spires resemble fingers pointing towards the hot young stars that carved them.”
“The intense forces that shape and compress these spires will likely lead to the formation of new stars within them.”
“The tallest spire measures approximately 5.4 light years from its tip to the bottom of the image.”
“Over 200 solar systems in Neptune’s orbit could fit within its tip, which is 0.14 light-years wide.”
“In this image, cyan represents hydrogen gas that has been heated or ionized by a large young star.”
“Dust molecules akin to Earth’s smoke are depicted in orange. Red signifies cold, dense molecular hydrogen; the darker the red, the thicker the gas. Black indicates dense gas that does not emit light.
Could the gravitational wave signal be from a black hole or something more peculiar?
Titoonz / Alamy
Exotic viscous stars might emulate signals from black holes, mirroring the ripples in spacetime.
Since 2015, scientists have been uncovering the universe’s secrets by monitoring both light waves and gravitational waves, the ripples in the cosmos. Jaime Redondo-Yuste from the Neals Bohr Institute in Denmark and his team found that they can reflect gravitational waves, similar to light waves, but only from unusually viscous celestial objects.
The researchers began exploring the possibility of creating a gravitational wave mirror. While earlier studies hinted at its feasibility, developing equations that adhere to physical laws proved challenging. They eventually understood that reflectors don’t need to be flat.
“We can have a spherical mirror, and we need stars,” explains Redondo-Yuste. However, these stars must possess an extraordinarily high viscosity akin to molasses. Their calculations indicated that such stars could indeed reflect gravitational waves, as they are too rigid to be disturbed by passing waves.
Daniel Kennefick from the University of Arkansas highlights that this behavior is rare since most materials are transparent to gravitational waves, just as glass is to light. “Even when we are very near sources of powerful gravitational waves, they pass through us without any noticeable effect,” he remarks.
In addition to their strangeness, stars capable of deflecting gravitational waves must be compact and on the brink of collapsing into black holes. Redondo-Yuste notes that black holes themselves are very viscous. Therefore, when gravitational wave signals reach Earth, other highly viscous objects could be misidentified as black holes, with subtle differences in their signals. For instance, collisions between viscous stars and black holes would yield slightly distinct gravitational wave signatures due to tidal influences.
Researchers have previously detected celestial bodies believed to have heightened viscosity, such as extremely hot neutron stars formed from the merger of others. However, it’s still uncertain whether these stars possess sufficient viscosity to align with the team’s mathematical model, according to Paolopani from the University of Sapienza in Rome, Italy.
He suggests that forthcoming gravitational wave detectors will enhance our understanding of the viscosity of known objects and assist in discovering new ones. “This serves as a prelude to what we should be searching for,” Kennefick says.
To date, observational data hasn’t provided strong evidence for classifying what scientists identify as a black hole as an exotic star. All three researchers agree that the likelihood of observing these viscous stars has been minimal thus far.
“However, it’s our responsibility to continue these investigations,” insists Redondo-Yuste. “Only in this way can we compile a complete catalog of the entities populating our universe.”
Astronomers captured a new high-resolution image of the planetary nebula NGC 6072 using two instruments on board the NASA/ESA/CSA James Webb Space Telescope.
This Webb/Nircam image depicts NGC 6072, a planetary nebula located about 4,048 light years away in the constellation of Scorpius. Photo credits: NASA/ESA/CSA/STSCI.
NGC 6072 is situated approximately 1,241 parsecs (4,048 light years) away from the southern constellations of Scorpius.
Also known by designations such as ESO 389-15, HEN 2-148, and IRAS 16097-3606, this nebula has a dynamic age of about 10,000 years.
It was first discovered by British astronomer John Herschel on June 7, 1837.
“Since their discovery in the 1700s, astronomers have learned that planetary nebulae, the expanding shells of luminous gases expelled by dying stars, can take on various shapes and forms,” noted Webb astronomers.
“While most planetary nebulae are circular, elliptical, or bipolar, the new Webb image of NGC 6072 reveals a more complex structure.”
Images captured by Webb’s Nircam (near-infrared camera) suggest that NGC 6072 displays a multipolar configuration.
“This indicates there are multiple oval lobes being ejected from the center in various directions,” the astronomers explained.
“These outflows compress the surrounding gas into a disk-like structure.”
“This suggests the presence of at least two stars at the center of this nebula.”
“In particular, a companion star appears to be interacting with an aging star, drawing in some of its outer gas and dust layers.”
The central area of the nebula glows due to hot stars, reflected in the light blue hue characteristic of near-infrared light.
The dark orange regions, composed of gas and dust, create pockets and voids appearing dark blue.
This material likely forms when dense molecules shield themselves from the intense radiation emitted by the central star.
There may also be a temporal aspect; for thousands of years, rapid winds from the main star could have been blowing away the surrounding material as it loses mass.
This web/milli image highlights the planetary nebula NGC 6072. Image credits: NASA/ESA/CSA/STSCI.
The long wavelengths captured by Webb’s Miri (mid-infrared instrument) emphasize the dust, unveiling a star that astronomers believe resides at the center of the nebula.
“The image appears as a small pink dot,” remarked the researchers.
“The mid-infrared wavelengths also reveal a concentric ring expanding outward from the central region.
“This might indicate the presence of a secondary star at the heart of the nebula, obscured from direct observation.”
“This secondary star orbits the primary star, creating rings of material that spiral outward as the original star sheds mass over time.”
“The red regions captured by Nircam and the blue areas highlighted by Miri track cool molecular gases (likely molecular hydrogen), while the central region tracks hot ionized gases.”
Researchers have identified a newly found intermediate mass black hole designated NGC 6099 HLX-1, situated in a dense star cluster at the edge of the elliptical galaxy NGC 6099, nearly 40,000 light-years from the galaxy’s core.
X-ray and infrared imagery of NGC 6099 HLX-1. Image credits: NASA/CXC/Inst. Astronomy, Taiwan / YC Chang / ESA / STSCI / HST / J. Depasquale.
NGC 6099 is roughly 450 million light-years distant from the constellation Hercules.
Astronomers first detected an unusual X-ray source in a photo of the galaxy captured by NASA’s Chandra X-Ray Observatory in 2009.
This source has since been studied further with ESA’s XMM-Newton Space Observatory.
“X-ray sources exhibiting such high luminosity are uncommon outside a galaxy’s nucleus and can be significant indicators for locating elusive central black holes,” states Dr. Yi-chi Chang, an astronomer at the National Tsing Hua University.
“These objects bridge a critical gap in the understanding of black holes, linking stellar mass black holes and supermassive black holes.”
The X-ray emissions from NGC 6099 HLX-1 reach a temperature of 3 million degrees, which aligns with events of tidal disruption.
Utilizing the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope, astronomers discovered signs of a small cluster of stars encircling the black hole.
This cluster feasts on matter as the stars are densely grouped, just a few months away (approximately 500 billion miles).
The intriguing intermediate mass black hole peaked in brightness in 2012, after which its luminosity steadily decreased until 2023.
However, the optical and X-ray observations across this timeframe do not align, complicating interpretation.
The black hole may have disrupted captured stars, creating a plasma disk that exhibits variability, or it might have birthed a disk that flickers as gas spirals inward.
“If an intermediate mass black hole is consuming a star, how long does it take to digest the gas?” questions Dr. Roberto Soria, an astronomer from the National Institute of Astrophysics in Italy.
“In 2009, HLX-1 was relatively bright. By 2012, it was approximately 100 times brighter, but then its brightness declined again.”
. “Now, we need to observe and see if it enters multiple cycles and identify any peaks in activity.
The researchers stress the importance of examining central mass black holes to reveal the origins of larger supermassive black holes.
Two alternative theories are suggested. One posits that large galaxies grow by merging with other substantial galaxies, positioning intermediate mass black holes as components that help formulate even larger black holes. Intermediate mass black holes in galactic centers also expand during these collisions.
Hubble’s observations indicated a correlation: the larger the galaxy, the larger the black holes residing within. One fresh insight from this discovery suggests that galaxies may host intermediate mass black holes, existing within the halos of galaxies without necessarily spiraling toward the center.
Another theory suggests that gas clouds in primordial dark matter halos might collapse directly into supermassive black holes without first forming stars.
Observations indicating Webb’s distant black holes often appear disproportionately large compared to their host galaxies lend support to this hypothesis.
However, since smaller sizes are elusive, there may exist an observational bias toward detecting very large black holes in the early universe.
In truth, there’s considerable diversity in the methods by which black holes are generated in our dynamic universe.
Ultra-massive black holes collapsing within dark matter may evolve distinctly from those within dwarf galaxies, where accretion could be the primary growth mechanism.
“If fortune favors you, you might spot a wandering black hole suddenly brightening in X-rays due to a tidal disruption event,” Dr. Soria remarked.
“Conducting statistical studies will elucidate the frequency of these intermediate mass black holes, how often they consume stars, and the mechanisms by which galaxies have expanded through the amalgamation of smaller galaxies.”
Survey findings were published in the Astrophysical Journal.
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Yi-chi Chang et al. 2025. Multi-wavelength studies of high-light X-ray sources near NGC6099: A powerful IMBH candidate. APJ 983, 109; doi:10.3847/1538-4357/adbbee
ANania Williams is Genress, known to some for their comedic TikTok videos and to others as the host of Gader, a viral show focusing on queer culture, history, and current events. Their interview with New York City mayoral candidate Zoran Mamdani gained significant attention, and Williams has also made an impact through performance art, including open icons like Chapel Lawn and Bob the Drug Queen, and various roles in musical theatre such as Laura in Kinky Boots and Dominique in Lucky Stiff.
For years, Williams has crafted a creative universe all their own. At just 25, this gender non-conforming Black artist employs their/her pronouns and has cultivated a strong social media presence with over 2.8 million followers. They are carving a niche for themselves outside the traditional binary. In their upcoming project, Williams will star in the new musical Saturday Church at the New York Theatre Workshop, debuting on August 27th. The production explores the sanctuary for LGBTQ+ youth. “It’s a musical that captures a unique atmosphere,” Williams remarked. “It embodies a strange, black joy and conveys a beautiful message.”
Williams embraces another role in their burgeoning theatre career as a trans woman. “The more I embraced my transition, the more positive I felt,” they shared. “It was empowering to inhabit spaces where I could truly be myself.” Their talent and charisma make their ascent seem almost predestined. As they juggle various projects, navigating their extensive future and the complexities of being an online presence remains an ongoing challenge.
Growing Up
Growing up in Davenport, Iowa, a town of about 100,000 in the industrial Midwest, posed its own challenges for Williams. They faced bullying at school for “having a girl’s name,” and their family life was marked by turbulence, including abuse and neglect. However, life in the Midwest also planted the seeds for their artistic aspirations. As a child, they sang in the church choir and later joined the show choir, inspired by their sister.
Williams pursued a Musical Theatre Program at Emerson College in Boston. This period became pivotal, allowing them to reflect on their identity and desires. Still, the world of musical theatre presented its own binaries and constraints. As someone who identifies outside traditional gender norms and as a Black individual, Williams felt restricted. “I thought, ‘It feels forbidden to exist beyond the gender binary,’ and simultaneously to be Black,” Williams recalled.
Even as Williams sought to carve their path, they encountered resistance from professors. “They kept questioning why I gravitated toward ‘girl’s songs.’ I tried to explain, but it fell flat,” Williams shared.
When the COVID-19 pandemic struck, Williams returned to their hometown and, like many, awaited a return to normalcy. The quarantine period prompted significant reflection and helped them fully acknowledge their gender identity. “I had to confront some truths, like, ‘Yes, I’m different. Yes, I might be gender non-conforming.’ It spiraled from there,” they recounted.
Around the same time, they began creating content on TikTok, quickly gaining recognition for their humorous rants during late-night walks. Much of their content served as spontaneous commentary on topics including religion and personal relationships. In 2022, they began discussing their gender identity more openly, sharing videos about their makeup and drag routines.
Reflecting on that time evokes mixed emotions for Williams. On one hand, they cherish the growth they experienced alongside a loyal audience. “My audience has been with me through my evolution,” they expressed. “They watched me put on makeup for the first time or try on my first wig. Those supporters motivate me to continue, even as I sometimes wish to revert to the earlier version of myself.”
The Rise of Gader
The nature of their content has continually evolved. In 2024, Williams became the host of Gader, a show created by Amelia Montooth on the company’s mutual media platform. The show quizzes various guests on queer culture to determine if they exhibit “straight, homophobic” tendencies, with questions about “lipstick lesbians” that assess guest knowledge of gay icons. In many instances, Williams learns alongside participants in real time. “I didn’t even know who Sue Bird was, and I was being schooled by the lesbians on the street.”
The show creates a comedic environment intended to educate audiences. “We weave fascinating histories and cultures into accessible questions and snippets, ensuring a relaxed atmosphere for learning,” Williams explained. “We provide facts and context, urging viewers to care about these narratives.”
Initially, early versions of the show featured Williams interacting with strangers on the street, but it has since hosted many public figures and celebrities, including Vivienne Jenna Wilson, the daughter of singer Lucy Dux, Rene Rapp, and billionaire Elon Musk. A highlight was having progressive NYC mayoral candidate Mamdani as one of their guests, who generated buzz as one of the first politicians to appear on the show. Mamdani surprised attendees by succeeding in a challenge at a popular lesbian bar in Manhattan.
“He was so open and engaging throughout,” Williams noted. “We educated the younger audience about who he is, and he spoke about his vision,” they added. “It feels rewarding to contribute to the contemporary discourse in this way, knowing we’re making an impact.”
Williams’ journey hasn’t been without challenges, facing harsh criticism as they have become more vocal about their transition. “People are trying to categorize aspects like fashion, makeup, and hair, as if I must adhere to certain stereotypes,” Williams said, referring to online trolls. “While I hope society is becoming more accustomed to the presence of trans individuals, I feel there’s still a narrow, stereotypical vision of what trans identities should look like.”
Yet, Williams has managed to maintain genuine connections, alongside the trials of their journey. They are supported by family and childhood friends, a partner, and acquaintances from TikTok. Outside content creation, they indulge in hobbies like baking and gaming, steering clear of the pressures to monetize their life. “I was working on a birthday cake for a friend later that night,” Williams laughed. “I can recall the color but not the flavor—either red velvet or strawberry!”
NASA, ESA, Jennifer Lotz, Matt Mountain, Anton M. Koekemoer, HFF Team (STScI)
In the vast expanse of the universe, galaxies that exhibit peculiar contours are surprisingly filled with ancient stars. This offers astronomers an initial peek into a unique type of stellar body that emerged soon after the universe’s inception.
Although the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) has allowed scientists to revisit regions of the early universe, pinpointing the first stars remains elusive. These primordial stars, termed Population III stars, are primarily colossal hydrogen spheres believed to have formed in the universe’s infancy. As the very first stars, they left behind an environment largely devoid of heavier elements following their demise.
While there have been theories hinting at the existence of such stars, definitively proving their existence in the early universe has been challenging, as galaxies appeared to have become tainted with heavier elements merely a few hundred million years post-Big Bang.
Recently, Morihara Highlands from the California Institute of Technology and his team found a galaxy almost entirely composed of hydrogen, indicating the presence of Population III stars. However, this galaxy emerged later than expected, approximately a billion years after the universe began.
Dubbed Amore6, it was initially identified within the Abell 2744 galaxy cluster. Upon measuring the light from Amore6 using the JWST, Morishita and his colleagues noted the complete absence of common oxygen ions. This suggests that the galaxy harbors less than 0.2% of the oxygen present in our sun, indicating a lack of contamination by heavier elements.
As the universe evolves, the likelihood of encountering such pristine galaxies diminishes. In images captured by the JWST, Amore6 appears somewhat isolated, which Morishita posits could be a factor in its untouched state. “This seclusion might mean that this galaxy has not yet encountered sufficient gas to trigger star formation, implying that it could evolve slowly,” he mentions.
“If these findings are validated, it would be truly astonishing, as we did not anticipate discovering such an untarnished galactic environment later in the universe’s development,” says Fabio Pacucci of the Harvard Smithsonian Astrophysics Center in Massachusetts.
This discovery has implications for observing “direct collapse” black holes. Unlike the conventional pathway of collapsed stars, these black holes form from massive clouds of untainted gas. While astronomers had predicted their existence, they have never actually formed as it was believed that primitive gas was only available for a limited period, up to 100 million years after the Big Bang. However, if this untainted gas can persist for an extended duration, the potential for observing such phenomena increases, Pacucci argues.
World Capital of Astronomy: Chile
Explore the astronomical marvels of Chile. Visit some of the world’s most advanced observatories and gaze at the star-filled sky beneath some of the clearest conditions on Earth.
Using Enhanced Resolution Imagers and Spectrographs (ERIS) from ESO’s Very Large Telescope (VLT), two teams of astronomers have discovered a protoplanet candidate nestled within a spiral disk surrounding the young star HD 135344B.
This image depicts a spiral disk surrounding Young Star HD 135344b. The observations made using the Enhanced Resolution Imager and Spectrograph (ERIS) identified a candidate planet contributing to the spiral structure in the disk, marked by a white circle. Image credits: ESO/Maio et al.
“While we may never witness the formation of Earth, this is a significant finding,” says Francesco Maio, a doctoral researcher at the University of Florence in Italy and lead author of a paper published in the journal Astronomy and Astrophysics.
Maio and his colleagues identified protoplanet candidates in the surrounding protoplanetary disks of HD 135344b. This F8V star, approximately 11.9 million years old, is situated 135 parsecs (440 light-years) from the Sun, in the Lupus constellation.
The protoplanet is estimated to be twice the size of Jupiter, located at a distance from its host star comparable to that of Neptune from the Sun.
It has been observed maturing at the periphery of the protoplanetary disk as it evolves into a fully-fledged planet.
Similar protoplanets have been detected around other young stars, often exhibiting intricate features such as rings, gaps, and spirals.
Astronomers long suspected that these structures were sculpted by forming planets, clearing away material as they orbit their parent stars.
Until now, however, no one has identified a planet actively shaping these features.
In the discs of HD 135344B, previous observations of swirling spiral arms were made by another team using VLT’s Sphere instrument.
Yet prior observations did not find evidence of any planets forming within this disk.
Utilizing VLT’s ERIS instrument, Maio and his collaborators may have discovered their primary suspect.
They identified a planetary candidate located at the base of one of the spiral arms of the disk, aligning with theoretical predictions about potential planets responsible for such patterns.
“What marks this detection as potentially groundbreaking is our ability to directly observe the signal from the protoplanet, unlike many earlier observations,” he notes.
“This gives us greater confidence in the existence of this planet, as we can see the light it emits.”
This image illustrates possible sub-brown dwarf companions orbiting Young Star V960 Mon. Candidate objects were detected using ESO’s Very Large Telescope (VLT) and the new Enhanced Resolution Imager and Spectrograph (ERIS). The ERIS data is shown in orange, overlaid with prior dusty disk images from VLT’s Sphere instruments (yellow) and ALMA (blue). Image credits: ESO/A. Dasgupta/ALMA/ESO/NAOJ/NRAO/Weber et al.
In a separate study, Anuroop Dasgupta, a doctoral researcher at ESO and Diego Portales University, along with colleagues, observed another young star using the ERIS instrument. V960 is located 1637.7 parsecs (5,342 light-years) away in the Monoceros constellation.
Prior observations using Sphere equipment and large millimeter/sub-millimeter arrays (ALMA) revealed that the material orbiting V960 Mon is shaped into complex spiral arms.
These observations also indicated that large clumps of material around the star undergo gravitational instability, contracting and collapsing—each capable of forming a planet or larger body, thus fragmenting the material.
Dasgupta and his collaborators managed to identify a brown dwarf or sub-brown dwarf companion around V960 Mon.
“Using ERIS, we aimed to discover compact, bright fragments indicative of companions in the disk,” he explains. Their findings are detailed in a paper published in the Astrophysical Journal Letters.
“One potential companion object was found very close to one of the observed spiral arms in the Universe and in ALMA data.”
“This object could represent a planet or a brown dwarf—larger than a planet but lacking sufficient mass to shine like a star.”
“If confirmed, this companion could be the first clear identification of a planet or brown dwarf formed via gravitational instability.”
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F. Maio et al. 2025. Development of Protoplanet candidates embedded using VLT/ERIS on HD135344B disks. A&A 699, L10; doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202554472
Anuroop Dasgupta et al. 2025. VLT/ERIS observations for the V960 series: dust-embedded sub-brown dwarf objects formed by gravitational instability? ApJL 988, L30; doi: 10.3847/2041-8213/ade996
With three meteor showers occurring simultaneously this month, skywatchers have ample opportunities to spend their summer nights searching for shooting stars.
The annual Alpha Capriconids, South Delta Aquarids, and Perseid Meteor Showers are currently in action, each expected to last until mid-August.
Here’s what you need to know about these meteor showers and tips for spotting shooting stars.
Alpha Capriconid
The Alpha Capriconids and South Delta Aquarids will be visible overnight from July 29th to 30th, while the Perseids, often regarded as the most consistent shooting star display, will peak next month.
Skywatchers can expect favorable conditions for observing meteor showers this July, as noted by the American Meteor Society.
Typically, the Alpha Capricornids Meteor Shower doesn’t deliver a powerful show but can yield several bright fireballs while active, generating approximately 5 shooting stars per hour. Observations under dark skies enhance the experience, according to the American Meteor Society.
This shower derives its name from the constellation Capricornus, from which the meteors appear to radiate. This year’s peak features a moon phase of only 27%, giving both hemispheres an opportunity to observe the display.
The Alpha Capriconid meteor shower occurs when Earth traverses dust and debris from the comet 169p/Neat, which orbits the Sun approximately every 4.2 years. Fragments entering the atmosphere create bright streaks of light as they vaporize.
South Delta Aquarid
The Southern Delta Aquarids, as suggested by its name, is most clearly observed from the Southern Hemisphere. Under ideal conditions, this meteor shower can produce about 25 meteors per hour, though many tend to be faint.
According to NASA, the South Delta Aquarid shower is challenging to spot, but early morning hours provide the best chance for viewing.
This meteor shower is linked to Comet 96p/Machorz, which completes an orbit around the Sun approximately every two years.
Perseid
Lastly, the Perseid meteor shower is currently active and expected to peak overnight from August 12th to 13th. This event is highly anticipated as Perseids typically occur during the warm summer months in the Northern Hemisphere, often generating a high rate of shooting stars. Under optimal conditions, this shower can yield up to 100 meteors per hour.
However, this year, the moon will be approximately 84% illuminated, which may diminish visibility for meteors. “This will significantly impact the shower’s activity during its peak,” states the American Meteor Society.
“These conditions could reduce visible activity by at least 75%, leaving only the brighter meteors visible,” the society mentioned in its forecast.
The Perseid shower occurs as Earth passes through debris and dust left by the comet 109p/Swift-Tuttle.
As a star exhausts its fuel, it succumbs to gravitational forces and collapses. When a star over eight times the mass of our sun collapses, it can result in asupernova, a tremendous explosion that releases more energy in just a few seconds than what the sun produces over 10 billion years.
During a supernova explosion, high-energy particles known as Cosmic Rays of Galaxy and a violent outpouring of electromagnetic waves, referred to as Gamma rays, are generated. These emissions are termed Ionizing radiation because they dislodge electrons from the molecules they encounter, resulting in ionization. This process can devastate everything from biomolecules like DNA to atmospheric particles like aerosol. Consequently, researchers believe that supernovae pose significant threats to nearby life forms.
While humans have not witnessed a supernova explosion close to Earth, our ancestors may have been less fortunate. A nearby supernova could eject radioactive elements encapsulated in interstellar dust grains, which can travel through the solar system and eventually reach Earth.Geologists have traced these grains in marine mud over the last 10 million years and estimate that a supernova has likely exploded within 100 parsecs of our planet in the last million years. The Earth is positioned about 8,000 parsecs from the center of the Milky Way, making these stellar explosions relatively close in cosmic terms.
Historically, scientists have speculated that nearby supernovae may have influenced animal diversity by contributing to mass extinction events over the past 500 million years. Some researchers propose that cosmic rays emitted from supernovae could potentially deplete the Earth’s ozone layer every hundred million years, exposing surface dwellers to harmful UV radiation. Others suggest that ionizing radiation can interact with aerosols to form clouds that block sunlight. However, scientists remain divided on the extent of ozone depletion, how severe a supernova’s impact could be, its effects on climate, and how catastrophic it might be for the biosphere.
Recently, researchers have revisited the potentially destructive impact of nearby supernovae using models that simulate interactions among planetary atmospheres, oceans, land, and biospheres. Earth system models employ atmospheric chemistry frameworks, such as EMAC, to capture complex processes previously overlooked, including air circulation and chemical reactions. Specifically, EMAC utilizes data from outdoor experiments conducted by CERN to calculate how ions interact with aerosol particles.
The research team modeled the Earth as it exists today, with 21% atmospheric oxygen, normal radiation levels, and an intact ozone layer. They simulated an explosion of ionizing radiation equivalent to a supernova 50 parsecs away, increasing the gamma rays in their model tenfold for a few seconds and boosting cosmic rays in the galaxy by a factor of ten per annum.
The team investigated the effects of ionizing radiation bursts on the ozone layer. Their findings confirmed that ionizing radiation strips electrons from atmospheric nitrogen and oxygen atoms, leading to the formation of highly reactive molecules known as radicals, which can destroy ozone. However, they discovered that certain reactions occurred at slower rates than anticipated, resulting in less ozone depletion than expected. They also found that ionizing radiation interacts with water vapor to produce hydroxyl radicals, which, when combined with nitrogen radicals, actually contribute to ozone formation.
Based on their findings, the team estimated that supernovae could potentially deplete up to 10% of Earth’s ozone layer. This level of ozone loss is comparable to the 6% depletion caused by human-made fluorocarbons and is far from lethal. They repeated the model to account for an Earth with just 2% atmospheric oxygen, simulating conditions around 500 million years ago when life transitioned to land. This modeling revealed repeated UV protection in the ocean, and they found that at this reduced oxygen concentration, only 10% to 25% of the ozone layer was lost.
The team then analyzed how radiation from the supernova influences cloud formation and climate. They calculated that ionizing radiation could increase the number of cloud-forming particles by about 10% to 20% globally. This alteration is quite similar in magnitude to recent anthropogenic warming and could cool the Earth by approximately 2.5 watts per square meter. While they acknowledged that these changes might disturb the environment, they believe it wouldn’t lead to sudden extinction.
The researchers concluded that radiation from nearby supernovae is unlikely to trigger mass extinction events on Earth. Since our early ancestors first emerged, the atmosphere has functioned as a protective barrier, safeguarding us from immediate harmful effects. Nevertheless, they cautioned that their model does not account for the risks associated with long-term exposure to elevated levels of ionizing radiation, which remains largely unexplored. They suggested that future research should seek safe methods to investigate the direct impacts of cosmic radiation on humans and animals.
The streaming giant announced on Monday that it will stream a live launch to subscribers’ homes later this summer, declaring, “we can partner with NASA to bring space a little closer to home.”
This initiative further propels Netflix into the realm of live streaming content, which has already seen success. On Christmas Day, millions tuned in for live coverage of NFL games and a halftime concert featuring Beyoncé. Despite some video quality challenges, November’s boxing match between Mike Tyson and Jake Paul reached 60 million households on Netflix. The platform also ventured into talk show territory this year with “Live with John Mulaney.”
Netflix asserts, “The next giant leap for humanity might just begin with pressing play,” according to its editorial site, Tudum.
NASA+ was launched in 2023 to make space content more accessible to the public; however, much of it is already available for free on the NASA app at NASA.GOV. The space agency hopes to leverage Netflix’s extensive subscriber base of over 700 million to boost interest in space exploration.
“Viewers will soon have another option to stream rocket launches, astronaut missions, and stunning live views of Earth from the International Space Station,” the agency stated in a news release.
The aim, as per a NASA announcement, is to “immerse people in the excitement of discovery, innovation, and space exploration, no matter where they are.”
“The 1958 National Aeronautics and Space Act mandates sharing stories of space exploration with the broadest audience possible,” said Rebecca Silmons, general manager of NASA+ at the agency’s Washington D.C. headquarters. “Together, we are dedicated to inspiring a new generation—ushering in a golden age of innovation and exploration, all from the comfort of home and the convenience of a smartphone.”
Netflix is capitalizing on the growing interest in space. According to NBC News, 2025 has been a landmark year for space exploration already. In April, pop artist Katy Perry and five other celebrities embarked on a short journey into space aboard Blue Origin’s new Shepherd Rocket.
Per Tudum, NASA+ Live Feeds will be featured as part of the series on the Netflix platform, with a detailed schedule anticipated to be released as the launch date approaches.
The primordial stars, known as group III, likely formed from the abundant gases present in the young universe. These stars were responsible for generating the first heavier elements, illuminating the universe, bringing an end to the cosmic dark ages, and ushering in the era of reionization. Due to the challenges of direct observation, the characteristics of these early stars are still largely unknown. Professor Anastasia Fialkov from Cambridge University and her team suggest that astronomers can infer the masses of these stars by analyzing the cosmological 21 cm signal produced by hydrogen atoms located between the regions where the stars formed.
Artist’s impression of a field of Population III stars that would have existed hundreds of millions of years post-Big Bang. Image credits: noirlab/nsf/aura/J. da silva/SpaceEngine.
“This presents a unique opportunity to understand how the universe’s first light emerged from darkness,” stated Professor Fialkov.
“We are beginning to unravel the narrative of the transition from a cold, dark cosmos to one filled with stars.”
Studies focused on the universe’s ancient stars rely on the faint 21 cm signal, an energy signature emanating from over 13 billion years ago.
This signal, influenced by the radiation from nascent stars and black holes, offers a rare glimpse into the universe’s formative years.
Professor Fialkov leads the Leach theory group dedicated to radio experiments analyzing space hydrogen.
“Leach is a radio antenna and one of two key projects designed to enhance our understanding of the dawn and reionization phases of the universe, when the first stars reactivated neutral hydrogen atoms,” explained the astronomer.
“While our abilities to capture radio signals are presently undergoing calibration, we remain dedicated to unveiling insights about the early universe.
“Conversely, the Square Kilometer Arrays (SKAs) chart variations in cosmic signals across extensive areas of the sky.”
“Both initiatives are crucial for probing the masses, brightness, and distribution of the universe’s earliest stars.”
In their current research, Professor Fialkov and co-authors formulated a model to predict the 21 cm signal for both REACH and SKA, discovering that the signal is sensitive to the mass of the first stars.
“We are the first group to accurately model how the 21 cm signal correlates with the mass of the first stars, factoring in ultraviolet starlight and x-ray emissions resulting from the demise of the first stars,” stated Professor Fialkov.
“Our findings stem from simulations integrating the primordial conditions of the universe, such as the hydrogen and helium composition formed during the Big Bang.”
In developing their theoretical framework, researchers examined how the 21 cm signal responds to the mass distribution of Population III stars.
They discovered that earlier studies underestimated this relationship as they failed to account for both the quantity and luminosity of x-ray binaries among Population III stars and their impact on the 21 cm signal.
While REACH and SKA cannot photograph individual stars, they do provide comprehensive data on stars, x-ray binary systems, and entire galactic populations.
“Connecting radio data to the narrative of the first stars requires some imagination, but its implications are profound,” remarked Professor Fialkov.
“The predictions we present hold significant value in enhancing our understanding of the universe’s earliest stars,” noted Dr. Eloi de Lera Acedo from Cambridge University.
“We offer insights into the masses of these early stars, suggesting that the light they emitted may have been drastically different from today’s stars.”
“Next-generation telescopes like REACH are set to unlock the secrets of the early universe. These predictions are vital for interpreting radio observations being conducted from Karu, South Africa.”
The research paper was published online today in the journal Nature Astronomy.
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T. Gessey-Jones et al. Determination of the mass distribution of the first stars from a 21 cm signal. Nature Astronomy Published online on June 20th, 2025. doi:10.1038/s41550-025-02575-x
Bogong moths seek refuge in cooler caves during the summer
Ajay Narendra/Macquarie University, Australia
Traveling distances exceeding 1,000 kilometers to escape the summer heat, Australia’s moths have been identified as the first invertebrates to utilize stars for navigation on long migrations.
Every spring, billions of bogong moths (Agrotis infusa) embark from various regions of southern Australia, surviving the winter as caterpillars by feeding on vegetation before retreating to the cool caves of Australia’s Alpine regions. Once in the caves, they enter a state of dormancy known as estivation until they return to breeding grounds.
The recent decline of these moth populations has led to inquiries about their navigation methods in reaching high-altitude caves, as noted by Andrea Aden from the Francis Crick Institute in London.
Previous studies have demonstrated their ability to use Earth’s electromagnetic fields but only in conjunction with visible landmarks. Aden and her team sought to explore other potential cues that moths might use for navigation.
“When you venture into the Australian bush at night, one of the most striking visual markers is the Milky Way,” she explains. “We know that diurnal migratory birds rely on the sun, so testing whether moths use the starry sky seemed like a logical step.”
To investigate, the team employed light traps to capture moths during migration and transported them to a laboratory. There, they were placed in a Perspex arena with images of a night sky projected overhead. Moths were free to choose their flight direction based on the sky images while the Earth’s magnetic field was neutralized using a Helmholtz coil.
Experiments revealed that moths did utilize a stellar compass, according to team member Eric Warrant from Lund University, Sweden. “When the tethered moths were placed under a realistic starry sky, they oriented themselves towards their migratory direction,” he states. “They achieved this solely with the assistance of these stars, independent of other visual cues and the magnetic field.”
Caption: Aestivating moths in alpine caves during summer (roughly 17,000 per square meter, with millions in each cave) Copyright: Eric Warrant
Eric Warrant
When the simulated starry sky was rotated 180 degrees, the moth flew in the opposite direction. Randomizing the star placements in the image left them disoriented.
In a subsequent experiment, very thin electrodes were implanted in the moth’s brain, revealing changes in neural activity as the projected starfield was rotated.
While dung beetles are known to maintain a consistent bearing using the Milky Way, no other insect species has previously demonstrated this level of celestial navigation.
“The bogong moth is the first invertebrate documented with the ability to navigate long distances using stars as a compass—a phenomenon previously recognized only in certain birds and humans,” Warrant states. “This capability is truly remarkable.”
Another insect recognized for its extensive migrations, the Monarch butterfly (Danaus plexippus), primarily relies on the sun supplemented by the environment.
Cody Freas from Macquarie University in Sydney, Australia, emphasized the incredible efficiency of insect navigation, stating, “Stellar navigation showcases the remarkable visual acuity found in nocturnal insects, enabling them to utilize various cues (Sun, Moon, Stars) even in low-light conditions,” adds Freas.
“To our knowledge, Bogon Moss is the first species identified to navigate using stars,” said Andrea Aden, a postdoctoral researcher at the Francis Crick Institute in London, who contributed to this research.
The researchers uncovered the stellar navigation abilities of moths by capturing wild bogon moths and suspending them with fine tungsten rods inside a small cylindrical “flight simulator.”
With its back affixed to the rod, the moth flapped its wings within the simulator, allowing it to turn as if it were flying in a natural environment.
“It can rotate freely,” noted David Dreyer, a researcher at Lund University and a co-author of the study. “You can choose the direction you wish to fly.”
The researchers created a magnetic vacuum to neutralize the moth’s internal magnetic compass, allowing them to focus on other sensory inputs.
Images of the night sky were projected onto the top of the flight simulator.
During trials, researchers manipulated the rotation of the sky, noting that the moth adjusted its flight patterns to adapt and establish new headings. However, the moths became disoriented when presented with randomized, fragmented sky images within the simulator.
“The moths were entirely confused,” Dreyer explained. “For us, this served as compelling evidence that they indeed utilize stars for navigation.”
In additional experiments, researchers drilled a small opening in the moths’ brains, inserted a glass tube into a neuron, and recorded the electrical impulses triggered by star projections. They discovered that electrical activity peaked when a specific angle of the sky was depicted. Conversely, there was little response to randomly generated patterns.
According to the findings, Bogon Moss possesses limited vision and likely perceives only a select few of the brightest stars. The researchers suspect that these moths navigate by the Milky Way.
“They probably perceive the Milky Way much more vividly and luminously than we do,” stated Warrant.
Furthermore, Warrant proposes that moths likely utilize olfactory cues as they approach alpine caves.
“They are probably detecting compounds emitted from the cave—odorous markers that act as olfactory beacons leading them there,” he mentioned, adding that these smells resemble the scent of decaying meat.
These moths have a lifespan of about a year, spending a dormant summer in the cave before returning to their original location.
Ken Rohman, a professor at the University of North Carolina’s Department of Biology, noted that although he did not participate in the research, he found the study compelling, with experiments that were both thoughtful and rigorously controlled.
“One of the remarkable aspects of this study is how moths manage such extensive navigation with a relatively small brain,” said Roman, who studies animal migrations. “This highlights the ingenuity driven by natural selection.”
Bogon Moss is currently at risk and was listed by the United Nations for the Conservation of Nature in 2021. The authors assert that these new insights could assist in preventing the decline of the species.
“Moth populations have dramatically decreased in recent years, particularly due to the droughts and wildfires experienced in Australia in 2020,” added Aden. “Understanding that they rely on vision as part of their navigational toolkit can inform conservation strategies, especially concerning light pollution in urban settings.”
Askap J1832-0911 – Likely a magnetar or a highly magnetized white dwarf star – emits radio signals and X-ray pulses for 2 minutes every 44 minutes. Paper published in Nature.
A combination of radio, X-ray, and infrared radiation in the field of ASKAP J1832-0911. Image credit: Wang et al., doi: 10.1038/S41586-025-09077-W.
Askap J1832-0911 is situated roughly 15,000 light-years away from Earth in Scutum.
This star was identified by astronomers utilizing the Australian ASKAP Radio telescope.
It belongs to a category known as long-term radio transients, first detected in 2022, characterized by variations in radio wave intensity over several minutes.
This duration is thousands of times greater than the regular fluctuations observed in pulsars. It’s a neutron star that spins rapidly, emitting signals multiple times per second.
“Askap J1832-0911 follows a 44-minute cycle of radio wave intensity, placing it in the realm of long-term radio transients,” stated Dr. Ziteng Wang, an astronomer at Curtin University’s node at the International Centre for Radio Astronomical Research (ICRAR).
Using NASA’s Chandra X-Ray Observatory, researchers noted that ASKAP J1832 also exhibited regular variations in X-ray emissions every 44 minutes.
This marks the first discovery of an X-ray signal in long-term radio transients.
“Astronomers have observed countless celestial bodies through various telescopes and have never encountered anything behaving like this,” Dr. Wang remarked.
“It’s exhilarating to witness such new stellar phenomena.”
Through Chandra and the SKA Pathfinder, scientists found that Askap J1832-0911 experienced a significant reduction in both X-ray and radio wave signals over a six-month period.
Besides the long-term changes, the combination of 44-minute cycles in X-rays and radio waves differs from observations made in the Milky Way galaxy.
The authors are currently competing to determine whether Askap J1832-0911 truly represents long-term radio transients and if its unusual behavior can shed light on the origins of such objects.
Dr. Nanda Lea, an astronomer at the Institute of Space Sciences in Barcelona, Spain, commented:
“No exact match has been found so far, but some models fit better than others.”
It’s improbable that ASKAP J1832-0911 is simply a pulsar or neutron star drawn from a companion star, as its properties do not align with the typical signal strengths of these celestial objects.
Some characteristics might be attributed to neutron stars with exceptionally strong magnetic fields, known as magnetars, which are over 500,000 years old.
However, other aspects, such as its bright and variable radio emissions, make it challenging to categorize this as an aged magnetar.
In the sky, ASKAP J1832-0911 appears to be situated among debris from a supernova, which commonly contains neutron stars formed during such events.
Nevertheless, the team concluded that this proximity is likely coincidental and that the two entities are not associated with one another, suggesting that neither may host neutron stars.
They deduced that while isolated white dwarfs don’t account for the data, white dwarfs with companion stars might.
But such a scenario would necessitate the strongest known magnetic fields in white dwarfs within our galaxy.
“We continue to seek clues about this object and look for similar entities,” said Dr. Tong Bao, an astronomer at the Osservatorio Astronomico in Italy’s National Institute of Astronomy (INAF).
“Discovering mysteries like this is not frustrating; rather, it’s what makes science thrilling!”
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Z. Wang et al. Detection of X-ray radiation from bright long-term radio transients. Nature Published online on May 28, 2025. doi:10.1038/s41586-025-09077-W
In 2020, the Zwicky Transient Facility observed a location in the night sky that suggested the merging of two stars. This phenomenon was identified as a bright red nova, known as Submin’s Red Nova, or slrn. Two years later, astronomers revisited the same area and discovered indications that the star had engulfed nearby planets, referred to as ZTF SLRN-2020.
Earlier observations made using near-infrared telescopes revealed chemical traces such as titanium oxide and carbon monoxide. The event’s brightness was primarily in low-energy wavelengths rather than visible light, indicating a merger event involving bodies between the masses of Neptune and Jupiter.
The stars in this system are not active; the planet did not actively approach but was instead consumed by the star. This raised questions about the physical mechanisms that caused the interaction. The team examined two scenarios: one where a star expanded during its lifecycle to reach the planet’s orbit, and the other where a planet lost energy and spiraled inward toward the star, a phenomenon termed orbital attenuation.
To evaluate these scenarios, the team conducted follow-up measurements on ZTF SLRN-2020 using instruments onboard the JWST, specifically the Near-infrared Spectrometer and Mid-infrared Instrument. They also performed ground-based observations with the Gemini North Telescope Near-Infrared Imager. By combining data from these instruments, the team obtained a comprehensive understanding of the low-energy light emission patterns from ZTF SLRN-2020, revealing insights into the system’s current structure and dynamics.
Illustration of the ZTF SLRN-2020 system before and after the planet is engulfed. Left: A Sun-like star with an exoplanet akin to Neptune or Jupiter. Right: After the planet’s orbit decayed and it fell into the star, material was expelled, forming a cooler outer dust shell and a hotter inner dust disk. Created by the author using Microsoft PowerPoint.
In their analysis, astronomers identified four key characteristics. The remaining stars displayed a reddish hue, highlighting a significant presence of high-energy electrons in the star’s hydrogen, along with substantial carbon monoxide. There were also traces of phosphine, a compound typically found around gas giants and in the vicinity of young stars. Using computer modeling, the team evaluated which scenarios could realistically produce these observed patterns.
Measurements of star color indicated that ZTF SLRN-2020 is quite similar to the Sun but is roughly 70% of its size. The star is too young to have undergone the expansion associated with its later life stages. Consequently, the planet’s orbit became destabilized, leading to its gradual engulfment by the star. This collision likely released energy, igniting the star’s brightness in 2020 and stimulating the hydrogen in its outer layer.
The team theorized that during the collision, the star would have expelled material from the planet. The emissions of phosphine and carbon monoxide suggested that the ejected material originated from two different layers of dust around the star: a cold outer shell and a hot inner disk. Observations did not reveal any remnants of the planet’s core still orbiting the star, indicating that it was entirely consumed, losing even its outer layers.
The researchers deemed this event a new frontier in physics, as it marks the first observed case of planetary engulfment. The data collected from various instruments can provide future researchers with essential insights when investigating similar instances.
We have confirmation that a strange planet orbits between two stars
Aaron Alien/Shutterstock
Following extensive observation, scientists are on the verge of unraveling how pairs of stars engage in stable orbital dynamics surrounding elusive planets.
In 2004, David Lamb from the University of Canterbury, New Zealand, identified a puzzling repeating signal while monitoring the motion of a star pair in the Nu Octantis system. This initiated an ongoing discussion about whether planets twice the size of Jupiter exist in that system. Now, along with Ram Mann Whiley from the University of Hong Kong and his colleagues, they present strong evidence suggesting that Nu Octantis is a trio rather than a binary system.
A significant discovery was that the Nu Octantis planet is moving in reverse. The planet and one star orbit the second star in opposite directions, with the planet maintaining a close orbit around the latter. Lee observes that this is an unusual occurrence, but the system is stable. His team reached this conclusion thanks to enhanced measurement tools, like the HARPS spectrometer on the 3.6-meter telescope at the European Southern Observatory in Chile. The persistence of the planetary signal across years of observation reinforced their findings. “We’re pretty sure [the planet] is genuine. If it were related to stellar activity, it shouldn’t exhibit such consistency over years of data,” remarks Lee.
Nonetheless, this retrograde planet is not an uncommon feature of Nu Octantis. Researchers utilized a large telescope at the Southern European Observatory to determine that one of the stars is a white dwarf. Lee explains this complicates the history of Nu Octantis, as it suggests that the planet’s current orbit was impossible when it was younger, larger, and brighter.
Thus, the planet initially orbited both stars simultaneously but fundamentally changed its trajectory when one of the stars became a white dwarf, or it formed from a mass expelled when the stars transitioned to white dwarfs. Continued observations and mathematical modeling may clarify which scenario occurred, but both possibilities are novel, notes Lee.
For centuries, astronomers believed that all planets orbit the central star in the same direction, with regular intervals governing the orbital arrangement. However, Nu Octantis challenges these conventions, according to Manfred Kunz from the University of Texas at Arlington. “Scientists are urging us to broaden our understanding of star and planetary scenarios, in terms of both formation and evolution,” he states.
Water ice plays a crucial role in the formation of giant planets and can also be delivered by comets to fully developed rocky planets. Utilizing data from the Near-infrared spectrometer (NIRSPEC), which is part of the NASA/ESA/CSA James Webb Space Telescope, astronomers have identified crystallized ice on a dusty fragment disk surrounding HD 181327.
Artist impression of a debris disk around the sun-like star HD 181327. Image credits: NASA/ESA/CSA/STSCI/RALF CRAWFORD, STSCI.
HD 181327 is a young main sequence star located approximately 169 light years away in the constellation Pictor.
Also referred to as TYC 8765-638-1 and WISE J192258.97-543217.8, the star is about 23 million years old and roughly 30% larger than the Sun.
Astronomer Chen Zai and a team at Johns Hopkins University utilized Webb’s NIRSPEC instrument to study HD 181327.
“The HD 181327 system is highly dynamic,” Dr. Xie noted.
“There are ongoing collisions occurring within the debris disk.”
“When these icy bodies collide, they release tiny particles of dusty water ice, which are ideally sized for Webb to detect.”
Webb’s observations reveal a significant gap between the star and its surrounding debris disk, indicating a considerable area devoid of dust.
Moreover, the structure of the fragment disk is reminiscent of the Kuiper Belt within our Solar System, where we find dwarf planets, comets, and various icy and rocky bodies that may also collide.
Billions of years ago, the Kuiper Belt in our own Solar System could have resembled the HD 181327 debris disk.
“Webb clearly detected crystallized water ice not only present in the debris disk but also in places like Saturn’s rings and the icy bodies of the Kuiper Belt,” Dr. Xie stated.
The water ice is not uniformly distributed across the HD 181327 system.
The majority is found in the coldest and most distant regions from the star.
“The area beyond the debris disk contains over 20% water ice,” Dr. Xie explained.
Near the center of the debris disk, Webb detected approximately 8% water ice.
In this region, frozen water particles may form slightly faster than they are destroyed.
Closest to the star, Webb’s detection was minimal.
Ultraviolet radiation from the star can evaporate the nearby water ice deposits.
It is also possible that the interiors contain rocky bodies, referred to as planets, which are “confined” such that their frozen water remains undetectable by Webb.
“The presence of ice facilitates planetary formation,” said Dr. Xie.
“Icy materials can ultimately contribute to the delivery of resources to terrestrial planets that may form over hundreds of millions of years in such systems.”
Survey results were published in the May 14, 2025 issue of the journal Nature.
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C. Xie et al. 2025. Water ice on debris disks around HD181327. Nature 641, 608-611; doi:10.1038/s41586-025-08920-4
Astronomers utilizing the very large array (VLA) from NSF have made a significant discovery of a massive gas flow near HW2. Cephaus A enables rapid protostar growth.
Ammonia gas falls into the accretion disk that feeds Protostar HW2. Image credits: NSF/AUI/NSF/NRAO/B. SAXTON.
Extensive reservoirs of interstellar gas are essential for forming giant stars, several times the size of our Sun, accumulating over a vast scale of approximately Parsec (3.26 light years).
Ultimately, gas collects in a local area several hundred times larger than the Astronomical Unit (AU) to attach to small protostars nearly one million kilometers wide.
The flow, originating from very young stars to hundreds of AU away, has long presented observational challenges, particularly for the largest stars distant from solar-type stars.
“Our observations present direct evidence that giant stars can form with masses reaching dozens of solar masses through disks,” stated Dr. Alberto Sanna, an astronomer from INAF and the Max-Planck-Institut für Radioastronomie.
“The exceptional wireless sensitivity of the VLA enabled us to discern features on a scale as small as 100 AU, giving us unprecedented insights into this formation process.”
Cephaus A represents the second closest star-forming region where large young stars of over 10 solar masses have been observed, providing an ideal setting for investigating these complex processes.
Dr. Sanna and colleagues employed ammonia, a common molecule in interstellar gas clouds, widely used on Earth as a tracer mapping gas dynamics around stars.
VLA observations revealed a dense ring of high-temperature ammonia gas with a radius of 200-700 AU surrounding HW2.
This structure was recognized as a component of the accretion disk, a crucial feature in star formation theory.
Astronomers found that the gas in this disk flowed inward and rotated around a young star.
Remarkably, the mass accreting onto HW2 was measured at one-two-thousandth of a solar mass annually.
These findings confirm that accretion disks can sustain such extreme mass transfer rates, even while the central star’s mass reaches 16 times that of the Sun.
The researchers also compared their findings with advanced simulations of large-scale star formation.
“The results align closely with theoretical predictions, suggesting that ammonia gas near HW2 nearly collapses at free-fall speeds and rotates at sub-critical speeds.
Interestingly, the asymmetry of the disk structure and turbulent flow indicate the presence of an external gas stream, known as a streamer, potentially supplying new material to one side of the disk.
Such streamers have been detected in other star-forming regions and may be significant in refreshing accretion disks around giant stars.
This discovery resolves decades of debate about whether HW2 and protostars can similarly form accretion disks capable of sustaining rapid growth.
It also reinforces the concept that similar physical mechanisms drive star formation across various mass categories.
“This research enhances our comprehension of how large stars are formed and influences broader inquiries into the evolution and chemical enrichment of galaxies in the universe,” the author remarked.
“Massive stars function as essential cosmic engines, generating winds and explosions that distribute heavy elements throughout the galaxy.”
Their paper will be published in the journal Astronomy and Astrophysics.
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A. Sanna et al. 2025. Gas infall through accretion disk feeding Cephaus A HW2. A&A in press; doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/202450330
High-energy photons produced deep within gamma-ray burst jets emerge from decayed stars can dissolve the outer stellar layer into free neutrons, causing a series of physical processes that lead to the formation of heavy elements. paper It is published on Astrophysical Journal.
The high-energy photonic jet (white and blue) passes through a collapse with a black hole at its center. The red space around the jet represents a coco where free neutrons can be captured and caused the R process. Image credit: Los Alamos National Laboratory.
The formation of the heaviest elements relies on astrophysical environments with large amounts of neutrons.
Neutrons are found in the medium under extreme pressure, either bound to the nucleus.
Free neutrons are rare because they have a half-life of less than 15 minutes.
“The creation of heavy elements such as uranium and plutonium requires extreme conditions,” says Dr. Matthew Mumpoir, a physicist at the Los Alamos National Laboratory.
“There are several viable yet rare scenarios in the universe where these elements can form, and all such locations require a large number of neutrons. We propose a new phenomenon where these neutrons are not present and dynamically generated by stars.”
The key to generating the heaviest elements in the periodic table is known as the rapid neutron capture process or R process, and is believed to be responsible for the production of all thorium, uranium and plutonium that occur naturally in the universe.
The team’s framework takes on the challenging physics of the R process and solves them by proposing reactions and processes around the collapse of the stars.
In addition to understanding the formation of heavy elements, the proposed framework will help address key issues regarding neutron transport, multi-objective simulations, and observation of rare events. All of these are interesting for national security applications, which can gather insights from research.
In the scenario proposed by researchers, when nuclear fuel is exhausted, a large star begins to die.
It is no longer able to push its own gravity up, and a black hole forms in the center of the star.
If the black hole is spinning fast enough, the framedrazing effect from the very powerful gravity near the black hole will wind up the magnetic field and fire a powerful jet.
Subsequent reactions create a wide range of photons, some of which are high-energy.
“The jet blows stars before it, creating a hot coco of material around the jet, like a freight train plowing through the snow,” said Dr. Mumpower.
At the interface of jets with star materials, high-energy photons (i.e. light) can interact with the nucleus and convert protons into neutrons.
Existing nuclei can also be dissolved in individual nuclei, creating more free neutrons to power the R process.
Team calculations suggest that interactions with light can create neutrons very quickly in nanosecond order.
For charging, a strong magnetic field traps the protons in the jet.
The merciless neutrons are ploughed from the jet to the coco.
After experiencing relativistic shock, neutrons are very dense compared to the surrounding star material, which can lead to the R process, forging heavy elements and isotopes, and banished into space when the stars are torn apart.
The process of protons converted into neutrons and the free neutrons that escape to the surrounding coco to form heavy elements, encompasses all four basic forces of nature, accompanied by a wide range of physics principles. It combines the real multiword problems, the fields of nuclear and nuclear physics, with fluid mechanics and general relationships.
Despite the team’s efforts, more challenges remain as the heavy isotopes created during the R process have never been done on Earth.
Researchers know little about their properties, including atomic weights, half-life, and more.
The high energy jet framework proposed by the team may help explain the origin of kilonovas (the glow of optical and infrared electromagnetic radiation) associated with long gamma-ray bursts.
“Star melting via high-energy photon jets provides an alternative origin for gravity and the production of kilonova that can be produced. This may not have previously been thought to be related to star collapse,” the scientist said.
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Matthew R. Mumpoir et al. 2025. Make sure there are neutrons! Hadronic optical production from large fluxes of high energy photons. APJ 982, 81; doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ADB1E3
LOS ANGELES – Los Angeles boasts the world’s most prominent celebrities, yet monthly gatherings reveal that the city’s affluent and renowned individuals have an interest in the cosmos.
The Silver Lake Star Party, organized by the Los Angeles Astronomical Association, started with a few telescopes in the heart of the city. It has evolved into a popular evening hangout. Members convene every Monley, welcoming hundreds of strangers to peek through their personal telescopes.
“It’s truly breathtaking,” remarked member Bobby Kabubaguestuk. “The allure, the thrill, the wonder of seeing Saturn, Jupiter, and the Orion Nebula for the first time.”
Children examining the telescope at the Outdoor Astronomy Club event in Los Angeles on April 18, 2025. NBC News
Society aims to cultivate an interest in space. Despite the bustling urban setting not being an ideal location for stargazing, society members manage to make it work.
“Even in busy, densely populated, light-polluted areas, there is always something captivating in the night sky. It presents an opportunity to connect with the cosmos,” shared Cabbagestalk.
While some organizers are seasoned astronomers, others like Cabbagestalk are simply enthusiastic. They elucidate on what viewers observe through the telescope, identifying constellations and planets.
“These stars, planets, and the moon are present daily, yet we often overlook their magnificence,” reflected Cabbagestalk. “By coming here, people can slow down and gain a new perspective on the world and universe around them.”
This event is open to individuals of all ages, free of charge. All that is required is a willingness to gaze into the celestial wonders above.
Around 120 light years away, the exoplanet appears to be walking an unusual path around two brown d stars, whipping at the right angle. Brown dwarfs are sometimes called failed stars because they are lighter than stars but heavier than giant gas planets. The light year is nearly 6 trillion miles.
The brown dwarf pair was first discovered a few years ago. Scientists have noticed that twins celebrate each other, so they are always partially blocked when viewed from Earth.
In a new analysis, researchers found that brown dwarves were changing their movements. This is a habit that is more likely to occur when you go around each other on your own. This study was published in the journal Science Advances.
Scientists know more than 12 planets orbiting two stars, like the desert planets that burn the fictional “Star Wars” engulfed by the double sunsets that Luke Skywalker calls home.
Possible trajectories of exoplanet around two brown dwarfs. L.calçada / eso via ap
The strange orbit of the new planet makes it stand out. But it’s not spy directly. Scientists say more research is needed to make sure it’s there and figure out its mass and trajectory.
“I still didn’t bet on my life that there was a planet,” said Simon Albrecht, an astrophysicist at Alfs University, who hadn’t played a role in the new research.
Investigating these eccentric bodies will help us understand how states beyond our solar system produce planets that are very different from our own, says Thomas Beycroft, a research author at the University of Birmingham.
The twin-star circling planet “has been in sci-fi for decades before we know that it can even exist in real life,” he said.
Chinese and Australian astrophysicists have discovered that neutron stars’ birth rates can be described by a unimodal distribution that smoothly turns on at a solar mass of 1.1 and peaks before declining as a sudden power method.
Impressions of the artist of Neutron Star. Image credit: Sci.News.
Neutron stars are dense remnants of giant stars, more than eight times as huge remnants as our Sun, born at the end of life with the explosion of a brilliant supernova.
These incredibly dense objects have a mass of one to twice the mass of the sun, compressed into a ball of the size of a city with a radius of just 10 km.
Astronomers usually only weigh the neutron stars (which measure how big they are) and are found in binary star systems with different objects, such as white d stars or other neutron stars.
However, in these systems, the first born neutron stars acquire extra mass from their peers through a process called attachment, making it difficult to determine the original birth amount.
“Understanding the birth mass of neutron stars is key to unlocking the history of their formation,” says Dr. Simon Stevenson, an Ozgrav researcher at Swinburne University.
“This work provides an important basis for interpreting gravitational wave detection in neutron star mergers.”
Dr. Stevenson and his colleagues analyzed samples of 90 neutron stars in the binary star system and considered the masses obtained from the birth of each neutron star to measure the distribution of neutron star masses at birth.
They discovered that neutron stars are usually born with a mass of about 1.3 solar masses, with heavier neutron stars being more rare.
“Our approach allows us to finally understand the mass of neutron stars at birth. This has been a long-standing question in astrophysics,” said Professor Xingjiang Zhu of Beijing Normal University.
“This discovery is important for interpreting new observations of neutron star masses from observations of gravitational waves.”
study It will be displayed in the journal Natural Astronomy.
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ZQ. you et al. Determination of the birth mass function of neutron stars from observations. Nut AthlonPublished online on February 26th, 2025. doi:10.1038/s41550-025-02487-w
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